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[ [ "Bauhaus" ], [ "Introduction", " The Bauhaus emblem, designed by Oskar Schlemmer, was adopted in 1921.Typography by Herbert Bayer above the entrance to the workshop block of the Bauhaus Dessau, 2005The '''Staatliches Bauhaus''' (), commonly known as the , was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts.", "The school became famous for its approach to design, which attempted to unify individual artistic vision with the principles of mass production and emphasis on function.", "Along with the doctrine of functionalism, the Bauhaus initiated the conceptual understanding of architecture and design.The Bauhaus was founded by architect Walter Gropius in Weimar.", "It was grounded in the idea of creating a Gesamtkunstwerk (\"comprehensive artwork\") in which all the arts would eventually be brought together.", "The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design, modernist architecture, and architectural education.", "The Bauhaus movement had a profound influence on subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography.", "Staff at the Bauhaus included prominent artists such as Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Gunta Stölzl, and László Moholy-Nagy at various points.Bauhaus founder Walter Gropius (1883–1969)The school existed in three German cities—Weimar, from 1919 to 1925; Dessau, from 1925 to 1932; and Berlin, from 1932 to 1933—under three different architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928; Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930; and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime, having been painted as a centre of communist intellectualism.", "Internationally, former key figures of Bauhaus were successful in the United States and became known as the ''avant-garde'' for the International Style.The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics.", "For example, the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, even though it had been an important revenue source; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it." ], [ "Term and concept", "Several specific features are identified in Bauhaus forms and shapes: simple geometric shapes like rectangles and spheres, without elaborate decorations.", "Buildings, furniture, and fonts often feature rounded corners and sometimes rounded walls.", "Some buildings are characterized by rectangular features, for example protruding balconies with flat, chunky railings facing the street, and long banks of windows.", "Furniture often uses chrome metal pipes that curve at corners.", "Some outlines can be defined as a tool for creating an ideal form, which is the basis of the architectural concept." ], [ "Bauhaus and German modernism", "After Germany's defeat in World War I and the establishment of the Weimar Republic, a renewed liberal spirit allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in all the arts, which had been suppressed by the old regime.", "Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism.", "Such influences can be overstated: Gropius did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical.", "Just as important was the influence of the 19th-century English designer William Morris (1834–1896), who had argued that art should meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function.", "Thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design.However, the most important influence on Bauhaus was modernism, a cultural movement whose origins lay as early as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism.", "The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus—the radically simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass production was reconcilable with the individual artistic spirit—were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded.", "The German national designers' organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 by Hermann Muthesius to harness the new potentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England.", "In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design in Germany, and was copied in other countries.", "Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship versus mass production, the relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether or not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1,870 members (by 1914).Poster for the Bauhausaustellung (1923)German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen.", "Beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens' pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale.", "He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark AEG Turbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel.", "Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period.The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity.", "An entire group of working architects, including Erich Mendelsohn, Bruno Taut and Hans Poelzig, turned away from fanciful experimentation and towards rational, functional, sometimes standardized building.", "Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school.", "They also responded to the promise of a \"minimal dwelling\" written into the new Weimar Constitution.", "Ernst May, Bruno Taut and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin.", "The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, and sometimes fierce public debate.=== Bauhaus and Vkhutemas ===The Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus.", "Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization and scope.", "The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner.", "Both schools were state-sponsored initiatives to merge traditional craft with modern technology, with a basic course in aesthetic principles, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture.", "Vkhutemas was a larger school than the Bauhaus, but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union and consequently, is less familiar in the West.With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus.", "The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the two schools, while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in architecture.", "In addition, El Lissitzky's book ''Russia: an Architecture for World Revolution'' published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there." ], [ "History of the Bauhaus", "=== Weimar ===The main building of the Bauhaus-University Weimar.", "Built between 1904 and 1911 and designed by Henry van de Velde to house the sculptors' studio at the Grand Ducal Saxon Art School, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar on 1 April 1919, as a merger of the Grand-Ducal Saxon Academy of Fine Art and the Grand Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts for a newly affiliated architecture department.", "Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906, and directed by Belgian Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde.", "When van de Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, Hermann Obrist, and August Endell as possible successors.", "In 1919, after delays caused by World War I and a lengthy debate over who should head the institution and the socio-economic meanings of a reconciliation of the fine arts and the applied arts (an issue which remained a defining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating the two called the Bauhaus.", "In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled ''Exhibition of Unknown Architects'', Gropius, still very much under the influence of William Morris and the British Arts and Crafts Movement, proclaimed his goal as being \"to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist.\"", "Gropius's neologism ''Bauhaus'' references both building and the Bauhütte, a premodern guild of stonemasons.", "The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts.", "Swiss painter Johannes Itten, German-American painter Lyonel Feininger, and German sculptor Gerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of the Bauhaus in 1919.By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor, and designer Oskar Schlemmer who headed the theatre workshop, and Swiss painter Paul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky.", "A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painter Theo van Doesburg to Weimar to promote ''De Stijl'' (\"The Style\"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architect El Lissitzky.From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and aesthetic ideas of Johannes Itten, who taught the ''Vorkurs'' or \"preliminary course\" that was the introduction to the ideas of the Bauhaus.", "Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideas of Franz Cižek and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel.", "He was also influenced in respect to aesthetics by the work of the Der Blaue Reiter group in Munich, as well as the work of Austrian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka.", "The influence of German Expressionism favoured by Itten was analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate.", "This influence culminated with the addition of Der Blaue Reiter founding member Wassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1923.Itten was replaced by the Hungarian designer László Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote the ''Vorkurs'' with a leaning towards the New Objectivity favoured by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate.", "Although this shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader, more gradual socio-economic movement that had been going on at least since 1907, when van de Velde had argued for a craft basis for design while Hermann Muthesius had begun implementing industrial prototypes.Mechanical Stage Design by Joost Schmidt, 1925Gropius was not necessarily against Expressionism, and in fact, himself in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this \"new guild of craftsmen, without the class snobbery\", described \"painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of the hands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future.\"", "By 1923, however, Gropius was no longer evoking images of soaring Romanesque cathedrals and the craft-driven aesthetic of the \"Völkisch movement\", instead declaring \"we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars.\"", "Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war.", "He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era.", "His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent with mass production.", "To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic merit.", "The Bauhaus issued a magazine called ''Bauhaus'' and a series of books called \"Bauhausbücher\".", "Since the Weimar Republic lacked the number of raw materials available to the United States and Great Britain, it had to rely on the proficiency of a skilled labour force and an ability to export innovative and high-quality goods.", "Therefore, designers were needed and so was a new type of art education.", "The school's philosophy stated that the artist should be trained to work with the industry.Weimar was in the German state of Thuringia, and the Bauhaus school received state support from the Social Democrat-controlled Thuringian state government.", "The school in Weimar experienced political pressure from conservative circles in Thuringian politics, increasingly so after 1923 as political tension rose.", "One condition placed on the Bauhaus in this new political environment was the exhibition of work undertaken at the school.", "This condition was met in 1923 with the Bauhaus' exhibition of the experimental Haus am Horn.", "The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut the school's funding in half.", "The Bauhaus issued a press release on 26 December 1924, setting the closure of the school for the end of March 1925.At this point it had already been looking for alternative sources of funding.", "After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar.", "This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, and in 1996 changed its name to Bauhaus-University Weimar.Chair by , 1925=== Dessau ===The Bauhaus moved to Dessau in 1925 and new facilities there were inaugurated in late 1926.Gropius's design for the Dessau facilities was a return to the futuristic Gropius of 1914 that had more in common with the International style lines of the Fagus Factory than the stripped down Neo-classical of the Werkbund pavilion or the ''Völkisch'' Sommerfeld House.", "During the Dessau years, there was a remarkable change in direction for the school.", "According to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architect Mart Stam to run the newly founded architecture program, and when Stam declined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague in the ABC group, Hannes Meyer.Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and brought the Bauhaus its two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School) in Bernau bei Berlin.", "Meyer favoured measurements and calculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce costs.", "This approach proved attractive to potential clients.", "The school turned its first profit under his leadership in 1929.But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict.", "As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aesthetic program and forced the resignations of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and other long-time instructors.", "Even though Meyer shifted the orientation of the school further to the left than it had been under Gropius, he didn't want the school to become a tool of left-wing party politics.", "He prevented the formation of a student communist cell, and in the increasingly dangerous political atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school.", "Dessau mayor Fritz Hesse fired him in the summer of 1930.The Dessau city council attempted to convince Gropius to return as head of the school, but Gropius instead suggested Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.", "Mies was appointed in 1930 and immediately interviewed each student, dismissing those that he deemed uncommitted.", "He halted the school's manufacture of goods so that the school could focus on teaching, and appointed no new faculty other than his close confidant Lilly Reich.", "By 1931, the Nazi Party was becoming more influential in German politics.", "When it gained control of the Dessau city council, it moved to close the school.Wassily Chairs by Marcel Breuer (1925–1926)=== Berlin ===In late 1932, Mies rented a derelict factory in Berlin (Birkbusch Street 49) to use as the new Bauhaus with his own money.", "The students and faculty rehabilitated the building, painting the interior white.", "The school operated for ten months without further interference from the Nazi Party.", "In 1933, the Gestapo closed down the Berlin school.", "Mies protested the decision, eventually speaking to the head of the Gestapo, who agreed to allow the school to re-open.", "However, shortly after receiving a letter permitting the opening of the Bauhaus, Mies and the other faculty agreed to voluntarily shut down the school.", "Although neither the Nazi Party nor Adolf Hitler had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in 1933, Nazi writers like Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg had already labelled the Bauhaus \"un-German\" and criticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs.", "Increasingly through the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals.", "Indeed, when Meyer was fired in 1930, a number of communist students loyal to him moved to the Soviet Union.Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased.", "The Nazi movement, from nearly the start, denounced the Bauhaus for its \"degenerate art\", and the Nazi regime was determined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably Jewish, influences of \"cosmopolitan modernism\".", "Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, the Berlin Bauhaus was pressured to close in April 1933.Emigrants did succeed, however, in spreading the concepts of the Bauhaus to other countries, including the \"New Bauhaus\" of Chicago: Mies decided to emigrate to the United States for the directorship of the School of Architecture at the Armour Institute (now Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago and to seek building commissions.", "The simple engineering-oriented functionalism of stripped-down modernism, however, did lead to some Bauhaus influences living on in Nazi Germany.", "When Hitler's chief engineer, Fritz Todt, began opening the new autobahns (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stations were \"bold examples of modernism\", and among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe." ], [ "Architectural output", "The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the aim of all creative activity was building, the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927.During the years under Gropius (1919–1927), he and his partner Adolf Meyer observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school.", "So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the competition design for the Chicago Tribune Tower, which brought the school much attention.", "The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius.", "Apart from contributions to the 1923 Haus am Horn, student architectural work amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery.In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards functionality.", "There were major commissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed \"Laubenganghäuser\" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School) in Bernau bei Berlin.", "Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution.Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach.", "As opposed to Gropius's \"study of essentials\", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a \"spatial implementation of intellectual decisions\", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics.", "Neither Mies van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s.The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not accurate.", "Two projects, the apartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing also in Dessau, fall in that category, but developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies.", "It was the Bauhaus contemporaries Bruno Taut, Hans Poelzig and particularly Ernst May, as the city architects of Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany.", "The housing Taut built in south-west Berlin during the 1920s, close to the U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms Hütte, is still occupied." ], [ "Impact", "An Olivetti Studio 42 typewriter, designed by Bauhausler Xanti Schawinsky in 1936The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in Western Europe, Canada, the United States and Israel in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled, or were exiled by the Nazi regime.", "In 1996, four of the major sites associated with Bauhaus in Germany were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (with two more added in 2017).In 1928, the Hungarian painter Alexander Bortnyik founded a school of design in Budapest called Műhely, which means \"the studio\".", "Located on the seventh floor of a house on Nagymezo Street, it was meant to be the Hungarian equivalent to the Bauhaus.", "The literature sometimes refers to it—in an oversimplified manner—as \"the Budapest Bauhaus\".", "Bortnyik was a great admirer of László Moholy-Nagy and had met Walter Gropius in Weimar between 1923 and 1925.Moholy-Nagy himself taught at the Műhely.", "Victor Vasarely, a pioneer of op art, studied at this school before establishing in Paris in 1930.Bauhaus Museum in Tel AvivWalter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and Moholy-Nagy re-assembled in Britain during the mid-1930s and lived and worked in the Isokon housing development in Lawn Road in London before the war caught up with them.", "Gropius and Breuer went on to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Design and worked together before their professional split.", "Their collaboration produced, among other projects, the Aluminum City Terrace in New Kensington, Pennsylvania and the Alan I W Frank House in Pittsburgh.", "The Harvard School was enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early 1930s, producing such students as Philip Johnson, I. M. Pei, Lawrence Halprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others.In the late 1930s, Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed the sponsorship of the influential Philip Johnson, and became one of the world's pre-eminent architects.", "Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the New Bauhaus school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropist Walter Paepcke.", "This school became the Institute of Design, part of the Illinois Institute of Technology.", "Printmaker and painter Werner Drewes was also largely responsible for bringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at both Columbia University and Washington University in St. Louis.", "Herbert Bayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved to Aspen, Colorado in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects at the Aspen Institute.", "In 1953, Max Bill, together with Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, founded the Ulm School of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung – HfG Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus.", "The school is notable for its inclusion of semiotics as a field of study.", "The school closed in 1968, but the \"Ulm Model\" concept continues to influence international design education.", "Another series of projects at the school were the Bauhaus typefaces, mostly realized in the decades afterward.The influence of the Bauhaus on design education was significant.", "One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology, and this approach was incorporated into the curriculum of the Bauhaus.", "The structure of the Bauhaus ''Vorkurs'' (preliminary course) reflected a pragmatic approach to integrating theory and application.", "In their first year, students learnt the basic elements and principles of design and colour theory, and experimented with a range of materials and processes.", "This approach to design education became a common feature of architectural and design school in many countries.", "For example, the Shillito Design School in Sydney stands as a unique link between Australia and the Bauhaus.", "The colour and design syllabus of the Shillito Design School was firmly underpinned by the theories and ideologies of the Bauhaus.", "Its first year foundational course mimicked the ''Vorkurs'' and focused on the elements and principles of design plus colour theory and application.", "The founder of the school, Phyllis Shillito, which opened in 1962 and closed in 1980, firmly believed that \"A student who has mastered the basic principles of design, can design anything from a dress to a kitchen stove\".", "In Britain, largely under the influence of painter and teacher William Johnstone, Basic Design, a Bauhaus-influenced art foundation course, was introduced at Camberwell School of Art and the Central School of Art and Design, whence it spread to all art schools in the country, becoming universal by the early 1960s.One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of modern furniture design.", "The characteristic Cantilever chair and Wassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples.", "(Breuer eventually lost a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designer Mart Stam over patent rights to the cantilever chair design.", "Although Stam had worked on the design of the Bauhaus's 1923 exhibit in Weimar, and guest-lectured at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, he was not formally associated with the school, and he and Breuer had worked independently on the cantilever concept, leading to the patent dispute.)", "The most profitable product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.The physical plant at Dessau survived World War II and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by the German Democratic Republic.", "This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name of ''Bauhausbühne'' (\"Bauhaus Stage\").", "After German reunification, a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s.", "In 1979 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world.", "This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution.Later evaluation of the Bauhaus design credo was critical of its flawed recognition of the human element, an acknowledgment of \"the dated, unattractive aspects of the Bauhaus as a projection of utopia marked by mechanistic views of human nature…Home hygiene without home atmosphere.", "\"Subsequent examples which have continued the philosophy of the Bauhaus include Black Mountain College, Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm and Domaine de Boisbuchet.A Bauhaus-style building with \"thermometer\" windows on Pines Street in Tel Aviv=== The White City ===The White City (Hebrew: העיר הלבנה, refers to a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in the Bauhaus or International Style in Tel Aviv from the 1930s by German Jewish architects who emigrated to the British Mandate of Palestine after the rise of the Nazis.", "Tel Aviv has the largest number of buildings in the Bauhaus/International Style of any city in the world.", "Preservation, documentation, and exhibitions have brought attention to Tel Aviv's collection of 1930s architecture.", "In 2003, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) proclaimed Tel Aviv's ''White City'' a World Cultural Heritage site, as \"an outstanding example of new town planning and architecture in the early 20th century.\"", "The citation recognized the unique adaptation of modern international architectural trends to the cultural, climatic, and local traditions of the city.", "Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv organizes regular architectural tours of the city.===Centenary year, 2019===As the centenary of the founding of Bauhaus, several events, festivals, and exhibitions were held around the world in 2019.The international opening festival at the Berlin Academy of the Arts from 16 to 24 January concentrated on \"the presentation and production of pieces by contemporary artists, in which the aesthetic issues and experimental configurations of the Bauhaus artists continue to be inspiringly contagious\".", "''Original Bauhaus, The Centenary Exhibition'' at the Berlinische Galerie (6 September 2019 to 27 January 2020) presented 1,000 original artefacts from the Bauhaus-Archiv's collection and recounted the history behind the objects.===The New European Bauhaus===In September 2020, President of the European Commission Ursula Von der Leyen introduced the New European Bauhaus (NEB) initiative during her State of the Union address.", "The NEB is a creative and interdisciplinary movement that connects the European Green Deal to everyday life.", "It is a platform for experimentation aiming to unite citizens, experts, businesses and institutions in imagining and designing a sustainable, aesthetic and inclusive future.Sport and physical activity were an essential part of the original Bauhaus approach.", "Hannes Meyer, the second director of Bauhaus Dessau, ensured that one day a week was solely devoted to sport and gymnastics.", "1 In 1930, Meyer employed two physical education teachers.", "The Bauhaus school even applied for public funds to enhance its playing field.", "The inclusion of sport and physical activity in the Bauhaus curriculum had various purposes.", "First, as Meyer put it, sport combatted a “one-sided emphasis on brainwork.” In addition, Bauhaus instructors believed that students could better express themselves if they actively experienced the space, rhythms and movements of the body.", "The Bauhaus approach also considered physical activity an important contributor to wellbeing and community spirit.", "Sport and physical activity were essential to the interdisciplinary Bauhaus movement that developed revolutionary ideas and continues to shape our environments today." ], [ "Bauhaus staff and students", "People who were educated, or who taught or worked in other capacities, at the Bauhaus." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal.jpg|A stage in the Festsaal, DessauFile:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal Bühnenbeleuchtung.jpg|Ceiling with light fixtures for stage in the Festsaal, DessauFile:Bauhaus-Dessau Wohnheim Balkone.jpg|Dormitory balconies in the residence, DessauFile:Bauhaus-Dessau Fensterfront.JPG|Mechanically opened windows, DessauFile:Mensa Bauhaus Dessau.PNG|The Mensa (cafeteria), DessauFile:Monument to the March dead.jpg|Gropius' Expressionist Monument to the March Dead (1921–1922)File:Bauhaus Chemnitz hb.JPG|A Bauhaus style building in ChemnitzFile:Christian-dell molitor-office-work-lamp-light.jpg|The Molitor Grapholux lamp, by Christian Dell (1922–1925)File:Heinrich Neu Kinderstuhl 1930.jpg|Heinrich Neuy's children's chairFile:Dieckmann erich buffetuhr fuer bamberger otto lichtenfels 1931.png| Clock designed by Erich Dieckmann (1931)" ], [ "See also", "* Art Deco architecture* Bauhaus Archive* Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv* Bauhaus Dessau Foundation* Bauhaus Museum, Tel Aviv* Bauhaus Museum, Weimar* Bauhaus World Heritage Site* Constructivist architecture* Expressionist architecture* Form follows function* Haus am Horn* IIT Institute of Design* International style (architecture)* Lucia Moholy* Max-Liebling House, Tel Aviv* Modern architecture* Neues Sehen (New Vision)* New Objectivity (architecture)* Swiss Style (design)* Ulm School of Design* Vkhutemas* Women of the Bauhaus" ], [ "Explanatory footnotes", "* The closure, and the response of Mies van der Rohe, is fully documented in Elaine Hochman's ''Architects of Fortune''.", "* Google honored Bauhaus for its 100th anniversary on 12 April 2019 with a Google Doodle." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * Olaf Thormann: ''Bauhaus Saxony''.", "arnoldsche Art Publishers 2019, ." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Bauhaus Everywhere — Google Arts & Culture* * * * }* * * * * Collection: Artists of the Bauhaus from the University of Michigan Museum of Art" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Beowulf" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Beowulf''''' (; ) is an Old English epic poem in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines.", "It is one of the most important and most often translated works of Old English literature.", "The date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars; the only certain dating is for the manuscript, which was produced between 975 and 1025 AD.", "Scholars call the anonymous author the \"''Beowulf'' poet\".", "The story is set in pagan Scandinavia in the 6th century.", "Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, whose mead hall Heorot has been under attack by the monster Grendel for twelve years.", "After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother takes revenge and is in turn defeated.", "Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland and becomes king of the Geats.", "Fifty years later, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is mortally wounded in the battle.", "After his death, his attendants cremate his body and erect a barrow on a headland in his memory.Scholars have debated whether ''Beowulf'' was transmitted orally, affecting its interpretation: if it was composed early, in pagan times, then the paganism is central and the Christian elements were added later, whereas if it was composed later, in writing, by a Christian, then the pagan elements could be decorative archaising; some scholars also hold an intermediate position.", "''Beowulf'' is written mostly in the Late West Saxon dialect of Old English, but many other dialectal forms are present, suggesting that the poem may have had a long and complex transmission throughout the dialect areas of England.There has long been research into similarities with other traditions and accounts, including the Icelandic ''Grettis saga'', the Norse story of Hrolf Kraki and his bear-shapeshifting servant Bodvar Bjarki, the international folktale the Bear's Son Tale, and the Irish folktale of the Hand and the Child.", "Persistent attempts have been made to link ''Beowulf'' to tales from Homer's ''Odyssey'' or Virgil's ''Aeneid''.", "More definite are biblical parallels, with clear allusions to the books of Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel.The poem survives in a single copy in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex.", "It has no title in the original manuscript, but has become known by the name of the story's protagonist.", "In 1731, the manuscript was damaged by a fire that swept through Ashburnham House in London, which was housing Sir Robert Cotton's collection of medieval manuscripts.", "It survived, but the margins were charred, and some readings were lost.", "The Nowell Codex is housed in the British Library.", "The poem was first transcribed in 1786; some verses were first translated into modern English in 1805, and nine complete translations were made in the 19th century, including those by John Mitchell Kemble and William Morris.After 1900, hundreds of translations, whether into prose, rhyming verse, or alliterative verse were made, some relatively faithful, some archaising, some attempting to domesticate the work.", "Among the best-known modern translations are those of Edwin Morgan, Burton Raffel, Michael J. Alexander, Roy Liuzza, and Seamus Heaney.", "The difficulty of translating ''Beowulf'' has been explored by scholars including J. R. R. Tolkien (in his essay \"On Translating ''Beowulf''\"), who worked on a verse and a prose translation of his own." ], [ "Historical background", "Tribes mentioned in ''Beowulf'', showing Beowulf's voyage to Heorot and a possible site of the poem's composition in Rendlesham, Suffolk, settled by Angles.", "See Scandza for details of Scandinavia's political fragmentation in the 6th century.The events in the poem take place over the 5th and 6th centuries, and feature predominantly non-English characters.", "Some suggest that ''Beowulf'' was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia, as the Sutton Hoo ship-burial shows close connections with Scandinavia, and the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffingas, may have been descendants of the Geatish Wulfings.", "Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred the Great or with the court of King Cnut the Great.The poem blends fictional, legendary, mythic and historical elements.", "Although Beowulf himself is not mentioned in any other Old English manuscript, many of the other figures named in ''Beowulf'' appear in Scandinavian sources.", "This concerns not only individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the battle between Eadgils and Onela).", "The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is mentioned by Gregory of Tours in his ''History of the Franks'' and can be dated to around 521.The majority view appears to be that figures such as King Hroðgar and the Scyldings in ''Beowulf'' are based on historical people from 6th-century Scandinavia.", "Like the ''Finnesburg Fragment'' and several shorter surviving poems, ''Beowulf'' has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian figures such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic figures such as Offa, king of the continental Angles.", "However, the scholar Roy Liuzza argues that the poem is \"frustratingly ambivalent\", neither myth nor folktale, but is set \"against a complex background of legendary history ... on a roughly recognizable map of Scandinavia\", and comments that the Geats of the poem may correspond with the Gautar (of modern Götaland); or perhaps the legendary Getae.Finds from Gamla Uppsala's western mound, left, excavated in 1874, support ''Beowulf'' and the sagas.19th-century archaeological evidence may confirm elements of the ''Beowulf'' story.", "Eadgils was buried at Uppsala (Gamla Uppsala, Sweden) according to Snorri Sturluson.", "When the western mound (to the left in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds showed that a powerful man was buried in a large barrow, , on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings.", "The eastern mound was excavated in 1854, and contained the remains of a woman, or a woman and a young man.", "The middle barrow has not been excavated.In Denmark, recent (1986-88, 2004-05) archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of the Scyldings, Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, matching the period described in ''Beowulf'', some centuries before the poem was composed.", "Three halls, each about long, were found during the excavation." ], [ "Summary", "Carrigan's model of ''Beowulf'' designKey: (a) sections 1–2 (b) 3–7 (c) 8–12 (d) 13–18 (e) 19–23 (f) 24–26 (g) 27–31 (h) 32–33 (i) 34–38 (j) 39–43The protagonist Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel.", "Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands, then kills Grendel's mother with a giant's sword that he found in her lair.Later in his life, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorised by a dragon, some of whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound.", "He attacks the dragon with the help of his ''thegns'' or servants, but they do not succeed.", "Beowulf decides to follow the dragon to its lair at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf, whose name means \"remnant of valour\", dares to join him.", "Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded in the struggle.", "He is cremated and a burial mound by the sea is erected in his honour.", "''Beowulf'' is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts.", "The poem begins ''in medias res'' or simply, \"in the middle of things\", a characteristic of the epics of antiquity.", "Although the poem begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been ongoing.", "An elaborate history of characters and their lineages is spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valour.", "The warriors form a brotherhood linked by loyalty to their lord.", "The poem begins and ends with funerals: at the beginning of the poem for Scyld Scefing and at the end for Beowulf.The poem is tightly structured.", "E. Carrigan shows the symmetry of its design in a model of its major components, with for instance the account of the killing of Grendel matching that of the killing of the dragon, the glory of the Danes matching the accounts of the Danish and Geatish courts.=== First battle: Grendel ===''Beowulf'' begins with the story of Hrothgar, who constructed the great hall, Heorot, for himself and his warriors.", "In it, he, his wife Wealhtheow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating.", "Grendel, a troll-like monster said to be descended from the biblical Cain, is pained by the sounds of joy.", "Grendel attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors while they sleep.", "Hrothgar and his people, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot.Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to assist Hrothgar.Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot.", "Beowulf refuses to use any weapon because he holds himself to be Grendel's equal.", "When Grendel enters the hall, Beowulf, who has been feigning sleep, leaps up to clench Grendel's hand.", "Grendel and Beowulf battle each other violently.", "Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades cannot pierce Grendel's skin.", "Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes where he dies.", "Beowulf displays \"the whole of Grendel's shoulder and arm, his awesome grasp\" for all to see at Heorot.", "This display would fuel Grendel's mother's anger in revenge.=== Second battle: Grendel's mother ===The next night, after celebrating Grendel's defeat, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot.", "Grendel's mother, angry that her son has been killed, sets out to get revenge.", "\"Beowulf was elsewhere.", "Earlier, after the award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging\"; his assistance would be absent in this battle.", "Grendel's mother violently kills Æschere, who is Hrothgar's most loyal fighter, and escapes.Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake.", "Unferð, a warrior who had earlier challenged him, presents Beowulf with his sword Hrunting.", "After stipulating a number of conditions to Hrothgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf jumps into the lake, and while harassed by water monsters gets to the bottom, where he finds a cavern.", "Grendel's mother pulls him in, and she and Beowulf engage in fierce combat.At first, Grendel's mother prevails, and Hrunting proves incapable of hurting her; she throws Beowulf to the ground and, sitting astride him, tries to kill him with a short sword, but Beowulf is saved by his armour.", "Beowulf spots another sword, hanging on the wall and apparently made for giants, and cuts her head off with it.", "Travelling further into Grendel's mother's lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse and severs his head with the sword.", "Its blade melts because of the monster's \"hot blood\", leaving only the hilt.", "Beowulf swims back up to the edge of the lake where his men wait.", "Carrying the hilt of the sword and Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his return to Heorot.", "Hrothgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom.", "The events prompt a long reflection by the king, sometimes referred to as \"Hrothgar's sermon\", in which he urges Beowulf to be wary of pride and to reward his thegns.=== Final battle: The dragon ===Wiglaf is the single warrior to return and witness Beowulf's death.", "Illustration by J. R. Skelton, 1908Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people.", "One day, fifty years after Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of a dragon at Earnanæs.", "When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning everything in sight.", "Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but Beowulf tells his men that he will fight the dragon alone and that they should wait on the barrow.", "Beowulf descends to do battle with the dragon, but finds himself outmatched.", "His men, upon seeing this and fearing for their lives, retreat into the woods.", "One of his men, Wiglaf, however, in great distress at Beowulf's plight, comes to his aid.", "The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded.", "After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf remains by his side, grief-stricken.", "When the rest of the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming their cowardice for Beowulf's death.", "Beowulf is ritually burned on a great pyre in Geatland while his people wail and mourn him, fearing that without him, the Geats are defenceless against attacks from surrounding tribes.", "Afterwards, a barrow, visible from the sea, is built in his memory.=== Digressions ===The poem contains many apparent digressions from the main story.", "These were found troublesome by early ''Beowulf'' scholars such as Frederick Klaeber, who wrote that they \"interrupt the story\", W. W. Lawrence, who stated that they \"clog the action and distract attention from it\", and W. P. Ker who found some \"irrelevant ... possibly ... interpolations\".", "More recent scholars from Adrien Bonjour onwards note that the digressions can all be explained as introductions or comparisons with elements of the main story; for instance, Beowulf's swimming home across the sea from Frisia carrying thirty sets of armour emphasises his heroic strength.", "The digressions can be divided into four groups, namely the Scyld narrative at the start; many descriptions of the Geats, including the Swedish–Geatish wars, the \"Lay of the Last Survivor\" in the style of another Old English poem, \"The Wanderer\", and Beowulf's dealings with the Geats such as his verbal contest with Unferth and his swimming duel with Breca, and the tale of Sigemund and the dragon; history and legend, including the fight at Finnsburg and the tale of Freawaru and Ingeld; and biblical tales such as the creation myth and Cain as ancestor of all monsters.", "The digressions provide a powerful impression of historical depth, imitated by Tolkien in ''The Lord of the Rings'', a work that embodies many other elements from the poem." ], [ "Authorship and date", "The dating of ''Beowulf'' has attracted considerable scholarly attention; opinion differs as to whether it was first written in the 8th century, whether it was nearly contemporary with its 11th century manuscript, and whether a proto-version (possibly a version of the \"Bear's Son Tale\") was orally transmitted before being transcribed in its present form.", "Albert Lord felt strongly that the manuscript represents the transcription of a performance, though likely taken at more than one sitting.", "J. R. R. Tolkien believed that the poem retains too genuine a memory of Anglo-Saxon paganism to have been composed more than a few generations after the completion of the Christianisation of England around AD 700, and Tolkien's conviction that the poem dates to the 8th century has been defended by scholars including Tom Shippey, Leonard Neidorf, Rafael J. Pascual, and Robert D. Fulk.", "An analysis of several Old English poems by a team including Neidorf suggests that ''Beowulf'' is the work of a single author, though other scholars disagree.The claim to an early 11th-century date depends in part on scholars who argue that, rather than the transcription of a tale from the oral tradition by an earlier literate monk, ''Beowulf'' reflects an original interpretation of an earlier version of the story by the manuscript's two scribes.", "On the other hand, some scholars argue that linguistic, palaeographical (handwriting), metrical (poetic structure), and onomastic (naming) considerations align to support a date of composition in the first half of the 8th century; in particular, the poem's apparent observation of etymological vowel-length distinctions in unstressed syllables (described by Kaluza's law) has been thought to demonstrate a date of composition prior to the earlier ninth century.", "However, scholars disagree about whether the metrical phenomena described by Kaluza's law prove an early date of composition or are evidence of a longer prehistory of the ''Beowulf'' metre; B.R.", "Hutcheson, for instance, does not believe Kaluza's law can be used to date the poem, while claiming that \"the weight of all the evidence Fulk presents in his book tells strongly in favour of an eighth-century date.", "\"From an analysis of creative genealogy and ethnicity, Craig R. Davis suggests a composition date in the AD 890s, when King Alfred of England had secured the submission of Guthrum, leader of a division of the Great Heathen Army of the Danes, and of Aethelred, ealdorman of Mercia.", "In this thesis, the trend of appropriating Gothic royal ancestry, established in Francia during Charlemagne's reign, influenced the Anglian kingdoms of Britain to attribute to themselves a Geatish descent.", "The composition of ''Beowulf'' was the fruit of the later adaptation of this trend in Alfred's policy of asserting authority over the ''Angelcynn'', in which Scyldic descent was attributed to the West-Saxon royal pedigree.", "This date of composition largely agrees with Lapidge's positing of a West-Saxon exemplar .The location of the poem's composition is intensely disputed.", "In 1914, F.W.", "Moorman, the first professor of English Language at University of Leeds, claimed that ''Beowulf'' was composed in Yorkshire, but E. Talbot Donaldson claims that it was probably composed during the first half of the eighth century, and that the writer was a native of what was then called West Mercia, located in the Western Midlands of England.", "However, the late tenth-century manuscript \"which alone preserves the poem\" originated in the kingdom of the West Saxons – as it is more commonly known." ], [ "Manuscript", "Remounted page, British Library Cotton Vitellius A.XV''Beowulf'' survived to modern times in a single manuscript, written in ink on parchment, later damaged by fire.", "The manuscript measures 245 × 185 mm.=== Provenance ===The poem is known only from a single manuscript, estimated to date from around 975–1025, in which it appears with other works.", "The manuscript therefore dates either to the reign of Æthelred the Unready, characterised by strife with the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, or to the beginning of the reign of Sweyn's son Cnut the Great from 1016.The ''Beowulf'' manuscript is known as the Nowell Codex, gaining its name from 16th-century scholar Laurence Nowell.", "The official designation is \"British Library, Cotton Vitellius A.XV\" because it was one of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the Cotton library in the middle of the 17th century.", "Many private antiquarians and book collectors, such as Sir Robert Cotton, used their own library classification systems.", "\"Cotton Vitellius A.XV\" translates as: the 15th book from the left on shelf A (the top shelf) of the bookcase with the bust of Roman Emperor Vitellius standing on top of it, in Cotton's collection.", "Kevin Kiernan argues that Nowell most likely acquired it through William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, in 1563, when Nowell entered Cecil's household as a tutor to his ward, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford.The earliest extant reference to the first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime between 1628 and 1650 by Franciscus Junius (the younger).", "The ownership of the codex before Nowell remains a mystery.The Reverend Thomas Smith (1638–1710) and Humfrey Wanley (1672–1726) both catalogued the Cotton library (in which the Nowell Codex was held).", "Smith's catalogue appeared in 1696, and Wanley's in 1705.The ''Beowulf'' manuscript itself is identified by name for the first time in an exchange of letters in 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley's assistant, and Wanley.", "In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the ''Beowulf'' script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV.", "Hickes replies to Wanley \"I can find nothing yet of Beowulph.\"", "Kiernan theorised that Smith failed to mention the ''Beowulf'' manuscript because of his reliance on previous catalogues or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was temporarily out of the codex.The manuscript passed to Crown ownership in 1702, on the death of its then owner, Sir John Cotton, who had inherited it from his grandfather, Robert Cotton.", "It suffered damage in a fire at Ashburnham House in 1731, in which around a quarter of the manuscripts bequeathed by Cotton were destroyed.", "Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters.", "Rebinding efforts, though saving the manuscript from much degeneration, have nonetheless covered up other letters of the poem, causing further loss.", "Kiernan, in preparing his electronic edition of the manuscript, used fibre-optic backlighting and ultraviolet lighting to reveal letters in the manuscript lost from binding, erasure, or ink blotting.=== Writing ===The ''Beowulf'' manuscript was transcribed from an original by two scribes, one of whom wrote the prose at the beginning of the manuscript and the first 1939 lines, before breaking off in mid-sentence.", "The first scribe made a point of carefully regularizing the spelling of the original document into the common West Saxon, removing any archaic or dialectical features.", "The second scribe, who wrote the remainder, with a difference in handwriting noticeable after line 1939, seems to have written more vigorously and with less interest.", "As a result, the second scribe's script retains more archaic dialectic features, which allow modern scholars to ascribe the poem a cultural context.", "While both scribes appear to have proofread their work, there are nevertheless many errors.", "The second scribe was ultimately the more conservative copyist as he did not modify the spelling of the text as he wrote, but copied what he saw in front of him.", "In the way that it is currently bound, the ''Beowulf'' manuscript is followed by the Old English poem ''Judith''.", "''Judith'' was written by the same scribe that completed ''Beowulf'', as evidenced by similar writing style.", "Wormholes found in the last leaves of the ''Beowulf'' manuscript that are absent in the ''Judith'' manuscript suggest that at one point ''Beowulf'' ended the volume.", "The rubbed appearance of some leaves suggests that the manuscript stood on a shelf unbound, as was the case with other Old English manuscripts.", "Knowledge of books held in the library at Malmesbury Abbey and available as source works, as well as the identification of certain words particular to the local dialect found in the text, suggest that the transcription may have taken place there.=== Performance ===The traditional view is that ''Beowulf'' was composed for performance, chanted by a scop (left) to string accompaniment, but modern scholars have suggested its origin as a piece of written literature borrowed from oral traditions.", "Illustration by J. R. Skelton, The scholar Roy Liuzza notes that the practice of oral poetry is by its nature invisible to history as evidence is in writing.", "Comparison with other bodies of verse such as Homer's, coupled with ethnographic observation of early 20th century performers, has provided a vision of how an Anglo-Saxon singer-poet or scop may have practised.", "The resulting model is that performance was based on traditional stories and a repertoire of word formulae that fitted the traditional metre.", "The scop moved through the scenes, such as putting on armour or crossing the sea, each one improvised at each telling with differing combinations of the stock phrases, while the basic story and style remained the same.", "Liuzza notes that ''Beowulf'' itself describes the technique of a court poet in assembling materials, in lines 867–874 in his translation, \"full of grand stories, mindful of songs ... found other words truly bound together; ... to recite with skill the adventure of Beowulf, adeptly tell a tall tale, and (''wordum wrixlan'') weave his words.\"", "The poem further mentions (lines 1065–1068) that \"the harp was touched, tales often told, when Hrothgar's scop was set to recite among the mead tables his hall-entertainment\".=== Debate over oral tradition ===The question of whether ''Beowulf'' was passed down through oral tradition prior to its present manuscript form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than simply the issue of its composition.", "Rather, given the implications of the theory of oral-formulaic composition and oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate.", "In his landmark 1960 work, ''The Singer of Tales'', Albert Lord, citing the work of Francis Peabody Magoun and others, considered it proven that ''Beowulf'' was composed orally.", "Later scholars have not all been convinced; they agree that \"themes\" like \"arming the hero\" or the \"hero on the beach\" do exist across Germanic works.", "Some scholars conclude that Anglo-Saxon poetry is a mix of oral-formulaic and literate patterns.", "Larry Benson proposed that Germanic literature contains \"kernels of tradition\" which ''Beowulf'' expands upon.", "Ann Watts argued against the imperfect application of one theory to two different traditions: traditional, Homeric, oral-formulaic poetry and Anglo-Saxon poetry.", "Thomas Gardner agreed with Watts, arguing that the ''Beowulf'' text is too varied to be completely constructed from set formulae and themes.", "John Miles Foley wrote that comparative work must observe the particularities of a given tradition; in his view, there was a fluid continuum from traditionality to textuality." ], [ "Editions, translations, and adaptations", "=== Editions ===Many editions of the Old English text of ''Beowulf'' have been published; this section lists the most influential.The Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcriptions of the ''Beowulf''-manuscript in 1786, working as part of a Danish government historical research commission.", "He had a copy made by a professional copyist who knew no Old English (and was therefore in some ways more likely to make transcription errors, but in other ways more likely to copy exactly what he saw), and then made a copy himself.", "Since that time, the manuscript has crumbled further, making these transcripts prized witnesses to the text.", "While the recovery of at least 2000 letters can be attributed to them, their accuracy has been called into question, and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is uncertain.", "Thorkelin used these transcriptions as the basis for the first complete edition of ''Beowulf'', in Latin.In 1922, Frederick Klaeber, a German philologist who worked at the University of Minnesota, published his edition of the poem, ''Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg''; it became the \"central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations.\"", "The edition included an extensive glossary of Old English terms.", "His third edition was published in 1936, with the last version in his lifetime being a revised reprint in 1950.Klaeber's text was re-presented with new introductory material, notes, and glosses, in a fourth edition in 2008.Another widely used edition is Elliott Van Kirk Dobbie's, published in 1953 in the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records series.", "The British Library, meanwhile, took a prominent role in supporting Kevin Kiernan's ''Electronic Beowulf''; the first edition appeared in 1999, and the fourth in 2014.=== Translations and adaptations ===The tightly interwoven structure of Old English poetry makes translating ''Beowulf'' a severe technical challenge.", "Despite this, a great number of translations and adaptations are available, in poetry and prose.", "Andy Orchard, in ''A Critical Companion to Beowulf'', lists 33 \"representative\" translations in his bibliography, while the Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies published Marijane Osborn's annotated list of over 300 translations and adaptations in 2003.", "''Beowulf'' has been translated many times in verse and in prose, and adapted for stage and screen.", "By 2020, the Beowulf's Afterlives Bibliographic Database listed some 688 translations and other versions of the poem.", "''Beowulf'' has been translated into at least 38 other languages.In 1805, the historian Sharon Turner translated selected verses into modern English.", "This was followed in 1814 by John Josias Conybeare who published an edition \"in English paraphrase and Latin verse translation.\"", "N. F. S. Grundtvig reviewed Thorkelin's edition in 1815 and created the first complete verse translation in Danish in 1820.In 1837, John Mitchell Kemble created an important literal translation in English.", "In 1895, William Morris and A. J. Wyatt published the ninth English translation.In 1909, Francis Barton Gummere's full translation in \"English imitative metre\" was published, and was used as the text of Gareth Hinds's 2007 graphic novel based on ''Beowulf''.", "In 1975, John Porter published the first complete verse translation of the poem entirely accompanied by facing-page Old English.", "Seamus Heaney's 1999 translation of the poem (''Beowulf: A New Verse Translation'', called \"Heaneywulf\" by the ''Beowulf'' translator Howell Chickering and many others) was both praised and criticised.", "The US publication was commissioned by W. W. Norton & Company, and was included in the ''Norton Anthology of English Literature''.", "Many retellings of ''Beowulf'' for children appeared in the 20th century.In 2000 (2nd edition 2013), Liuzza published his own version of ''Beowulf'' in a parallel text with the Old English, with his analysis of the poem's historical, oral, religious and linguistic contexts.", "R. D. Fulk, of Indiana University, published a facing-page edition and translation of the entire Nowell Codex manuscript in 2010.Hugh Magennis's 2011 ''Translating Beowulf: Modern Versions in English Verse'' discusses the challenges and history of translating the poem, as well as the question of how to approach its poetry, and discusses several post-1950 verse translations, paying special attention to those of Edwin Morgan, Burton Raffel, Michael J. Alexander, and Seamus Heaney.", "Translating ''Beowulf'' is one of the subjects of the 2012 publication ''Beowulf at Kalamazoo'', containing a section with 10 essays on translation, and a section with 22 reviews of Heaney's translation, some of which compare Heaney's work with Liuzza's.", "Tolkien's long-awaited prose translation (edited by his son Christopher) was published in 2014 as ''Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary''.", "The book includes Tolkien's own retelling of the story of Beowulf in his tale ''Sellic Spell'', but not his incomplete and unpublished verse translation.", "''The Mere Wife'', by Maria Dahvana Headley, was published in 2018.It relocates the action to a wealthy community in 20th century America and is told primarily from the point of view of Grendel's mother.", "In 2020, Headley published a translation in which the opening \"Hwæt!\"", "is rendered \"Bro!", "\"; this translation subsequently won the Hugo Award for Best Related Work." ], [ "Sources and analogues", "Neither identified sources nor analogues for ''Beowulf'' can be definitively proven, but many conjectures have been made.", "These are important in helping historians understand the ''Beowulf'' manuscript, as possible source-texts or influences would suggest time-frames of composition, geographic boundaries within which it could be composed, or range (both spatial and temporal) of influence (i.e.", "when it was \"popular\" and where its \"popularity\" took it).", "The poem has been related to Scandinavian, Celtic, and international folkloric sources.===Scandinavian parallels and sources===19th-century studies proposed that ''Beowulf'' was translated from a lost original Scandinavian work; surviving Scandinavian works have continued to be studied as possible sources.", "In 1886 Gregor Sarrazin suggested that an Old Norse original version of ''Beowulf'' must have existed, but in 1914 Carl Wilhelm von Sydow pointed out that ''Beowulf'' is fundamentally Christian and was written at a time when any Norse tale would have most likely been pagan.", "Another proposal was a parallel with the ''Grettis Saga'', but in 1998, Magnús Fjalldal challenged that, stating that tangential similarities were being overemphasised as analogies.", "The story of Hrolf Kraki and his servant, the legendary bear-shapeshifter Bodvar Bjarki, has also been suggested as a possible parallel; he survives in ''Hrólfs saga kraka'' and Saxo's ''Gesta Danorum'', while Hrolf Kraki, one of the Scyldings, appears as \"Hrothulf\" in ''Beowulf''.", "New Scandinavian analogues to ''Beowulf'' continue to be proposed regularly, with Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar being the most recently adduced text.=== International folktale sources === (1910) wrote a thesis that the first part of ''Beowulf'' (the Grendel Story) incorporated preexisting folktale material, and that the folktale in question was of the Bear's Son Tale (''Bärensohnmärchen'') type, which has surviving examples all over the world.", "This tale type was later catalogued as international folktale type 301 in the ATU Index, now formally entitled \"The Three Stolen Princesses\" type in Hans Uther's catalogue, although the \"Bear's Son\" is still used in Beowulf criticism, if not so much in folkloristic circles.", "However, although this folkloristic approach was seen as a step in the right direction, \"The Bear's Son\" tale has later been regarded by many as not a close enough parallel to be a viable choice.", "Later, Peter A. Jorgensen, looking for a more concise frame of reference, coined a \"two-troll tradition\" that covers both ''Beowulf'' and ''Grettis saga'': \"a Norse 'ecotype' in which a hero enters a cave and kills two giants, usually of different sexes\"; this has emerged as a more attractive folk tale parallel, according to a 1998 assessment by Andersson.The epic's similarity to the Irish folktale \"The Hand and the Child\" was noted in 1899 by Albert S. Cook, and others even earlier.", "In 1914, the Swedish folklorist Carl Wilhelm von Sydow made a strong argument for parallelism with \"The Hand and the Child\", because the folktale type demonstrated a \"monstrous arm\" motif that corresponded with Beowulf's wrenching off Grendel's arm.", "No such correspondence could be perceived in the Bear's Son Tale or in the ''Grettis saga''.James Carney and Martin Puhvel agree with this \"Hand and the Child\" contextualisation.", "Puhvel supported the \"Hand and the Child\" theory through such motifs as (in Andersson's words) \"the more powerful giant mother, the mysterious light in the cave, the melting of the sword in blood, the phenomenon of battle rage, swimming prowess, combat with water monsters, underwater adventures, and the bear-hug style of wrestling.", "\"In the Mabinogion, Teyrnon discovers the otherworldly boy child Pryderi, the principal character of the cycle, after cutting off the arm of a monstrous beast which is stealing foals from his stables.", "The medievalist R. Mark Scowcroft notes that the tearing off of the monster's arm without a weapon is found only in ''Beowulf'' and fifteen of the Irish variants of the tale; he identifies twelve parallels between the tale and ''Beowulf''.+ Scowcroft's \"Hand and Child\" parallels in ''Beowulf'' \"Hand and Child\"Irish tale Grendel  Grendel'sMother 1 Monster is attacking King each night 86 ff — 2 Hero brings help from afar 194 ff — 3 At night, when all but hero are asleep 701–705 1251 4 Monster attacks the hall 702 ff 1255 ff 5 Hero pulls off monster's arm 748 ff — 6 Monster escapes 819 ff 1294 ff 7 Hero tracks monster to its lair 839–849 1402 ff 8 Monster has female companion 1345 ff — 9 Hero kills the monster — 1492 ff 10 Hero returns to King 853 ff 1623 ff 11 Hero is rewarded with gifts 1020 ff 1866 ff 12 Hero returns home — 1888 ff===Classical sources===Attempts to find classical or Late Latin influence or analogue in ''Beowulf'' are almost exclusively linked with Homer's ''Odyssey'' or Virgil's ''Aeneid''.", "In 1926, Albert S. Cook suggested a Homeric connection due to equivalent formulas, metonymies, and analogous voyages.", "In 1930, James A.", "Work supported the Homeric influence, stating that encounter between Beowulf and Unferth was parallel to the encounter between Odysseus and Euryalus in Books 7–8 of the ''Odyssey,'' even to the point of both characters giving the hero the same gift of a sword upon being proven wrong in their initial assessment of the hero's prowess.", "This theory of Homer's influence on ''Beowulf'' remained very prevalent in the 1920s, but started to die out in the following decade when a handful of critics stated that the two works were merely \"comparative literature\", although Greek was known in late 7th century England: Bede states that Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 668, and he taught Greek.", "Several English scholars and churchmen are described by Bede as being fluent in Greek due to being taught by him; Bede claims to be fluent in Greek himself.Frederick Klaeber, among others, argued for a connection between ''Beowulf'' and Virgil near the start of the 20th century, claiming that the very act of writing a secular epic in a Germanic world represents Virgilian influence.", "Virgil was seen as the pinnacle of Latin literature, and Latin was the dominant literary language of England at the time, therefore making Virgilian influence highly likely.", "Similarly, in 1971, Alistair Campbell stated that the apologue technique used in ''Beowulf'' is so rare in epic poetry aside from Virgil that the poet who composed ''Beowulf'' could not have written the poem in such a manner without first coming across Virgil's writings.===Biblical influences===It cannot be denied that Biblical parallels occur in the text, whether seen as a pagan work with \"Christian colouring\" added by scribes or as a \"Christian historical novel, with selected bits of paganism deliberately laid on as 'local colour'\", as Margaret E. Goldsmith did in \"The Christian Theme of ''Beowulf''\".", "''Beowulf'' channels the Book of Genesis, the Book of Exodus, and the Book of Daniel in its inclusion of references to the Genesis creation narrative, the story of Cain and Abel, Noah and the flood, the Devil, Hell, and the Last Judgment." ], [ "Dialect", "''Beowulf'' predominantly uses the West Saxon dialect of Old English, like other Old English poems copied at the time.", "However, it also uses many other linguistic forms; this leads some scholars to believe that it has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main dialect areas.", "It retains a complicated mix of Mercian, Northumbrian, Early West Saxon, Anglian, Kentish and Late West Saxon dialectical forms." ], [ "Form and metre", "An Old English poem such as ''Beowulf'' is very different from modern poetry.", "Old English poets typically used alliterative verse, a form of verse in which the first half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the second half (the b-verse) through similarity in initial sound.", "In addition, the two halves are divided by a caesura: (l. 4).", "This verse form maps stressed and unstressed syllables onto abstract entities known as metrical positions.", "There is no fixed number of beats per line: the first one cited has three () whereas the second has two ().The poet had a choice of formulae to assist in fulfilling the alliteration scheme.", "These were memorised phrases that conveyed a general and commonly-occurring meaning that fitted neatly into a half-line of the chanted poem.", "Examples are line 8's (\"waxed under welkin\", i.e.", "\"he grew up under the heavens\"), line 11's (\"pay tribute\"), line 13's (\"young in the yards\", i.e.", "\"young in the courts\"), and line 14's (\"as a comfort to his people\").Kennings are a significant technique in ''Beowulf''.", "They are evocative poetic descriptions of everyday things, often created to fill the alliterative requirements of the metre.", "For example, a poet might call the sea the \"swan's riding\"; a king might be called a \"ring-giver.\"", "The poem contains many kennings, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic.", "The poem, too, makes extensive use of elided metaphors." ], [ "Interpretation and criticism", "The history of modern ''Beowulf'' criticism is often said to begin with Tolkien, author and Merton Professor of Anglo-Saxon at the University of Oxford, who in his 1936 lecture to the British Academy criticised his contemporaries' excessive interest in its historical implications.", "He noted in ''Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics'' that as a result the poem's literary value had been largely overlooked, and argued that the poem \"is in fact so interesting as poetry, in places poetry so powerful, that this quite overshadows the historical content...\" Tolkien argued that the poem is not an epic; that, while no conventional term exactly fits, the nearest would be elegy; and that its focus is the concluding dirge.=== Paganism and Christianity ===In historical terms, the poem's characters were Germanic pagans, yet the poem was recorded by Christian Anglo-Saxons who had mostly converted from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism around the 7th century.", "''Beowulf'' thus depicts a Germanic warrior society, in which the relationship between the lord of the region and those who served under him was of paramount importance.In terms of the relationship between characters in ''Beowulf'' to God, one might recall the substantial amount of paganism that is present throughout the work.", "Literary critics such as Fred C. Robinson argue that the ''Beowulf'' poet tries to send a message to readers during the Anglo-Saxon time period regarding the state of Christianity in their own time.", "Robinson argues that the intensified religious aspects of the Anglo-Saxon period inherently shape the way in which the poet alludes to paganism as presented in ''Beowulf''.", "The poet calls on Anglo-Saxon readers to recognize the imperfect aspects of their supposed Christian lifestyles.", "In other words, the poet is referencing their \"Anglo-Saxon Heathenism.\"", "In terms of the characters of the epic itself, Robinson argues that readers are \"impressed\" by the courageous acts of Beowulf and the speeches of Hrothgar.", "But one is ultimately left to feel sorry for both men as they are fully detached from supposed \"Christian truth\".", "The relationship between the characters of ''Beowulf'', and the overall message of the poet, regarding their relationship with God is debated among readers and literary critics alike.Richard North argues that the ''Beowulf'' poet interpreted \"Danish myths in Christian form\" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian audience), and states: \"As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of ''Beowulf'' liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned.", "This question is pressing, given... that Anglo-Saxons saw the Danes as 's' rather than as foreigners.\"", "Donaldson wrote that \"the poet who put the materials into their present form was a Christian and ... poem reflects a Christian tradition\".Other scholars disagree as to whether ''Beowulf'' is a Christian work set in a Germanic pagan context.", "The question suggests that the conversion from the Germanic pagan beliefs to Christian ones was a prolonged and gradual process over several centuries, and the poem's message in respect to religious belief at the time it was written remains unclear.", "Robert F. Yeager describes the basis for these questions:Ursula Schaefer's view is that the poem was created, and is interpretable, within both pagan and Christian horizons.", "Schaefer's concept of \"vocality\" offers neither a compromise nor a synthesis of views that see the poem as on the one hand Germanic, pagan, and oral and on the other Latin-derived, Christian, and literate, but, as stated by Monika Otter: \"a 'tertium quid', a modality that participates in both oral and literate culture yet also has a logic and aesthetic of its own.", "\"=== Politics and warfare ===Stanley B. Greenfield has suggested that references to the human body throughout ''Beowulf'' emphasise the relative position of thanes to their lord.", "He argues that the term \"shoulder-companion\" could refer to both a physical arm as well as a thane (Aeschere) who was very valuable to his lord (Hrothgar).", "With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar turns to Beowulf as his new \"arm.\"", "Greenfield argues the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four times in the poem.", "It is used in conjunction with Unferð (a man described by Beowulf as weak, traitorous, and cowardly).", "Greenfield notes that Unferð is described as \"at the king's feet\" (line 499).", "Unferð is a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and \"generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action.", "\"Daniel Podgorski has argued that the work is best understood as an examination of inter-generational vengeance-based conflict, or feuding.", "In this context, the poem operates as an indictment of feuding conflicts as a function of its conspicuous, circuitous, and lengthy depiction of the Geatish-Swedish wars—coming into contrast with the poem's depiction of the protagonist Beowulf as being disassociated from the ongoing feuds in every way.", "Francis Leneghan argues that the poem can be understood as a \"dynastic drama\" in which the hero's fights with the monsters unfold against a backdrop of the rise and fall of royal houses, while the monsters themselves serve as portents of disasters affecting dynasties." ], [ "See also", "* List of ''Beowulf'' characters* On Translating ''Beowulf''* Sutton Hoo helmet § ''Beowulf''" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ======Sources===* * * * * * * * * Jaillant, Lise.", "\"A Fine Old Tale of Adventure: Beowulf Told to the Children of the English Race, 1898–1908.\"", "Children's Literature Association Quarterly 38.4 (2013): 399–419* * * * * * * * , and II.", "Sigfrid * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "The secondary literature on ''Beowulf'' is immense.", "The following is a selection.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Full digital facsimile of the manuscript on the British Library's Digitised Manuscripts website* ''Electronic Beowulf'', edited by Kevin Kiernan, 4th online edition (University of Kentucky/The British Library, 2015)* ''Beowulf'' manuscript in The British Library's Online Gallery, with short summary and podcast* Annotated List of ''Beowulf'' Translations: The List – Arizonal Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies * online text (digitised from Elliott van Kirk Dobbie (ed.", "), ''Beowulf and Judith'', Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, 4 (New York, 1953))* ''Beowulf'' introduction Article introducing various translations and adaptations of ''Beowulf''* * * The tale of Beowulf (Sel.3.231); a digital edition of the proof-sheets with manuscript notes and corrections by William Morris in Cambridge Digital Library" ] ]
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[ [ "Barb Wire (character)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barb Wire''' is a fictional character appearing in Comics Greatest World, an imprint of Dark Horse Comics.", "Created by Chris Warner and Team CGW, the character first appeared in ''Comics' Greatest World: Steel Harbor'' in 1993.The original ''Barb Wire'' series published nine issues between 1994 and 1995 and was followed by a four-issue miniseries in 1996.A reboot was published in 2015 and lasted eight issues.", "In 1996, the character was adapted into a film starring Pamela Anderson.", "Unlike the comics, the film takes place in a possible future rather than an alternate version of present-day Earth." ], [ "Creators", ";Regular series* 1: John Arcudi, writer/ Lee Moder, pencils/Ande Parks, inks* 2–3: Arcudi, writer/ Dan Lawlis, pencils/Parks, inks* 4–5: Arcudi, writer/Lawlis, pencils/Ian Akin, inks* 6–7: Arcudi, writer/Mike Manley, pencils/Parks, inks* 8: Arcudi, writer/ Andrew Robinson, pencils/ Jim Royal, inks* 9: Anina Bennett & Paul Guinan, writers/ Robert Walker, pencils/Jim Royal, inks;''Ace of Spades'' miniseries1–4: Chris Warner, script and pencils/Tim Bradstreet, inks" ], [ "Fictional character biography", "Barb Wire's stories take place on an alternate version of present-day Earth with superhumans and more advanced technology.", "In this Earth's history, an alien entity called the Vortex arrived in 1931 and began conducting secret experiments.", "In 1947, an atom bomb test detonated in a desert nearby the alien's experiments.", "The result was the creation of a trans-dimensional wormhole referred to as \"the Vortex\" or \"the Maelstrom\", which released energy that gave different people across Earth superpowers for years to come.Decades later, Barbara Kopetski grows up in Steel Harbor when it is still a thriving steel industry city.", "Barbara and her brother Charlie live with their grandmother and parents, their mother being a police officer while their father is a former marine who became a steelworker.", "Officer Kopetski later dies, after which her husband becomes so ill he is confined to a bed for years, developing Alzheimer's disease as well before passing away.", "Following the death of her father, Barbara leaves Steel Harbour for a time as the city's economy starts to spiral and crime begins rising.", "Soon, much of the city is controlled by warring gangs rather than local government.", "Years later, Barbara returns to Steel Harbor, now an experienced bounty hunter operating under the name Barb Wire.", "Reuniting with Charlie, she decides to stay in her hometown, becoming the owner of the Hammerhead bar.", "To help bring in money, she continues moonlighting as a bounty hunter, working with the police directly or bail bondsman Thomas Crashell.As time goes on, Steel Harbor becomes more dangerous, described as \"a city under siege from drugs, crime, pollution and gang warfare\".", "In 1993, a second American Civil War begins when Golden City announces its secession from the Union.", "The announcement leads to protests and riots in several cities.", "The Steel Harbor Riots leave some neighborhoods in literal ruin, with hundreds of buildings destroyed or abandoned in the area known as \"Metal City\".", "Many are forced to leave the city or take to the streets, and the gangs (all of whom have superhuman members) start moving to take more control.", "To help contain the chaos and keep her home from descending further, Barb Wire now acts at times as a vigilante, intervening when the police can't or won't.", "Fighting alongside the Wolf Gang, she defies criminal Mace Blitzkrieg's attempts to bring all gangs under his leadership and control the city.Growing up with a police officer mother and marine father, as well as her life experiences traveling outside of the city, Barb Wire is an excellent hand-to-hand combatant, skilled in various firearms, and an expert driver and motorcycle rider.", "Her bar has been considered neutral meeting ground by the Steel Harbor gangs.", "Aiding her bounty hunter activities is her brother Charlie, acting as her mechanic and engineer, and others such as Avram Roman Jr., a cyborg sometimes known simply as \"the Machine\".", "Though she has loyal allies, including Charlie, Barb Wire is a harsh, guarded person who looks at the world with suspicion and cynicism, considering herself a loner at heart.===Other characters=======Supporting characters====* '''Charlie Kopetski''', Barb's brother, a blind mechanic, and engineering genius.", "He invents and maintains most of her weapons and superhuman restraining devices.", "He openly complains about how often he must fix the equipment she continuously breaks during her adventures.====Allies====* '''The Machine''', real name: Avram Roman Jr. A man whose body is inhabited by a self-repairing machine colony, making him an advanced cyborg.", "Along with a reinforced skeleton, superhuman strength and enhanced durability, he is capable of rebuilding parts of his body.", "Over time, he becomes more machine-like in nature, no longer requiring food.", "* '''Motörhead''', real name: Frank Fletcher.", "A drifter with psychic powers who is bonded to an ancient, powerful artifact known as the Motor.", "* '''Wolf Gang''', a group that believe gangs shouldn't go too far in their activities and victimize the city, and prefer independence and a balance of power rather than uniting all gangs under one leader.", "The Wolf Gang is formidable and its members are known for discipline and loyalty.", "The gang includes five superhumans: Burner (fire abilities); Bomber (creates energy bombs); Breaker (superhuman strength); Cutter (energy blades); and their leader Wolf Ferrell, also known as Hunter (enhanced senses).", "* '''Ghost''', real name: Elisa Cameron.", "A popular Dark Horse Comics character with ghost-like abilities who has a brief crossover story with Barb Wire.====Enemies====* '''The Prime Movers''', a collective of street gang leaders who agree to serve under the leadership of superhumanly strong criminal Mace Blitzkrieg.", "The gang leaders include Airborne, Blackbelt, Deadlight, Hurricane Max, Ignition, and Killerwatt.", "* '''Death Card''' (appearing in the first ''Barb Wire'' regular series).", "* '''Death Card II''' (appearing in the ''Ace of Spades'' mini-series) - an assassin.", "* '''Ignition II''' - Maureen Skach.", "Girlfriend of Boyd Mack, the original Ignition, a gang leader with pyrokinetic powers.", "Believing Mack was having an affair with Barb Wire, Skach kills him, then assumes the Ignition name and leadership of his gang.", "* '''The Mask'''" ], [ "Film adaptation", "Pamela Anderson portrayed Barb Wire in the film adaptation of the same nameA film adaptation was released in 1996 starring Pamela Anderson as Barb Wire.", "The story's premise was that Barb Wire lives in the near future rather than an alternate version of the present day, a world where superhumans and Dark Horse superheroes do not exist.", "In this version of the story, Steel Harbor is the last neutral \"free city\" during the Second American Civil War, and Barbara Kopetski is a resistance fighter who leaves behind the war after her heart is broken and she loses faith in the cause.", "Like the comic, she returns home to become a bounty hunter and owner of the Hammerhead." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Barb Wire at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "Archived from the original on February 22, 2018.", "* Barb Wire International Hero" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Blazing Saddles" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Blazing Saddles''''' is a 1974 American satirical postmodernist Western black comedy film directed by Mel Brooks, who co-wrote the screenplay with Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor, Norman Steinberg and Alan Uger, based on a story treatment by Bergman.", "The film stars Cleavon Little and Gene Wilder.", "The film received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences, was nominated for three Academy Awards and is ranked number six on the American Film Institute's ''100 Years...100 Laughs'' list.Brooks appears in three supporting roles: Governor William J.", "Le Petomane, a Yiddish-speaking Native American chief and the \"aviator/director\" in line to help invade Rock Ridge (a nod to Howard Hughes); he also dubs lines for one of Lili Von Shtupp's backing troupe and a cranky moviegoer.", "The supporting cast includes Slim Pickens, Alex Karras and David Huddleston, as well as Brooks regulars Dom DeLuise, Madeline Kahn and Harvey Korman.", "Bandleader Count Basie has a cameo as himself, appearing with his orchestra.The film is full of deliberate anachronisms, from the Count Basie Orchestra playing \"April in Paris\" in the Wild West, to Pickens's character mentioning the ''Wide World of Sports''.In 2006, ''Blazing Saddles'' was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry." ], [ "Plot", "On the American frontier of 1874, a new railroad under construction will have to be rerouted through the town of Rock Ridge to avoid quicksand.", "Realizing this will make Rock Ridge worth millions, territorial attorney general Hedley Lamarr plans to force Rock Ridge's residents out of the town and sends a gang of thugs, led by his flunky Taggart, to shoot the sheriff and trash the town.The townspeople demand that Governor William J.", "Le Petomane appoint a new sheriff to protect them.", "Lamarr persuades dim-witted Le Petomane to appoint Bart, a Black railroad worker about to be executed for assaulting Taggart.", "A Black sheriff, Lamarr reasons, will offend the townspeople, create chaos and leave Rock Ridge at his mercy.After an initial hostile reception (Bart takes himself \"hostage\" to escape), he relies on his quick wits and the assistance of Jim, an alcoholic gunslinger known as the \"Waco Kid\", to overcome the townspeople's hostility.", "Bart subdues Mongo, an immensely strong and dim-witted, yet philosophical henchman sent to kill him, then outwits German seductress-for-hire Lili Von Shtupp at her own game, with Lili falling in love with him.Upon release, Mongo vaguely informs Bart of Lamarr's connection to the railroad, so Bart and Jim visit the railroad worksite and discover from Bart's best friend Charlie that the railway is planned to go through Rock Ridge.", "Taggart and his men arrive to kill Bart, but Jim outshoots them and forces their retreat.", "Lamarr, furious that his schemes have backfired, recruits an army of thugs, including common criminals, motorcycle gangsters, Ku Klux Klansmen, Nazis and Methodists.East of Rock Ridge, Bart introduces the White townspeople to the Black, Chinese, and Irish railroad workers who have all agreed to help them in exchange for acceptance by the community, and explains his plan to defeat Lamarr's army.", "They labor all night to build a perfect copy of the town as a diversion.", "When Bart realizes it will not fool the villains, the townsfolk construct copies of themselves.Bart, Jim, and Mongo buy time by constructing the \"Gov.", "William J.", "Le Petomane Thruway\", forcing the raiding party to send for change to pay the toll.", "Once through the tollbooth, the raiders attack the fake town and its population of dummies, which have been booby trapped with dynamite.", "After Jim detonates the bombs with his sharpshooting, launching bad guys and horses skyward, the Rock Ridgers attack the villains.The resulting brawl between townsfolk, railroad workers, and Lamarr's thugs literally breaks the fourth wall and bursts onto a neighboring movie set, where director Buddy Bizarre is filming a Busby Berkeley-style top-hat-and-tails musical number; the brawl then spreads into the studio commissary for a food fight, and spills out of the Warner Bros. film lot onto the streets of Burbank.Lamarr, realizing he has been beaten, hails a taxi and orders the cabbie to \"drive me off this picture\".", "He ducks into Mann's Chinese Theatre, which is showing the premiere of ''Blazing Saddles''.", "As he settles into his seat, he sees onscreen Bart arriving on horseback outside the theatre.", "Bart blocks Lamarr's escape and shoots him in the groin.", "Bart and Jim then enter the theater to watch the end of the film, in which Bart announces to the townspeople that he is moving on because his work is done (and because he is bored).Riding out of town, he finds Jim, still eating his popcorn, and invites him along to \"nowhere special\".", "The two friends briefly ride into the desert before dismounting and boarding a limousine, which drives off into the sunset." ], [ "Cast", "'''Cast notes:'''* Count Basie and his orchestra make a cameo appearance, playing \"April in Paris\" in the middle of the desert as Bart rides toward Rock Ridge to assume the post of sheriff.", "* Brooks appears in three on-screen roles: Governor William J.", "Le Petomane, the Yiddish-speaking Native American chief (appearing in redface) in Bart's backstory, and an applicant for Hedley Lamarr's thug army (an aviator wearing sunglasses and a flight jacket).", "He also has two off-screen voice roles, as one of Lili's German chorus boys during \"I'm Tired\", and as a grouchy moviegoer.", "* \"Le Petomane\" refers to Joseph Pujol, a performer in 19th-century France who was a professional flatulist using \"Le Pétomane\" as his stage name.", "* Carol Arthur (Harriet Johnson) was DeLuise's wife.", "* \"Olson Johnson\" is a reference to the vaudeville comedy team Olsen and Johnson, \"Howard Johnson\" to the now-defunct Howard Johnson's restaurant chain, \"Van Johnson\" to the actor Van Johnson, and \"Dr. Samuel Johnson\" to the 18th-century English writer by that name.", "The character of \"Gabby Johnson\" is a direct parody of cowboy actor Gabby Hayes." ], [ "Production", "=== Development ===The idea came from a story outline written by Andrew Bergman that he originally intended to develop and produce himself.", "\"I wrote a first draft called ''Tex-X''\" (a play on Malcolm X's name), he said.", "\"Alan Arkin was hired to direct and James Earl Jones was going to play the sheriff.", "That fell apart, as things often do.\"", "Brooks was taken with the story, which he described as \"hip talk—1974 talk and expressions—happening in 1874 in the Old West\", and purchased the film rights from Bergman.", "Though he had not worked with a writing team since ''Your Show of Shows'', he hired a group of writers (including Bergman) to expand the outline, and posted a large sign: \"Please do not write a polite script.", "\"Brooks described the writing process as chaotic: Bergman remembers the room being just as chaotic, telling ''Creative Screenwriting'', === Title ===The original title, ''Tex X'', was rejected to avoid it being mistaken for an X-rated film, as were ''Black Bart'' – a reference to Black Bart, a white highwayman of the 19th century – and ''Purple Sage''.", "Brooks said he finally conceived ''Blazing Saddles'' one morning while taking a shower.=== Casting ===Pryor was Brooks's original choice to play Sheriff Bart, but the studio, claiming his history of drug arrests made him uninsurable, refused to approve financing with Pryor as the star.", "The role of Sheriff Bart went to Cleavon Little, and Pryor remained as a screenwriter, instead.", "Brooks offered the other leading role, the Waco Kid, to John Wayne who declined, deeming the film \"too blue\" for his family-oriented image, but assured Brooks that \"he would be the first one in line to see it.\"", "Dan Dailey was Brooks first choice for the role.", "Gig Young was cast, but he collapsed during his first scene from what was later determined to be alcohol withdrawal syndrome, and Wilder was flown in to replace him.Johnny Carson and Wilder both turned down the Hedley Lamarr role before Korman was cast.", "Madeline Kahn objected when Brooks asked to see her legs during her audition.", "\"She said, 'So it's THAT kind of an audition?", "Brooks recalled.", "\"I explained that I was a happily married man and that I needed someone who could straddle a chair with her legs like Marlene Dietrich in ''Destry Rides Again.''", "So she lifted her skirt and said, 'No touching.=== Filming ===Principal photography began on March 6, 1973, and wrapped in early May 1973.Brooks had numerous conflicts over content with Warner Bros. executives, including frequent use of the word \"nigger\", Lili Von Shtupp's seduction scene, the cacophony of flatulence around the campfire and Mongo punching out a horse.", "Brooks, whose contract gave him final cut, declined to make any substantive changes, with the exception of cutting Bart's final line during Lili's seduction: \"I hate to disappoint you, ma'am, but you're sucking my arm.\"", "When asked later about the many \"nigger\" references, Brooks said he received consistent support from Pryor and Little.", "He added: \"If they did a remake of ''Blazing Saddles'' today 2012, they would leave out the N-word.", "And then, you've got no movie.\"", "Brooks said he received many letters of complaint after the film's release.=== Music ===Brooks wrote the music and lyrics for three of ''Blazing Saddles'' songs, \"The Ballad of Rock Ridge\", \"I'm Tired\", and \"The French Mistake\".", "Brooks also wrote the lyrics to the title song, with music by composer John Morris.", "To sing the title song, Brooks advertised in the trade papers for a \"Frankie Laine–type\" singer; to his surprise, Laine himself offered his services.", "\"Frankie sang his heart out ... and we didn't have the heart to tell him it was a spoof.", "He never heard the whip cracks; we put those in later.", "We got so lucky with his serious interpretation of the song.", "\"The choreographer for \"I'm Tired\" and \"The French Mistake\" was Alan Johnson.", "\"I'm Tired\" is a ''homage'' to and parody of Marlene Dietrich's performance of Cole Porter's song \"I'm the Laziest Gal in Town\" in Alfred Hitchcock's 1950 film ''Stage Fright'', as well as \"Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)\" from ''The Blue Angel''.The orchestrations were by Morris and Jonathan Tunick." ], [ "Lawsuit", "During production, retired longtime film star Hedy Lamarr sued Warner Bros. for $100,000, charging that the film's running parody of her name infringed on her right to privacy.", "Brooks said that he was flattered and chose to not fight it in court; the studio settled out of court for a small sum and an apology for \"almost using her name\".", "Brooks said that Lamarr \"never got the joke\".", "This lawsuit would be referenced by an in-film joke where Brooks' character, the Governor, tells Lamarr that \"This is 1874; you'll be able to sue HER.\"" ], [ "Release", "The film was almost unreleased.", "\"When we screened it for executives, there were few laughs,\" said Brooks.", "\"The head of distribution said, 'Let's dump it and take a loss.'", "But studio president John Calley insisted they open it in New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago as a test.", "It became the studio's top moneymaker that summer.", "\"The world premiere took place on February 7, 1974, at the Pickwick Drive-In Theater in Burbank; 250 invited guests—including Little and Wilder—watched the film on horseback.=== Critical response ===While ''Blazing Saddles'' is now considered a classic, critical reaction was mixed upon initial release.", "Vincent Canby wrote:Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four, calling it a \"crazed grab bag of a movie that does everything to keep us laughing except hit us over the head with a rubber chicken.", "Mostly, it succeeds.", "It's an audience picture; it doesn't have a lot of classy polish and its structure is a total mess.", "But of course!", "What does that matter while Alex Karras is knocking a horse cold with a right cross to the jaw?\"", "Gene Siskel awarded three stars out of four and called it \"bound to rank with the funniest of the year,\" adding, \"Whenever the laughs begin to run dry, Brooks and his quartet of gag writers splash about in a pool of obscenities that score belly laughs if your ears aren't sensitive and if you're hip to western movie conventions being parodied.", "\"Critics often perceived ''Blazing Saddles'' as inherently \"un-cinematic\", defying some expectations for Hollywood filmmaking in the era, often displaying production style associated with Broadway theater and US television variety shows.", "This was in part due to its \"simplistic framing\" and the casting of Harvey Korman, known for ''The Carol Burnett Show'' (CBS, 1967–1978), which was similarly \"low on characterization and story, instead opting for a high volume of one-liners and visual gags.\"", "Typical to this perception, ''Variety'' wrote: \"If comedies are measured solely by the number of yocks they generate from audiences, then ''Blazing Saddles'' must be counted a success ... Few viewers will have time between laughs to complain that pic is essentially a raunchy, protracted version of a television comedy skit.", "\"Charles Champlin of the ''Los Angeles Times'' called the film \"irreverent, outrageous, improbable, often as blithely tasteless as a stag night at the Friar's Club and almost continuously funny.\"", "Gary Arnold of ''The Washington Post'' was negative, writing: \"Mel Brooks squanders a snappy title on a stockpile of stale jokes.", "To say that this slapdash Western spoof lacks freshness and spontaneity and originality is putting it mildly.", "''Blazing Saddles'' is at once a messy and antiquated gag machine.\"", "Jan Dawson of ''The Monthly Film Bulletin'' wrote: \"Perhaps it is pedantic to complain that the whole is not up to the sum of its parts when, for the curate's egg that it is, ''Blazing Saddles'' contains so many good parts and memorable performances.\"", "John Simon wrote a negative review of ''Blazing Saddles'', saying: \"All kinds of gags—chiefly anachronisms, irrelevancies, reverse ethnic jokes, and out and out vulgarities—are thrown together pell-mell, batted about insanely in all directions, and usually beaten into the ground.", "\"On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 69 reviews, with an average rating of 8.10/10.The site's critics consensus reads: \"Daring, provocative, and laugh-out-loud funny, ''Blazing Saddles'' is a gleefully vulgar spoof of Westerns that marks a high point in Mel Brooks' storied career.\"", "On Metacritic it has a score of 73 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Ishmael Reed's 1969 novel ''Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down'' has been cited as an important precursor or influence for ''Blazing Saddles'', a connection that Reed himself has made.=== Box office ===The film earned theatrical rentals of $26.7 million in its initial release in the United States and Canada.", "In its 1976 reissue, it earned a further $10.5 million and another $8 million in 1979.Its total rentals in the United States and Canada totalled $47.8 million from a gross of $119.5 million, becoming only the tenth film up to that time to pass the $100 million mark." ], [ "Awards and accolades", "While addressing his group of bad guys, Harvey Korman's character reminds them that although they are risking their lives, he is \"risking an almost certain Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor!\"", "Korman did not receive an Oscar bid, but the film did get three nominations at the 47th Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actress for Madeline Kahn.In 2006, ''Blazing Saddles'' was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.Upon the release of the 30th-anniversary special edition in 2004, ''Today'' said that the movie \"skewered just about every aspect of racial prejudice while keeping the laughs coming\" and that it was \"at the top of a very short list\" of comedies still funny after 30 years.", "In 2014, NPR wrote that, four decades after the movie was made, it was \"still as biting a satire\" on racism as ever, although its treatment of gays and women was \"not self-aware at all\".", "Award Category Recipient Result Academy Awards Best Supporting Actress Madeline Kahn Best Film Editing John C. Howard and Danford B. Greene Best Song \"Blazing Saddles\" Music by John Morris; Lyrics by Mel Brooks British Academy Film Awards Best Screenplay Mel Brooks, Norman Steinberg, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor and Alan Uger Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles Cleavon Little National Film Preservation Board National Film Registry Online Film & Television Association Awards Hall of Fame – Motion Picture Writers Guild of America Awards Best Comedy – Written Directly for the Screenplay Mel Brooks, Norman Steinberg, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor and Alan Uger The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:* 2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – No.", "6" ], [ "Adaptations", "=== TV series ===A television pilot titled ''Black Bart'' was produced for CBS based on Bergman's original story.", "It featured Louis Gossett Jr. as Bart and Steve Landesberg as his drunkard sidekick, a former Confederate officer named \"Reb Jordan\".", "Other cast members included Millie Slavin and Noble Willingham.", "Bergman is listed as the sole creator.", "CBS aired the pilot once on April 4, 1975.The pilot episode of ''Black Bart'' was later included as a bonus feature on the ''Blazing Saddles'' 30th Anniversary DVD and the Blu-ray disc.=== Possible stage production ===In September 2017, Brooks indicated his desire to do a stage version of ''Blazing Saddles'' in the future." ], [ "In popular culture", "The Rock Ridge standard for CD and DVD media is named after the town in ''Blazing Saddles''.The 1988 animated television film ''The Good, the Bad, and Huckleberry Hound'' is a Western parody similar to ''Blazing Saddles''.", "Starring anthropomorphic cartoon dog Huckleberry Hound, the film is set in the California Gold Rush era and has some similar spoofs and gags.", "Here, much like Bart, Huck is unexpectedly appointed as a sheriff to defend townspeople.The 2022 animated film ''Paws of Fury: The Legend of Hank'', starring Michael Cera, Samuel L. Jackson, Michelle Yeoh and Ricky Gervais, was originally titled ''Blazing Samurai'' and its creators called it \"equally inspired by and an homage to ''Blazing Saddles''.\"", "Brooks served as an executive producer for the production, voiced one of the characters, and received screenplay credit." ], [ "Home media", "The film was released on VHS several times and was first released on DVD in 1997, followed by a 30th Anniversary Special Edition DVD in 2004 and a Blu-ray version in 2006.A 40th anniversary Blu-ray set was released in 2014." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Blazing Saddles'' essay by Michael Schlesinger at National Film Registry.", "* * * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Bruce Sterling" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Bruce Sterling''' (born April 14, 1954) is an American science fiction author known for his novels and short fiction and editorship of the ''Mirrorshades'' anthology.", "In particular, he is linked to the cyberpunk subgenre.Sterling's first science-fiction story, ''Man-Made Self'', was sold in 1976.He is the author of science-fiction novels, including ''Schismatrix'' (1985), ''Islands in the Net'' (1988), and ''Heavy Weather'' (1994).", "In 1992, he published his first non-fiction book, ''The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier''.He has been interviewed for documentaries such as ''Freedom Downtime'', ''TechnoCalyps'' and ''Traceroute''." ], [ "Writing", "Sterling is one of the founders of the cyberpunk movement in science fiction, along with William Gibson, Rudy Rucker, John Shirley, Lewis Shiner, and Pat Cadigan.", "In addition, he is one of the subgenre's chief ideological promulgators.", "This has earned him the nickname \"Chairman Bruce\".", "He was also one of the first organizers of the Turkey City Writer's Workshop, and is a frequent attendee at the Sycamore Hill Writer's Workshop.", "He won Hugo Awards for his novelettes \"Bicycle Repairman\" (1996) and \"Taklamakan\" (1998).", "His first novel, ''Involution Ocean'', published in 1977, features the world Nullaqua where all the atmosphere is contained in a single, miles-deep crater.", "The story concerns a ship sailing on the ocean of dust at the bottom and hunting creatures called dustwhales.", "It is partially a science-fictional pastiche of ''Moby-Dick'' by Herman Melville.In the early 1980s, Sterling wrote a series of stories set in the Shaper/Mechanist universe: the Solar System is colonized, with two major warring factions.", "The Mechanists use a great deal of computer-based mechanical technologies; the Shapers do genetic engineering on a massive scale.", "The situation is complicated by the eventual contact with alien civilizations; humanity eventually splits into many subspecies, with the implication that some of these vanish from the galaxy, reminiscent of the singularity in the works of Vernor Vinge.", "The Shaper/Mechanist stories can be found in the collections ''Crystal Express'' and ''Schismatrix Plus'', which contains the novel ''Schismatrix'' and all of the stories set in the Shaper/Mechanist universe.", "Alastair Reynolds identified ''Schismatrix'' and the other Shaper/Mechanist stories as one of the greatest influences on his own work.Bruce Sterling at the 2010 Augmented Reality EventIn the 1980s, Sterling edited the science fiction critical fanzine ''Cheap Truth'' under the alias of Vincent Omniaveritas.", "He wrote a column called ''Catscan'' for the now-defunct science fiction critical magazine ''SF Eye''.", "He contributed a chapter to ''Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture'' (MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller, a.k.a.", "DJ Spooky.", "From April 2009 through May 2009, he was an editor at ''Cool Tools''.From October 2003 to May 2020 Sterling blogged at \"Beyond the Beyond\", which was hosted by ''Wired'' until the COVID-19 pandemic led Condé Nast to cut back because of an advertising slump.", "He also contributed to other print and online platforms, including ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction''.His most recent novel () is ''Love Is Strange'' (December 2012), a paranormal romance (40k).===Writing projects===He has been the instigator of three projects which can be found on the Web -* The Dead Media Project - A collection of \"research notes\" on dead media technologies, from Incan quipus, through Victorian phenakistoscopes, to the departed video game and home computers of the 1980s.", "The Project's homepage, including Sterling's original ''Dead Media Manifesto'' can be found at deadmedia.org.", "* The Viridian Design Movement - his attempt to create a \"green\" design movement focused on high-tech, stylish, and ecologically sound design.", "The Viridian Design home page, including Sterling's ''Viridian Manifesto'' and all of his ''Viridian Notes'', is managed by Jon Lebkowsky.", "The Viridian Movement helped to spawn a popular \"bright green\" environmental weblog Worldchanging.", "WorldChanging contributors include many of the original members of the Viridian \"curia\".", "* Embrace the Decay - a web-only art piece commissioned by the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA) in 2003.Incorporating contributions solicited through The Viridian Design 'movement', Embrace the Decay was the most visited piece/page at LA MOCA's Digital Gallery, and included contributions from Jared Tarbell of levitated.net and co-author of several books on advanced Flash programming, and Monty Zukowski, creator of the winning 'decay algorithm' sponsored by Sterling.===Neologisms===Sterling has coined various neologisms to describe things that he believes will be common in the future, especially items which already exist in limited numbers.", "* In the December 2005 issue of ''Wired'' magazine, Sterling coined the term buckyjunk to refer to future, difficult-to-recycle consumer waste made of carbon nanotubes, a.k.a.", "buckytubes, based on buckyballs or buckminsterfullerene.", "* In his 2005 book ''Shaping Things'', he coined the term design fiction which refers to a type of speculative design which focuses on worldbuilding.", "* In July 1989, in ''SF Eye #5'', he was the first to use the word \"slipstream\" to refer to a type of speculative fiction between traditional science fiction and fantasy and mainstream literature.", "* In August 2004, he suggested a type of technological device (he called it \"spime\") that, through pervasive RFID and GPS tracking, can track its history of use and interact with the world." ], [ "Bibliography", "Sterling's novels include:* ''Involution Ocean'' (1977)* ''The Artificial Kid'' (1980)* ''Schismatrix'' (1985)* ''Islands in the Net'' (1988) Campbell Award* ''The Difference Engine'' (1990; with William Gibson)* ''Heavy Weather'' (1994)* ''Holy Fire'' (1996)* ''The Zenith Angle'' (2004)* ''The Caryatids'' (February 2009)" ], [ "Personal life", "Sterling at Robofest '94In the beginning of his childhood he lived in Galveston, Texas until his family moved to India.", "Sterling spent several years in India and has a fondness for Bollywood films.", "In 1976, he graduated from the University of Texas with a degree in journalism.", "In 1978, he was the Dungeon Master for a ''Dungeons & Dragons'' game whose players included Warren Spector, who cited Sterling's game as a major inspiration for the game design of ''Deus Ex''.", "In 2003, he was appointed professor at the European Graduate School where he is teaching summer intensive courses on media and design.", "In 2005, he became \"visionary in residence\" at ArtCenter College of Design in Pasadena, California.", "He lived in Belgrade with Serbian author and film-maker Jasmina Tešanović for several years, and married her in 2005.In September 2007 he moved to Turin, Italy.", "Both Sterling and artist and musician Florian-Ayala Fauna are sponsors for V. Vale's RE/Search newsletter." ], [ "Awards", "* 1989 John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel winner for the novel ''Islands in the Net''* 1997 Hugo Award winner for the novelette \"Bicycle Repairman\"* 1999 Hugo Award winner for the novelette \"Taklamakan\"* 1999 Hayakawa's S-F Magazine Reader's Award for Best Foreign Short Story winner for the novelette \"Taklamakan\"* 2000 Clarke Award winner for the novel ''Distraction''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Wired Blog : Beyond the beyond* Wolf in Living Room - blog about domestic ubiquitous computing* * - the Open Source connected apartment.", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Brain abscess" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brain abscess''' (or '''cerebral abscess''') is an abscess within the brain tissue caused by inflammation and collection of infected material coming from local (ear infection, dental abscess, infection of paranasal sinuses, infection of the mastoid air cells of the temporal bone, epidural abscess) or remote (lung, heart, kidney etc.)", "infectious sources.", "The infection may also be introduced through a skull fracture following a head trauma or surgical procedures.", "Brain abscess is usually associated with congenital heart disease in young children.", "It may occur at any age but is most frequent in the third decade of life." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Fever, headache, and neurological problems, while classic, only occur in 20% of people with brain abscess.The famous triad of fever, headache and focal neurologic findings are highly suggestive of brain abscess.", "These symptoms are caused by a combination of increased intracranial pressure due to a space-occupying lesion (headache, vomiting, confusion, coma), infection (fever, fatigue etc.)", "and focal neurologic brain tissue damage (hemiparesis, aphasia etc.", ").The most frequent presenting symptoms are headache, drowsiness, confusion, seizures, hemiparesis or speech difficulties together with fever with a rapidly progressive course.", "Headache is characteristically worse at night and in the morning, as the intracranial pressure naturally increases when in the supine position.", "This elevation similarly stimulates the medullary vomiting center and area postrema, leading to morning vomiting.Other symptoms and findings depend largely on the specific location of the abscess in the brain.", "An abscess in the cerebellum, for instance, may cause additional complaints as a result of brain stem compression and hydrocephalus.", "Neurological examination may reveal a stiff neck in occasional cases (erroneously suggesting meningitis)." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "===Bacterial===Brain abscess after metastasis treatment.Anaerobic and microaerophilic cocci and gram-negative and gram-positive anaerobic bacilli are the predominant bacterial isolates.", "Many brain abscesses are polymicrobial.", "The predominant organisms include: ''Staphylococcus aureus'', aerobic and anaerobic streptococci (especially ''Streptococcus intermedius''), ''Bacteroides'', ''Prevotella'', and ''Fusobacterium'' species, Enterobacteriaceae, ''Pseudomonas'' species, and other anaerobes.", "Less common organisms include: ''Haemophillus influenzae'', ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'' and ''Neisseria meningitidis''.Bacterial abscesses rarely (if ever) arise ''de novo'' within the brain although establishing a cause can be difficult in many cases.", "There is almost always a primary lesion elsewhere in the body that must be sought assiduously because failure to treat the primary lesion will result in relapse.", "In cases of trauma, for example in compound skull fractures where fragments of bone are pushed into the substance of the brain, the cause of the abscess is obvious.", "Similarly, bullets and other foreign bodies may become sources of infection if left in place.", "The location of the primary lesion may be suggested by the location of the abscess: infections of the middle ear result in lesions in the middle and posterior cranial fossae; congenital heart disease with right-to-left shunts often result in abscesses in the distribution of the middle cerebral artery; and infection of the frontal and ethmoid sinuses usually results in collection in the subdural sinuses.=== Other organisms ===Fungi and parasites may also cause the disease.", "Fungi and parasites are especially associated with immunocompromised patients.", "Other causes include: ''Nocardia asteroides'', ''Mycobacterium'', Fungi (e.g.", "''Aspergillus'', ''Candida'', ''Cryptococcus'', ''Mucorales'', ''Coccidioides'', ''Histoplasma capsulatum'', ''Blastomyces dermatitidis'', ''Bipolaris'', ''Exophiala dermatitidis'', ''Curvularia pallescens'', ''Ochroconis gallopava'', ''Ramichloridium mackenziei'', ''Pseudallescheria boydii''), Protozoa (e.g.", "''Toxoplasma gondii'', ''Entamoeba histolytica'', ''Trypanosoma cruzi'', ''Schistosoma'', ''Paragonimus''), and Helminths (e.g.", "''Taenia solium'').", "Organisms that are most frequently associated with brain abscess in patients with AIDS are poliovirus, ''Toxoplasma gondii'', and ''Cryptococcus neoformans'', though in infection with the latter organism, symptoms of meningitis generally predominate.These organisms are associated with certain predisposing conditions:* Sinus and dental infections—Aerobic and anaerobic streptococci, anaerobic gram-negative bacilli (e.g.", "''Prevotella'', ''Porphyromonas'', ''Bacteroides''), ''Fusobacterium'', ''S.", "aureus'', and Enterobacteriaceae* Penetrating trauma—''S.", "aureus'', aerobic streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae, and ''Clostridium'' spp.", "* Pulmonary infections—Aerobic and anaerobic streptococci, anaerobic gram-negative bacilli (e.g.", "''Prevotella'', ''Porphyromonas'', ''Bacteroides''), ''Fusobacterium'', ''Actinomyces'', and ''Nocardia''* Congenital heart disease—Aerobic and microaerophilic streptococci, and ''S.", "aureus''* HIV infection—''T.", "gondii'', ''Mycobacterium'', ''Nocardia'', ''Cryptococcus'', and ''Listeria monocytogenes''* Transplantation—''Aspergillus'', ''Candida'', ''Cryptococcus'', ''Mucorales'', ''Nocardia'', and ''T.", "gondii''* Neutropenia—Aerobic gram-negative bacilli, ''Aspergillus'', ''Candida'', and ''Mucorales''" ], [ "Diagnosis", "MRI (T1 with contrast) showing the ring-enhancing lesion.", "From a rare case report of an abscess formed as a complication of the CSF shunt.", "Jamjoom et al., 2009.The diagnosis is established by a computed tomography (CT) (with contrast) examination.", "At the initial phase of the inflammation (which is referred to as cerebritis), the immature lesion does not have a capsule and it may be difficult to distinguish it from other space-occupying lesions or infarcts of the brain.", "Within 4–5 days the inflammation and the concomitant dead brain tissue are surrounded with a capsule, which gives the lesion the famous ring-enhancing lesion appearance on CT examination with contrast (since intravenously applied contrast material can not pass through the capsule, it is collected around the lesion and looks as a ring surrounding the relatively dark lesion).", "Lumbar puncture procedure, which is performed in many infectious disorders of the central nervous system is contraindicated in this condition (as it is in all space-occupying lesions of the brain) because removing a certain portion of the cerebrospinal fluid may alter the concrete intracranial pressure balances and causes the brain tissue to move across structures within the skull (brain herniation).Ring enhancement may also be observed in cerebral hemorrhages (bleeding) and some brain tumors.", "However, in the presence of the rapidly progressive course with fever, focal neurologic findings (hemiparesis, aphasia etc.)", "and signs of increased intracranial pressure, the most likely diagnosis should be the brain abscess." ], [ "Treatment", "The treatment includes lowering the increased intracranial pressure and starting intravenous antibiotics (and meanwhile identifying the causative organism mainly by blood culture studies).Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO2 or HBOT) is indicated as a primary and adjunct treatment which provides four primary functions.Firstly, HBOT reduces intracranial pressure.", "Secondly, high partial pressures of oxygen act as a bactericide and thus inhibits the anaerobic and functionally anaerobic flora common in brain abscess.", "Third, HBOT optimizes the immune function thus enhancing the host defense mechanisms and fourth, HBOT has been found to be of benefit when brain abscess is concomitant with cranial osteomyelitis.Secondary functions of HBOT include increased stem cell production and up-regulation of VEGF which aid in the healing and recovery process.Surgical drainage of the abscess remains part of the standard management of bacterial brain abscesses.", "The location and treatment of the primary lesion is also crucial, as is the removal of any foreign material (bone, dirt, bullets, and so forth).There are few exceptions to this rule: ''Haemophilus influenzae'' meningitis is often associated with subdural effusions that are mistaken for subdural empyemas.", "These effusions resolve with antibiotics and require no surgical treatment.", "Tuberculosis can produce brain abscesses that look identical to conventional bacterial abscesses on CT imaging.", "Surgical drainage or aspiration is often necessary to identify ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', but once the diagnosis is made no further surgical intervention is necessary.CT guided stereotactic aspiration is also indicated in the treatment of brain abscess.", "The use of pre-operative imaging, intervention with post-operative clinical and biochemical monitoring used to manage brain abscesses today dates back to the Pennybacker system pioneered by Somerset, Kentucky-born neurosurgeon Joseph Buford Pennybacker, director of the neurosurgery department of the Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford from 1952 to 1971." ], [ "Prognosis", "While death occurs in about 10% of cases, people do well about 70% of the time.", "This is a large improvement from the 1960s due to improved ability to image the head, more effective neurosurgery and more effective antibiotics." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * MR Diagnosis MedPix Imaging Brain Abscess" ] ]
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[ [ "Brigitte Bardot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brigitte Anne-Marie Bardot''' ( ; ; born 28 September 1934), often referred to by her initials '''B.B.", "''', is a French animal rights activist and former actress, singer, and model.", "Famous for portraying sexually emancipated characters, often with hedonistic lifestyles, she was one of the best known activists in the sexual revolution of the 1950s–1970s.", "Although she withdrew from the entertainment industry in 1973, she remains a major popular culture icon and a noted figure in ushering in the sexual revolution.", "She has acted in 47 films, performed in several musicals, and recorded more than 60 songs.", "She was awarded the Legion of Honour in 1985.Born and raised in Paris, Bardot was an aspiring ballerina in her early life.", "She started her acting career in 1952 and achieved international recognition in 1957 for her role in ''And God Created Woman'' (1956), catching the attention of many French intellectuals and earning her the nickname \"sex kitten\".", "She was the subject of philosopher Simone de Beauvoir's 1959 essay ''The Lolita Syndrome'', which described her as a \"locomotive of women's history\" and built upon existentialist themes to declare her the first and most liberated woman of post-war France.", "She won a 1961 David di Donatello Best Foreign Actress Award for her work in ''The Truth'' (1960)''.''", "Bardot later starred in Jean-Luc Godard's film ''Le Mépris'' (1963).", "For her role in Louis Malle's film ''Viva Maria!''", "(1965), she was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress.", "French President Charles de Gaulle called Bardot \"the French export as important as Renault cars\".After retiring from acting in 1974, she became an animal rights activist and created the Brigitte Bardot Foundation.", "She is known for her strong personality, outspokenness, and speeches on animal defence; she has been fined twice for public insults.", "She has also been a controversial political figure, as of November 2021 having been fined six times for inciting racial hatred when she criticised immigration and Islam in France and called residents of Réunion island \"savages\".", "She is married to Bernard d'Ormale, a former adviser to Jean-Marie Le Pen, a far-right French politician.", "Bardot is a member of the Global 500 Roll of Honour of the United Nations Environment Programme and has received several awards and accolades from UNESCO and PETA.", "In 2011, ''Los Angeles Times Magazine'' ranked her second on the \"50 Most Beautiful Women In Film\"." ], [ "Early life", "Bardot was born on 28 September 1934 in the 15th arrondissement of Paris, to Louis Bardot (1896–1975) and Anne-Marie Mucel (1912–1978).", "Bardot's father, originated from Ligny-en-Barrois, was an engineer and the proprietor of several industrial factories in Paris.", "Her mother was the daughter of an insurance company director.", "She grew up in a conservative Catholic family, as had her father.", "She suffered from amblyopia as a child, which resulted in decreased vision of her left eye.", "She has one younger sister, Mijanou Bardot.Bardot's childhood was prosperous; she lived in her family's seven-bedroom apartment in the luxurious 16th arrondissement.", "However, she recalled feeling resentful in her early years.", "Her father demanded that she follow strict behavioural standards, including good table manners, and wear appropriate clothes.", "Her mother was extremely selective in choosing companions for her, so that Bardot had very few childhood friends.", "Bardot cited a personal traumatic incident when she and her sister broke her parents' favourite vase while they were playing in the house; her father whipped the sisters 20 times and henceforth treated them like \"strangers\", demanding that they address their parents by the formal pronoun \"vous\", used in French when speaking to unfamiliar or higher-status persons outside the immediate family.", "The incident led to Bardot decisively resenting her parents, and to her future rebellious lifestyle.During World War II, when Paris was occupied by Nazi Germany, Bardot spent more time at home due to increasingly strict civilian surveillance.", "She became engrossed in dancing to records, which her mother saw as a potential for a ballet career.", "Bardot was admitted at the age of seven to the private school Cours Hattemer.", "She went to school three days a week, which gave her ample time to take dance lessons at a local studio, under her mother's arrangements.", "In 1949, Bardot was accepted at the Conservatoire de Paris.", "For three years she attended ballet classes held by Russian choreographer Boris Knyazev.", "She also studied at the Institut de la Tour, a private Catholic high school near her home.Hélène Gordon-Lazareff, the director of the magazines ''Elle'' and ''Le Jardin des Modes'', hired Bardot in 1949 as a \"junior\" fashion model.", "On 8 March 1950, 15-year-old Bardot appeared on the cover of ''Elle'', which brought her an acting offer for the film ''Les Lauriers sont coupés'' from director Marc Allégret.", "Her parents opposed her becoming an actress, but her grandfather was supportive, saying that \"If this little girl is to become a whore, cinema will not be the cause.\"", "At the audition, Bardot met Roger Vadim, who later notified her that she did not get the role.", "They subsequently fell in love.", "Her parents fiercely opposed their relationship; her father announced to her one evening that she would continue her education in England and that he had bought her a train ticket for the following day.", "Bardot reacted by putting her head into an oven with open fire; her parents stopped her and ultimately accepted the relationship, on condition that she marry Vadim at the age of 18." ], [ "Career", "===Beginnings: 1952–1955===Bardot appeared on the cover of ''Elle'' again in 1952, which landed her an offer for a small part in the comedy film ''Crazy for Love'' the same year, directed by Jean Boyer and starring Bourvil.", "She was paid 200,000 francs (about 575 1952 US dollars) for the small role portraying a cousin of the main character.", "Bardot had her second film role in ''Manina, the Girl in the Bikini'' (1953), directed by Willy Rozier.", "She also had roles in the 1953 films ''The Long Teeth'' and ''His Father's Portrait''.Bardot had a small role in a Hollywood-financed film being shot in Paris in 1953, ''Act of Love'', starring Kirk Douglas.", "She received media attention when she attended the Cannes Film Festival in April 1953.Bardot in a scene of ''Concert of Intrigue'' in 1954Bardot had a leading role in 1954 in an Italian melodrama, ''Concert of Intrigue'' and in a French adventure film, ''Caroline and the Rebels''.", "She had a good part as a flirtatious student in the 1955 ''School for Love'', opposite Jean Marais, for director Marc Allégret.Bardot played her first sizeable English-language role in 1955 in ''Doctor at Sea'', as the love interest for Dirk Bogarde.", "The film was the third-most-popular movie in Britain that year.Bardot had a small role in ''The Grand Maneuver'' (1955) for director René Clair, supporting Gérard Philipe and Michelle Morgan.", "The part was bigger in ''The Light Across the Street'' (1956) for director Georges Lacombe.", "She had another in the Hollywood film, ''Helen of Troy'', playing Helen's handmaiden.For the Italian movie ''Mio figlio Nerone'' (1956) brunette Bardot was asked by the director to appear as a blonde.", "She dyed her hair rather than wear a wig; she was so pleased with the results that she decided to retain the color.=== Rise to stardom: 1956–1962 ===Bardot posing for a crowd of photographers during the 1958 Venice Film FestivalBardot featured on the cover of ''Screenland'', March 1959Bardot then appeared in four movies that made her a star.", "First up was a musical, ''Naughty Girl'' (1956), where Bardot played a troublesome school girl.", "Directed by Michel Boisrond, it was co-written by Roger Vadim and was a great success, going on to become the 12th most popular film of the year in France.", "It was followed by a comedy, ''Plucking the Daisy'' (1956), also written by Vadim.", "This was succeeded by ''The Bride Is Much Too Beautiful'' (1956) with Louis Jourdan.Finally, there was the melodrama ''And God Created Woman'' (1956).", "The movie was Vadim's debut as director, with Bardot starring opposite Jean-Louis Trintignant and Curt Jurgens.", "The film, about an immoral teenager in an otherwise respectable small-town setting, was an even larger success, not just in France but also around the world, listed among the ten most popular films in Great Britain in 1957.In the United States the film was the highest-grossing foreign film ever released, earning $4 million, which author Peter Lev describes as \"an astonishing amount for a foreign film at that time.\"", "It turned Bardot into an international star.", "From at least 1956, she was hailed as the \"sex kitten\".", "The film scandalized the United States and some theater managers were even arrested just for screening it.Paul O'Neil of ''Life'' (June 1958) in describing Bardot's international popularity, writes:In gaining her present eminence, Brigitte Bardot has had certain advantages beyond those she was born with.", "Like the European sports car, she has arrived on the American scene at a time when the American public is ready, even hungry, for something racier and more realistic than the familiar domestic product.During her early career, professional photographer Sam Lévin's photos contributed to the image of Bardot's sensuality.", "British photographer Cornel Lucas made images of Bardot in the 1950s and 1960s that have become representative of her public persona.Bardot followed ''And God Created Woman'' up with ''La Parisienne'' (1957), a comedy co-starring Charles Boyer for director Boisrond.", "She was reunited with Vadim in another melodrama ''The Night Heaven Fell'' (1958), and played a criminal who seduced Jean Gabin in ''In Case of Adversity'' (1958).", "The latter was the 13th most seen movie of the year in France.", "In 1958, Bardot became the highest-paid actress in the country of France.Bardot in 1961''The Female'' (1959) for director Julien Duvivier was popular, but ''Babette Goes to War'' (1959), a comedy set in World War II, was a huge hit, the fourth biggest movie of the year in France.", "Also widely seen was ''Come Dance with Me'' (1959) from Boisrond.Bardot's next film was courtroom drama ''The Truth'' (1960), from Henri-Georges Clouzot.", "It was a highly publicised production, which resulted in Bardot having an affair and attempting suicide.", "The film was Bardot's biggest commercial success in France, the third biggest hit of the year, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Film.", "Bardot was awarded a David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actress for her role in the film.She made a comedy with Vadim, ''Please, Not Now!''", "(1961), and had a role in the all-star anthology, ''Famous Love Affairs'' (1962).Bardot starred alongside Marcello Mastroianni in a film inspired by her life in ''A Very Private Affair'' (''Vie privée'', 1962), directed by Louis Malle.", "More popular than that was her role in ''Love on a Pillow'' (1962).=== International films and singing career: 1962–1968 ===Bardot visiting Brazil in 1964In the mid-1960s, Bardot made films that seemed to be more aimed at the international market.", "She starred in Jean-Luc Godard's film ''Le Mépris'' (1963), produced by Joseph E. Levine and starring Jack Palance.", "The following year she co-starred with Anthony Perkins in the comedy ''Une ravissante idiote'' (1964).", "''Dear Brigitte'' (1965), Bardot's first Hollywood film, was a comedy starring James Stewart as an academic whose son develops a crush on Bardot.", "Bardot's appearance was relatively brief in the film, and the movie was not a big success.Brigitte Bardot and Michel Piccoli caught by paparazzi in Italy during the filming of ''Contempt'' in 1963More successful was the Western buddy comedy ''Viva Maria!''", "(1965) for director Louis Malle, appearing opposite Jeanne Moreau.", "It was a big hit in France and worldwide, although it did not break through in the United States as much as had been hoped.After a cameo in Godard's ''Masculin Féminin'' (1966), she had her first outright flop for some years, ''Two Weeks in September'' (1968), a French–English co-production.", "She had a small role in the all-star ''Spirits of the Dead'' (1968), acting opposite Alain Delon, then tried a Hollywood film again: ''Shalako'' (1968), a Western starring Sean Connery, which was another box-office disappointment.She participated in several musical shows and recorded many popular songs in the 1960s and 1970s, mostly in collaboration with Serge Gainsbourg, Bob Zagury and Sacha Distel, including \"Harley Davidson\"; \"Je Me Donne À Qui Me Plaît\"; \"Bubble gum\"; \"Contact\"; \"Je Reviendrai Toujours Vers Toi\"; \"L'Appareil À Sous\"; \"La Madrague\"; \"On Déménage\"; \"Sidonie\"; \"Tu Veux, Ou Tu Veux Pas?", "\"; \"Le Soleil De Ma Vie\" (a cover of Stevie Wonder's \"You Are the Sunshine of My Life\"); and \"Je t'aime... moi non-plus\".", "Bardot pleaded with Gainsbourg not to release this duet and he complied with her wish; the following year, he rerecorded a version with British-born model and actress Jane Birkin that became a massive hit all over Europe.", "The version with Bardot was issued in 1986 and became a download hit in 2006 when Universal Music made its back catalogue available to purchase online, with this version of the song ranking as the third most popular download.Bardot in 1968=== Final films: 1969–1973 ===From 1969 to 1978, Bardot was the official face of Marianne, who had previously up until then been anonymous, to represent the liberty of France.", "''Her next film, Les Femmes'' (1969), was a flop, although the screwball comedy ''The Bear and the Doll'' (1970) performed better.", "Her last few films were mostly comedies: ''Les Novices'' (1970), ''Boulevard du Rhum'' (1971) (with Lino Ventura).", "''The Legend of Frenchie King'' (1971) was more popular, helped by Bardot co-starring with Claudia Cardinale.Bardot in Rome in 1969She made one more movie working with Vadim, ''Don Juan, or If Don Juan Were a Woman'' (1973), playing the title role.", "Vadim said the film marked \"Underneath what people call 'the Bardot myth' was something interesting, even though she was never considered the most professional actress in the world.", "For years, since she has been growing older, and the Bardot myth has become just a souvenir...", "I was curious in her as a woman and I had to get to the end of something with her, to get out of her and express many things I felt were in her.", "Brigitte always gave the impression of sexual freedom – she is a completely open and free person, without any aggression.", "So I gave her the part of a man – that amused me\".", "\"If ''Don Juan'' is not my last movie it will be my next to last\", said Bardot during filming.", "She kept her word and only made one more film, ''The Edifying and Joyous Story of Colinot'' (1973).In 1973, Bardot announced she was retiring from acting as \"a way to get out elegantly\"." ], [ "Animal rights activism", "After appearing in more than 40 motion pictures and recording several music albums, Bardot used her fame to promote animal rights.In 1986, she established the Brigitte Bardot Foundation for the Welfare and Protection of Animals.", "She became a vegetarian and raised three million francs (about 430,000 1986 US dollars) to fund the foundation by auctioning off jewelry and personal belongings.In 1989, while looking after her neighbour, Jean-Pierre Manivet's donkey, the mare displayed excessive interest in Bardot's older donkey and she subsequently had the neighbour's donkey castrated due to concerns the mating would prove fatal for her mare.", "The neighbour then sued Bardot, and Bardot later won, with the court ordering Manivet to pay 20,000 francs for creating a \"false scandal\".", "Bardot wrote a 1999 letter to Chinese President Jiang Zemin, published in French magazine ''VSD'', in which she accused the Chinese of \"torturing bears and killing the world's last tigers and rhinos to make aphrodisiacs\".Bardot in 2002She donated more than US$140,000 over two years in 2001 for a mass sterilization and adoption program for Bucharest's stray dogs, estimated to number 300,000.Bardot is a strong animal rights activist and a major opponent of the consumption of horse meat.", "In support of animal protection, she condemned seal hunting in Canada during a visit to that country with Paul Watson of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society.", "In August 2010, Bardot addressed a letter to Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, appealing for the sovereign to halt the killing of dolphins in the Faroe Islands.", "In the letter, Bardot describes the activity as a \"macabre spectacle\" that \"is a shame for Denmark and the Faroe Islands ...", "This is not a hunt but a mass slaughter ... an outmoded tradition that has no acceptable justification in today's world\".On 22 April 2011, French culture minister Frédéric Mitterrand officially included bullfighting in the country's cultural heritage.", "Bardot wrote him a highly critical letter of protest.", "On 25 May 2011, the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society renamed its fast interceptor vessel, MV ''Gojira'', as MV ''Brigitte Bardot'' in appreciation of her support.From 2013 the Brigitte Bardot Foundation in collaboration with Kagyupa International Monlam Trust of India operated an annual veterinary care camp.", "Bardot committed to the cause of animal welfare in Bodhgaya over several years.On 23 July 2015, Bardot condemned Australian politician Greg Hunt's plan to eradicate 2 million cats to save endangered species such as the Warru and night parrot." ], [ "Personal life", "===Marriages and relationships===Bardot has been married four times, with her current marriage lasting far longer than the previous three combined.", "By her own count, she has had a total of 17 romantic relationships.", "Bardot would characteristically leave for another relationship when \"the present was getting lukewarm\"; she said, \"I have always looked for passion.", "That's why I was often unfaithful.", "And when the passion was coming to an end, I was packing my suitcase\".On 20 December 1952, aged 18, Bardot married director Roger Vadim.", "They separated in 1956 after she became involved with ''And God Created Woman'' co-star Jean-Louis Trintignant, divorcing the next year.", "Trintignant at the time was married to actress Stéphane Audran.", "Bardot and Vadim had no children together, but remained in touch for the rest of his life and even collaborated on later projects.", "Bardot and Trintignant lived together for about two years, spanning the period before and after Bardot's divorce from Vadim, but they never married.", "Their relationship was complicated by Trintignant's frequent absence due to military service and Bardot's affair with musician Gilbert Bécaud.Bardot and Sami Frey in Saint-Tropez in 1963After her separation from Vadim, Bardot acquired a historic property dating from the 16th century, called Le Castelet, in Cannes.", "The fourteen-bedroom villa, surrounded by lush gardens, olive trees, and vineyards, consisted of several buildings.In 1958, she bought a second property called La Madrague, located in Saint-Tropez.", "In early 1958, her break-up with Trintignant was followed in quick order by a reported nervous breakdown in Italy, according to newspaper reports.", "A suicide attempt with sleeping pills two days earlier was also noted but was denied by her public relations manager.", "She recovered within weeks and began a relationship with actor Jacques Charrier.", "She became pregnant well before they were married on 18 June 1959.Bardot's only child, her son Nicolas-Jacques Charrier, was born on 11 January 1960.Bardot had an affair with Glenn Ford in the early 1960s.", "After she and Charrier divorced in 1962, Nicolas was raised in the Charrier family and had little contact with his biological mother until his adulthood.", "Sami Frey was mentioned as the reason for her divorce from Charrier.", "Bardot was enamoured of Frey, but he quickly left her.", "From 1963 to 1965, she lived with musician Bob Zagury.Bardot with French singer Sacha Distel in 1958Bardot's third marriage was to German millionaire playboy Gunter Sachs, lasting from 14 July 1966 to 7 October 1969, though they had separated the previous year.", "While filming ''Shalako'', she rejected Sean Connery's advances; she said, \"It didn't last long because I wasn't a James Bond girl!", "I have never succumbed to his charm!\"", "In 1968, she began dating Patrick Gilles, who co-starred with her in ''The Bear and the Doll'' (1970); but she ended their relationship in spring 1971.In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Bardot dated bartender/ski instructor Christian Kalt, nightclub owner Luigi \"Gigi\" Rizzi, singer-songwriter Serge Gainsbourg, writer John Gilmore, actor Warren Beatty, and Laurent Vergez, her co-star in ''Don Juan, or If Don Juan Were a Woman''.In 1974, Bardot appeared in a nude photo shoot in ''Playboy'' magazine, which celebrated her 40th birthday.", "In 1975, she entered a relationship with artist Miroslav Brozek and posed for some of his sculptures.", "Brozek was also an actor; his stage name is Jean Blaise.", "The couple lived together at La Madrague.", "The two of them separated in December 1979.From 1980 to 1985, Bardot had a live-in relationship with French TV producer Allan Bougrain-Dubourg.", "On 27 September 1983, the eve of her 49th birthday, Bardot took an overdose of sleeping pills or tranquilizers with red wine.", "She had to be rushed to the hospital, where her life was saved after a stomach pump was used to evacuate the pills from her body.", "Bardot was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1984.She refused to undergo chemotherapy treatment and decided only to do radiation therapy.", "She recovered in 1986.Bardot's fourth and current husband is Bernard d'Ormale; they have been married since 16 August 1992.In 2018, in an interview accorded to ''Le Journal du Dimanche'', she denied rumors of relationships with Johnny Hallyday, Jimi Hendrix, and Mick Jagger.===Politics and legal issues===Bardot expressed support for President Charles de Gaulle in the 1960s.In her 1999 book ''Le Carré de Pluton'' (''Pluto's Square''), Bardot criticizes the procedure used in the ritual slaughter of sheep during the Muslim festival of Eid al-Adha.", "Additionally, in a section in the book entitled \"Open Letter to My Lost France\", she writes that \"my country, France, my homeland, my land is again invaded by an overpopulation of foreigners, especially Muslims\".", "For this comment, a French court fined her 30,000 francs (about 4200 US dollars in 2000) in June 2000.She had been fined in 1997 for the original publication of this open letter in ''Le Figaro'' and again in 1998 for making similar remarks.In her 2003 book, ''Un cri dans le silence'' (''A Scream in the Silence''), she contrasted her close gay friends with homosexuals who \"jiggle their bottoms, put their little fingers in the air and with their little castrato voices moan about what those ghastly heteros put them through,\" and said some contemporary homosexuals behave like \"fairground freaks\".", "In her own defence, Bardot wrote in a letter to a French gay magazine: \"Apart from my husband—who maybe will cross over one day as well—I am entirely surrounded by homos.", "For years, they have been my support, my friends, my adopted children, my confidants.", "\"In her book, she criticised racial mixing, immigration, the role of women in politics and Islam.", "The book also contained a section attacking what she called the mixing of genes, and praised previous generations which, she said, had given their lives to push out invaders.", "On 10 June 2004, Bardot was convicted for a fourth time by a French court for inciting racial hatred and fined €5,000.Bardot denied the racial hatred charge and apologized in court, saying: \"I never knowingly wanted to hurt anybody.", "It is not in my character.\"", "In 2008, Bardot was convicted of inciting racial/religious hatred in regard to a letter she wrote, a copy of which she sent to Nicolas Sarkozy when he was Interior Minister of France.", "The letter stated her objections to Muslims in France ritually slaughtering sheep by slitting their throats without anesthetizing them first.", "She also said, in reference to Muslims, that she was \"fed up with being under the thumb of this population which is destroying us, destroying our country and imposing its habits\".", "The trial concluded on 3 June 2008, with a conviction and fine of €15,000.The prosecutor stated she was weary of charging Bardot with offences related to racial hatred.During the 2008 United States presidential election, Bardot branded Republican Party vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin as \"stupid\" and a \"disgrace to women\".", "She criticized the former Alaskan governor for her stance on global warming and gun control.", "She was further offended by Palin's support for Arctic oil exploration and by her lack of consideration in protecting polar bears.On 13 August 2010, Bardot criticised American filmmaker Kyle Newman for his plan to produce a biographical film about her.", "She told him, \"Wait until I'm dead before you make a movie about my life!\"", "otherwise \"sparks will fly\".In 2014, Bardot wrote an open letter demanding the ban in France of Jewish ritual slaughter shechita.", "In response, the European Jewish Congress released a statement saying \"Bardot has once again shown her clear insensitivity for minority groups with the substance and style of her letter...She may well be concerned for the welfare of animals but her longstanding support for the far-right and for discrimination against minorities in France shows a constant disdain for human rights instead.", "\"In 2015, Bardot threatened to sue a Saint-Tropez boutique for selling items featuring her face.", "In 2018, she expressed support for the Yellow vests protests.On 19 March 2019, Bardot issued an open letter to Réunion prefect in which she accused inhabitants of the Indian Ocean island of animal cruelty and referred to them as \"autochthones who have kept the genes of savages\".", "In her letter relating to animal abuse and sent through her foundation, she mentioned the \"beheadings of goats and billy goats\" during festivals, and associated these practices with \"reminiscences of cannibalism from past centuries\".", "The public prosecutor filed a lawsuit the following day.In June 2021, 86-year-old Bardot was fined €5,000 by the Arras court for public insults against hunters and their national president .", "She had published a post at the end of 2019 on her foundation's website, calling hunters \"sub-men\" and \"drunkards\" and carriers of \"genes of cruel barbarism inherited from our primitive ancestors\", and insulting Schraen.", "At the time of the hearing, she had not removed the comments from the website.", "Following her letter sent to the prefect of Réunion in 2019, she was convicted on 4 November 2021 by a French court for public insults and fined €20,000, the largest of her fines to date.Bardot's husband Bernard d'Ormale is a former adviser to Jean-Marie Le Pen, former leader of the far-right party National Front (which became National Rally), the main far-right party in France.", "Bardot expressed support for Marine Le Pen, leader of the National Front (National Rally), calling her \"the Joan of Arc of the 21st century\".", "She endorsed Le Pen in the 2012 and 2017 French presidential elections.Bardot has been convicted of inciting racial hatred multiple times, having received six separate fines for the offense as of November 2021." ], [ "Legacy", "''The Guardian'' named Bardot \"one of the most iconic faces, models, and actors of the 1950s and 1960s\".", "She has been called a \"style icon\" and a \"muse for Dior, Balmain, and Pierre Cardin\".In fashion, the Bardot neckline (a wide-open neck that exposes both shoulders) is named after her.", "Bardot popularized this style which is especially used for knitted sweaters or jumpers although it is also used for other tops and dresses.", "Bardot popularized the bikini in her early films such as ''Manina'' (1952) (released in France as ''Manina, la fille sans voiles'').", "The following year she was also photographed in a bikini on every beach in the south of France during the Cannes Film Festival.", "She gained additional attention when she filmed ''...And God Created Woman'' (1956) with Jean-Louis Trintignant (released in France as ''Et Dieu Créa La Femme'').", "In it Bardot portrays an immoral teenager cavorting in a bikini who seduces men in a respectable small-town setting.", "The film was an international success.", "Bardot's image was linked to the shoemaker Repetto, who created a pair of ballerinas for her in 1956.The bikini was in the 1950s relatively well accepted in France but was still considered risqué in the United States.", "As late as 1959, Anne Cole, one of the United States' largest swimsuit designers, said, \"It's nothing more than a G-string.", "It's at the razor's edge of decency.", "\"Bardot in Spoleto, Italy (1961)She also brought into fashion the ''choucroute'' (\"Sauerkraut\") hairstyle (a sort of beehive hair style) and gingham clothes after wearing a checkered pink dress, designed by Jacques Esterel, at her wedding to Charrier.", "She was the subject of an Andy Warhol painting.Isabella Biedenharn of ''Elle'' wrote that Bardot \"has inspired thousands (millions?)", "of women to tease their hair or try out winged eyeliner over the past few decades\".", "A well-known evocative pose describes an iconic modelling portrait shot around 1960 where Bardot is dressed only in a pair of black pantyhose, cross-legged over her front and cross-armed over her breasts; known as the \"Bardot Pose\".", "This pose has been emulated numerous times by models and celebrities such as Lindsay Lohan, Elle Macpherson, Gisele Bündchen, and Rihanna.", "In the late 1960s, Bardot's silhouette was used as a model for designing and modelling the statue's bust of Marianne, a symbol of the French Republic.In addition to popularizing the bikini swimming suit, Bardot has been credited with popularizing the city of St. Tropez and the town of Armação dos Búzios in Brazil, which she visited in 1964 with her boyfriend at the time, Brazilian musician Bob Zagury.", "The place where she stayed in Búzios is today a small hotel, Pousada do Sol, and also a French restaurant, Cigalon.", "The town hosts a Bardot statue by Christina Motta.Bardot was idolized by the young John Lennon and Paul McCartney.", "They made plans to shoot a film featuring The Beatles and Bardot, similar to ''A Hard Day's Night'', but the plans were never fulfilled.", "Lennon's first wife Cynthia Powell lightened her hair colour to more closely resemble Bardot, while George Harrison made comparisons between Bardot and his first wife Pattie Boyd, as Cynthia wrote later in ''A Twist of Lennon''.", "Lennon and Bardot met in person once, in 1968 at the May Fair Hotel, introduced by Beatles press agent Derek Taylor; a nervous Lennon took LSD before arriving, and neither star impressed the other.", "Lennon recalled in a memoir: \"I was on acid, and she was on her way out.\"", "According to the liner notes of his first (self-titled) album, musician Bob Dylan dedicated the first song he ever wrote to Bardot.", "He also mentioned her by name in \"I Shall Be Free\", which appeared on his second album, ''The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan''.", "The first-ever official exhibition spotlighting Bardot's influence and legacy opened in Boulogne-Billancourt on 29 September 2009 – a day after her 75th birthday.", "The Australian pop group Bardot was named after her.Búzios, BrazilWomen who emulated and were inspired by Bardot include Claudia Schiffer, Emmanuelle Béart, Elke Sommer, Kate Moss, Faith Hill, Isabelle Adjani, Diane Kruger, Lara Stone, Kylie Minogue, Amy Winehouse, Georgia May Jagger, Zahia Dehar, Scarlett Johansson, Louise Bourgoin, and Paris Hilton.", "Bardot said: \"None have my personality.\"", "Laetitia Casta embodied Bardot in the 2010 French drama film ''Gainsbourg: A Heroic Life'' by Joann Sfar.In 2011, ''Los Angeles Times Magazine''s list of \"50 Most Beautiful Women in Film\" ranked her number two.Bardot inspired Nicole Kidman to promote the 2013 campaign shoot of the British brand Jimmy Choo.In 2015, Bardot was ranked number six in \"The Top Ten Most Beautiful Women of All Time\", according to a survey carried out by Amway's beauty company in the UK involving 2,000 women.In 2020, ''Vogue'' named Bardot number one of \"The most beautiful French actresses of all time\".", "In a retrospective retracing women throughout the history of cinema, she was listed among \"the most accomplished, talented and beautiful actresses of all time\" by ''Glamour''.The French drama television series ''Bardot'' was broadcast on France 2 in 2023.It stars Julia de Nunez and is about Bardot's career from her first casting at age 15 and until the filming of ''La Vérité'' ten years later." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums=== Year Original title Translation Songwriters(s) Label Main tracks 1956''Et dieu... créa la femme''(music from Roger Vadim's motion picture)''And God Created Woman'' Paul Misraki Versailles1963''Brigitte''''Brigitte Bardot Sings'' Serge GainsbourgClaude BollingJean-Max RivièreFernand BonifaySpencer WilliamsGérard BourgeoisPhilips''L'appareil à sous''''Invitango''''Les amis de la musique''''La Madrague''''El Cuchipe''1964''B.B.''", "André PoppJean-Michel RivatJean-Max RivièreFernand BonifayGérard Bourgeois''Moi je joue''''Une histoire de plage''''Maria Ninguém''''Je danse donc je suis''''Ciel de lit''1968''Bonnie and Clyde''(with Serge Gainsbourg) Serge GainsbourgAlain GoraguerSpencer WilliamsJean-Max Rivière Fontana''Bonnie And Clyde''''Bubble Gum''''Comic Strip''''Show'' Serge GainsbourgFrancis LaiJean-Max Rivière AZ''Harley Davidson''''Ay Que Viva La Sangria''''Contact''===Other notable singles=== Year Original Title Translation Songwriters(s) Label 1962''Sidonie''(music from Louis Malle's the motion picture ''Vie Privée'') Fiorenzo CapriCharles CrosJean-Max Rivière Barclay1965''Viva Maria!", "''(music from Louis Malle's eponymous motion picture)(with Jeanne Moreau) Jean-Claude CarrièreGeorges DeleruePhilips1966''Le soleil''''The Sun'' Jean-Max RivièreGérard Bourgeois AZ1969''La fille de paille''''The Straw Girl'' Franck GéraldGérard Lenorman Philips1970''Tu veux ou tu veux pas''''(Nem Vem Que Nao Tem)''''Do You Want Or Not'' Pierre CourCarlos ImperialBarclay''Nue au soleil''''Naked Under The Sun'' Jean FredenucciJean Schmidtt1972''Tu es venu mon amour'' / ''Vous Ma Lady''(with Laurent Vergez)''You Came My Love'' / ''You My Lady'' Hugues AufrayEddy MarnayEddie Barclay''Boulevard du rhum''(with Guy Marchand)(music from Robert Enrico's motion picture)''Boulevard Of Rhum'' François De RoubaixJean-Paul-Egide Martini1973''Soleil de ma vie''(with Sacha Distel)''Sun Of My Life'' Stevie WonderJean Broussolle Pathé1982''Toutes les bêtes sont à aimer''''All Animals Must Be Loved'' Jean-Max Rivière Polydor1986''Je t'aime... moi non plus''(with Serge Gainsbourg)(released and shelved in 1968)''I Love You... Me Neither'' Serge Gainsbourg Philips" ], [ "Books", "Bardot has also written five books:* ''Noonoah: Le petit phoque blanc'' (Grasset, 1978)* ''Initiales B.B.''", "(autobiography, Grasset & Fasquelle, 1996)* ''Le Carré de Pluton'' (Grasset & Fasquelle, 1999)* ''Un Cri Dans Le Silence'' (Editions Du Rocher, 2003)* ''Pourquoi?''", "(Editions Du Rocher, 2006)" ], [ "Accolades", "===Awards and nominations===*12th ''Victoires du cinéma français'' (French cinema victories) (1957): Best Actress, win, as Juliette Hardy in ''And God Created Woman''.", "*11th Bambi Awards (1958): Best Actress, nomination, as Juliette Hardy in ''And God Created Woman''.", "*14th ''Victoires du cinéma français'' (1959): Best Actress, win, as Yvette Maudet in ''In Case of Adversity''.", "*Brussels European Awards (1960): Best Actress, win, as Dominique Marceau in ''The Truth''.", "*5th David di Donatello Awards (1961): Best Foreign Actress, win, as Dominique Marceau in ''The Truth''.", "*12th ''Étoiles de cristal'' (Crystal stars) by the French Cinema Academy (1966): Best Actress, win, as Marie Fitzgerald O'Malley in ''Viva Maria!''.", "*18th Bambi Awards (1967): Bambi Award of Popularity, win.", "*20th BAFTA Awards (1967): BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress, nomination, as Marie Fitzgerald O'Malley in ''Viva Maria!", "''.===Honours===*1980: Medal of the City of Trieste.", "*1985: Legion of Honour.", "Medal of the City of Lille.", "*1989: Peace Prize in humanitarian merit.", "*1992: Induction into the United Nations Environment Programme's Global 500 Roll of Honour.", "Creation in Hollywood of the Brigitte Bardot International Award as part of the Genesis Awards.", "*1994: Medal of the City of Paris.", "*1995: Medal of the City of Saint-Tropez.", "*1996: Medal of the City of La Baule.", "*1997: Greece's UNESCO Ecology Award.", "Medal of the City of Athens.", "*1999: Asteroid 17062 Bardot was named after her.", "*2001: PETA Humanitarian Award.", "*2008: Spanish Altarriba foundation Award.", "*2017: A statue of and high was erected in her honour in central Saint-Tropez.", "*2019: GAIA Lifetime Achievement Award from the Belgian association for the defence of animal rights.", "*2021: Her effigy in Saint-Tropez was dressed in 1400 gold leaves of 23.75 carats each." ], [ "See also", "* Brigitte Bardot (song)* List of animal rights advocates" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Other sources'''*********" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast (Hrsg.)", "''Brigitte Bardot.", "Filme 1953–1961.Anfänge des Mythos B.B.''", "(Hildesheim 1982) .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * ***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Banjo" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''banjo''' is a stringed instrument with a thin membrane stretched over a frame or cavity to form a resonator.", "The membrane is typically circular, in modern forms usually made of plastic, originally of animal skin.", "Early forms of the instrument were fashioned by African Americans and had African antecedents.", "In the 19th century, interest in the instrument was spread across the United States and United Kingdom by traveling shows of the 19th century minstrel show fad, followed by mass-production and mail-order sales, including instruction method books.", "The inexpensive or home-made banjo remained part of rural folk culture, but 5-string and 4-string banjos also became popular for home parlor music entertainment, college music clubs, and early 20th century jazz bands.", "By the early 21st century, the banjo was most frequently associated with folk, bluegrass and country music, but was also used in some rock, pop and even hip-hop music.", "Among rock bands, the Eagles, Led Zeppelin, and the Grateful Dead have used the five-string banjo in some of their songs.", "Some famous pickers of the banjo are Ralph Stanley and Earl Scruggs.Historically, the banjo occupied a central place in Black American traditional music and rural folk culture before entering the mainstream via the minstrel shows of the 19th century.", "Along with the fiddle, the banjo is a mainstay of American styles of music, such as bluegrass and old-time music.", "It is also very frequently used in Dixieland jazz, as well as in Caribbean genres like biguine, calypso, mento and troubadour." ], [ "History", "===Early origins===''The Old Plantation'', , the earliest known American painting to picture a banjo-like instrument, which shows a four-string instrument with its fourth (thumb) string shorter than the others; thought to depict a plantation in Beaufort County, South CarolinaThe oldest known banjo, , from the Surinamese Creole culture.The modern banjo derives from instruments that have been recorded to be in use in North America and the Caribbean since the 17th century by enslaved people taken from West and Central Africa.", "Their African-style instruments were crafted from split Gourds with animal skins stretched across them.", "Strings, from gut or vegetable fibers, were attached to a wooden neck.", "Written references to the banjo in North America and the Caribbean appear in the 17th and 18th centuries.The earliest written indication of an instrument akin to the banjo is in the 17th century: Richard Jobson (1621) in describing The Gambia, wrote about an instrument like the banjo, which he called a ''bandore''.The term ''banjo'' has several etymological claims, one being from the Mandinka language which gives the name of Banjul, capital of The Gambia.", "Another claim is a connection to the West African ''akonting'': it is made with a long bamboo neck called a ''bangoe''.", "The material for the neck, called ''ban julo'' in the Mandinka language, again gives ''Banjul''.", "In this interpretation, ''Banjul'' became a sort of eponym for the Akonting as it crossed the Atlantic.", "The instrument's name might also derive from the Kimbundu word ''mbanza'', which is a loan word to the Portuguese language resulting in the term ''banza'', which was used by early French travelers in the Americas.", "Its earliest recorded use was in 1678 by the Sovereign Council of Martinique which reinstated a 1654 decree that placed prohibitions and restrictions on \"dances and assemblies of negroes\" deemed to be ''kalenda'', which was defined as the gathering of enslaved Africans who danced to the sound of a drum and an instrument called the banza.The OED claims that the term ''banjo'' comes from a dialectal pronunciation of Portuguese ''bandore'' or from an early anglicisation of Spanish ''bandurria''.", "However, contrary evidence definitively supports that the terms ''bandore'' and ''bandurria'' were terms used when Europeans encountered the banjo or its kin varieties in use by people of African descent, who used different terms for the instrument like banza as it was called in places such as Haiti, that were built around a gourd body and a wooden plank for the neck.", "François Richard de Tussac, a former planter from Saint-Domingue details its construction in ''Le Cri des Colons'' published in 1810 by stating:\"As for the guitars, which the negroes call ''banzas'', this is what they consist of: they cut lengthwise, through the middle, a fresh calabash (the fruit of a tree called the callebassier).", "This fruit is sometimes eight inches or more in diameter.", "The stretch across it the skin of a goat, which they attach on the edges with little nails; they put two or three little holes on this surface, and then a kind of plank or piece of wood that is rudely flattened makes the neck of the instrument; they stretch three strings made of pitre (a kind of string taken from the agave plant, commonly known as pitre) across it; and so the instrument is built.", "On this instrument they play airs composed of three or four notes, which they repeat constantly.", "\"Michel Étienne Descourtilz, a naturalist who visited Haiti in the early 1800s, described it as \"banzas, a Negro instrument, that the Blacks prepare by sawing one of the calabashes or a large gourd lengthwise, to which they attach a neck and sonorous strings made from the filament\" of aloe plants.", "It was played during any occasion from boredom to joyous parties and calendas to funeral ceremonies.", "It was the custom to also combine this sound with a more noisy bamboula, a type of drum made with from a stick of bamboo covered on both sides with a skin that was played with fingers and knuckles while sitting astride from it.Various instruments in Africa, chief among them the ''kora'', feature a skin head and gourd (or similar shell) body.", "Those African instruments differ from early African American banjos in that the necks do not possess a Western-style fingerboard and tuning pegs; instead they have stick necks, with strings attached to the neck with loops for tuning.Another likely relative of the banjo is the aforementioned ''akonting'', a spike folk lute which is constructed using a gourd body, a long wooden neck, and three strings played by the Jola tribe of Senegambia, and the ''ubaw-akwala'' of the Igbo.", "Similar instruments include the ''xalam'' of Senegal and the ''ngoni'' of the Wassoulou region including parts of Mali, Guinea, and Ivory Coast, as well as a larger variation of the ''ngoni'' known as the ''gimbri'' developed in Morocco by Black Sub-Saharan Africans (Gnawa or Haratin).Banjo-like instruments seem to have been independently invented in several different places, since instruments similar to the banjo are known from a diverse array of distant countries.", "For example, the Chinese ''sanxian'', the Japanese ''shamisen'', Persian ''tar'', and the Moroccan ''sintir'', in addition to the many African instruments mentioned above.Banjos with fingerboards and tuning pegs are known from the Caribbean as early as the 17th century.", "Some 18th- and early 19th-century writers transcribed the name of these instruments variously as ''bangie'', ''banza'', ''bonjaw'', ''banjer'' and ''banjar''.The instrument became increasingly available commercially from around the second quarter of the 19th century due to minstrel performances.===Minstrel era, 1830s–1870s===In the antebellum South, many enslaved Africans played the banjo, spreading it to the rest of the population.", "In his memoir ''With Sabre and Scalpel: The Autobiography of a Soldier and Surgeon'', the Confederate veteran and surgeon John Allan Wyeth recalls learning to play the banjo as a child from an enslaved person on his family plantation.", "Another man who learned to play from African-Americans, probably in the 1820s, was Joel Walker Sweeney, a minstrel performer from Appomattox Court House, Virginia.", "Sweeney has been credited with adding a string to the four-string African-American banjo, and popularizing the five-string banjo.", "Although Robert McAlpin Williamson is the first documented white banjoist, in the 1830s Sweeney became the first white performer to play the banjo on stage.", "Sweeney's musical performances occurred at the beginning of the minstrel era, as banjos shifted away from being exclusively homemade folk instruments to instruments of a more modern style.", "Sweeney participated in this transition by encouraging drum maker William Boucher of Baltimore to make banjos commercially for him to sell.Sheet music cover for \"Dandy Jim from Caroline\", featuring Dan Emmett (center) and the other Virginia Minstrels, c. 1844According to Arthur Woodward in 1949, Sweeney replaced the gourd with a sound box made of wood and covered with skin, and added a short fifth string about 1831.However, modern scholar Gene Bluestein pointed out in 1964 that Sweeney may not have originated either the 5th string or sound box.", "This new banjo was at first tuned d'Gdf♯a, though by the 1890s, this had been transposed up to g'cgbd'.", "Banjos were introduced in Britain by Sweeney's group, the American Virginia Minstrels, in the 1840s, and became very popular in music halls.The instrument grew in popularity during the 1840s after Sweeney began his traveling minstrel show.", "By the end of the 1840s the instrument had expanded from Caribbean possession to take root in places across America and across the Atlantic in England.", "It was estimated in 1866 that there were probably 10,000 banjos in New York City, up from only a handful in 1844.People were exposed to banjos not only at minstrel shows, but also medicine shows, Wild-West shows, variety shows, and traveling vaudeville shows.", "The banjo's popularity also was given a boost by the Civil War, as servicemen on both sides in the Army or Navy were exposed to the banjo played in minstrel shows and by other servicemen.", "A popular movement of aspiring banjoists began as early as 1861.The enthusiasm for the instrument was labeled a \"banjo craze\" or \"banjo mania.", "\"method for the banjo.", "It taught the ''stroke style'' and had notated music.", "Publication date - 1855By the 1850s, aspiring banjo players had options to help them learn their instrument.", "There were more teachers teaching banjo basics in the 1850s than there had been in the 1840s.", "There were also instruction manuals and, for those who could read it, printed music in the manuals.", "The first book of notated music was ''The Complete Preceptor'' by Elias Howe, published under the pseudonym ''Gumbo Chaff'', consisting mainly of Christy's Minstrels tunes.", "The first banjo method was the ''Briggs' Banjo instructor'' (1855) by Tom Briggs.", "Other methods included ''Howe's New American Banjo School'' (1857), and ''Phil Rice's Method for the Banjo, With or Without a Master'' (1858).", "These books taught the \"stroke style\" or \"banjo style\", similar to modern \"frailing\" or \"clawhammer\" styles.By 1868, music for the banjo was available printed in a magazine, when J. K. Buckley wrote and arranged popular music for ''Buckley's Monthly Banjoist''.", "Frank B. Converse also published his entire collection of compositions in ''The Complete Banjoist'' in 1868, which included \"polkas, waltzes, marches, and clog hornpipes.", "\"Opportunities to work included the minstrel companies and circuses present in the 1840s, but also floating theaters and variety theaters, forerunners of the variety show and vaudeville.===Classic era, 1880s–1910s===The term ''classic banjo'' is used today to talk about a bare-finger \"guitar style\" that was widely in use among banjo players of the late 19th to early 20th century.", "It is still used by banjoists today.", "The term also differentiates that style of playing from the fingerpicking bluegrass banjo styles, such as the Scruggs style and Keith style.The ''Briggs Banjo Method'', considered to be the first banjo method and which taught the ''stroke style'' of playing, also mentioned the existence of another way of playing, the ''guitar style.''", "Alternatively known as \"finger style\", the new way of playing the banjo displaced the stroke method, until by 1870 it was the dominant style.", "Although mentioned by Briggs, it wasn't taught.", "The first banjo method to teach the technique was ''Frank B. Converse's New and Complete Method for the Banjo with or without a Master'', published in 1865.To play in guitar style, players use the thumb and two or three fingers on their right hand to pick the notes.", "Samuel Swaim Stewart summarized the style in 1888, saying,Banjo, from the Musical Instruments series (N82) for Duke brand cigarettes, 1888The banjo, although popular, carried low-class associations from its role in blackface minstrel shows, medicine shows, tent shows, and variety shows or vaudeville.", "There was a push in the 19th century to bring the instrument into \"respectability.\"", "Musicians such as William A. Huntley made an effort to \"elevate\" the instrument or make it more \"artistic,\" by \"bringing it to a more sophisticated level of technique and repertoire based on European standards.\"", "Huntley may have been the first white performer to successfully make the transition from performing in blackface to being himself on stage, noted by the Boston Herald in November 1884.He was supported by another former blackface performer, Samuel Swaim Stewart, in his corporate magazine that popularized highly talented professionals.As the \"raucous\" imitations of plantation life decreased in minstrelsy, the banjo became more acceptable as an instrument of fashionable society, even to be accepted into women's parlors.", "Part of that change was a switch from the stroke style to the guitar playing style.", "An 1888 newspaper said, \"All the maidens and a good many of the women also strum the instrument, banjo classes abound on every side and banjo recitals are among the newest diversions of fashion...Youths and elderly men too have caught the fever...the star strummers among men are in demand at the smartest parties and have the choosing of the society of the most charming girls.", "\"Some of those entertainers, such as Alfred A. Farland, specialized in classical music.", "However, musicians who wanted to entertain their audiences, and make a living, mixed it in with the popular music that audiences wanted.", "Farland's pupil Frederick J. Bacon was one of these.", "A former medicine show entertainer, Bacon performed classical music along with popular songs such as ''Massa's in de cold, cold ground'', a ''Medley of Scotch Airs'', a ''Medley of Southern Airs'', and Thomas Glynn’s ''West Lawn Polka''.Banjo innovation which began in the minstrel age continued, with increased use of metal parts, exotic wood, raised metal frets and a tone-ring that improved the sound.", "Instruments were designed in a variety of sizes and pitch ranges, to play different parts in banjo orchestras.", "Examples on display in the museum include banjorines and piccolo banjos.New styles of playing, a new look, instruments in a variety of pitch ranges to take the place of different sections in an orchestra – all helped to separate the instrument from the rough minstrel image of the previous 50–60 years.", "The instrument was modern now, a bright new thing, with polished metal sides.===Ragtime era (1895–1919) and Jazz Age era (1910s–1930s)===In the early 1900s, new banjos began to spread, four-string models, played with a plectrum rather than with the minstrel-banjo clawhammer stroke or the classic-banjo fingerpicking style.", "The new banjos were a result of changing musical tastes.", "New music spurred the creation of \"evolutionary variations\" of the banjo, from the five-string model current since the 1830s to newer four-string plectrum and tenor banjos.The instruments became ornately decorated in the 1920s to be visually dynamic to a theater audience.", "The instruments were increasingly modified or made in a new style – necks that were shortened to handle the four steel (not fiber as before) strings, strings that were sounded with a pick instead of fingers, four strings instead of five and tuned differently.", "The changes reflected the nature of post-World-War-I music.", "The country was turning away from European classics, preferring the \"upbeat and carefree feel\" of jazz, and American soldiers returning from the war helped to drive this change.The change in tastes toward dance music and the need for louder instruments began a few years before the war, however, with ragtime.", "That music encouraged musicians to alter their 5-string banjos to four, add the louder steel strings and use a pick or plectrum, all in an effort to be heard over the brass and reed instruments that were current in dance-halls.", "The four string plectrum and tenor banjos did not eliminate the five-string variety.", "They were products of their times and musical purposes—ragtime and jazz dance music and theater music.The Great Depression is a visible line to mark the end of the Jazz Age.", "The economic downturn cut into the sales of both four- and five-stringed banjos, and by World War 2, banjos were in sharp decline, the market for them dead.===Modern era===Hubby Jenkins performing on solo banjo at the IBMA Bluegrass Live!", "festival in Raleigh, North Carolina on October 2, 2021In the years after World War II, the banjo experienced a resurgence, played by music stars such as Earl Scruggs (bluegrass), Bela Fleck (jazz, rock, world music), Gerry O'Connor (Celtic and Irish music), Perry Bechtel (jazz, big band), Pete Seeger (folk), and Otis Taylor (African-American roots, blues, jazz).Pete Seeger \"was a major force behind a new national interest in folk music.\"", "Learning to play a fingerstyle in the Appalachians from musicians who never stopped playing the banjo, he wrote the book, ''How to Play the Five-String Banjo'', which was the only banjo method on the market for years.", "He was followed by a movement of folk musicians, such as Dave Guard of The Kingston Trio and Erik Darling of the Weavers and Tarriers.Earl Scruggs was seen both as a legend and a \"contemporary musical innovator\" who gave his name to his style of playing, the ''Scruggs Style''.", "Scruggs played the banjo \"with heretofore unheard of speed and dexterity,\" using a picking technique for the 5-string banjo that he perfected from 2-finger and 3-finger picking techniques in rural North Carolina.", "His playing reached Americans through the Grand Ole Opry and into the living rooms of Americans who didn't listen to country or bluegrass music, through the theme music of The Beverly Hillbillies.For the last one hundred years, the tenor banjo has become an intrinsic part of the world of Irish traditional music.", "It is a relative newcomer to the genre.The banjo has also been used more recently in the hardcore punk scene, most notably by Show Me the Body on their debut album, ''Body War''." ], [ "Technique", "Forward roll .Melody to ''Yankee Doodle'', on the banjo, without and with drone notes and .Two techniques closely associated with the five-string banjo are rolls and drones.", "Rolls are right hand accompanimental fingering patterns that consist of eight (eighth) notes that subdivide each measure.", "Drone notes are quick little notes typically eighth notes, usually played on the 5th (short) string to fill in around the melody notes typically eighth notes.", "These techniques are both idiomatic to the banjo in all styles, and their sound is characteristic of bluegrass.Historically, the banjo was played in the claw-hammer style by the Africans who brought their version of the banjo with them.", "Several other styles of play were developed from this.", "Clawhammer consists of downward striking of one or more of the four main strings with the index, middle or both fingers while the drone or fifth string is played with a 'lifting' (as opposed to downward pluck) motion of the thumb.", "The notes typically sounded by the thumb in this fashion are, usually, on the off beat.", "Melodies can be quite intricate adding techniques such as double thumbing and drop thumb.", "In old time Appalachian Mountain music, a style called two-finger up-pick is also used, and a three-finger version that Earl Scruggs developed into the \"Scruggs\" style picking was nationally aired in 1945 on the Grand Ole Opry.", "In this style the instrument is played by plucking individual notes.", "Modern fingerstyle is usually played using fingerpicks, though early players and some modern players play either with nails or with a technique known as on the flesh.", "In this style the strings are played directly with the fingers, rather than any pick or intermediary.While five-string banjos are traditionally played with either fingerpicks or the fingers themselves, tenor banjos and plectrum banjos are played with a pick, either to strum full chords, or most commonly in Irish traditional music, play single-note melodies." ], [ "Modern forms", "The modern banjo comes in a variety of forms, including four- and five-string versions.", "A six-string version, tuned and played similarly to a guitar, has gained popularity.", "In almost all of its forms, banjo playing is characterized by a fast arpeggiated plucking, though many different playing styles exist.The body, or \"pot\", of a modern banjo typically consists of a circular rim (generally made of wood, though metal was also common on older banjos) and a tensioned head, similar to a drum head.", "Traditionally, the head was made from animal skin, but today is often made of various synthetic materials.", "Most modern banjos also have a metal \"tone ring\" assembly that helps further clarify and project the sound, but many older banjos do not include a tone ring.The banjo is usually tuned with friction tuning pegs or planetary gear tuners, rather than the worm gear machine head used on guitars.", "Frets have become standard since the late 19th century, though fretless banjos are still manufactured and played by those wishing to execute glissando, play quarter tones, or otherwise achieve the sound and feeling of early playing styles.Modern banjos are typically strung with metal strings.", "Usually, the fourth string is wound with either steel or bronze-phosphor alloy.", "Some players may string their banjos with nylon or gut strings to achieve a more mellow, old-time tone.Some banjos have a separate resonator plate on the back of the pot to project the sound forward and give the instrument more volume.", "This type of banjo is usually used in bluegrass music, though resonator banjos are played by players of all styles, and are also used in old-time, sometimes as a substitute for electric amplification when playing in large venues.Open-back banjos generally have a mellower tone and weigh less than resonator banjos.", "They usually have a different setup than a resonator banjo, often with a higher string action.=== Five-string banjo === The modern five-string banjo is a variation on Sweeney's original design.", "The fifth string is usually the same gauge as the first, but starts from the fifth fret, three-quarters the length of the other strings.", "This lets the string be tuned to a higher open pitch than possible for the full-length strings.", "Because of the short fifth string, the five-string banjo uses a reentrant tuning – the string pitches do not proceed lowest to highest across the fingerboard.", "Instead, the fourth string is lowest, then third, second, first, and the fifth string is highest.The short fifth string presents special problems for a capo.", "For small changes (going up or down one or two semitones, for example), retuning the fifth string simply is possible.", "Otherwise, various devices called \"fifth-string capos\" effectively shorten the vibrating part of the string.", "Many banjo players use model-railroad spikes or titanium spikes (usually installed at the seventh fret and sometimes at others), under which they hook the string to press it down on the fret.Five-string banjo players use many tunings.", "(Tunings are given in left-to-right order, as viewed from the front of the instrument with the neck pointing up for a right-handed instrument.", "Left handed instruments reverse the order of the strings.)", "Probably the most common, particularly in bluegrass, is the Open-G tuning G4 D3 G3 B3 D4.In earlier times, the tuning G4 C3 G3 B3 D4 was commonly used instead, and this is still the preferred tuning for some types of folk music and for classic banjo.", "Other tunings found in old-time music include double C (G4 C3 G3 C4 D4), \"sawmill\" (G4 D3 G3 C4 D4) also called \"mountain modal\" and open D (F#4 D3 F#3 A3 D4).", "These tunings are often taken up a tone, either by tuning up or using a capo.", "For example, \"double-D\" tuning (A4 D3 A3 D4 E4) – commonly reached by tuning up from double C – is often played to accompany fiddle tunes in the key of D, and Open-A (A4 E3 A3 C#4 E4) is usually used for playing tunes in the key of A.", "Dozens of other banjo tunings are used, mostly in old-time music.", "These tunings are used to make playing specific tunes easier, usually fiddle tunes or groups of fiddle tunes.The size of the five-string banjo is largely standardized, with a scale length of , but smaller and larger sizes exist, including the long-neck or \"Seeger neck\" variation designed by Pete Seeger.", "Petite variations on the five-string banjo have been available since the 1890s.", "S.S. Stewart introduced the banjeaurine, tuned one fourth above a standard five-string.", "Piccolo banjos are smaller, and tuned one octave above a standard banjo.", "Between these sizes and standard lies the A-scale banjo, which is two frets shorter and usually tuned one full step above standard tunings.", "Many makers have produced banjos of other scale lengths, and with various innovations.A five-string banjoAmerican old-time music typically uses the five-string, open-back banjo.", "It is played in a number of different styles, the most common being clawhammer or frailing, characterized by the use of a downward rather than upward stroke when striking the strings with a fingernail.", "Frailing techniques use the thumb to catch the fifth string for a drone after most strums or after each stroke (\"double thumbing\"), or to pick out additional melody notes in what is known as drop-thumb.", "Pete Seeger popularized a folk style by combining clawhammer with up picking, usually without the use of fingerpicks.", "Another common style of old-time banjo playing is fingerpicking banjo or classic banjo.", "This style is based upon parlor-style guitar.Bluegrass music, which uses the five-string resonator banjo almost exclusively, is played in several common styles.", "These include Scruggs style, named after Earl Scruggs; melodic, or Keith style, named for Bill Keith; and three-finger style with single-string work, also called Reno style after Don Reno.", "In these styles, the emphasis is on arpeggiated figures played in a continuous eighth-note rhythm, known as rolls.", "All of these styles are typically played with fingerpicks.The first five-string, electric, solid-body banjo was developed by Charles Wilburn (Buck) Trent, Harold \"Shot\" Jackson, and David Jackson in 1960.The five-string banjo has been used in classical music since before the turn of the 20th century.", "Contemporary and modern works have been written or arranged for the instrument by Jerry Garcia, Buck Trent, Béla Fleck, Tony Trischka, Ralph Stanley, Steve Martin, George Crumb, Tim Lake, Modest Mouse, Jo Kondo, Paul Elwood, Hans Werner Henze (notably in his ''Sixth Symphony''), Daniel Mason of Hank Williams III's Damn Band, Beck, the Water Tower Bucket Boys, Todd Taylor, J.P. Pickens, Peggy Honeywell, Norfolk & Western, Putnam Smith, Iron & Wine, The Avett Brothers, The Well Pennies, Punch Brothers, Julian Koster, Sufjan Stevens, Sarah Jarosz and sisters Leah Song and Chloe Smith from Rising AppalachiaGeorge Gershwin includes a banjo in his opera Porgy and Bess Frederick Delius wrote for a banjo in his opera ''Koanga''.Ernst Krenek includes two banjos in his ''Kleine Symphonie'' (''Little Symphony'').Kurt Weill has a banjo in his opera ''The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny''.Viktor Ullmann included a tenor banjo part in his ''Piano Concerto'' (op.", "25).===Four-string banjos===Plectrum banjo from Gold ToneThe four-string plectrum banjo is a standard banjo without the short drone string.", "It usually has 22 frets on the neck and a scale length of 26 to 28 inches, and was originally tuned C3 G3 B3 D4.It can also be tuned like the top four strings of a guitar, which is known as \"Chicago tuning\".", "As the name suggests, it is usually played with a guitar-style pick (that is, a single one held between thumb and forefinger), unlike the five-string banjo, which is either played with a thumbpick and two fingerpicks, or with bare fingers.", "The plectrum banjo evolved out of the five-string banjo, to cater to styles of music involving strummed chords.", "The plectrum is also featured in many early jazz recordings and arrangements.Four-string banjos can be used for chordal accompaniment (as in early jazz), for single-string melody playing (as in Irish traditional music), in \"chord melody\" style (a succession of chords in which the highest notes carry the melody), in tremolo style (both on chords and single strings), and a mixed technique called duo style that combines single-string tremolo and rhythm chords.Four-string banjos are used from time to time in musical theater.", "Examples include: ''Hello, Dolly!", "'', ''Mame'', ''Chicago'', ''Cabaret'', ''Oklahoma!", "'', ''Half a Sixpence'', ''Annie'', ''Barnum'', ''The Threepenny Opera'', ''Monty Python's Spamalot'', and countless others.", "Joe Raposo had used it variably in the imaginative seven-piece orchestration for the long-running TV show ''Sesame Street'', and has sometimes had it overdubbed with itself or an electric guitar.", "The banjo is still (albeit rarely) in use in the show's arrangement currently.====Tenor banjo====The shorter-necked, tenor banjo, with 17 (\"short scale\") or 19 frets, is also typically played with a plectrum.", "It became a popular instrument after about 1910.Early models used for melodic picking typically had 17 frets on the neck and a scale length of 19 to 21 inches.", "By the mid-1920s, when the instrument was used primarily for strummed chordal accompaniment, 19-fret necks with a scale length of 21 to 23 inches became standard.", "The usual tuning is the all-fifths tuning C3 G3 D4 A4, in which exactly seven semitones (a perfect fifth) occur between the open notes of consecutive strings; this is identical to the tuning of a viola.", "Other players (particularly in Irish traditional music) tune the banjo G2 D3 A3 E4 like an octave mandolin, which lets the banjoist duplicate fiddle and mandolin fingering.", "The popularization of this tuning is usually attributed to the late Barney McKenna, banjoist with The Dubliners.The tenor banjo was a common rhythm instrument in early 20th-century dance bands.", "Its volume and timbre suited early jazz (and jazz-influenced popular music styles) and could both compete with other instruments (such as brass instruments and saxophones) and be heard clearly on acoustic recordings.", "George Gershwin's ''Rhapsody in Blue'', in Ferde Grofe's original jazz-orchestra arrangement, includes tenor banjo, with widely spaced chords not easily playable on plectrum banjo in its conventional tunings.", "With development of the archtop and electric guitar, the tenor banjo largely disappeared from jazz and popular music, though keeping its place in traditional \"Dixieland\" jazz.Some 1920s Irish banjo players picked out the melodies of jigs, reels, and hornpipes on tenor banjos, decorating the tunes with snappy triplet ornaments.", "The most important Irish banjo player of this era was Mike Flanagan of the New York-based Flanagan Brothers, one of the most popular Irish-American groups of the day.", "Other pre-WWII Irish banjo players included Neil Nolan, who recorded with Dan Sullivan's Shamrock Band in Boston, and Jimmy McDade, who recorded with the Four Provinces Orchestra in Philadelphia.", "Meanwhile, in Ireland, the rise of ''ceili'' bands provided a new market for a loud instrument like the tenor banjo.", "Use of the tenor banjo in Irish music has increased greatly since the folk revival of the 1960s.===Six-string banjos===Old six-string zither banjoThe six-string banjo began as a British innovation by William Temlett, one of England's earliest banjo makers.", "He opened a shop in London in 1846, and sold seven-string banjos which he marketed as \"zither\" banjos from his 1869 patent.", "A zither banjo usually has a closed back and sides with the drum body and skin tensioning system suspended inside the wooden rim, the neck and string tailpiece mounted on the outside of the rim, and the drone string led through a tube in the neck so that the tuning peg can be mounted on the head.", "They were often made by builders who used guitar tuners that came in banks of three, so five-stringed instruments had a redundant tuner; these banjos could be somewhat easily converted over to a six-string banjo.American Alfred Davis Cammeyer (1862–1949), a young violinist turned concert banjo player, devised the six-string zither banjo around 1880.British opera diva Adelina Patti advised Cammeyer that the zither banjo might be popular with English audiences as it had been invented there, and Cammeyer went to London in 1888.With his virtuoso playing, he helped show that banjos could make more sophisticated music than normally played by blackface minstrels.", "He was soon performing for London society, where he met Sir Arthur Sullivan, who recommended that Cammeyer progress from arranging the music of others for banjo to composing his own music.Modern six-string bluegrass banjos have been made.", "These add a bass string between the lowest string and the drone string on a five-string banjo, and are usually tuned G4 G2 D3 G3 B3 D4.Sonny Osborne played one of these instruments for several years.", "It was modified by luthier Rual Yarbrough from a Vega five-string model.", "A picture of Sonny with this banjo appears in Pete Wernick's ''Bluegrass Banjo'' method book.Six-string banjos known as banjo guitars basically consist of a six-string guitar neck attached to a bluegrass or plectrum banjo body, which allows players who have learned the guitar to play a banjo sound without having to relearn fingerings.", "This was the instrument of the early jazz great Johnny St. Cyr, jazzmen Django Reinhardt, Danny Barker, Papa Charlie Jackson and Clancy Hayes, as well as the blues and gospel singer Reverend Gary Davis.", "Today, musicians as diverse as Keith Urban, Rod Stewart, Taj Mahal, Joe Satriani, David Hidalgo, Larry Lalonde and Doc Watson play the six-string guitar banjo.", "They have become increasingly popular since the mid-1990s." ], [ "Other banjos", "===Low banjos===Cello banjo from Gold ToneIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in vogue in plucked-string instrument ensembles – guitar orchestras, mandolin orchestras, banjo orchestras – was when the instrumentation was made to parallel that of the string section in symphony orchestras.", "Thus, \"violin, viola, 'cello, bass\" became \"mandolin, mandola, mandocello, mandobass\", or in the case of banjos, \"banjolin, banjola, banjo cello, bass banjo\".", "Because the range of pluck-stringed instrument generally is not as great as that of comparably sized bowed-string instruments, other instruments were often added to these plucked orchestras to extend the range of the ensemble upwards and downwards.The banjo cello was normally tuned C2-G2-D3-A3, one octave below the tenor banjo like the cello and mandocello.", "A five-string cello banjo, set up like a bluegrass banjo (with the short fifth string), but tuned one octave lower, has been produced by the Goldtone company.Bass banjoBass banjos have been produced in both upright bass formats and with standard, horizontally carried banjo bodies.", "Contrabass banjos with either three or four strings have also been made; some of these had headstocks similar to those of bass violins.", "Tuning varies on these large instruments, with four-string models sometimes being tuned in 4ths like a bass violin (E1-A1-D2-G2) and sometimes in 5ths, like a four-string cello banjo, one octave lower (C1-G1-D2-A2).===Banjo hybrids and variants===A number of hybrid instruments exist, crossing the banjo with other stringed instruments.", "Most of these use the body of a banjo, often with a resonator, and the neck of the other instrument.", "Examples include the banjo mandolin (first patented in 1882) and the banjo ukulele, most famously played by the English comedian George Formby.", "These were especially popular in the early decades of the 20th century, and were probably a result of a desire either to allow players of other instruments to jump on the banjo bandwagon at the height of its popularity, or to get the natural amplification benefits of the banjo resonator in an age before electric amplification.Conversely, the tenor and plectrum guitars use the respective banjo necks on guitar bodies.", "They arose in the early 20th century as a way for banjo players to double on guitar without having to relearn the instrument entirely.Instruments that have a five-string banjo neck on a wooden body (for example, a guitar, bouzouki, or dobro body) have also been made, such as the banjola.", "A 20th-century Turkish instrument similar to the banjo is called the ''cümbüş'', which combines a banjo-like resonator with a neck derived from an oud.", "At the end of the 20th century, a development of the five-string banjo was the BanSitar.", "This features a bone bridge, giving the instrument a sitar-like resonance.The Brazilian samba banjo is basically a cavaquinho neck on a banjo body, thereby producing a louder sound than the cavaquinho.", "It is tuned the same as the top 4 strings of a 5-string banjo up an octave (or any cavaquinho tuning)." ], [ "Noted banjoists", "* Joel Sweeney (1810–1860), also known as Joe Sweeney, was a musician and early blackface minstrel performer.", "He is known for popularizing the playing of the banjo and has often been credited with advancing the physical development of the modern five-string banjo.", "* Vess Ossman (1868–1923) was a leading five-string banjoist who started playing banjo at age 12.He was a popular recording artist, and in fact one of the first recording artists ''ever'', when audio recording first became commercially available.", "He formed various recording groups, his most popular being the Ossman-Dudley trio.", "* Clifford Essex (1869–1946), a British banjoist, who was also a musical instrument manufacturer* Uncle Dave Macon (1870–1952) was a banjo player and comedian from Tennessee known for his \"plug hat, gold teeth, chin whiskers, gates ajar collar and that million dollar Tennessee smile\".", "* Fred Van Eps (1878–1960) was a noted five-string player and banjo maker who learned to play from listening to cylinder recordings of Vess Ossman.", "He recorded for Edison's company, producing some of the earliest disk recordings, and also the earliest ragtime recordings in any medium other than player piano.", "* Frank Lawes (1894–1970), of the United Kingdom, developed a unique fingerstyle technique on the four-string plectrum instrument, and was a prolific composer of four-string banjo music, much of which is still performed and recorded today.", "* Pasquale Troise (1895-1957), Italian emigrant to the UK in the 1920s.", "Formed Troise and his Banjoliers in 1933, which recorded with Decca and performed regularly on the BBC's long-running series Music While You Work.", "* Harry Reser (1896–1965), plectrum and tenor banjo, was regarded by some as the best tenor banjoist of the 1920s.", "He wrote a large number of works for tenor banjo, as well as instructional material including numerous banjo method books, over a dozen other instrumental method books (for guitar, ukulele, mandolin etc.", "), and was well known in the banjo community.", "Reser's accomplished single string and \"chord melody\" technique set a \"high mark\" that many subsequent tenor players still endeavor to attain.", "* Eddie Peabody (1902–1970) was a great proponent of the plectrum banjo who performed for nearly five decades (1920–1968) and left a considerable legacy of recordings.", "An early reviewer dubbed him \"King of the Banjo\", and his was a household name for decades.", "He went on to develop new instruments, produce records, and appear in movies.", "* Ola Belle Reed (1916–2002) was an American folk singer, songwriter and banjo player.", "* Pete Seeger (1919–2014), a singer-songwriter who performed solo as well as with folk group the Weavers, included five-string banjo among his instruments.", "His 1948 method book ''How to Play the Five-String Banjo'' has been credited by thousands of banjoists, including prominent professionals, with sparking their interest in the instrument.", "He is also credited with inventing the long-neck banjo (also known as the \"Seeger Banjo\"), which adds three lower frets to the five-string banjo's neck, and tunes the four main strings down by a minor third, to facilitate playing in singing keys more comfortable for some folk guitarists.", "* Earl Scruggs (1924–2012), whose career ranged from the end of World War II into the 21st century, is widely regarded as the father of the bluegrass style of banjo playing.", "The three-finger style of playing he developed while playing with Bill Monroe's band is known by his name: ''Scruggs Style''.", "* Ralph Stanley (1927–2016) had a long career, both with his brother as the Stanley Brothers and with his band the Clinch Mountain Boys.", "He was awarded an honorary doctorate of music by Lincoln Memorial University, is a member of the Bluegrass Hall of Fame and the Grand Ole Opry.", "He won a Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance in the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou?.", "* Rual Yarbrough (1930–2010)* Roy Clark (1933–2018)* John Hartford (1937–2001)* Sonny Osborne (1937-2021)* Ben Eldridge (b.", "1938)* Barney McKenna (1939–2012) was an Irish musician and a founding member of The Dubliners.", "He played the tenor banjo, violin, mandolin, and melodeon.", "He was most renowned as a banjo player.", "Barney used GDAE tuning on a 19-fret tenor banjo, an octave below fiddle/mandolin and, according to musician Mick Moloney, was single-handedly responsible for making the GDAE-tuned tenor banjo the standard banjo in Irish music.", "Due to his skill level on the banjo fans, all around the world and other members of The Dubliners nicknamed him \"Banjo Barney\".", "* Bill Keith (1939–2015)* Pete Wernick (b.", "1946)* Tony Trischka (b.", "1949)* Béla Fleck (b.", "1958) is widely acknowledged as one of the world's most innovative and technically proficient banjo players.", "His work spans many styles and genres, including jazz, bluegrass, classical, R&B, avant garde, and \"world music\", and he has produced a substantial discography and videography.", "He works extensively in both acoustic and electric media.", "Fleck has been nominated for Grammy Awards in more categories than any other artist, and has received 13 .", "* Noam Pikelny (b.", "1981) is an American banjoist who plays eclectic styles including traditional bluegrass, classical, rock, and jazz music.", "He has won the Steve Martin Prize for Excellence in Banjo and Bluegrass in 2010.He has been nominated for eight Grammy Nominations and has been awarded one with his band, the Punch Brothers, in 2018.", "* Other important four-string performers were Mike Pingitore, who played tenor for the Paul Whiteman Orchestra through 1948, and Roy Smeck, early radio and recording pioneer, author of many instructional books, and whose influential performances on many fretted instruments earned him the nickname \"Wizard of the Strings\", during his active years (1922–1950).", "Prominent tenor players of more recent vintage include Narvin Kimball (d. 2006) (left-handed banjoist of Preservation Hall Jazz Band fame).", "* Noted four-string players currently active include ragtime and dixieland stylists Charlie Tagawa (1935–2017) and Bill Lowrey (b.", "1963).", "Jazz guitarist Howard Alden (b.", "1958) began his career on tenor banjo and still plays it at traditional jazz events.", "Cynthia Sayer (b.", "1962) is regarded as one of the top jazz plectrum banjoists.", "Rock and country performer Winston Marshall (b.", "1988) plays banjo (among other instruments) for the British folk rock group Mumford and Sons, a band that won the 2013 Grammy Award for \"Best Album of the Year\"." ], [ "See also", "* Akonting* Banjo (samba)* Banjo ukulele* Benju* Bulbul tarang* Cuatro (instrument)* Double-neck guitjo* Stringed instrument tunings" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Banjo history ===* Castelnero, Gordon and Russell, David L. ''Earl Scruggs: Banjo Icon.''", "Rowman & Littlefield, 2017* Conway, Cecelia (1995).", "''African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Traditions'', University of Tennessee Press.", "Paper: ; cloth: .", "A study of the influence of African Americans on banjo playing throughout U.S.", "history.", "* De Smaele G. (1983).", "\"Banjo a cinq cordes\".", "Brussels: Musée Instrumental (MIM), Brussels.", "D 1983-2170-1* De Smaele G. (2015).", "\"Banjo Attitudes.\"", "Paris: L'Harmattan, 2015.", "* De Smaele G. (2019).", "\"A Five-String Banjo Sourcebook.\"", "Paris: L'Harmattan, 2019.", "* Dubois, Laurent (2016).", "''The Banjo: America's African Instrument.''", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016.", "* Epstein, Dena (1977).", "''Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil War''.", "University of Illinois Press, 2003.Winner of the Simkins Prize of the Southern Historical Association, 1979.Winner of the Chicago Folklore Prize.", "The anniversary edition of a classic study of black slave music in America.", "* Gaddy, Kristina (2022).", "''Well of Souls: Uncovering the Banjo's Hidden History''.", "W. W. Norton & Company, 2022..", "The author uncovers the banjo's key role in Black spirituality, ritual, and rebellion.", "* Gibson, George R. (2018).", "\"Black Banjo, Fiddle and Dance in Kentucky and the Amalgamation of African American and Anglo-American Folk Music.\"", "''Banjo Roots and Branches''(Winans, 2018).", "University of Illinois Press, 2018.Gibson's historiographic chapter uncovers much new information about black banjo and fiddle players, and dance, in Kentucky, and their influence on white musicians, from the 1780s.", "* Gura, Philip F. and James F. Bollman (1999).", "''America's Instrument: The Banjo in the Nineteenth Century''.", "The University of North Carolina Press.", ".", "The definitive history of the banjo, focusing on the instrument's development in the 1800s.", "* Katonah Museum of Art (2003).", "''The Birth of the Banjo''.", "Katonah Museum of Art, Katonah, New York.", ".", "* Linn, Karen (1994).", "''That Half-Barbaric Twang: The Banjo in American Popular Culture''.", "University of Illinois Press.", ".", "Scholarly cultural history of the banjo, focusing on how its image has evolved over the years.", "* Tsumura, Akira (1984).", "''Banjos: The Tsumura Collection''.", "Kodansha International Ltd. .", "An illustrated history of the banjo featuring the world's premier collection.", "* Webb, Robert Lloyd (1996).", "''Ring the Banjar!''.", "2nd edition.", "Centerstream Publishing.", ".", "A short history of the banjo, with pictures from an exhibition at the MIT Museum.", "* Winans, Robert (2018).", "''Banjo Roots and Branches''.", "University of Illinois Press, 2018.The story of the banjo's journey from Africa to the western hemisphere blends music, history, and a union of cultures.", "In Banjo Roots and Branches, Robert B. Winans presents cutting-edge scholarship that covers the instrument's West African origins and its adaptations and circulation in the Caribbean and United States." ], [ "External links", "* * The Banjo in Irish Traditional Music* 200 banjo makers pre 2nd WW* BANJO ATTITUDES - Le banjo à cinq cordes : son histoire générale, sa documentation, Gérard De Smaele - livre, ebook, epub* 19th Century Banjo Instruction Manuals* ''To Hear Your Banjo Play'', 1947 Alan Lomax film (16 minutes)* Fingerstyle Tenor Banjo* Banjo Newsletter* Banjo Hangout* Dr Joan Dickerson, Sparky Rucker, and George Gibson with host Michael Johnathon explore the ''African-American History of the Banjo'' through conversation and music on show 350 of the WoodSongs Old-Time Radio Hour.", "Both audio and video are provided.", "* \"The Physics of Banjos – A Conversation with David Politzer\" , ''Ideas Roadshow'', 2016* Banjo Physics 411 https://www.its.caltech.edu/~politzer/* Banjo Chord Chart" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Baseball" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Baseball''' is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each, taking turns batting and fielding.", "The game occurs over the course of several plays, with each play generally beginning when a player on the fielding team, called the pitcher, throws a ball that a player on the batting team, called the batter, tries to hit with a bat.", "The objective of the offensive team (batting team) is to hit the ball into the field of play, away from the other team's players, allowing its players to run the bases, having them advance counter-clockwise around four bases to score what are called \"runs\".", "The objective of the defensive team (referred to as the fielding team) is to prevent batters from becoming runners, and to prevent runners' advance around the bases.", "A run is scored when a runner legally advances around the bases in order and touches home plate (the place where the player started as a batter).The principal objective of the batting team is to have a player reach first base safely; this generally occurs either when the batter hits the ball and reaches first base before an opponent retrieves the ball and touches the base, or when the pitcher persists in throwing the ball out of the batter's reach.", "Players on the batting team who reach first base without being called \"out\" can attempt to advance to subsequent bases as a runner, either immediately or during teammates' turns batting.", "The fielding team tries to prevent runs by getting batters or runners \"out\", which forces them out of the field of play.", "The pitcher can get the batter out by throwing three pitches which result in strikes, while fielders can get the batter out by catching a batted ball before it touches the ground, and can get a runner out by tagging them with the ball while the runner is not touching a base.The opposing teams switch back and forth between batting and fielding; the batting team's turn to bat is over once the fielding team records three outs.", "One turn batting for each team constitutes an inning.", "A game is usually composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins.", "Most games end after the ninth inning, but if scores are tied at that point, extra innings are usually played.", "Baseball has no game clock, though some competitions feature pace-of-play regulations such as the pitch clock to shorten game time.Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century.", "This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed.", "Baseball's American origins, as well as its reputation as a source of escapism during troubled points in American history such as the American Civil War and the Great Depression, have led the sport to receive the moniker of \"America's Pastime\"; since the late 19th century, it has been unofficially recognized as the national sport of the United States, though in modern times is considered less popular than other sports, such as American football.", "In addition to North America, baseball is considered the most popular sport in parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia, particularly in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.In Major League Baseball (MLB), the highest level of professional baseball in the United States and Canada, teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central.", "The MLB champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series.", "The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League.", "The World Baseball Classic, organized by the World Baseball Softball Confederation, is the major international competition of the sport and attracts the top national teams from around the world.", "Baseball was played at the Olympic Games from 1992 to 2008, and was reinstated in 2020." ], [ "Rules and gameplay", "Diagram of a baseball field ''Diamond'' may refer to the square area defined by the four bases or to the entire playing field.", "The dimensions given are for professional and professional-style games.", "Children often play on smaller fields.2013 World Baseball Classic championship match between the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, March 20, 2013A baseball game is played between two teams, each usually composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding).", "A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning.", "A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college, Minor League Baseball and, since the 2020 season, Major League Baseball; and six innings at the Little League level).", "One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning.", "The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning.", "The goal of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other team.", "The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by touching all four bases, in order, set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond.", "A player bats at home plate and must attempt to safely reach a base before proceeding, counterclockwise, from first base, to second base, third base, and back home to score a run.", "The team in the field attempts to prevent runs from scoring by recording outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action, until their next turn at bat comes up again.", "When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning.", "If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest.", "Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles.", "The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory.", "The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield.", "In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center.", "The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height.", "The fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well.There are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:* The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around in circumference.", "It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.", "* The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood.", "Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games.", "It is a hard round stick, about in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob.", "Bats used by adults are typically around long, and not longer than .", "* The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers.", "As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players of the fielding team arrange themselves around the field.", "One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound.", "The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate.", "Another fielding team player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher.", "The rest of the fielding team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines (basepaths) between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders.", "In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base.", "The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder.", "With the exception of the catcher, all fielders are required to be in fair territory when the pitch is delivered.", "A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher.", "Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well.David Ortiz, the batter, awaiting a pitch, with the catcher and umpirePlay starts with a member of the batting team, the batter, standing in either of the two batter's boxes next to home plate, holding a bat.", "The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball with the bat.", "The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher.", "A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a ''runner'' (or, until the play is over, a ''batter-runner'').", "A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out is said to be ''safe'' and is on base.", "A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely.", "A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit.", "A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single.", "If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple.", "If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), or if the batter-runner otherwise safely circles all the bases, it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run.", "This is the most desirable result for the batter.", "The ultimate and most desirable result possible for a batter would be to hit a home run while all three bases are occupied or \"loaded\", thus scoring four runs on a single hit.", "This is called a grand slam.", "A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error.Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands.", "A runner on first base ''must'' attempt to advance if a ball lands in play, as only one runner may occupy a base at any given time.", "If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they occupied when the play began.", "If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up (contact the base they occupied when the play began, as or after the ball is caught).", "Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate; a successful effort is a stolen base.A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball.", "A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out.", "A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base.", "(A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.)", "Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee.", "Any pitch which does not pass through the strike zone is called a ball, unless the batter either swings and misses at the pitch, or hits the pitch into foul territory; an exception generally occurs if the ball is hit into foul territory when the batter already has two strikes, in which case neither a ball nor a strike is called.A shortstop tries to tag out a runner who is sliding head first, attempting to reach second base.While the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs.", "In addition to the strikeout and flyout, common ways a member of the batting team may be put out include the ground out, force out, and tag out.", "These occur either when a runner is forced to advance to a base, and a fielder with possession of the ball reaches that base before the runner does, or the runner is touched by the ball, held in a fielder's hand, while not on a base.", "(The batter-runner is always forced to advance to first base, and any other runners must advance to the next base if a teammate is forced to advance to their base.)", "It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play.", "This is called a double play.", "Three outs in one play, a triple play, is possible, though rare.", "Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's dugout or bench.", "A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team.", "Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat as every half-inning begins with the bases empty.An individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate.", "On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base).", "A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased.", "A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn.", "Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have all taken their turn at bat in the batting order.", "The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions.", "Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game.", "Children's games often have more lenient rules, such as Little League rules, which allow players to be substituted back into the same game.If the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run).", "The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field.", "Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players." ], [ "Personnel", "=== Players ===Defensive positions on a baseball field, with abbreviations and scorekeeper's position numbers (not uniform numbers)The number of players on a baseball roster, or ''squad'', varies by league and by the level of organized play.", "A Major League Baseball (MLB) team has a roster of 26 players with specific roles.", "A typical roster features the following players:* Eight position players: the catcher, four infielders, and three outfielders—all of whom play on a regular basis* Five starting pitchers who constitute the team's pitching rotation or starting rotation* Seven relief pitchers, including one closer, who constitute the team's bullpen (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up)* One backup, or substitute, catcher* Five backup infielders and backup outfielders, or players who can play multiple positions, known as utility players.Most baseball leagues worldwide have the DH rule, including MLB, Japan's Pacific League, and Caribbean professional leagues, along with major American amateur organizations.", "The Central League in Japan does not have the rule and high-level minor league clubs connected to National League teams are not required to field a DH.", "In leagues that apply the designated hitter rule, a typical team has nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers, seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher, and two or three other reserve players.=== Managers and coaches ===The manager, or head coach, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers.", "Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning.", "At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, who occupy designated coaches' boxes, just outside the foul lines.", "These coaches assist in the direction of baserunners, when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners, during pauses in play.", "In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform to be allowed on the field to confer with players during a game.=== Umpires ===Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play.", "At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes.", "Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs.", "In MLB, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base.", "In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines." ], [ "Strategy", "Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers.", "A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup, who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher, may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster.", "During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions.", "The manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups and the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups.", "With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder (known as a defensive substitution)." ], [ "Tactics", "=== Pitching and fielding ===A first baseman receives a pickoff throw, as the runner dives back to first base.The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection.", "By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter, thus creating differing pitches that can be selected.", "Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider.", "Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing.", "Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical or horizontal location.", "If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch.With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out.", "Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and during the pickoff attempt.", "Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher, which permits any runners on base to advance one base with impunity.", "If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base.", "Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions.", "With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.=== Batting and baserunning ===Boston Red Sox player Mookie Betts hits a pitch by swinging his bat.Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base.", "The hit and run is sometimes employed, with a skillful contact hitter, the runner takes off with the pitch, drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through.", "The sacrifice bunt, calls for the batter to focus on making soft contact with the ball, so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position as the batter is thrown out at first.", "A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit.", "A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play.", "With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter, in this case, gets credit for a sacrifice fly.", "In order to increase the chance of advancing a batter to first base via a walk, the manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch.", "The batter's potential reward of reaching base (via a walk) exceeds the disadvantage if the next pitch is a strike." ], [ "History", "The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision.", "Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular among children in Great Britain and Ireland.", "American baseball historian David Block suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position.", "Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and \"tut-ball\".", "The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, ''A Little Pretty Pocket-Book'', by John Newbery.", "Block discovered that the first recorded game of \"Bass-Ball\" took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player.", "This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants.By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America.", "The first officially recorded baseball game in North America was played in Beachville, Ontario, Canada, on June 4, 1838.In 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules, which in turn were based on rules developed in 1837 by William R. Wheaton of the Gotham Club.", "While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the \"New York Nine\" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings.", "With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century.", "By the time of the Civil War, baseball had begun to overtake its fellow bat-and-ball sport cricket in popularity within the United States, due in part to baseball being of a much shorter duration than the form of cricket played at the time, as well as the fact that troops during the Civil War did not need a specialized playing surface to play baseball, as they would have required for cricket.=== In the United States ======= Establishment of professional leagues ====In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area, and by 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the \"national pastime\" or \"national game\".", "A year later, the sport's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players, was formed.", "In 1867, it barred participation by African Americans.", "The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876.Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded.", "In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game.", "The National League's first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established in 1893, and virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by then.The National Agreement of 1903 formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's minor professional leagues.", "The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall.", "The Black Sox Scandal of the 1919 World Series led to the formation of the office of the Commissioner of Baseball.", "The first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920.That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931.For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League.==== Rise of Ruth and racial integration ====Compared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring, and pitchers were more dominant.", "The so-called dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters.", "Strict new regulations governed the ball's size, shape and composition, along with a new rule officially banning the spitball and other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit.", "The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game.", "In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern farm system.", "A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League.", "The first elections to the National Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936.In 1939, Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania.alt=Robinson posing in the uniform cap of the Kansas City Royals, a California Winter League barnstorming team, November 1945 (photo by Maurice Terrell)|Jackie Robinson in 1945, with the era's Kansas City Royals, a barnstorming squad associated with the Negro American League's Kansas City MonarchsA large number of minor league teams disbanded when World War II led to a player shortage.", "Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League to help keep the game in the public eye.", "The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred in 1945: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal.", "In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers.", "Latin-American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers.", "In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars.", "Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster.==== Attendance records and the age of steroids ====In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system.", "Significant work stoppages occurred in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years.", "Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance.", "After play resumed in 1995, non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season.", "Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set.", "In 2000, the National and American Leagues were dissolved as legal entities.", "While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of MLB.In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season.", "There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004.In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs.=== Around the world ===With the historic popular moniker as \"America's national pastime\", baseball is well-established in several other countries as well.", "As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both Canada and the United States.", "While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team.", "In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League.Sadaharu Oh managing the Japan national team in the 2006 World Baseball Classic.", "Playing for the Central League's Yomiuri Giants (1959–80), Oh set the professional world record for home runs.In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa, Veracruz.", "The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition.", "The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912.Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938).", "The Japanese major leagues have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States.Pesäpallo, a Finnish variation of baseball, was invented by Lauri \"Tahko\" Pihkala in the 1920s, and after that, it has changed with the times and grown in popularity.", "Picture of Pesäpallo match in 1958 in Jyväskylä, Finland.After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American countries, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955).", "Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League.", "In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990) and China (2003) all have professional leagues.The English football club, Aston Villa, were the first British baseball champions winning the 1890 National League of Baseball of Great Britain.", "The 2020 National Champions were the London Mets.", "Other European countries have seen professional leagues; the most successful, other than the Dutch league, is the Italian league, founded in 1948.In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games.", "The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries.", "Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC).", "Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in numerous countries.After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting.", "It remained part of the 2008 Games.", "While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor, more important was MLB's reluctance to allow its players to participate during the major league season.", "MLB initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede its season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament.", "The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants.", "The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic." ], [ "Distinctive elements", "Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following.", "All of these sports use a clock, play is less individual, and the variation between playing fields is not as substantial or important.", "The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.=== No clock to kill ===A well-worn baseballIn clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team.", "In contrast, baseball has no clock, thus a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time.", "At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy.", "Whereas, in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket, the possibility of a draw (which occurs because of the restrictions on time, which like in baseball, originally did not exist) often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind, to bat defensively and run out the clock, giving up any faint chance at a win, to avoid an overall loss.While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years.", "At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play.", "In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960.By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters).", "In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of 2:45.By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete.", "The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play, with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently.", "Other leagues have experienced similar issues.", "In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18.In 2016, the average nine-inning playoff game in Major League baseball was 3 hours and 35 minutes.", "This was up 10 minutes from 2015 and 21 minutes from 2014.In response to the lengthening of the game, MLB decided from the 2023 season onward to institute a pitch clock rule to penalize batters and pitchers who take too much time between pitches; this had the effect of shortening 2023 regular season games by 24 minutes on average.=== Individual focus ===Babe Ruth in 1920, the year he joined the New York YankeesAlthough baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure.", "While rewarding, it has sometimes been described as \"ruthless\" due to the pressure on the individual player.", "In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: \"the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits\".", "Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other.", "While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts.", "If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing.", "The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it.Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more.", "There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play.=== Uniqueness of parks ===Fenway Park, home of the Boston Red Sox.", "The Green Monster is visible beyond the playing field on the left.Unlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape.", "While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams, following the rules of MLB and Minor League Baseball, is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of from home plate to the fences in left and right field and to center.", "Major league teams often skirt even this rule.", "For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only from home plate.", "There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield.", "The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is from home plate down the line and tall.Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory.", "Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground.", "A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner.", "These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run.", "The surface of the field is also unregulated.", "While the adjacent image shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare.", "Some fields—including several in MLB—use artificial turf.", "Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning.", "Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played.", "While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized.", "The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant.A New York Yankees batter (Andruw Jones) and a Boston Red Sox catcher at Fenway ParkThese physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark.", "Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play.", "A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements.", "The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies.", "Its high altitude— above sea level—is partly responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues due to the low air pressure.", "Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a pitcher's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing in, it becomes more of a hitter's park when they are blowing out.", "The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records.", "For example, hitting a fly ball into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another.", "A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it.", "On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park." ], [ "Statistics", "Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports.", "Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes.", "In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, was responsible for the \"development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball.\"", "The statistical record is so central to the game's \"historical essence\" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball.", "In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a \"tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines.", "\"The Official Baseball Rules administered by MLB require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously.", "The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency.", "The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records.", "General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.Rickey Henderson—the major leagues' all-time leader in runs and stolen bases—stealing third base in a 1988 gameCertain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans.", "The basic batting statistics include:* At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners* Hits: times a base is reached safely, because of a batted, fair ball without a fielding error or fielder's choice* Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely* Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error* Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error* Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting abilityThe basic baserunning statistics include:* Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball* Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a baseCy Young—the holder of many major league career marks, including wins and innings pitched, as well as losses—in 1908.MLB's annual awards for the best pitcher in each league are named for Young.The basic pitching statistics include:* Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)* Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished* Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings* Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., \"5.2\" or \"7.1\", the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)* Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter* Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)* Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitchedThe basic fielding statistics include:* Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out* Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball* Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result* Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors* Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chancesAmong the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as ''situational statistics''.", "For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against.", "If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed.=== Sabermetrics ===Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools.", "The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves.", "The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average:* On-base percentage (OBP) measures a batter's ability to get on base.", "It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.", "* Slugging percentage (SLG) measures a batter's ability to hit for power.", "It is calculated by taking the batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:* On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability.", "It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage.", "* Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base.", "It is calculated by adding the number of walks and hits a pitcher surrendered, then dividing by the number of innings pitched.", "*Wins Above Replacement (WAR) measures number of additional wins his team has achieved above the number of expected team wins if that player were substituted with a replacement-level player." ], [ "Popularity and cultural impact", "Two players on the baseball team of Tokyo, Japan's Waseda University in 1921Writing in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as the national religion of the US.", "In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been \"a unique paragon of American culture\"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal.", "Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes \"how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, and how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan.", "\"=== In the United States ===The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience.", "A century later, the situation was very different.", "With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most blue-collar-oriented of leading American spectator sports.The Tampere Tigers celebrating the 2017 title in Turku, FinlandOverall, baseball has a large following in the United States; a 2006 poll found that nearly half of Americans are fans.", "In the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions.", "In 2008, MLB set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades.", "A new MLB revenue record of more than $10 billion was set in 2017.On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%.", "In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%.", "Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance.", "In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year.", "The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million.", "Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million.", "Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3 million.", "While MLB games have not drawn the same national TV viewership as football games, MLB games are dominant in teams' local markets and regularly lead all programs in primetime in their markets during the summer.=== Caribbean ===Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent.", "In 2017, 83 of the 868 players on MLB Opening Day rosters (and disabled lists) were from the country.", "Among other Caribbean countries and territories, a combined 97 MLB players were born in Venezuela, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.", "Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico's history.", "While baseball has long been the island's primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues' annual first-year player draft.", "In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport, the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues.=== Asia ===An Afghan girl playing baseball in August 2002In Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan and South Korea.", "In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific Leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007.Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million.", "While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant.", "There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country.", "Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system.", "Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority \"has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes\".", "In Taiwan, baseball is one of the most widely spectated sports, with the origins dating back to Japanese rule.=== Among children ===, Little League Baseball oversees leagues with close to 2.4 million participants in over 80 countries.", "The number of players has fallen since the 1990s, when 3 million children took part in Little League Baseball annually.", "Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants.", "According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball.A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States.", "In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams.", "By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport.", "Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there.", "The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country.", "The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played.", "In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six.", "Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.=== In popular culture ===The American Tobacco Company's line of baseball cards featured shortstop Honus Wagner of the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1909 to 1911.In 2007, the card shown here sold for $2.8 million.Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere.", "Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms.", "The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZ–Newark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGY–Schenectady, New York, and WBZ–Springfield, Massachusetts.", "The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom.Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment.", "One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer's poem \"Casey at the Bat\", appeared in 1888.A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a \"clutch situation\", the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media.", "There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning ''The Pride of the Yankees'' (1942) and the Oscar nominees ''The Natural'' (1984) and ''Field of Dreams'' (1989).", "The American Film Institute's selection of the ten best sports movies includes ''The Pride of the Yankees'' at number 3 and ''Bull Durham'' (1988) at number 5.Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the Adler–Ross musical ''Damn Yankees''—and record—George J. Gaskin's \"Slide, Kelly, Slide\", Simon and Garfunkel's \"Mrs. Robinson\", and John Fogerty's \"Centerfield\".", "The baseball-inspired comedic sketch \"Who's on First?", "\", popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous.", "Six decades later, ''Time'' named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century.Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's ''The Natural'' (the source for the movie), Robert Coover's ''The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop.", "'', John Grisham's Calico Joe and W. P. Kinsella's ''Shoeless Joe'' (the source for ''Field of Dreams'').", "Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell.", "Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's ''The Glory of Their Times'', Roger Kahn's ''The Boys of Summer'', and Michael Lewis's ''Moneyball''.", "The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle ''Ball Four'' is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports.Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms.", "Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards.", "A typical example featured an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other.", "In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies.", "The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data.", "Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields.Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends.", "Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active MLB players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics.", "Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon.", "Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports.", "The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports-related websites.", "By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby.", "The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals.=== Derivative games ===Informal variations of baseball have popped up over time, with games like corkball reflecting local traditions and allowing the game to be played in diverse environments.", "Two variations of baseball, softball and Baseball5, are internationally governed alongside baseball by the World Baseball Softball Confederation.==== British baseball ====American professional baseball teams toured Britain in 1874 and 1889, and had a great effect on similar sports in Britain.", "In Wales and Merseyside, a strong community game had already developed with skills and plays more in keeping with the American game and the Welsh began to informally adopt the name \"baseball\" (Pêl Fas), to reflect the American style.", "By the 1890s, calls were made to follow the success of other working class sports (like Rugby in Wales and Soccer in Merseyside) and adopt a distinct set of rules and bureaucracy.", "During the 1892 season rules for the game of \"baseball\" were agreed and the game was officially codified.==== Finnish baseball ====Finnish baseball, also known as pesäpallo, is a combination of traditional ball-batting team games and North American baseball, invented by Lauri \"Tahko\" Pihkala in the 1920s.", "The basic idea of pesäpallo is similar to that of baseball: the offense tries to score by hitting the ball successfully and running through the bases, while the defense tries to put the batter and runners out.", "One of the most important differences between pesäpallo and baseball is that the ball is pitched vertically, which makes hitting the ball, as well as controlling the power and direction of the hit, much easier.", "This gives the offensive game more variety, speed, and tactical aspects compared to baseball." ], [ "See also", "* Baseball awards* Baseball clothing and equipment* List of baseball films* List of organized baseball leagues* Women in baseball===Related sports===* Brännboll (Scandinavian bat-and-ball game)* Comparison of baseball and cricket* Lapta (game) (Russian bat-and-ball game)* Oină (Romanian bat-and-ball game)* Snow baseball (with similar rules played in India during winters)* Stickball* Stoop ball* Vitilla* Wiffle ball" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dickson, Paul.", "''The Dickson Baseball Dictionary'', 3rd ed.", "(W. W. Norton, 2009).", ".", "* Fitts, Robert K. ''Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 2005).", ".", "* Gillette, Gary, and Pete Palmer (eds.).", "''The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia'', 5th ed.", "(Sterling, 2008).", ".", "* Peterson, Robert.", "''Only the Ball Was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black Professional Teams'' (Oxford University Press, 1992 1970).", ".", "* Reaves, Joseph A.", "''Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia'' (Bison, 2004).", ".", "* Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns.", "''Baseball: An Illustrated History'' (Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).", "." ], [ "External links", "* World Baseball Softball Confederation* \"Baseball\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.", "* Baseball Prospectus* Society for American Baseball Research* Mister Baseball European baseball news* Baseball Heritage Museum at League Park in Cleveland, Ohio* \" Perils of Base Ball Playing\", historical perspective on statistics of baseball injuries, ''Scientific American'', July 13, 1878, p. 21" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Baseball positions" ], [ "Introduction", "rightIn the sport of baseball, each of the nine players on a team is assigned a particular '''fielding position''' when it is their turn to play defense.", "Each position conventionally has an associated number, for use in scorekeeping by the official scorer: 1 (pitcher), 2 (catcher), 3 (first baseman), 4 (second baseman), 5 (third baseman), 6 (shortstop), 7 (left fielder), 8 (center fielder), and 9 (right fielder).", "Collectively, these positions are usually grouped into three groups: the outfield (left field, center field, and right field), the infield (first base, second base, third base, and shortstop), and the battery (pitcher and catcher).", "Traditionally, players within each group will often be more able to exchange positions easily (that is, a second baseman can usually play shortstop well, and a center fielder can also be expected to play right field); however, the pitcher and catcher are highly specialized positions and rarely will play at other positions." ], [ "Fielding", "Fielders must be able to catch the ball well, as catching batted balls before they bounce is one way they can put the batter out, as well as create opportunities to prevent the advance of, and put out other runners.", "In addition, they must be able to throw the ball well, with many plays in the game depending on one fielder collecting the hit ball and then throwing it to another fielder who, while holding the ball in their hand/glove, touches either a runner or the base the runner is forced to run to in order to record an out.", "Fielders often have to run, dive, and slide a great deal in the act of reaching, stopping, and retrieving a hit ball, and then setting themselves up to transfer the ball, all with the end goal of getting the ball as quickly as possible to another fielder.", "They also run the risk of colliding with incoming runners during a tag attempt at a base.", "Fielders may have different responsibilities depending on the game situation.", "For example, when an outfielder is attempting to throw the ball from near the fence to one of the bases, an infielder may need to \"cut off\" the throw and then act as a relay thrower to help the ball cover its remaining distance to the target destination.", "As a group, the outfielders are responsible for preventing home runs by reaching over the fence (and potentially doing a wall climb) for fly balls that are catchable.", "The infielders are the ones who generally handle plays that involve tagging a base or runner, and also need quick reflexes in order to catch a batted ball before it leaves the infield.", "The pitcher and catcher have special responsibilities to prevent base stealing, as they are the ones who handle the ball whenever it has not been hit.", "The catcher will also sometimes attempt to block the plate in order to prevent a run being scored." ], [ "Other roles", "*Designated hitter*Pinch hitter*Pinch runner*Utility infielder*Utility players*Starting pitcher*Relief pitcher*Left-handed specialist*Long reliever*Middle reliever*Setup pitcher (setup man)*Closer" ], [ "Other team personnel", "*Manager*Coaches*Athletic Trainer*Equipment manager*General manager*Batboy*Ball boy/girl*Team physician" ], [ "See also", "*Infield shift*Ace (baseball)*Starting lineup*Injury list*Mascot*Official scorer*Umpire*Baseball awards*Baseball clothing and equipment*Glossary of baseball terms*Baseball scorekeeping*Baseball statistics*Fielding (cricket)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of baseball in the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "Baltimore Orioles, 1896The '''history of baseball in the United States''' dates to the 18th century, when boys and amateur enthusiasts played a baseball-like game by their own informal rules using homemade equipment.", "The popularity of the sport grew and amateur men's ball clubs were formed in the 1830–50s.", "Semi-professional baseball clubs followed in the 1860s, and the first professional leagues arrived in the post-American Civil War 1870s." ], [ "Early history", "North Bend Baseball Team 1912 The earliest known mention of baseball in the US is either a 1786 diary entry by a Princeton University student who describes playing \"baste ball,\" or a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, ordinance that barred the playing of baseball within of the town meeting house and its glass windows.", "Another early reference reports that ''base ball'' was regularly played on Saturdays in 1823 on the outskirts of New York City in an area that today is Greenwich Village.", "The Olympic Base Ball Club of Philadelphia was organized in 1833.In 1903, the British-born sportswriter Henry Chadwick published an article speculating that baseball was derived from an English game called rounders, which Chadwick had played as a boy in England.", "Baseball executive Albert Spalding disagreed, asserting that the game was fundamentally American and had hatched on American soil.", "To settle the matter, the two men appointed a commission, headed by Abraham Mills, the fourth president of the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs.", "The commission, which also included six other sports executives, labored for three years, finally declaring that Abner Doubleday had invented the national pastime.", "Doubleday \"...never knew that he had invented baseball.", "But 15 years after his death, he was anointed as the father of the game,\" writes baseball historian John Thorn.", "The myth about Doubleday inventing the game of baseball actually came from a Colorado mining engineer who claimed to have been present at the moment of creation.", "The miner's tale was never corroborated, nonetheless the myth was born and persists to this day.Invitation to the \"1st Annual Ball of the Magnolia Ball Club\" of New York, c. 1843, depicting the Colonnade Hotel at the Elysian Fields and a group of men playing baseball: the earliest known image of grown men playing the game.", "Which does not mean that the Doubleday myth does not continue to be disputed; in fact, it is likely that the parentage of the modern game of baseball will be in some dispute until long after such future time when the game is no longer played.The first team to play baseball under modern rules is believed to be the New York Knickerbockers.", "The club was founded on September 23, 1845, as a breakaway from the earlier Gotham Club.", "The new club's by-laws committee, William R. Wheaton and William H. Tucker, formulated the ''Knickerbocker Rules'', which, in large part, dealt with organizational matters but which also laid out some new rules of play.", "One of these prohibited ''soaking'' or ''plugging'' the runner; under older rules, a fielder could put a runner out by hitting the runner with the thrown ball, as in the common schoolyard game of kickball.", "The Knickerbocker Rules required fielders to tag or force the runner.", "The new rules also introduced base paths, foul lines and foul balls; in \"town ball\" every batted ball was fair, as in cricket, and the lack of runner's lanes led to wild chases around the infield.Initially, Wheaton and Tucker's innovations did not serve the Knickerbockers well.", "In the first known competitive game between two clubs under the new rules, played at Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey, on June 19, 1846, the \"New York nine\" (almost certainly the Gotham Club) humbled the Knickerbockers by a score of 23 to 1.Nevertheless, the Knickerbocker Rules were rapidly adopted by teams in the New York area and their version of baseball became known as the \"New York Game\" (as opposed to the less rule-bound \"Massachusetts Game,\" played by clubs in New England, and \"Philadelphia Town-ball\").In spite of its rapid growth in popularity, baseball had yet to overtake the British import, cricket.", "As late as 1855, the New York press was still devoting more space to coverage of cricket than to baseball.At a 1857 convention of sixteen New York area clubs, including the Knickerbockers, the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP) was formed.", "It was the first official organization to govern the sport and the first to establish a championship.", "The convention also formalized three key features of the game: 90 feet distance between the bases, 9-man teams, and 9-inning games (under the Knickerbocker Rules, games were played to 21 runs).", "During the Civil War, soldiers from different parts of the United States played baseball together, leading to a more unified national version of the sport.", "Membership in the NABBP grew to almost 100 clubs by 1865 and to over 400 by 1867, including clubs from as far away as California.", "Beginning in 1869, the league permitted professional play, addressing a growing practice that had not been previously permitted under its rules.", "The first and most prominent professional club of the NABBP era was the Cincinnati Red Stockings in Ohio, which went undefeated in 1869 and half of 1870.After the Cincy club broke up at the end of that season, four key members including player/manager Harry Wright moved to Boston under owner and businessman Ivers Whitney Adams and became the \"Boston Red Stockings\" and the Boston Base Ball Club.Take Me Out to The BallgameIn 1858, at the Fashion Race Course in the Corona neighborhood of Queens (now part of New York City), the first games of baseball to charge admission were played.", "The All Stars of Brooklyn, including players from the Atlantic, Excelsior, Putnam and Eckford clubs, took on the All Stars of New York (Manhattan), including players from the Knickerbocker, Gotham, Eagle and Empire clubs.", "These are commonly believed to the first all-star baseball games." ], [ "Growth", "Before the Civil War, baseball competed for public interest with cricket and regional variants of baseball, notably town ball played in Philadelphia and the Massachusetts Game played in New England.", "In the 1860s, aided by the Civil War, \"New York\" style baseball expanded into a national game.", "As its first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players was formed.", "The NABBP soon expanded into a truly national organization, although most of the strongest clubs remained those based in the country's northeastern part.", "In its 12-year history as an amateur league, the Atlantic Club of Brooklyn won seven championships, establishing themselves as the first true dynasty in the sport.", "However, Mutual of New York was widely considered one of the best teams of the era.", "By the end of 1865, almost 100 clubs were members of the NABBP.", "By 1867, it ballooned to over 400 members, including some clubs from as far away as California.", "One of these western clubs, Chicago (dubbed the \"White Stockings\" by the press for their uniform hosiery), won the championship in 1870.Because of this growth, regional and state organizations began to assume a more prominent role in the governance of the amateur sport at the expense of the NABBP.", "At the same time, the professionals soon sought a new governing body.William E. Robertson" ], [ "Professionalism", "Elizabeth RobinsThe NABBP of America was initially established upon principles of amateurism.", "However, even early in the Association's history, some star players such as James Creighton of Excelsior received compensation covertly or indirectly.", "In 1866, the NABBP investigated Athletic of Philadelphia for paying three players including Lip Pike, but ultimately took no action against either the club or the players.", "In many cases players, quite openly, received a cut of the gate receipts.", "Clubs playing challenge series were even accused of agreeing beforehand to split the earlier games to guarantee a decisive (and thus more certain to draw a crowd) \"rubber match\".", "To address this growing practice, and to restore integrity to the game, at its December 1868 meeting the NABBP established a professional category for the 1869 season.", "Clubs desiring to pay players were now free to declare themselves professional.The Cincinnati Red Stockings were the first to declare themselves openly professional, and were aggressive in recruiting the best available players.", "Twelve clubs, including most of the strongest clubs in the NABBP, ultimately declared themselves professional for the 1869 season.The first attempt at forming a major league produced the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, which lasted from 1871 to 1875.The now all-professional Chicago \"White Stockings\" (today the Chicago Cubs), financed by businessman William Hulbert, became a charter member of the league along with a new Red Stockings club (now the Atlanta Braves), formed in Boston with four former Cincinnati players.", "The Chicagos were close contenders all season, despite the fact that the Great Chicago Fire had destroyed the team's home field and most of their equipment.", "Chicago finished the season in second place, but were ultimately forced to drop out of the league during the city's recovery period, finally returning to National Association play in 1874.Over the next couple of seasons, the Boston club dominated the league and hoarded many of the game's best players, even those who were under contract with other teams.", "After Davy Force signed with Chicago, and then breached his contract to play in Boston, Hulbert became discouraged by the \"contract jumping\" as well as the overall disorganization of the N.A.", "(for example, weaker teams with losing records or inadequate gate receipts would simply decline to play out the season), and thus spearheaded the movement to form a stronger organization.", "The end result of his efforts was the formation of a much more \"ethical\" league, which was named the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs (NL).", "After a series of rival leagues were organized but failed (most notably the American Base Ball Association (1882–1891), which spawned the clubs which would ultimately become the Cincinnati Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals and Brooklyn Dodgers), the current American League (AL), evolving from the minor Western League of 1893, was established in 1901." ], [ "Rise of the major leagues", "Northeast and the Midwest until after World War II.In 1870, a schism developed between professional and amateur ballplayers.", "The NABBP split into two groups.", "The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players operated from 1871 through 1875 and is considered by some to have been the first major league.", "Its amateur counterpart disappeared after only a few years.William Hulbert's National League, which was formed after the National Association proved ineffective, put its emphasis on \"clubs\" rather than \"players\".", "Clubs now had the ability to enforce player contracts and prevent players from jumping to higher-paying clubs.", "Clubs in turn were required to play their full schedule of games, rather than forfeiting scheduled games once out of the running for the league championship, a practice that had been common under the National Association.", "A concerted effort was also made to reduce the amount of gambling on games which was leaving the validity of results in doubt.Around this time, a gentlemen's agreement was struck between the clubs to exclude non-white players from professional baseball, a ''de facto'' ban that remained in effect until 1947.It is a common misconception that Jackie Robinson was the first African-American major-league ballplayer; he was actually only the first after a long gap (and the first in the modern era).", "Moses Fleetwood Walker and his brother Weldy Walker were unceremoniously dropped from major and minor-league rosters in the 1880s, as were other African-Americans in baseball.", "An unknown number of African-Americans played in the major leagues by representing themselves as Indians, or South or Central Americans, and a still larger number played in the minor leagues and on amateur teams.", "In the majors, however, it was not until the signing of Robinson (in the National League) and Larry Doby (in the American League) that baseball began to relax its ban on African-Americans.Bob Beatty OSIA teamThe early years of the National League were tumultuous, with threats from rival leagues and a rebellion by players against the hated \"reserve clause\", which restricted the free movement of players between clubs.", "Competitive leagues formed regularly, and disbanded just as regularly.", "The most successful of these was the American Association of 1882–1891, sometimes called the \"beer and whiskey league\" for its tolerance of the sale of alcoholic beverages to spectators.", "For several years, the National League and American Association champions met in a postseason World's Championship Series—the first attempt at a World Series.The Union Association survived for only one season (1884), as did the Players' League (1890), which was an attempt to return to the National Association structure of a league controlled by the players themselves.", "Both leagues are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play and the number of star players featured.", "However, some researchers have disputed the major league status of the Union Association, pointing out that franchises came and went and contending that the St. Louis club, which was deliberately \"stacked\" by the league's president (who owned that club), was the only club that was anywhere close to major-league caliber.Baseball Players Practicing, by Thomas Eakins (1875)In fact, there were dozens of leagues, large and small, in the late 19th century.", "What made the National League \"major\" was its dominant position in the major cities, particularly the edgy, emotional nerve center of baseball that was New York City.", "Large, concentrated populations offered baseball teams national media distribution systems and fan bases that could generate sufficient revenues to afford the best players in the country.A number of the other leagues, including the venerable Eastern League, threatened the dominance of the National League.", "The Western League, founded in 1893, became particularly aggressive.", "Its fiery leader Ban Johnson railed against the National League and promised to grab the best players and field the best teams.", "The Western League began play in April 1894 with teams in Detroit (now the American League Detroit Tigers, the only league team that has not moved since), Grand Rapids, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Sioux City and Toledo.", "Prior to the 1900 season, the league changed its name to the American League and moved several franchises to larger, strategic locations.", "In 1901 the American League declared its intent to operate as a major league.The resulting bidding war for players led to widespread contract-breaking and legal disputes.", "One of the most famous involved star second baseman Napoleon Lajoie, who in 1901 went across town in Philadelphia from the National League Phillies to the American League Athletics.", "Barred by a court injunction from playing baseball in the state of Pennsylvania the next year, Lajoie was traded to the Cleveland team, where he played and managed for many years.The war between the American and National leagues caused shock waves across the baseball world.", "At a meeting in 1901, the other baseball leagues negotiated a plan to maintain their independence.", "On September 5, 1901, Eastern League president Patrick T. Powers announced the formation of the second National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, the NABPL (NA).These leagues did not consider themselves \"minor\"—a term that did not come into vogue until St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey pioneered the farm system in the 1930s.", "Nevertheless, these financially troubled leagues, by beginning the practice of selling players to the more affluent National and American leagues, embarked on a path that eventually led to the loss of their independent status.University of Pennsylvania vs. Georgetown University baseball game, , by John E. Sheridan.Ban Johnson had other designs for the NA.", "While the NA continues to this day, he saw it as a tool to end threats from smaller rivals who might some day want to expand in other territories and threaten his league's dominance.After 1902 both leagues and the NABPL signed a new National Agreement which achieved three things:* First and foremost, it governed player contracts that set up mechanisms to end the cross-league raids on rosters and reinforced the power of the hated reserve clause that kept players virtual slaves to their baseball owner/masters.", "* Second, it led to the playing of a \"World Series\" in 1903 between the two major league champions.", "The first World Series was won by Boston of the American League.", "* Lastly, it established a system of control and dominance for the major leagues over the independents.", "There would not be another Ban Johnson-like rebellion from the ranks of leagues with smaller cities.", "Selling off player contracts was rapidly becoming a staple business of the independent leagues.", "During the rough and tumble years of the American–National struggle, player contracts were violated at the independents as well, as players that a team had developed would sign with the majors without any form of compensation to the indy club.The new agreement tied independent contracts to the reserve-clause national league contracts.", "Baseball players were a commodity, like cars.", "A player's skill set had a price of $5,000.It set up a rough classification system for independent leagues that regulated the dollar value of contracts, the forerunner of the system refined by Rickey and used today.It also gave the NA great power.", "Many independents walked away from the 1901 meeting.", "The deal with the NA punished those other indies who had not joined the NA and submitted to the will of the majors.", "The NA also agreed to the deal so as to prevent more pilfering of players with little or no compensation for the players' development.", "Several leagues, seeing the writing on the wall, eventually joined the NA, which grew in size over the next several years.In the very early part of the 20th century, known as the \"dead-ball era\", baseball rules and equipment favored the \"inside game\" and the game was played more violently and aggressively than it is today.", "This period ended in the 1920s with several changes that gave advantages to hitters.", "In the largest parks, the outfield fences were brought closer to the infield.", "In addition, the strict enforcement of new rules governing the construction and regular replacement of the ball caused it to be easier to hit, and be hit harder.The first professional black baseball club, the Cuban Giants, was organized in 1885.Subsequent professional black baseball clubs played each other independently, without an official league to organize the sport.", "Rube Foster, a former ballplayer, founded the Negro National League in 1920.A second league, the Eastern Colored League, was established in 1923.These became known as the Negro leagues, though these leagues never had any formal overall structure comparable to the Major Leagues.", "The Negro National League did well until 1930, but folded during the Great Depression.From 1942 to 1948, the Negro World Series was revived.", "This was the golden era of Negro league baseball, a time when it produced some of its greatest stars.", "In 1947, Jackie Robinson signed a contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking the color barrier that had prevented talented African-American players from entering the white-only major leagues.", "Although the transformation was not instantaneous, baseball has since become fully integrated.", "While the Dodgers' signing of Robinson was a key moment in baseball and civil rights history, it prompted the decline of the Negro leagues.", "The best black players were now recruited for the Major Leagues, and black fans followed.", "The last Negro league teams folded in the 1960s.Pitchers dominated the game in the 1960s and early 1970s.", "In 1973, the designated hitter (DH) rule was adopted by the American League, while in the National League, the DH rule was not adopted until March 2022.The rule had been applied in a variety of ways during the World Series; until the adoption of the DH by the National League, the DH rule applied when Series games were played in an American League stadium, and pitchers would bat during Series games played in National League stadiums.", "There had been continued disagreement about the future of the DH rule in the World Series until league-wide adoption of the DH rule.During the late 1960s, the Baseball Players Union became much stronger and conflicts between owners and the players' union led to major work stoppages in 1972, 1981, and 1994.The 1994 baseball strike led to the cancellation of the World Series, and was not settled until the spring of 1995.In the late 1990s, functions that had been administered separately by the two major leagues' administrations were united under the rubric of Major League Baseball (MLB)." ], [ "The dead-ball era: 1901 to 1919", "Cy Young, 1911 baseball card1953.The period 1901–1919 is commonly called the \"Dead-ball era\", with low-scoring games dominated by pitchers such as Walter Johnson, Cy Young, Christy Mathewson, and Grover Cleveland Alexander.", "The term also accurately describes the condition of the baseball itself.", "Baseballs cost three dollars each in 1901, a unit price which would be equal to $ today.", "In contrast, modern baseballs purchased in bulk as is the case with professional teams cost about seven dollars each as of 2021 and thus make up a negligible portion of a modern MLB team's operating budget.", "Due to the much larger relative cost, club owners in the early 20th century were reluctant to spend much money on new balls if not necessary.", "It was not unusual for a single baseball to last an entire game, nor for a baseball to be reused for the next game especially if it was still in relatively good condition as would likely be the case for a ball introduced late in the game.", "By the end of the game, the ball would usually be dark with grass, mud, and tobacco juice, and it would be misshapen and lumpy from contact with the bat.", "Balls were replaced only if they were hit into the crowd and lost, and many clubs employed security guards expressly for the purpose of retrieving balls hit into the stands — a practice unthinkable today.How To Play Baseball instruction bookAs a consequence, home runs were rare, and the \"inside game\" dominated—singles, bunts, stolen bases, the hit-and-run play, and other tactics dominated the strategies of the time.Despite this, there were also several superstar hitters, the most famous being Honus Wagner, held to be one of the greatest shortstops to ever play the game, and Detroit's Ty Cobb, the \"Georgia Peach.\"", "His career batting average of .366 has yet to be bested.===The Merkle incident===The 1908 pennant races in both the AL and NL were among the most exciting ever witnessed.", "The conclusion of the National League season, in particular, involved a bizarre chain of events.", "On September 23, 1908, the New York Giants and Chicago Cubs played a game in the Polo Grounds.", "Nineteen-year-old rookie first baseman Fred Merkle, later to become one of the best players at his position in the league, was on first base, with teammate Moose McCormick on third with two outs and the game tied.", "Giants shortstop Al Bridwell socked a single, scoring McCormick and apparently winning the game.", "However, Merkle, instead of advancing to second base, ran toward the clubhouse to avoid the spectators mobbing the field, which at that time was a common, acceptable practice.", "The Cubs' second baseman, Johnny Evers, noticed this.", "In the confusion that followed, Evers claimed to have retrieved the ball and touched second base, forcing Merkle out and nullifying the run scored.", "Evers brought this to the attention of the umpire that day, Hank O'Day, who after some deliberation called the runner out.", "Because of the state of the field O'Day thereby called the game.", "Despite the arguments by the Giants, the league upheld O'Day's decision and ordered the game replayed at the end of the season, if necessary.", "It turned out that the Cubs and Giants ended the season tied for first place, so the game was indeed replayed, and the Cubs won the game, the pennant, and subsequently the World Series (the last Cubs Series victory until 2016).For his part, Merkle was doomed to endless ridicule throughout his career (and to a lesser extent for the rest of his life) for this lapse, which went down in history as \"Merkle's Boner\".", "In his defense, some baseball historians have suggested that it was not customary for game-ending hits to be fully \"run out\", it was only Evers's insistence on following the rules strictly that resulted in this unusual play.", "In fact, earlier in the 1908 season, the identical situation had been brought to the umpires' attention by Evers; the umpire that day was the same Hank O'Day.", "While the winning run was allowed to stand on that occasion, the dispute raised O'Day's awareness of the rule, and directly set up the Merkle controversy.===New places to play===Turn-of-the-century baseball attendances were modest by later standards.", "The average for the 1,110 games in the 1901 season was 3,247.However, the first 20 years of the 20th century saw an unprecedented rise in the popularity of baseball.", "Large stadiums dedicated to the game were built for many of the larger clubs or existing grounds enlarged, including Tiger Stadium in Detroit, Shibe Park in Philadelphia, Ebbets Field in Brooklyn, the Polo Grounds in Manhattan, Boston's Fenway Park along with Wrigley Field and Comiskey Park in Chicago.", "Likewise from the Eastern League to the small developing leagues in the West, and the rising Negro leagues professional baseball was being played all across the country.", "Average major league attendances reached a pre-World War I peak of 5,836 in 1909.Where there weren't professional teams, there were semi-professional teams, traveling teams barnstorming, company clubs and amateur men's leagues that drew small but fervent crowds.===The \"Black Sox\"===Shoeless Joe JacksonThe fix of baseball games by gamblers and players working together had been suspected as early as the 1850s.", "Hal Chase was particularly notorious for throwing games, but played for a decade after gaining this reputation; he even managed to parlay these accusations into a promotion to manager.", "Even baseball stars such as Ty Cobb and Tris Speaker have been credibly alleged to have fixed game outcomes.", "When MLB's complacency during this \"Golden Age\" was eventually exposed after the 1919 World Series, it became known as the Black Sox scandal.After an excellent regular season (88–52, .629 W%), the Chicago White Sox were heavy favorites to win the 1919 World Series.", "Arguably the best team in baseball, the White Sox had a deep lineup, a strong pitching staff, and a good defense.", "Even though the National League champion Cincinnati Reds had a superior regular season record (96–44, .689 W%,) no one, including gamblers and bookmakers, anticipated the Reds having a chance.", "When the Reds triumphed 5–3, many pundits cried foul.At the time of the scandal, the White Sox were arguably the most successful franchise in baseball, with excellent gate receipts and record attendance.", "At the time, most baseball players were not paid especially well and had to work other jobs during the winter to survive.", "Some elite players on the big-city clubs made very good salaries, but Chicago was a notable exception.For many years, the White Sox were owned and operated by Charles Comiskey, who paid the lowest player salaries, on average, in the American League.", "The White Sox players all intensely disliked Comiskey and his penurious ways, but were powerless to do anything, thanks to baseball's so-called \"reserve clause\" that prevented players from switching teams without their team owner's consent.By late 1919, Comiskey's tyrannical reign over the Sox had sown deep bitterness among the players, and White Sox first baseman Arnold \"Chick\" Gandil decided to conspire to throw the 1919 World Series.", "He persuaded gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, with whom he had had previous dealings, that the fix could be pulled off for $100,000 total (which would be equal to $ today), paid to the players involved.", "New York gangster Arnold Rothstein supplied the $100,000 that Gandil had requested through his lieutenant Abe Attell, a former featherweight boxing champion.After the 1919 series, and through the beginning of the 1920 baseball season, rumors swirled that some of the players had conspired to purposefully lose.", "At last, in 1920, a grand jury was convened to investigate these and other allegations of fixed baseball games.", "Eight players (Charles \"Swede\" Risberg, Arnold \"Chick\" Gandil, \"Shoeless\" Joe Jackson, Oscar \"Happy\" Felsch, Eddie Cicotte, George \"Buck\" Weaver, Fred McMullin, and Claude \"Lefty\" Williams) were indicted and tried for conspiracy.", "The players were ultimately acquitted.However, the damage to the reputation of the sport of baseball led the team owners to appoint Federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis to be the first Commissioner of Baseball.", "His first act as commissioner was to ban the \"Black Sox\" from professional baseball for life.", "The White Sox, meanwhile,would not return to the World Series until 1959, and it was not until their next appearance in 2005 they won the World Series." ], [ "The Negro leagues", "Until July 5, 1947, baseball had two histories.", "One fills libraries, while baseball historians are only just beginning to chronicle the other fully: African Americans have played baseball as long as white Americans.", "Players of color, both African-American and Hispanic, played for white baseball clubs throughout the very early days of the growing amateur sport.", "Moses Fleetwood Walker is considered the first African American to play at the major league level, in 1884.But soon, and dating through the first half of the 20th century, an unwritten but iron-clad color line fenced African-Americans and other players of color out of the \"majors\".The Negro leagues were American professional baseball leagues comprising predominantly African-American teams.", "The term may be used broadly to include professional black teams outside the leagues and it may be used narrowly for the seven relatively successful leagues beginning 1920 that are sometimes termed \"Negro major leagues\".The first professional team, established in 1885, achieved great and lasting success as the Cuban Giants, while the first league, the National Colored Base Ball League, failed in 1887 after only two weeks due to low attendance.", "The Negro American League of 1951 is considered the last major league season and the last professional club, the Indianapolis Clowns, operated amusingly rather than competitively from the mid-1960s to 1980s.===The first international leagues===While many of the players that made up the black baseball teams were African Americans, many more were Latin Americans (mostly, but not exclusively, black), from nations that deliver some of the greatest talents that make up the Major League rosters of today.", "Black players moved freely through the rest of baseball, playing in Canadian Baseball, Mexican Baseball, Caribbean Baseball, and Central America and South America, where more than a few achieved a level of fame that was unavailable in the country of their birth." ], [ "Babe Ruth and the end of the dead-ball era", "Babe Ruth in 1920.rightIt was not the Black Sox scandal which put an end to the dead-ball era, but a rule change and a single player.Some of the increased offensive output can be explained by the 1920 rule change that outlawed tampering with the ball.", "Pitchers had developed a number of techniques for producing \"spitballs\", \"shine balls\" and other trick pitches which had \"unnatural\" flight through the air.", "Umpires were now required to put new balls into play whenever the current ball became scuffed or discolored.", "This rule change was enforced all the more stringently following the death of Ray Chapman, who was struck in the temple by a pitched ball from Carl Mays in a game on August 16, 1920; he died the next day.", "Discolored balls, harder for batters to see and therefore harder for batters to dodge, have been rigorously removed from play ever since.", "This meant that batters could now see and hit the ball with less difficulty.", "With the added prohibition on the ball being purposely wetted or scuffed in any way, pitchers had to rely on pure athletic skill—changes in grip, wrist angle, arm angle and throwing dynamics, plus a new and growing appreciation of the aerodynamic effect of the spinning ball's seams—to pitch with altered trajectories and hopefully confuse or distract batters.At the end of the 1919 season Harry Frazee, then owner of the Boston Red Sox, sold a group of his star players to the New York Yankees.", "Among them was George Herman Ruth, known affectionately as \"Babe\".", "Ruth's career mirrors the shift in dominance from pitching to hitting at this time.", "He started his career as a pitcher in 1914, and by 1916 was considered one of the dominant left-handed pitchers in the game.", "When Edward Barrow, managing the Red Sox, converted him to an outfielder, ballplayers and sportswriters were shocked.", "It was apparent, however, that Ruth's bat in the lineup every day was far more valuable than Ruth's arm on the mound every fourth day.", "Ruth swatted 29 home runs in his last season in Boston.", "The next year, as a Yankee, he would hit 54 and in 1921 he hit 59.His 1927 mark of 60 home runs would last until 1961.Hall of Famer Hank GreenbergRuth's power hitting ability demonstrated a dramatic new way to play the game, one that was extremely popular with fans.", "Accordingly, ballparks were expanded, sometimes by building outfield \"bleacher\" seating which shrunk the size of the outfield and made home runs more frequent.", "In addition to Ruth, hitters such as Rogers Hornsby also took advantage, with Hornsby compiling extraordinary figures for both power and average in the early 1920s.", "By the late 1920s and 1930s all the good teams had their home-run hitting \"sluggers\": the Yankees' Lou Gehrig, Jimmie Foxx in Philadelphia, Hank Greenberg in Detroit and in Chicago Hack Wilson were the most storied.", "While the American League championship, and to a lesser extent the World Series, would be dominated by the Yankees, there were many other excellent teams in the inter-war years.", "The National League's St. Louis Cardinals, for example, would win three titles in nine years, the last with a group of players known as the \"Gashouse Gang\".The first radio broadcast of a baseball game was on August 5, 1921, over Westinghouse station KDKA from Forbes Field in Pittsburgh.", "Harold Arlin announced the Pirates–Phillies game.", "Attendances in the 1920s were consistently better than they had been before WWI.", "The interwar peak average attendance was 8,211 in 1930, but baseball was hit hard by the Great Depression and in 1933 the average fell below five thousand for the only time between the wars.", "At first wary of radio's potential to impact ticket sales at the park, owners began to make broadcast deals and by the late 1930s, all teams' games went out over the air.1933 also saw the introduction of the yearly All-Star game, a mid-season break in which the greatest players in each league play against one another in a hard-fought but officially meaningless demonstration game.", "In 1936 the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, was instituted and five players elected: Ty Cobb, Walter Johnson, Christy Mathewson, Babe Ruth and Honus Wagner.", "The Hall formally opened in 1939 and, of course, remains open to this day." ], [ "The war years", "In 1941, a year which saw the premature death of Lou Gehrig, Boston's great left fielder Ted Williams had a batting average over .400—the last time anyone has achieved that feat.", "During the same season Joe DiMaggio hit successfully in 56 consecutive games, an accomplishment both unprecedented and unequaled.After the United States entered World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Landis asked Franklin D. Roosevelt whether professional baseball should continue during the war.", "In the \"Green Light Letter\", the US president replied that baseball was important to national morale, and asked for more night games so day workers could attend.", "Thirty-five Hall of Fame members and more than 500 Major League Baseball players served in the war, but with the exception of D-Day, games continued.", "Both Williams and DiMaggio would miss playing time in the services, with Williams also flying later in the Korean War.", "During this period Stan Musial led the St. Louis Cardinals to the 1942, 1944 and 1946 World Series titles.", "The war years also saw the founding of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.Baseball boomed after World War II.", "1945 saw a new attendance record and the following year average crowds leapt nearly 70% to 14,914.Further records followed in 1948 and 1949, when the average reached 16,913.While average attendances slipped to somewhat lower levels through the 1950s, 1960s and the first half of the 1970s, they remained well above pre-war levels, and total seasonal attendance regularly hit new highs from 1962 onward as the number of major league teams—and games—increased.==Racial integration in baseball==The post-War years in baseball also witnessed the racial integration of the sport.", "Participation by African Americans in organized baseball had been precluded since the 1890s by formal and informal agreements, with only a few players being surreptitiously included in lineups on a sporadic basis.American society as a whole moved toward integration in the post-War years, partially as a result of the distinguished service by African American military units such as the Tuskegee Airmen, 366th Infantry Regiment, and others.", "During the baseball winter meetings in 1943, noted African-American athlete and actor Paul Robeson campaigned for integration of the sport.", "After World War II ended, several team managers considered recruiting members of the Negro leagues for entry into organized baseball.", "In the early 1920s, New York Giants' manager John McGraw tried to slip a black player, Charlie Grant, into his lineup (reportedly by passing him off to the front office as an Indian), and McGraw's wife reported finding names of dozens of black players that McGraw fantasized about signing, after his death.", "Pittsburgh Pirates owner Bill Bensawanger reportedly signed Josh Gibson to a contract in 1943, and the Washington Senators were also said to be interested in his services.", "But those efforts (and others) were opposed by Kenesaw Mountain Landis, baseball's powerful commissioner and a staunch segregationist.", "Bill Veeck claimed that Landis blocked his purchase of the Philadelphia Phillies because he planned to integrate the team.", "While this account is disputed, Landis was in fact opposed to integration, and his death in 1944 (and subsequent replacement as Commissioner by Happy Chandler) removed a major obstacle for black players in the Major Leagues.Jackie Robinson in 1954The general manager who would be eventually successful in breaking the color barrier was Branch Rickey of the Brooklyn Dodgers.", "Rickey himself had experienced the issue of segregation.", "While playing and coaching for his college team at Ohio Wesleyan University, Rickey had a black teammate named Charles Thomas.", "On a road trip through southern Ohio, his fellow player was refused a room in a hotel.", "Although Rickey was able to get the player into his room for that night, he was taken aback when he reached his room to find Thomas upset and crying about this injustice.", "Rickey related this incident as an example of why he wanted a full desegregation of not only baseball, but the entire nation.In the mid-1940s, Rickey had compiled a list of Negro league ballplayers for possible Major League contracts.", "Realizing that the first African-American signee would be a magnet for prejudiced sentiment, however, Rickey was intent on finding a player with the distinguished personality and character that would allow him to tolerate the inevitable abuse.", "Rickey's sights eventually settled on Jackie Robinson, a shortstop with the Kansas City Monarchs.", "Although probably not the best player in the Negro leagues at the time, Robinson was an exceptional talent, was college-educated, and had the marketable distinction of having served as an officer during World War II.", "Even more importantly, Rickey judged Robinson to possess the inner strength to withstand the inevitable harsh animosity to come.", "To prepare him for the task, Rickey played Robinson in 1946 for the Dodgers' minor league team, the Montreal Royals, which proved an arduous emotional challenge, though Robinson enjoyed fervently enthusiastic support from the Montreal fans.", "On April 15, 1947, Robinson broke the color barrier, which had been tacitly recognized for almost 75 years, with his appearance for the Brooklyn Dodgers at Ebbets Field.Eleven weeks later, on July 5, 1947, the American League was integrated by the signing of Larry Doby to the Cleveland Indians.", "Over the next few years, a handful of black baseball players made appearances in the majors, including Roy Campanella (teammate to Robinson in Brooklyn) and Satchel Paige (teammate to Doby in Cleveland).", "Paige, who had pitched more than 2,400 innings in the Negro leagues, sometimes two and three games a day, was still effective at 42, and still playing at 59.His ERA in the Major Leagues was 3.29.However, the initial pace of integration was slow.", "By 1953, only six of the sixteen major league teams had a black player on the roster.", "The Boston Red Sox became the last major league team to integrate its roster with the addition of Pumpsie Green on July 21, 1959.While limited in numbers, the on-field performance of early black Major League players was outstanding.", "In the fourteen years from 1947 to 1960, black players won one or more of the Rookie of the Year awards nine times.While never prohibited in the same fashion as African Americans, Latin American players also benefitted greatly from the integration era.", "In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and Cuban-born (and black) Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars.According to some baseball historians, Jackie Robinson and the other African-American players helped reestablish the importance of baserunning and similar elements of play that were previously de-emphasized by the predominance of power hitting.From 1947 to the 1970s, African-American participation in baseball rose steadily.", "By 1974, 27% of baseball players were African American.", "As a result of this on-field experience, minorities began to experience long-delayed gains in managerial positions within baseball.", "In 1975, Frank Robinson (who had been the 1956 Rookie of the Year with the Cincinnati Reds) was named player-manager of the Cleveland Indians, making him the first African-American manager in the major leagues.Although these front-office gains continued, Major League Baseball saw a lengthy slow decline in the percentage of black players after the mid-1970s.", "By 2007, African Americans made up less than 9% of Major League players.", "While this trend is largely attributed to an increased emphasis on recruitment of players from Latin America (with the number of Hispanic players in the major leagues rising to 29% by 2007), other factors have been cited as well.", "Hall of Fame player Dave Winfield, for instance, has pointed out that urban America provides fewer resources for youth baseball than in the past.", "Despite this continued prevalence of Hispanic players, the percentage of black players rose again in 2008 to 10.2%.Arturo Moreno became the first Hispanic owner of an MLB franchise when he purchased the Anaheim Angels in 2004.In 2005, a Racial and Gender Report Card on Major League Baseball was issued, which generally found positive results on the inclusion of African Americans and Latinos in baseball, and gave Major League Baseball a grade of \"A\" or better for opportunities for players, managers and coaches as well as for MLB's central office.", "At that time, 37% of major league players were people of color: Latino (26 percent), African American (9 percent) or Asian (2 percent).", "Also by 2004, 29% of the professional staff in MLB's central office were people of color, 11% of team vice presidents were people of color, and seven of the league's managers were of color (four African Americans and three Latinos)." ], [ "The Major Leagues move west", "Baseball had been in the West for almost as long as the National League and the American League had been around.", "It evolved into the Pacific Coast League (PCL), which included the Hollywood Stars, Los Angeles Angels, Oakland Oaks, Portland Beavers, Sacramento Solons, San Francisco Seals, San Diego Padres, Seattle Rainiers.The PCL was huge in the West.", "A member of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, it kept losing great players to the National and the American leagues for less than $8,000 a player.The PCL was far more independent than the other \"minor\" leagues, and rebelled continuously against their Eastern masters.", "Clarence Pants Rowland, the President of the PCL, took on baseball commissioners Kenesaw Mountain Landis and Happy Chandler at first to get better equity from the major leagues, then to form a third major league.", "His efforts were rebuffed by both commissioners.", "Chandler and several of the owners, who saw the value of the markets in the West, started to plot the extermination of the PCL.", "They had one thing that Rowland did not: The financial power of the Eastern major league baseball establishment.No one was going to back a PCL club building a major-league size stadium if the National or the American League was going to build one too, which discouraged investment in PCL ballparks.", "PCL games and rivalries still drew fans, but the leagues' days of dominance in the West were numbered.===1953–1955==='''''Before Expansion:'' The Major Leagues, 1901 to 1960''' ''(move)'' '''National League'''  '''City''' '''American League'''  ''(move)'' ''to Milwaukee 1953 ← ''Braves'''Boston'''Red Sox    Phillies'''Philadelphia'''Athletics '' → to Kansas City 1955''     '' to San Francisco 1958 ← ''   Giants'''New York City'''Yankees '' ← Baltimore Orioles 1901–2 '' '' to Los Angeles 1958 ← ''Dodgers'''Brooklyn'''      '''Washington, D.C.'''Senators'' → Minnesota Twins 1961 '' Pirates'''Pittsburgh'''   Reds'''Cincinnati'''      '''Cleveland'''Indians      '''Detroit'''Tigers    Cubs'''Chicago'''White Sox    Cardinals'''St.", "Louis'''Browns '' ← Milwaukee Brewers 1901 ''→ ''Baltimore Orioles 1954''''New Major League homes, 1953 to 1960'' Former city'''National League''' New city'''American League''' Former city''Boston 1871 → to Atlanta 1966 ← ''Braves (1953)'''Milwaukee'''      '''Baltimore'''Orioles (1954) ''← Milwaukee Brewers 1901 ← St. Louis Browns 1902–53 ''       '''Kansas City'''Athletics (1955) ''← Philadelphia 1871 → to Oakland 1968 '' ''New York 1883'' →Giants (1958)'''San Francisco'''  ''Brooklyn 1883'' →Dodgers (1958)'''Los Angeles'''  Until the 1950s, major league baseball franchises had been largely confined to the northeastern United States, with the teams and their locations remaining unchanged from 1903 to 1952.The first team to relocate in fifty years was the Boston Braves, who moved in 1953 to Milwaukee, where the club set attendance records.", "In 1954, the St. Louis Browns moved to Baltimore and were renamed the Baltimore Orioles.", "These relocations can be seen as a full-circle ending to the classic era, which began with the moves of teams ''from'' Milwaukee and Baltimore.", "In 1955, the Philadelphia Athletics moved to Kansas City.===National League Baseball leaves New York===In 1958 the New York market ripped apart.", "The Yankees were becoming the dominant draw, and the cities of the West offered generations of new fans in much more sheltered markets for the other venerable New York clubs, the Brooklyn Dodgers and the New York Giants.", "Placing these storied, powerhouse clubs in the two biggest cities in the West had the specific design of crushing any attempt by the PCL to form a third major league.", "Eager to bring these big names to the West, Los Angeles gave Walter O'Malley, owner of the Dodgers, a helicopter tour of the city and asked him to pick his spot.", "The Giants were given the lease of the PCL San Francisco Seals while Candlestick Park was built for them.===California===The logical first candidates for major league \"expansion\" were the same metropolitan areas that had just attracted the Dodgers and Giants.", "It is said that the Dodgers and Giants—National League rivals in New York City—chose their new cities because Los Angeles (in southern California) and San Francisco (in northern California) already had a fierce rivalry (geographical, economic, cultural and political), dating back to the state's founding.", "The only California expansion team—and also the first in Major League Baseball in over 70 years—was the Los Angeles Angels (later the California Angels, the Anaheim Angels, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, before reverting to Los Angeles Angels in 2016), who brought the American League to southern California in 1961.Northern California, however, would later gain its own American League team, in 1968, when the Athletics would move again, settling in Oakland, across San Francisco Bay from the Giants.===1961–1962===Along with the Angels, the other 1961 expansion team was the Washington Senators, who joined the American League and took over the nation's capital when the previous Senators moved to Minnesota and became the Twins.", "1961 is also noted as being the year in which Roger Maris surpassed Babe Ruth's single season home run record, hitting 61 for the New York Yankees, albeit in a slightly longer season than Ruth's.", "To keep pace with the American League—which now had ten teams—the National League likewise expanded to ten teams, in 1962, with the addition of the Houston Colt .45s and New York Mets.Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, opened in 1966, was built in part to lure the Athletics from Kansas City.===1969===In 1969, the American League expanded when the Kansas City Royals and Seattle Pilots, the latter in a longtime PCL stronghold, were admitted to the league.", "The Pilots stayed just one season in Seattle before moving to Milwaukee and becoming today's Milwaukee Brewers.", "The National League also added two teams that year, the Montreal Expos and San Diego Padres.", "Given the size of the expanded leagues, 12 teams apiece, each split into East and West divisions, with a playoff series to determine the pennant winner and World Series contender—the first post-season baseball instituted since the advent of the World Series itself.The Padres were the last of the core PCL teams to be absorbed.", "The Coast League did not die, though.", "After reforming and moving into new markets, it successfully transformed into a Class AAA league.===1972–2013===A 2005 vintage base ball game, played by 1886 rules.", "Vintage games are live contests that seek to portray the authenticity of the early game.", "(The term \"reenactment\" is a common misnomer; games are contested and not meant to recreate a specific historical event.", ")In 1972, the second Washington Senators moved to the Dallas–Fort Worth area and became the Texas Rangers.In 1977, the American League expanded to fourteen teams, with the newly formed Seattle Mariners and Toronto Blue Jays.", "Sixteen years later, in 1993, the National League likewise expanded to fourteen teams, with the newly formed Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins (now Miami Marlins).Beginning with the 1994 season, both the AL and the NL were divided into three divisions (East, West, and Central), with the addition of a wild card team (the team with the best record among those finishing in second place) to enable four teams in each league to advance to the preliminary division series.", "However, due to the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike (which canceled the 1994 World Series), the new rules did not go into effect until the 1995 World Series.In 1998, the AL and the NL each added a fifteenth team, for a total of thirty teams in Major League Baseball.", "The Arizona Diamondbacks joined the National League, and the Tampa Bay Devil Rays—now called simply the Rays—joined the American League.", "In order to keep the number of teams in each league at an even number—with 14 in the AL and 16 in the NL—Milwaukee changed leagues and became a member of the National League.", "Two years later, the NL and AL ended their independent corporate existences and merged into a new legal entity named Major League Baseball; the two leagues remained as playing divisions.", "In 2001, MLB took over the struggling Montreal Expos franchise and, after the 2004 season, moved it to Washington, DC, which had been clamoring for a team ever since the second Senators' departure in 1972; the club was renamed the Nationals.In 2013, in keeping with Commissioner Bud Selig's desire for expanded interleague play, the Houston Astros were shifted from the National to the American League; with an odd number (15) in each league, an interleague contest was played somewhere almost every day during the season.", "At this time the divisions within each league were shuffled to create six equal divisions of five teams." ], [ "Pitching dominance and rules changes", "250pxBy the late 1960s, the balance between pitching and hitting had swung back to favor of the pitchers once more.", "In 1968 Carl Yastrzemski won the American League batting title with an average of just .301, the lowest in history.", "That same year, Detroit Tigers pitcher Denny McLain won 31 games—making him the last pitcher to win 30 games in a season.", "St. Louis Cardinals starting pitcher Bob Gibson achieved an equally remarkable feat by allowing an ERA of just 1.12.In response to these events, major league baseball implemented certain rule changes in 1969 to benefit the batters.", "The pitcher's mound was lowered, and the strike zone was reduced.In 1973 the American League, which had been suffering from much lower attendance than the National League, made a move to increase scoring even further by initiating the designated hitter rule." ], [ "Players assert themselves", "Hall of Famer Sandy Koufax, who refused to re-sign his contract and held out in 1966From the time of the formation of the Major Leagues to the 1960s, the team owners controlled the game.", "After the so-called \"Brotherhood Strike\" of 1890 and the failure of the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players and its Players National League, the owners' control of the game seemed absolute.", "It lasted over 70 years despite a number of short-lived players organizations.", "In 1966, however, the players enlisted the help of labor union activist Marvin Miller to form the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA).", "The same year, Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale—both Cy Young Award winners for the Los Angeles Dodgers—refused to re-sign their contracts, jointly holding out for better contracts.", "The era of the reserve clause, which held players to one team, was drawing to an end.The first legal challenge came in 1970.Backed by the MLBPA, St. Louis Cardinals outfielder Curt Flood took the leagues to court to negate a player trade, citing the 13th Amendment and antitrust legislation.", "In 1972, he finally lost his case before the United States Supreme Court by a vote of 5 to 3, but gained large-scale public sympathy, and the damage had been done.", "The reserve clause survived, but it had been irrevocably weakened.", "In 1975, Andy Messersmith of the Dodgers and Dave McNally of the Montreal Expos played without contracts, and then declared themselves free agents in response to an arbitrator's ruling.", "Handcuffed by concessions made in the Flood case, the owners had no choice but to accept the collective bargaining package offered by the MLBPA, and the reserve clause was effectively ended, to be replaced by the current system of free-agency and arbitration.While the legal challenges were going on, the game continued.", "In 1969, the \"Miracle Mets\", just seven years after their formation, recorded their first winning season, won the National League East and finally the World Series.On the field, the 1970s saw some of the longest-standing records fall, along with the rise of two powerhouse dynasties.", "In Oakland, the Swinging A's were overpowering, winning the Series in 1972, 1973 and 1974, and five straight division titles.", "The strained relationships between teammates, who included Catfish Hunter, Vida Blue and Reggie Jackson, gave the lie to the need for \"chemistry\" between players.", "The National League, on the other hand, belonged to the Big Red Machine in Cincinnati, where Sparky Anderson's team, which included Pete Rose as well as Hall of Famers Tony Pérez, Johnny Bench and Joe Morgan, succeeded the A's run in 1975.The decade also contained great individual achievements.", "On April 8, 1974, Hank Aaron of the Atlanta Braves hit his 715th career home run, surpassing Babe Ruth's all-time record.", "He would retire in 1976 with 755, and that was just one of numerous records he achieved, many of which, including total bases, still stand today.", "There was great pitching too: between 1973 and 1975, Nolan Ryan threw four \"no-hit\" games.", "He would add a record-breaking fifth in 1981 and two more before his retirement in 1993, by which time he had also accumulated 5,714 strikeouts, another record, in a 27-year career." ], [ "The marketing and hype era", "From the 1980s onward, the major league game changed dramatically, due to the combined effects of free agency, improvements in the science of sports conditioning, changes in the marketing and television broadcasting of sporting events, and the push by brand-name products for greater visibility.", "These events lead to greater labor difficulties, fan disaffection, rapidly rising prices, changes in game-play, and problems with the use of performance-enhancing substances like steroids tainting the race for records.", "In spite of all this, stadium crowds generally grew.", "Average attendances first broke 20,000 in 1979 and 30,000 in 1993.That year total attendance hit 70 million, but baseball was hit hard by a strike in 1994, and as of 2005 it had marginally improved on those 1993 records.", "(Update: Between 2009 and 2017, average attendance hovered just over the 30,000 mark, with numbers falling into the 28,000s in '18 and '19.The 2019 season saw a million fewer tickets sold than the banner year of 2007, however revenues to major league baseball from media rights fees increased total revenue to $10 billion in 2018, a 70% rise from a decade before.", ")===The science of the sport changes the game===During the 1980s, significant advances were made in the science of physical conditioning.", "Weight rooms and training equipment were improved.", "Trainers and doctors developed better diets and regimens to make athletes bigger, healthier, and stronger than they had ever been.Another major change that had been occurring during this time was the adoption of the pitch count.", "Starting pitchers who played complete games had not been an unusual thing in baseball's history.", "Now, pitchers were throwing harder than ever and pitching coaches watched to see how many pitches a player had thrown over the game.", "At anywhere from 100 to 125, pitchers increasingly would be pulled out to preserve their arms.", "Bullpens began to specialize more, with more pitchers being trained as middle relievers, and a few hurlers, usually possessing high velocity but not much durability, as closers.", "The science of maximizing effectiveness and career duration, while attempting to minimize injury and downtime, is an ongoing pursuit by coaches and kinesiologists.Along with the expansion of teams, the addition of more pitchers needed to play a complete game stressed the total number of quality players available in a system that restricted its talent searches at that time to America, Canada, Latin America, and the Caribbean.===Television===The arrival of live televised sports in the 1950s increased attention and revenue for all major league clubs at first.", "The television programming was extremely regional, hurting the non-televised minor and independent leagues most.", "People stayed home to watch Maury Wills rather than watch unknowns at their local baseball park.", "Major League Baseball, as it always did, made sure that it controlled rights and fees charged for the broadcasts of all games, just as it had on radio.The national networks began televising national games of the week, opening the door for a national audience to see particular clubs.", "While most teams were broadcast in the course of a season, emphasis tended toward the league leaders with famous players and the major market franchises that could draw the largest audience.===The rise of cable===In the 1970s the cable revolution began.", "The Atlanta Braves became a power contender with greater revenues generated by WTBS, Ted Turner's Atlanta-based Super-Station, broadcast as \"America's Team\" to cable households nationwide.", "The roll-out of ESPN, then regional sports networks (now mostly under the umbrella of Fox Sports Net) changed sports news in general and particularly baseball with its relatively huge number of games-per-season.", "Now under the microscope of news organizations that needed to fill 24 programming hours per day, the amount of attention—and salary—paid to major league players grew exponentially.", "Players who would have sought off-season jobs to make ends meet just 20 years earlier were now well-paid professionals at least, and multi-millionaires in many cases.", "This super-star status often rested on careers that were not as compelling as those of the baseball heroes of a less media-intense time.As player contract values soared, and the number of broadcasters, commentators, columnists, and sports writers also multiplied.", "The competition for a fresh angle on any story became fierce.", "Media pundits began questioning the high salaries paid to players when on-field performance was deemed less than deserving.", "Critical commentary was more of a draw than praise, and coverage began to become intensely negative.", "Players' personal lives, which had always been off-limits except under extreme circumstances, became the fodder of editorials, insider stories on TV, and features in magazines.", "When the use of performance-enhancing drugs became an issue, drawing scornful criticism from fans and pundits, the gap between the sports media and the players whom they covered widened further.With the development of satellite television and digital cable, Major League Baseball launched channels with season-subscription fees, making it possible for fans to watch virtually every game played, in both major leagues, everywhere, in real time.====Team networks====The next refinement of baseball on cable was the creation of single-team cable networks.", "YES Network & NESN, the New York Yankees & Boston Red Sox cable television networks, respectively, took in millions to broadcast games not only in New York and Boston but around the country.", "These networks generated as much revenue as, or more than, revenue annually for large-market teams' baseball operations.", "By fencing these channels off in separate corporate entities, owners were able to exclude the income from consideration during contract negotiations.===Merchandise, endorsements and sponsorships===The first merchandise produced in response to the growing popularity of the game was the baseball trading card.", "The earliest known player cards were produced in 1868 by a pair of New York baseball-equipment purveyors.", "Since that time, many enterprises, notably tobacco and candy companies, have used trading cards to promote and sell their products.", "These cards rarely, if ever, provided any benefit directly to the players, but a growing mania for collecting and trading cards helped personalize baseball, giving some fans a more personal connection to their favorite players and introducing them to new ones.", "Eventually, older cards became “vintage” and rare cards gained in value until the secondary market for trading cards became a billion-dollar industry in itself, with the rarest individuals bringing mid-six-figures to millions of dollars at auction.", "The advent of the Internet and websites such as eBay provided huge new venues for buyers, sellers and traders, some of whom have made baseball cards their living.In recent years baseball cards have disassociated from unrelated products like tobacco and bubble-gum, to become products in their own right.", "Following the exit of competitor Donruss from the baseball-card industry, former bubble-gum giants Topps and Fleer came to dominate that market through exclusive contracts with players and Major League Baseball.", "Fleer, in turn, exited the market in 2007, leaving Topps as the only card manufacturer with an MLB contract.Other genuine baseball memorabilia also trades and sells, often at high prices.", "Much of what is for sale as \"memorabilia\" is manufactured strictly for sale and rarely has a direct connection to teams or players beyond the labeling, unless signed in person by a player.", "Souvenir balls caught by fans during important games, especially significant home run balls, have great rarity value, and balls signed by players have always been treasured, traded and sold.", "The high value of autographs has created new businessmen whose sole means of making a living was acquiring autographs and memorabilia from the athletes.", "Memorabilia hounds fought with fans to get signatures worth $20, $60, or even $100 or more in their inventory.", "Of great value to individual top players are endorsement contracts wherein the player's fame is used to sell anything from sports equipment to automobiles, soda and underwear.", "Top players can receive as much as a million dollars a year or more directly from the companies.In deals with players, teams and Major League Baseball, large corporations like NIKE and Champion pay big money to make sure that their logos are seen on the clothing and shoes worn by athletes on the field.", "This \"association branding\" has become a significant revenue stream.", "In the late 1990s and into the 21st century, the dugout, the backstops behind home plate, and anywhere else that might be seen by a camera, became fair game for the insertion of advertising.===Player wealth===Beginning with the 1972 ''Flood v. Kuhn'' Supreme Court case, management's grip on players, as embodied in the reserve clause, began to slip.", "In 1976, the Messersmith/McNally Arbitration, also known as the Seitz Decision effectively destroyed the reserve clause.", "Players who had been dramatically underpaid for generations came to be replaced by players who were paid extremely well for their services.====Sports agents====A new generation of sports agents arose, hawking the talents of free-agent players who knew baseball but didn't know the business end of the game.", "The agents broke down what the teams were generating in revenue off of the players' performances.", "They calculated what their player might be worth to energize a television contract, or provide more merchandise revenue, or put more fans into stadium seats.", "Management pushed back; the dynamic produced a variety of compromises which ideally left all parties unsatisfied.====Business====Under the Major League Baseball contract, players must play for minimum salary for six years, at which time they become free agents.", "With players seeking greener pastures when their six years had passed, fewer players remained career members of one ball club.", "Large-market clubs like the New York Yankees, the Boston Red Sox, and the Los Angeles Dodgers, given big revenues from their cable television operations, signed more and more of the best—and best-known—players away from mid-sized and smaller-market clubs that could not afford to compete on salaries.", "Major League Baseball, unlike many other sports, does not impose a salary cap on teams.", "The League does attempt to level the field, as it were, by imposing a luxury tax on teams with very high payrolls, but management is still free to pay players whatever they can afford to attract talent.", "Some television reporters, commentators, and print sports writers question the kind of money being paid to these players, but just as many on the other side of the debate feel players should bargain for whatever they can get.", "Still others complain that minor-league players are not fairly compensated by MLB.", "The tug-of-war between players and management is complex, ongoing, and of great interest to serious students of the professional game.===Owners and players feud in the 1980s===All was not well with major league baseball.", "The many contractual disputes between players and owners came to a head in 1981.Previous players' strikes (in 1972, 1973 and 1980) had been held in preseason, with only the 1972 stoppage—over benefits—causing disruption to the regular season from April 1 to April 13.Also, in 1976 the owners had locked the players out of Spring training in a dispute over free agency.The crux of the 1981 dispute was compensation for the loss of players to free agency.", "After seeing a top-rank player sign with another team, the aggrieved owner wanted a mid-rank player in return, the so-called ''sixteenth player'' (each club was allowed to protect 15 players from this rule).", "Under this arrangement, losing lower-rated free agents would produce correspondingly smaller compensation.", "While this seemed reasonable and fair to owners, players only recently freed from the bondage of the reserve clause found it unacceptable, and withdrew their labor, striking on June 12.Immediately, the U.S. Government's National Labor Relations Board ruled that the owners had not been negotiating in good faith, and installed a federal mediator to reach a solution.", "Seven weeks and 713 games were lost in the middle of the season, before the owners backed down on July 31, settling for proportionally lower-ranked players as compensation.", "The damaged season was continued as distinct halves starting August 9, with the playoffs reorganized to reflect this.Throughout the 1980s then, baseball seemed to prosper.", "The competitive balance between franchises saw fifteen different teams make the World Series, and produced nine different champions during the decade.", "Also, every season from 1978 through 1987 saw a different World Series winner, a streak unprecedented in baseball history.", "Turmoil was, however, just around the corner.", "In 1986, Pete Rose retired from playing for the Cincinnati Reds, having broken Ty Cobb's record by accumulating 4,256 hits during his career.", "He continued as Reds manager until, in 1989 it was revealed that he was being investigated for sports gambling, including the possibility that he had bet on teams with which he was involved.", "While Rose admitted a gambling problem, he denied having bet on baseball.", "Federal prosecutor John Dowd investigated and, on his recommendation, Rose was banned from organised baseball, a move which precluded his possible inclusion in the Hall of Fame.", "In a meeting with Commissioner Giamatti, and having failed in a legal action to prevent it, Rose accepted his punishment.", "It was, essentially, the same fate that had befallen the Black Sox seventy years previously.", "(Rose, however, would continue to deny that he bet on baseball until he finally confessed to it in his 2004 autobiography.", ")===1994–95 Major League Baseball strike===Labor relations were still strained.", "There had been a two-day strike in 1985 (over the division of television revenue money), and a 32-day spring training lockout in 1990 (again over salary structure and benefits).", "By far the worst action would come in 1994.The seeds were sown earlier: in 1992 the owners sought to renegotiate salary and free-agency terms, but little progress was made.", "The standoff continued until early 1994 when the existing agreement expired, with no agreement on what was to replace it.", "Adding to the conflict was the perception that \"small market\" teams, such as the struggling Seattle Mariners could not compete with high-spending teams such as those in New York or Los Angeles.", "Their plan was to institute TV revenue sharing to increase equity among the teams and impose a salary cap to keep expenditures down.", "Players felt that such a cap would reduce their potential earnings.", "It wasn't until later, in 2003, that MLB instituted a luxury tax on high-spending teams in an attempt to encourage more equitable player outlays.Meanwhile, back in 1994, players officially went on strike on August 12.In September 1994, Major League Baseball announced the cancellation of the World Series for the first time since 1904.===Home run mania and the second coming of baseball===Mark McGwire hits a home run during his last Major League season in 2001The cancellation of the 1994 World Series was a severe embarrassment for Major League Baseball.", "Fans were outraged and frustrated, their love of the game shaken to its core.", "The strike was declared an act of war, and fought back: attendance figures and broadcast ratings were lower in 1995 than before the strike.", "It would be a decade before baseball recovered from the disruption.On September 6, 1995, Baltimore Orioles shortstop, Cal Ripken Jr., played his 2,131st consecutive game, breaking Lou Gehrig's 56-year-old record.", "This was the first celebratory moment in baseball after the strike.", "Ripken continued his streak for another three years, voluntarily ending it at 2,632 consecutive games played on September 20, 1998.In 1997, the expansion Florida Marlins won the World Series in just their fifth season.", "This made them the third-youngest team to win the Fall Classic (behind the 1903 Boston Red Sox and later the 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks, who won in their fourth season).", "Virtually all the key players on the 1997 Marlins team were soon traded or let go to save payroll costs (although the 2003 Marlins did win a second world championship).In 1998, St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Mark McGwire and Chicago Cubs outfielder Sammy Sosa engaged in a home run race for the ages.", "With both rapidly approaching Roger Maris's record of 61 home runs (set in 1961), the entire nation watched as the two power hitters raced to be the first to break into uncharted territory.", "McGwire reached 62 first on September 8, 1998, with Sosa right behind.", "Sosa finished the season with 66 home runs, well behind McGwire's unheard-of 70.However, recent steroid allegations have marred the season in the minds of many fans.That same year, the New York Yankees won a record 125 games, including going 11–2 in the postseason, to win the World Series as what many consider to be one of the greatest teams of all time.McGwire's record of 70 would last a mere three years following the meteoric rise of veteran San Francisco Giants left fielder Barry Bonds in 2001.In 2001 Bonds knocked out 73 home runs, breaking the record set by McGwire by hitting his 71st on October 5, 2001.In addition to the home run record, Bonds also set single-season marks for base on balls with 177 (breaking the previous record of 170, set by Babe Ruth in 1923) and slugging percentage with .863 (breaking the mark of .847 set by Ruth in 1920).", "Bonds continued his torrid home run hitting in the next few seasons, hitting his 660th career home run on April 12, 2004, tying him with his godfather Willie Mays for third place on the all-time career home runs list.", "He hit his 661st home run the next day, April 13, to take sole possession of third place.", "Only three years later Bonds surpassed the great Hank Aaron to become baseball's most prolific home run hitter.However, none of Bonds's accomplishments in the 2000s have been without controversy.", "During his run, journalists questioned McGwire about his use of the steroid-precursor androstenedione, and in March 2005 he was unforthcoming when questioned as part of a Congressional inquiry into steroids.", "Bonds has also been dogged by allegations of steroid use and his involvement in the BALCO drugs scandal, as his personal trainer Greg Anderson pleaded guilty to supplying steroids (without naming Bonds as a recipient).", "Neither Bonds nor McGwire has failed a drug test at any time since there was no steroid-testing until 2003 after the new August 7, 2002, agreement between owners and players was reached.", "McGwire retired after the 2001 season; in 2010, he admitted to having used steroids throughout his MLB career.The 1990s also saw Major League Baseball expand into new markets as four new teams joined the league.", "In 1993, the Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins began play, and in just their fifth year of existence, the Marlins became the first wild card team to win the championship.", "The year 1998 brought two more teams into the mix, the Tampa Bay Devil Rays and the Arizona Diamondbacks, the latter of which become the youngest expansion franchise to win the championship.", "The late 1990s were dominated by the New York Yankees, who won four out of five World Series championships from 1996 to 2000." ], [ "The steroid era", "===Drugs, baseball, and records===The lure of big money pushed players harder and harder to achieve peak performance, while avoiding injury from over-training.", "The wearying travel schedule and 162-game season meant that amphetamines, usually in the form of pep pills known as \"greenies\", had been widespread in baseball since at least the 1960s.", "Baseball's drug scene was no particular secret, having been discussed in ''Sports Illustrated'' and in Jim Bouton's groundbreaking book ''Ball Four'', but there was virtually no public backlash.", "Two decades later, however, some Major League players turned to newer performance-enhancing drugs, including ephedra and improved steroids.", "The eventual consequences for the game, the players and the fans were substantial.A memo circulated in 1991 by baseball commissioner Fay Vincent stated that \"The possession, sale or use of any illegal drug or controlled substance by Major League players and personnel is strictly prohibited ... and those players involved are subject to discipline by the Commissioner and risk permanent expulsion from the game....", "This prohibition applies to all illegal drugs and controlled substances, including steroids…\" Some general managers of the time do not remember this memo; it was not emphasized or enforced and, confusingly, Vincent himself has disclaimed any direct responsibility for a ban on steroids, saying, \"I didn't ban steroids...They were banned by Congress\".Ephedra, an herb used to cure cold symptoms, and also used in some allergy medications, sped up the heart and was considered by some to be a weight-loss short-cut.", "In 2003, Baltimore Orioles pitcher Steve Bechler had come to training camp 10 pounds overweight.", "During a workout on February 16, Bechler complained of dizziness and fatigue.", "His condition worsened while resting in the clubhouse and he was transported to an ambulance on a stretcher.", "Bechler spent the night in intensive care and died the following morning at the age of 23.The official cause of death was listed as \"multi-organ failure due to heat exhaustion\".", "The coroner's report stated it was likely that Bechler had taken three ephedra capsules on an empty stomach prior to working out.", "Many in the media linked Bechler's death to ephedra, raising concerns over the use of performance-enhancing drugs in baseball.", "Ephedra was banned, and soon the furor died down.The 1998 home run race had generated nearly unbroken positive publicity, but Barry Bonds' run for the all-time home run record provoked a backlash over steroids, which increase a person's testosterone level and subsequently enable that person to bodybuild with much more ease.", "Some athletes have said that the main advantage to steroids is not so much the additional power or endurance that they can provide, but that they can drastically shorten rehab time from injury.Commissioner Bud Selig was criticized, mostly after-the-fact, for a slow response to the rising tide of steroid use in the 1990s.", "In the early 2000s, as a safe and effective test for anabolic steroids came online and sanctions for their use began to be strictly enforced, some players adopted the use of harder-to-detect human growth hormone (HGH) to increase stamina and strength.", "Selig, still acting with some caution, imposed a strict anti-drug policy upon its minor league players, who are not part of the Major League Baseball Players Association (the PA).", "Random drug testing, education and treatment, and strict penalties for those caught became the rule of law.", "Anyone on a Major League team's forty man roster, including 15 minor leaguers that are on that list, were exempt from that program.", "Eventually, Selig and MLB had strict rules in place that carried meaningful sanctions against players who \"juiced.", "\"In a ''Sports Illustrated'' cover story in 2002, a year after his retirement, Ken Caminiti admitted that he had used steroids during his National League MVP-winning 1996 season, and for several seasons afterwards.", "Caminiti died unexpectedly of an apparent heart attack in The Bronx at the age of 41; he was pronounced dead on October 10, 2004, at New York's Lincoln Memorial Hospital.", "On November 1, the New York City Medical Examiners Office announced that Caminiti died from \"acute intoxication due to the combined effects of cocaine and opiates\", but possibly-steroid-induced coronary artery disease and cardiac hypertrophy (an enlarged heart) were also contributing factors.In 2005, Jose Canseco published ''Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant 'Roids, Smash Hits & How Baseball Got Big'', admitting steroid usage and claiming that it was prevalent throughout major league baseball.", "When the United States Congress decided to investigate the use of steroids in the sport, some of the game's most prominent players came under scrutiny for possibly using steroids.", "These include Barry Bonds, Jason Giambi, and Mark McGwire.", "Other players, such as Canseco and Gary Sheffield, have admitted to have either knowingly (in Canseco's case) or not (Sheffield's) using steroids.", "In confidential testimony to the BALCO Grand Jury (that was later leaked to the ''San Francisco Chronicle''), Giambi also admitted steroid use.", "He later held a press conference in which he appeared to affirm this admission, without actually saying the words.", "And after an appearance before Congress where he (unlike McGwire) emphatically denied using steroids, \"period\", slugger Rafael Palmeiro became the first major star to be suspended (10 days) on August 1, 2005, for violating Major League Baseball's newly strengthened ban on controlled substances, including steroids, adopted on August 7, 2002, starting in the 2003 season.", "Many lesser players (mostly from the minor leagues) have tested positive for use, as well.In 2006, Commissioner Selig tasked former United States Senator George J. Mitchell to lead an investigation into the use of performance-enhancing drugs in Major League Baseball (MLB) and on December 13, 2007, the 409-page Mitchell Report was released ('Report to the Commissioner of Baseball of an Independent Investigation into the Illegal Use of Steroids and Other Performance Enhancing Substances by Players in Major League Baseball').", "The report described the use of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone (HGH) in MLB and assessed the effectiveness of the MLB Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program.", "Mitchell also advanced certain recommendations regarding the handling of past illegal drug use and future prevention practices.", "The report names 89 MLB players who are alleged to have used steroids or drugs.Baseball has been taken to task for turning a blind eye to its drug problems.", "It benefited from these drugs in the ever-increasingly competitive fight for airtime and media attention.", "For example, Commissioner Selig sent a personal representative to the 2007 game where Barry Bonds broke Hank Aaron's career home run record, even though Bonds was widely believed at the time to be a steroid user and had been named in connection with the then-ongoing BALCO scandal; many viewed this as Selig giving wink-and-a-nod tacit approval to the use of PEDs.", "MLB and its Players Association finally announced tougher measures, but many felt that they did not go far enough.", "In December 2009, Sports Illustrated named Baseball's Steroid Scandal as the number one sports story of the decade of the 2000s.", "In 2013, no player from the first \"steroid class\" of players eligible for the Baseball Hall of Fame was elected.", "Bonds and Clemens received less than half the number of votes needed, and some voters stated that they would not vote for any first-time candidate who played during the steroid era—whether accused of using banned substances or not—because of the effect the substances had on baseball.===The BALCO steroids scandal===In 2002, a major scandal arose when it was discovered that the company Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), owned by Victor Conte, had been producing so-called \"designer steroids\", (specifically \"the clear\" and \"the cream\") which are steroids that could not be detected through drug tests at that time.", "In addition, the company had connections to several San Francisco Bay Area sports trainers and athletes, including the trainers of Jason Giambi and Barry Bonds.", "This revelation led to a vast criminal investigation into BALCO's connections with athletes from baseball and many other sports.", "Among the many athletes who have been linked to BALCO are Olympic sprinters Tim Montgomery and Marion Jones, Olympic shot-putter C. J.", "Hunter, as well as Giambi and Bonds.Grand jury testimony in December 2003—which was illegally leaked to the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' and published in December 2004 under the bylines of Mark Fainaru-Wada and Lance Williams—revealed that the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative did not merely manufacture nutritional supplements, but also distributed exotic steroids.", "Williams and Fairanu-Wada also provided compelling evidence that Barry Bonds, arguably the greatest player of his generation, was one of BALCO's steroid clients.", "The paper reported that these substances were probably designer steroids.", "Bonds said that Greg Anderson gave him a rubbing balm and a liquid substance that at the time he did not believe them to be steroids and thought they were flaxseed oil and other health supplements.", "Based on the testimony from many of the athletes, Conte and Anderson accepted plea agreements from the government in 2005, on charges they distributed steroids and laundered money, in order to avoid significant time in jail.", "Conte received a sentence of four months, Anderson received a sentence of three months.", "Also that year, James Valente, the vice-president of BALCO, and Remi Korchemny, a track coach affiliated with BALCO, pled guilty to distributing banned substances and received probation.Various baseball pundits, fans, and even players have taken this as confirmation that Bonds used illegal steroids.", "Bonds never tested positive in tests performed in 2003, 2004, and 2005, which may be attributable to successful obfuscation of continued use as documented in the 2006 book ''Game of Shadows''.", "Before-and-after photos of Bonds, early in his career and late in his career, have led most fans to conclude that he must have used steroids to achieve such startling changes in his physique.===The Power Age===To meet the Power Age, Citi Field in New York was built to favor teams built on pitching, defense, and speed.While the introduction of steroids certainly increased the power production of greats, there were other factors that drastically increased the power surge after 1994.The factors cited are: smaller sized ballparks than in the past, the \"juiced balls\" theory claiming that the balls are wound tighter thus travel further following contact with the bat, and \"watered down pitching\" implying that lesser quality pitchers are up in the Major Leagues due to too many teams.", "Albeit these factors did play a large role in increasing home run thus scoring totals during this time, others that directly impact ballplayers have an equally important role.", "As noted earlier, one of those factors is the use of anabolic steroids for increasing muscle mass, which enables hitters to not only hit \"mistake\" pitches farther, but it also confers faster bat speed, giving hitters a fraction of a second more to adjust to \"good\" pitches such as a well-placed fastball, slider, changeup, or curveball.", "A more innocent, but also meaningful factor is better nutrition, as well as scientific training methods and advanced training facilities/equipment which can work without steroids to produce a more potent ballplayer.In today's baseball age, we routinely see players reach 40 and 50 home runs in a season, a feat that was rare as recently as the 1980s.", "On the other hand, since the end of the steroid era, the emphasis on swinging for home runs has been accompanied by hitting in general falling off, with batting averages trending downwards towards 1960s levels and strikeouts reaching all-time highs: ''each'' of the eleven seasons from 2006 through 2016 broke the preceding MLB-total record for strikeouts.Many modern baseball theorists believe that a new pitch will swing the balance of power back to the pitcher.", "A pitching revolution would not be unprecedented—several pitches have changed the game of baseball in the past, including the slider in the 1950s and 1960s and the split-fingered fastball in the 1970s to 1990s.", "Since the 1990s, the changeup has made a resurgence, being thrown masterfully by pitchers such as Tim Lincecum, Pedro Martínez, Trevor Hoffman, Greg Maddux, Matt Cain, Tom Glavine, Johan Santana, Marco Estrada, Justin Verlander, and Cole Hamels.", "Every so often, the time-honored knuckleball puts in another appearance to bedevil batters; pitchers like Phil Niekro, Jesse Haines, and Hoyt Wilhelm have made the Hall of Fame throwing knuckleballs, and who knows when the next \"Knucksie\" will appear?" ], [ "Summary of modern-era major league teams", "Note: The team names listed below are those currently in use.", "Some of the franchises have changed their names in the past, in some cases more than once.", "In the early years of the 20th century, many teams did not have official names, and were referred to by their league and city, or by nicknames created by sportswriters.", "*1876 – National League is established*1900 – National League \"Classic Eight\" lineup of teams is established: Chicago Cubs, Boston Braves, Brooklyn Dodgers, New York Giants, Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, and St. Louis Cardinals*1901 – American League is established with eight teams: Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Guardians, Detroit Tigers, Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Senators, Milwaukee Brewers, and Baltimore Orioles*1902 – Milwaukee Brewers move to St. Louis and become the Browns*1903 – Baltimore Orioles move to New York and become the Yankees*1953 – Boston Braves move to Milwaukee*1954 – St. Louis Browns move to Baltimore and become the Orioles*1955 – Philadelphia Athletics move to Kansas City*1958 – New York Giants move to San Francisco; Brooklyn Dodgers move to Los Angeles*1961 – Washington Senators move to Minneapolis–Saint Paul and become the Minnesota Twins; new Washington Senators (AL) and Los Angeles Angels (AL) created as expansion teams*1962 – Houston Astros (NL) and New York Mets (NL) created as expansion teams*1966 – Milwaukee Braves move to Atlanta*1968 – Kansas City Athletics move to Oakland*1969 – San Diego Padres (NL), Montreal Expos (NL), Kansas City Royals (AL), and Seattle Pilots (AL) created as expansion teams*1970 – Seattle Pilots move to Milwaukee and become the Brewers*1972 – Washington Senators move to Dallas–Fort Worth and become the Texas Rangers*1977 – Seattle Mariners (AL) and Toronto Blue Jays (AL) created as expansion teams*1993 – Colorado Rockies (NL) and Miami Marlins (NL) created as expansion teams*1998 – Arizona Diamondbacks (NL) and Tampa Bay Rays (AL) created as expansion teams; Milwaukee Brewers switch from AL to NL*2005 – Montreal Expos move to Washington and become the Nationals*2013 – Houston Astros switch from NL to AL" ], [ "See also", "* Fantography* Timeline of Major League Baseball" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Pepe, Phil.", "(2005).", "''Catfish, Yaz, and Hammerin' Hank: The Unforgettable Era That Transformed Baseball''.", "Chicago, Triumph Books.", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* A History of How the Game Has Changed* Library of Congress: Spalding Base Ball Guides, 1889–1939* Cycleback's Online Museum of Early Baseball Memorabilia* Seth Swirsky's Baseball Memorabilia Collection* ''Base Ball: A Journal of the Early Game'' (archived 8 July 2017)* ''Baseball Research Journal'' Archives" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award''' ('''MVP''') is an annual Major League Baseball (MLB) award given to one outstanding player in the American League and one in the National League.", "The award has been presented by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) since 1931." ], [ "History", "Since 1931, a Most Valuable Player Award has been bestowed by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) to a player in the National League and a player in the American League.", "Before 1931, two similar awards were issued—the League Award was issued during 1922–1928 in the American League and during 1924–1929 in the National League, and during 1911–1914, the Chalmers Award was issued to a player in each league.", "Criteria and a list of winners for these two earlier awards are detailed in below sections.MVP voting takes place before the postseason, but the results are not announced until after the World Series.", "The BBWAA began by polling three writers in each league city in 1938, reducing that number to two per league city in 1961.The BBWAA does not offer a clear-cut definition of what \"most valuable\" means, instead leaving the judgment to the individual voters.In 1944, the award was named after Kenesaw Mountain Landis, the first Commissioner of Baseball, who served from 1920 until his death on November 25, 1944.Formally named the Kenesaw Mountain Landis Memorial Baseball Award, that naming appeared on a plaque given to winning players.", "Starting in 2020, Landis' name no longer appears on the MVP plaque after the BBWAA received complaints from several former MVP winners about Landis' role against the integration of MLB.First basemen, with 35 winners, have won the most MVPs among infielders, followed by second basemen (16), third basemen (15), and shortstops (15).", "Of the 25 pitchers who have won the award, 15 are right-handed while 10 are left-handed.", "Walter Johnson, Carl Hubbell, and Hal Newhouser are the only pitchers who have won multiple times, with Newhouser winning consecutively in 1944 and 1945.Hank Greenberg, Stan Musial, Alex Rodriguez, and Robin Yount have won at different positions, while Rodriguez is the only player who has won the award with two different teams at two different positions.", "Rodriguez and Andre Dawson are the only players to win the award while on a last-place team, the 2003 Texas Rangers and 1987 Chicago Cubs, respectively.", "Barry Bonds has won the most often (seven times) and the most consecutively (four from 2001 to 2004).", "Jimmie Foxx was the first player to win multiple times – 10 players have won three times, and 19 have won twice.", "Frank Robinson is the only player to win the award in both the American and National Leagues.The award's only tie occurred in the National League in 1979, when Keith Hernandez and Willie Stargell received an equal number of points.", "There have been 19 unanimous winners, who received all the first-place votes.", "The New York Yankees have the most winning players with 23, followed by the St. Louis Cardinals with 21 winners.", "The award has never been presented to a member of the following three teams: Arizona Diamondbacks, New York Mets, and Tampa Bay Rays.In recent decades, pitchers have rarely won the award.", "When Shohei Ohtani won the AL award in 2021, he became the first pitcher in either league to be named the MVP since Clayton Kershaw in 2014, and the first in the American League since Justin Verlander in 2011.Ohtani also became the first two-way player to win the award and in 2023, he became the first player in MLB history to win MVP by unanimous vote twice.", "Since the creation of the Cy Young Award in 1956, he is the only pitcher to win an MVP award without winning a Cy Young in the same year (Don Newcombe, Sandy Koufax, Bob Gibson, Denny McLain, Vida Blue, Rollie Fingers, Willie Hernández, Roger Clemens, Dennis Eckersley, Justin Verlander, and Clayton Kershaw all won a Cy Young award in their MVP seasons).Ironically, there was no award given by either league in 1930, which meant that one of the single greatest performances ever went unheralded when Hack Wilson of the Chicago Cubs set the (still standing) MLB record for RBI with 191.He also batted .356 and set the NL record with 56 HRs, a record which stood for 68 years until Sammy Sosa (66) and Mark McGuire (70) both eclipsed him." ], [ "Key", "'''Year'''Links to the article about the corresponding Major League Baseball seasonMember of the National Baseball Hall of Fame as a player^Player is still active§Unanimous selection'''Player''' Denotes winning player and number of times they had won the award at that point*Team won the league pennant'''P'''Pitcher (RHP indicates right-handed; LHP indicates left-handed)'''C'''Catcher'''1B'''First baseman'''2B'''Second baseman'''3B'''Third baseman'''SS'''Shortstop'''OF'''Outfielder'''DH'''Designated hitter" ], [ "Chalmers Award (1911–1914)", "alt=Ty Cobb looking just to the left of the camera.Before the 1910 season, Hugh Chalmers of Chalmers Automobile announced he would present a Chalmers Model 30 automobile to the player with the highest batting average in Major League Baseball at the end of the season.", "The 1910 race for best average in the American League was between the Detroit Tigers' widely disliked Ty Cobb and Nap Lajoie of the Cleveland Indians.", "On the last day of the season, Lajoie overtook Cobb's batting average with seven bunt hits against the St. Louis Browns.", "American League President Ban Johnson said a recalculation showed that Cobb had won the race anyway, and Chalmers ended up awarding cars to both players.In the following season, Chalmers created the Chalmers Award.", "A committee of baseball writers was to convene after the season to determine the \"most important and useful player to the club and the league\".", "Since the award was not as effective at advertising as Chalmers had hoped, it was discontinued after 1914.YearAmerican League winnerTeamPositionNational League winnerTeamPositionRefDetroit Tigers OFChicago Cubs OF Boston Red Sox OF 2B RHPBrooklyn Superbas 1B 2B 2B" ], [ "League Awards (1922–1929)", "alt=A man in full baseball attire wears a pinstriped jersey and a hat with overlapping white \"N\" and \"Y\".", "Looking to the left of the camera, he is holding a baseball upward.In 1922 the American League created a new award to honor \"the baseball player who is of the greatest all-around service to his club\".", "Winners, voted on by a committee of eight baseball writers chaired by James Crusinberry, received a bronze medal and a cash prize.", "Voters were required to select one player from each team and player-coaches and prior award winners were ineligible.", "Famously, these criteria resulted in Babe Ruth winning only a single MVP award before it was dropped after 1928.The National League award, without these restrictions, lasted from 1924 to 1929.YearAmerican League winnerTeamPositionNational League winnerTeamPositionRef 1B— New York Yankees OF— RHP RHP SSSt.", "Louis Cardinals 2B Cleveland Indians 1BSt.", "Louis Cardinals C New York Yankees 1BPittsburgh Pirates OF CSt.", "Louis Cardinals 1B — Chicago Cubs 2B" ], [ "Baseball Writers' Association of America's Most Valuable Player (1931–present)", "The BBWAA was first awarded the modern MVP after the 1931 season, adopting the format the National League used to distribute its league award.", "One writer in each city with a team filled out a ten-place ballot, with ten points for the recipient of a first-place vote, nine for a second-place vote, and so on.", "In 1938, the BBWAA raised the number of voters to three per city and gave 14 points for a first-place vote.", "The only significant change since then occurred in 1961 when the number of voters was reduced to two per league city.Hall of Famer alt=A man is pictured from his belt up looking to the left of the camera.", "His button-down baseball jersey says \"RED SOX\" across it and he is wearing a baseball hat with a \"B\".Hall of Famer and two-time MVP Hank Greenberg was the first player to win the award at two different fielding positions (1B and OF).Jim Konstanty, to date the only National League relief pitcher to be named MVP, won it in 1950.Hall of Famer alt=The face of a dark-skinned man who is smiling widely.", "The letters \"S\" and \"F\" overlap on his hat.Hall of Famer Frank Robinson is the only player to win the award in both leagues (NL in 1961, and AL in 1966).alt=An African-American man looks just right off the camera.", "His helmet and white jersey both have an orange \"S\" over the \"F\" logo on them.", "The man's left arm is crossed over his body and his right is out of the picture.", "There is a black and orange glove on his left hand.alt=A Hispanic man walking while shouting at someone out of the picture.", "His helmet is emblazoned with a white \"N\" and \"Y\" intertwined, and \"NEW YORK\" is stitched in black letters across his button-down jersey.", "The player is holding a black baseball bat almost vertically with black, gray, and white gloves.Albert Pujols won the award three times, at first base with the St. Louis Cardinals.|alt=A right-handed batter is at the plate, looking toward the pitcher's mound.", "Wearing a red uniform and white pants, there is a crowd behind him with jerseys of various colors.Miguel Cabrera was the winner of back-to-back AL Awards from 2012 to 2013.Mike Trout is the most recent player to win the award three times.Shohei Ohtani is currently the only player to unanimously win the award twice.", "Year American League winner Team Position National League winner Team Position Ref † * LHP † St. Louis Cardinals* 2B † 1B † Philadelphia Phillies OF † (2) 1B † * LHP † (2) Detroit Tigers* C † St. Louis Cardinals* RHP †§ Detroit Tigers* 1B † Chicago Cubs* C † (2) New York Yankees* 1B †§ (2) * LHP † Detroit Tigers 2B † St. Louis Cardinals OF † (3) Boston Red Sox 1B † Cincinnati Reds C † New York Yankees* OF Cincinnati Reds* RHP † (2) Detroit Tigers* OF Cincinnati Reds* 1B † (2) New York Yankees* OF * 1B † New York Yankees* 2B St. Louis Cardinals* RHP New York Yankees* RHP † St. Louis Cardinals* OF † Detroit Tigers LHP St. Louis Cardinals* SS † (2) Detroit Tigers* LHP Chicago Cubs* 1B † Boston Red Sox* OF † (2) St. Louis Cardinals* 1B † (3) New York Yankees* OF 3B † Cleveland Indians* SS † (3) St. Louis Cardinals OF † (2) Boston Red Sox OF † * 2B † New York Yankees* SS Philadelphia Phillies* RHP † New York Yankees* C † C LHP Chicago Cubs OF § Cleveland Indians 3B † (2) * C † (2) New York Yankees C † * OF † (3) New York Yankees* C † (3) * C †§ New York Yankees* OF * RHP † (2) New York Yankees* OF † * OF Boston Red Sox OF † Chicago Cubs SS † Chicago White Sox* 2B † (2) Chicago Cubs SS New York Yankees* OF Pittsburgh Pirates* SS (2) New York Yankees* OF † Cincinnati Reds* OF † (3) New York Yankees* OF Los Angeles Dodgers SS New York Yankees* C † Los Angeles Dodgers* LHP † Baltimore Orioles 3B St. Louis Cardinals* 3B Minnesota Twins* SS † (2) San Francisco Giants OF †§ (2) Baltimore Orioles* OF † Pittsburgh Pirates OF † Boston Red Sox* OF †§ St. Louis Cardinals* 1B § Detroit Tigers* RHP † St. Louis Cardinals* RHP † Minnesota Twins 3B † San Francisco Giants 1B Baltimore Orioles* 1B † Cincinnati Reds* C Oakland Athletics LHP † St. Louis Cardinals 3B Chicago White Sox 1B † (2) Cincinnati Reds* C †§ Oakland Athletics* OF Cincinnati Reds OF Texas Rangers OF Los Angeles Dodgers* 1B Boston Red Sox* OF † Cincinnati Reds* 2B New York Yankees* C † (2) Cincinnati Reds* 2B † Minnesota Twins 1B Cincinnati Reds OF † Boston Red Sox OF Pittsburgh Pirates OF LF/DH St. Louis Cardinals 1B † Pittsburgh Pirates* 1B † Kansas City Royals* 3B †§ Philadelphia Phillies* 3B † Milwaukee Brewers RHP † (2) Philadelphia Phillies 3B † Milwaukee Brewers* SS Atlanta Braves OF † Baltimore Orioles* SS (2) Atlanta Braves OF Detroit Tigers* LHP † Chicago Cubs 2B New York Yankees 1B St. Louis Cardinals* OF Boston Red Sox* RHP † (3) Philadelphia Phillies 3B Toronto Blue Jays OF † Chicago Cubs OF § Oakland Athletics* OF Los Angeles Dodgers* OF † (2) Milwaukee Brewers OF San Francisco Giants* OF † Oakland Athletics* OF Pittsburgh Pirates OF † (2) Baltimore Orioles SS Atlanta Braves* 3B † Oakland Athletics RHP (2) Pittsburgh Pirates OF †§ Chicago White Sox 1B (3) San Francisco Giants OF † (2) Chicago White Sox 1B †§ Houston Astros 1B Boston Red Sox 1B † Cincinnati Reds SS Texas Rangers OF § San Diego Padres 3B †§ Seattle Mariners OF † Colorado Rockies OF (2) Texas Rangers OF Chicago Cubs OF † Texas Rangers C † Atlanta Braves* 3B Oakland Athletics 1B San Francisco Giants 2B Seattle Mariners OF (4) San Francisco Giants OF Oakland Athletics SS § (5) San Francisco Giants* OF Texas Rangers SS (6) San Francisco Giants OF † OF (7) San Francisco Giants OF (2) New York Yankees 3B St. Louis Cardinals 1B Minnesota Twins 1B Philadelphia Phillies 1B (3) New York Yankees 3B Philadelphia Phillies SS Boston Red Sox 2B (2) St. Louis Cardinals 1B † Minnesota Twins C (3) St. Louis Cardinals 1B Texas Rangers* OF ^ Cincinnati Reds 1B ^ Detroit Tigers RHP Milwaukee Brewers OF Detroit Tigers* 3B San Francisco Giants* C (2) Detroit Tigers 3B ^ Pittsburgh Pirates OF ^§ Los Angeles Angels OF ^ Los Angeles Dodgers LHP ^ Toronto Blue Jays 3B ^§ Washington Nationals OF ^ (2) Los Angeles Angels OF ^ Chicago Cubs* 3B/OF ^ Houston Astros* 2B ^ Miami Marlins OF ^ Boston Red Sox* OF^ Milwaukee Brewers OF ^ (3) Los Angeles Angels OF ^ Los Angeles Dodgers OF ^ Chicago White Sox 1B ^ Atlanta Braves 1B ^§ Los Angeles Angels RHP/DH ^ (2) Philadelphia Phillies OF ^ New York Yankees OF ^ St. Louis Cardinals 1B ^§(2) Los Angeles Angels RHP/DH ^§ Atlanta BravesOF" ], [ "Wins by team", "Teams Awards YearsNew York Yankees231923, 1927, 1936, 1939, 1941–1943, 1947, 1950, 1951, 1954–1957, 1960–1963, 1976, 1985, 2005, 2007, 2022St.", "Louis Cardinals211925, 1926, 1928, 1931, 1934, 1937, 1942–1944, 1946, 1948, 1964, 1967, 1968, 1971, 1979, 1985, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2022New York/San Francisco Giants141912, 1933, 1936, 1954, 1965, 1969, 1989, 1993, 2000–2004, 2012Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers1913, 1924, 1941, 1949, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1962, 1963, 1974, 1988, 2014, 2019Philadelphia/Oakland Athletics131914, 1928, 1931–1933, 1952, 1971, 1973, 1988, 1990, 1992, 2000, 2002Cincinnati Reds121938–1940, 1961, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1975–1977, 1995, 2010Detroit Tigers 1911, 1934, 1935, 1937, 1940, 1944, 1945, 1968, 1984, 2011–2013Boston Red Sox1912, 1938, 1946, 1949, 1958, 1967, 1975, 1978, 1986, 1995, 2008, 2018Chicago Cubs111911, 1929, 1935, 1945, 1952, 1958, 1959, 1984, 1987, 1998, 2016Boston/Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves91914, 1947, 1957, 1982, 1983, 1991, 1999, 2020, 2023Washington Senators/Minnesota Twins81913, 1924, 1925, 1965, 1969, 1977, 2006, 2009Pittsburgh Pirates1927, 1960, 1966, 1978, 1979, 1990, 1992, 2013Philadelphia Phillies1932, 1950, 1980, 1981, 1986, 2006, 2007, 2021California/Anaheim/Los Angeles Angels71979, 2004, 2014, 2016, 2019, 2021, 2023Baltimore Orioles/St.", "Louis Browns61922, 1964, 1966, 1970, 1983, 1991Texas Rangers1974, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2010Milwaukee Brewers51981, 1982, 1989, 2011, 2018Chicago White Sox1959, 1972, 1993, 1994, 2020Cleveland Indians / Guardians31926, 1948, 1953Seattle Mariners21997, 2001Toronto Blue Jays1987, 2015Houston Astros1994, 2017Kansas City Royals11980San Diego Padres1996Colorado Rockies1997Washington Nationals2015Miami Marlins2017Arizona Diamondbacks0noneNew York MetsnoneTampa Bay Raysnone" ], [ "See also", "*\"Esurance MLB Awards\" Best Major Leaguer (in MLB; all positions) (there are also Best Hitter and Best Pitcher awards (in MLB))*\"Players Choice Awards\" Player of the Year (in MLB; all positions) (there are also Outstanding Player and Outstanding Pitcher awards (in each league))*''Baseball America'' Major League Player of the Year (in MLB; all positions)*''Baseball Digest'' Player of the Year (in MLB; position players only; from 1969 to 1993, included all positions; in 1994, a separate Pitcher of the Year award was added)*Best Major League Baseball Player ESPY Award (in MLB; all positions)*''The Sporting News'' Most Valuable Player Award (in each league) (''discontinued in 1946'')*''Sporting News'' Player of the Year (in MLB; position players only)*List of Major League Baseball awards*Baseball awards" ], [ "Notes", "* A player is considered inactive if he has announced his retirement or has not played for a full season.", "* A unanimous victory indicates that the player received all possible first-place votes.", "* Torre is a member of the Hall of Fame, but not as a player.", "He was inducted in as a manager.", "* Hernandez and Stargell both received 216 points in the 1979 voting." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Most Valuable Player MVP Awards & Cy Young Awards Winners (1911–present) (and \"Multiple Winners of the MVP and Cy Young Awards\").", "Baseball-Reference.com.", "Retrieved 2016-11-07." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award" ], [ "Introduction", "In Major League Baseball, the '''Rookie of the Year Award''' is given annually to two outstanding rookie players, one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL), as voted on by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA).", "The award was established in 1940 by the Chicago chapter of the BBWAA, which selected an annual winner from 1940 through 1946.The award became national in 1947; Jackie Robinson, the Brooklyn Dodgers' second baseman, won the inaugural award.", "One award was presented for all of MLB in 1947 and 1948; since 1949, the honor has been given to one player each in the NL and AL.", "Originally, the award was known as the J. Louis Comiskey Memorial Award, named after the Chicago White Sox owner of the 1930s.", "The award was renamed the '''Jackie Robinson Award''' in July 1987, 40 years after Robinson broke the baseball color line.Nineteen players have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame—Robinson, seven AL players, and eleven others from the NL.", "The award has been shared twice: once by Butch Metzger and Pat Zachry of the NL in 1976; and once by John Castino and Alfredo Griffin of the AL in 1979.Members of the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers have won the most awards of any franchise (with 18), twice the total of the New York Yankees, and members of the Philadelphia and Oakland Athletics (eight), who have produced the most in the AL.", "Fred Lynn and Ichiro Suzuki are the only two players who have been named Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player in the same year, and Fernando Valenzuela is the only player to have won Rookie of the Year and the Cy Young Award in the same year.", "Sam Jethroe is the oldest player to have won the award, at age 32, 33 days older than 2000 winner Kazuhiro Sasaki (also 32).", "Gunnar Henderson of the Baltimore Orioles and Corbin Carroll of the Arizona Diamondbacks are the most recent winners." ], [ "Qualifications and voting", "Hideo Nomo won in 1995, the first of several players to win with past professional baseball experience in Nippon Professional Baseball.From 1947 through 1956, each BBWAA voter used discretion as to who qualified as a rookie.", "In 1957, the term was first defined as someone with fewer than 75 at-bats or 45 innings pitched in any previous Major League season.", "This guideline was later amended to 90 at-bats, 45 innings pitched, or 45 days on a Major League roster before September 1 of the previous year.", "The current standard of 130 at-bats, 50 innings pitched, or 45 days on the active roster of a Major League club (excluding time in military service or on the injury list) before September 1 was adopted in 1971.Since 1980, each voter names three rookies: a first-place choice is given five points, a second-place choice three points, and a third-place choice one point.", "The award goes to the player who receives the most overall points.", "Edinson Vólquez received three second-place votes in 2008 balloting despite no longer being a rookie under the award's definition.The award has drawn criticism in recent years because several players with experience in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) have won the award, such as Hideo Nomo in 1995, Kazuhiro Sasaki in 2000, Ichiro Suzuki in 2001, and Shohei Ohtani in 2018.The current definition of rookie status for the award is based only on Major League experience, but some feel that past NPB players are not true rookies because of their past professional experience.", "Others, however, believe it should make no difference since the first recipient and the award's namesake played for the Negro leagues before his MLB career and thus could also not be considered a \"true rookie\".", "This issue arose in 2003 when Hideki Matsui narrowly lost the AL award to Ángel Berroa.", "Jim Souhan of the ''Minneapolis Star Tribune'' said he did not see Matsui as a rookie in 2003 because \"it would be an insult to the Japanese league to pretend that experience didn't count.\"", "''The Japan Times'' ran a story in 2007 on the labeling of Daisuke Matsuzaka, Kei Igawa, and Hideki Okajima as rookies, saying \"these guys aren't rookies.\"", "Past winners such as Jackie Robinson, Don Newcombe, and Sam Jethroe had professional experience in the Negro leagues." ], [ "Winners", "===Key===Cal Ripken Jr. won in 1982, and is one of 16 Hall of Famers to win Rookie of the Year honors.", "'''Year'''Links to the article about the corresponding Major League Baseball season†Member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum^Denotes player who is still active*Denotes year in which the award was shared§Unanimous selection+Denotes lead Major Leagues in that category===Major Leagues combined (1947–48)===YearPlayerTeamPosition Selected statistics Ref † Brooklyn Dodgers 1B*.297 batting average*125 runs scored*29 stolen bases Boston Braves SS*.322 batting average*3 home runs*48 runs batted in===American League winners (1949–present)===Gunnar Henderson, 2023 AL winnerYearPlayerTeamPosition Selected statistics RefSt.", "Louis BrownsOF*.306 batting average*16 home runs*91 runs batted inBoston Red Sox1B*.322 batting average*34 home runs*144 runs batted inNew York Yankees3B*.306 batting average*14 home runs*63 runs batted inP*3.31 earned run average*15 complete games*15–15 record in 37 appearances (28 games started)Detroit TigersSS*.308 batting average*94 runs scored*209 hitsNew York YankeesP*3.26 earned run average*199 innings pitched*20–6 record in 37 appearances (20 games started)Cleveland IndiansP*2.85 earned run average* innings pitched*16–10 record in 32 games started†Chicago White SoxSS*.266 batting average*21 stolen bases*69 runs scoredNew York YankeesSS*.297 batting average*56 runs scored*39 runs batted inWashington SenatorsOF*.275 batting average*3 home runs*63 runs scoredWashington SenatorsOF*.261 batting average*30 home runs*85 runs batted inBaltimore OriolesSS*.255 batting average*22 home runs*86 runs batted inBoston Red SoxP*3.22 earned run average* innings pitched*15–7 record in 25 games startedNew York YankeesSS*.286 batting average*20 home runs*93 runs batted inChicago White SoxP*2.33 earned run average*243 innings pitched*19–8 record in 41 appearances (30 games started)†Minnesota TwinsOF*.323 batting average*32 home runs*94 runs batted inBaltimore OriolesOF*.260 batting average*22 home runs*70 runs batted inChicago White SoxOF*.273 batting average*44 stolen bases*98 runs scored*29.3 Power-Speed #+†Minnesota Twins2B*.292 batting average*8 home runs*66 runs scoredNew York YankeesP*2.05 earned run average* innings pitched*17–12 record in 34 games startedKansas City RoyalsOF*.282 batting average*11 home runs*68 runs batted inNew York YankeesC*.302 batting average*53 runs batted in*52% caught stealing percentage in the fieldCleveland Indians1B*.275 batting average*9 home runs*48 runs batted in†§Boston Red SoxC*.293 batting average*22 home runs*61 runs batted inBaltimore OriolesOF*.337 batting average*11 triples*73 runs scoredTexas Rangers1B*.323 batting average*.395 on-base percentage*66 runs batted inBoston Red SoxOF*.331 batting average*47 doubles*105 runs batted inDetroit TigersP*2.34 earned run average*24 complete games*19–9 record in 29 games started†Baltimore OriolesDH*.283 batting average*27 home runs*88 runs batted inDetroit Tigers2B*.285 batting average*3 home runs*58 runs batted in*Minnesota Twins3B*.285 batting average*8 triples*52 runs batted inToronto Blue JaysSS*.287 batting average*10 triples*81 runs scoredCleveland IndiansOF*.289 batting average*23 home runs*87 runs batted inNew York YankeesP*2.05 earned run average* innings pitched*8–4 record in 15 games started†Baltimore OriolesSS*.264 batting average*28 home runs*93 runs batted inChicago White SoxOF*.254 batting average*35 home runs*100 runs batted inSeattle Mariners1B*.284 batting average*27 home runs*116 runs batted inChicago White SoxSS*.273 batting average*9 triples*71 runs scoredOakland AthleticsOF*.240 batting average*33 home runs*117 runs batted in§Oakland Athletics1B*.289 batting average*49 home runs*118 runs batted inOakland AthleticsSS*.250 batting average*3 home runs*39 runs batted inBaltimore OriolesP*1.69 earned run average*85 innings pitched*27 saves§Cleveland IndiansC*.290 batting average*9 home runs*66 runs batted inMinnesota Twins2B*.281 batting average*25 stolen bases*78 runs scoredMilwaukee BrewersSS*.290 batting average*54 stolen bases*93 runs scored§OF*.283 batting average*31 home runs*95 runs batted inKansas City RoyalsDH*.282 batting average*24 home runs*65 runs batted inMinnesota TwinsOF*.277 batting average*24 home runs*84 runs batted in†§New York YankeesSS*.314 batting average*10 home runs*104 runs scored§Boston Red SoxSS*.306 batting average*30 home runs*122 runs scoredOakland AthleticsOF*.288 batting average*18 home runs*89 runs batted inKansas City RoyalsOF*.293 batting average*22 home runs*108 runs batted inSeattle MarinersP*3.16 earned run average*78 strikeouts*37 savesSeattle MarinersOF*.350 batting average*56 stolen bases+*242 Hits+*127 runs scoredToronto Blue Jays3B*.279 batting average*24 home runs*84 runs batted inKansas City RoyalsSS*.287 batting average*21 stolen bases*92 runs scoredOakland AthleticsSS*.239 batting average*22 home runs*64 runs batted inOakland AthleticsP*1.72 earned run average* innings pitched*23 saves^Detroit TigersP *3.63 earned run average*186 innings pitched*17–9 record in 30 games startedBoston Red Sox2B *.317 batting average*39 doubles*86 runs scored^§Tampa Bay Rays3B*.272 batting average*27 home runs*85 runs batted inOakland AthleticsP*1.84 earned run average* innings pitched*26 savesTexas RangersP*2.73 earned run average* innings pitched*40 savesTampa Bay RaysP*2.95 earned run average*117 strikeouts*13–10 record in 29 games started^§Los Angeles AngelsOF*.326 batting average*30 home runs*129 runs scored*49 stolen bases^Tampa Bay RaysOF*.293 batting average*13 home runs*53 runs batted in^§Chicago White Sox1B*.317 batting average*36 home runs*107 runs batted in^Houston AstrosSS*.279 batting average*22 home runs*68 runs batted in^Detroit TigersP*3.06 earned run average*132 strikeouts*11–7 record in 26 games started^§New York YankeesOF*.284 batting average*52 home runs*114 runs batted in*128 runs scored^Los Angeles AngelsP/DH*.285 batting average*22 home runs*4–2 record in 11 games started*63 strikeouts^§Houston AstrosDH/OF*.313 batting average*27 home runs*78 runs batted in*58 runs scored^§Seattle MarinersOF*.267 batting average*11 home runs*28 runs batted in*37 runs scored^Tampa Bay RaysOF*.274 batting average*20 home runs*69 runs batted in*94 runs scored^Seattle MarinersOF*.284 batting average*28 home runs*25 stolen bases*75 runs batted in*84 runs scored^§Baltimore OriolesSS/3B*.255 batting average*28 home runs*82 runs batted in*100 runs scored===National League winners (1949–present)===Corbin Carroll, 2023 NL winnerYearPlayerTeamPosition Selected statistics RefP *3.17 earned run average*5 shutouts*17–8 record in 31 games startedOF *.273 batting average*35 stolen bases*100 runs scored†OF *.274 batting average*20 home runs*68 runs batted inP *2.15 earned run average*15 saves*15–4 record in 56 appearances2B *.278 batting average*17 triples*125 runs scoredSt.", "Louis CardinalsOF *.304 batting average*12 home runs*106 runs scoredSt.", "Louis CardinalsOF *.281 batting average*17 home runs*68 runs batted in†§Cincinnati RedsOF *.290 batting average*38 home runs*122 runs scoredPhiladelphia PhilliesP *3.08 earned run average*188 strikeouts*19–8 record in 33 games started†§San Francisco Giants1B *.312 batting average*25 home runs*96 runs batted in†§San Francisco Giants1B *.354 batting average*13 home runs*38 runs batted inLos Angeles DodgersOF *.268 batting average*23 home runs*77 runs batted in†Chicago CubsOF *.278 batting average*25 home runs*86 runs batted inChicago Cubs2B *.260 batting average*90 runs scored*Gold Glove AwardCincinnati Reds2B *.273 batting average*9 triples*101 runs scoredPhiladelphia Phillies3B *.318 batting average*13 triples*125 runs scoredLos Angeles Dodgers2B *.250 batting average*12 home runs*69 runs batted inCincinnati Reds2B *.284 batting average*9 home runs*72 runs scored†New York MetsP *2.76 earned run average*251 innings pitched*16–13 record in 34 games started†Cincinnati RedsC *.275 batting average*15 home runs*82 runs batted inLos Angeles Dodgers2B *.271 batting average*4 home runs*69 runs scoredMontreal ExposP *3.60 earned run average* innings pitched*18–11 record in 43 appearances (37 games started)Atlanta BravesC *.260 batting average*33 home runs*87 runs batted inNew York MetsP *2.32 earned run average*244 innings pitched*15–10 record in 32 games startedSan Francisco GiantsOF *.300 batting average*12 home runs*74 runs scoredSt.", "Louis CardinalsOF *.309 batting average*30 stolen bases*81 runs scoredSan Francisco GiantsP *2.88 earned run average*215 strikeouts*15–9 record on 34 games started*San Diego PadresP *2.92 earned run average*16 saves*11–4 record in 77 appearancesCincinnati RedsP *2.74 earned run average*204 innings pitched*14–7 record in 38 appearances (28 games started)†Montreal ExposOF *.282 batting average*19 home runs*65 runs batted inAtlanta Braves3B*.266 batting average*23 home runs*63 runs batted inLos Angeles DodgersP*3.46 earned run average*242 innings pitched*17–10 record in 39 appearances (30 games started)Los Angeles DodgersP*2.66 earned run average* innings pitched*17 savesLos Angeles DodgersP *2.48 earned run average*8 shutouts*13–7 record in 25 games startedLos Angeles Dodgers2B*.282 batting average*49 stolen bases*88 runs scoredNew York MetsOF*.257 batting average*26 home runs*74 runs batted inNew York MetsP*2.60 earned run average*276 strikeouts+ *17–9 record in 31 games started*218 innings pitched*7 Complete Games/3 Shutouts*1.073 WHIP+*1.69 FIP+§St.", "Louis CardinalsOF*.267 batting average*110 stolen bases+*107 runs scoredSt.", "Louis CardinalsP*2.08 earned run average* innings pitched*36 saves§San Diego PadresC*.300 batting average*18 home runs*79 runs batted inCincinnati Reds3B*.271 batting average*46 stolen bases*74 runs scoredChicago CubsOF*.293 batting average*24 stolen bases*64 runs scoredAtlanta BravesOF*.282 batting average*28 home runs*78 runs batted in †Houston Astros1B*.294 batting average*15 home runs*82 runs batted inLos Angeles Dodgers1B*.257 batting average*20 home runs*88 runs batted in †§Los Angeles DodgersC*.318 batting average*35 home runs*112 runs batted in§Los Angeles DodgersOF*.306 batting average*16 home runs*56 runs batted inLos Angeles DodgersP*2.54 earned run average*236 strikeouts*13–6 record in 28 games startedLos Angeles DodgersOF*.291 batting average*12 home runs*59 runs batted in†§Philadelphia Phillies3B *.283 batting average*21 home runs*92 runs batted inChicago CubsP*3.40 earned run average*233 strikeouts*13–6 record in 26 games startedCincinnati RedsP*2.41 earned run average*19 saves*12–7 record in 62 appearancesAtlanta BravesSS*.295 batting average*40 stolen bases*87 runs scored§St.", "Louis Cardinals3B*.329 batting average*37 home runs*130 runs batted inColorado RockiesP*4.52 earned run average* innings pitched*16–8 record in 32 games startedFlorida MarlinsP*3.30 earned run average* innings pitched*14–6 record in 27 games startedPittsburgh PiratesOF*.282 batting average*26 home runs*82 runs batted inPhiladelphia Phillies1B*.288 batting average*22 home runs*63 runs batted inFlorida MarlinsSS*.292 batting average*51 stolen bases*119 runs scoredMilwaukee Brewers3B*.324 batting average*34 home runs*97 runs batted inChicago CubsC*.285 batting average*23 home runs*86 runs batted inFlorida MarlinsOF*.321 batting average*162 base hits*84 runs scoredSan Francisco GiantsC*.305 batting average*18 home runs*67 runs batted in^§Atlanta BravesP*2.10 earned run average*127 strikeouts in 77 innings pitched*46 saves^Washington NationalsOF*.270 batting average*22 home runs*59 runs batted inMiami MarlinsP*2.19 earned run average*0.98 WHIP*12 wins^New York MetsP*2.69 earned run average*1.14 WHIP*9 wins^§Chicago Cubs3B*.275 batting average*26 home runs*99 runs batted in^§Los Angeles DodgersSS*.308 batting average*26 home runs*72 runs batted in^§Los Angeles Dodgers1B*.267 batting average*39 home runs*97 runs batted in^Atlanta BravesOF*.293 batting average*26 home runs*64 runs batted in^New York Mets1B*.260 batting average*53 home runs+*120 runs batted in*103 runs scored^Milwaukee BrewersP*0.33 earned run average*0.63 WHIP*53 strikeouts in 27 innings pitched^Cincinnati Reds2B*.269 batting average*21 home runs*69 runs batted in*98 runs scored^Atlanta BravesOF*.297 batting average*19 home runs*64 runs batted in*75 runs scored^ §Arizona DiamondbacksOF*.285 batting average*25 home runs*76 runs batted in*116 runs scored*54 stolen bases===Wins by team===Every MLB franchise has had a Rookie of the Year.", "The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have won more than any other team with 18.Teams Awards YearsBrooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers181947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1960, 1965, 1969, 1979–1982, 1992–1996, 2016, 2017New York Yankees91951, 1954, 1957, 1962, 1968, 1970, 1981, 1996, 2017Boston/Atlanta Braves1948, 1950, 1971, 1978, 1990, 2000, 2011, 2018, 2022Philadelphia/Oakland Athletics81952, 1986–1988, 1998, 2004, 2005, 2009St.", "Louis Browns/Baltimore Orioles1949, 1960, 1965, 1973, 1977, 1982, 1989, 2023Cincinnati Reds1956, 1963, 1966, 1968, 1976, 1988, 1999, 2021Washington Senators/Minnesota Twins71958, 1959, 1964, 1967, 1979, 1991, 1995St.", "Louis Cardinals61954, 1955, 1974, 1985, 1986, 2001Boston Red Sox1950, 1961, 1972, 1975, 1997, 2007New York/San Francisco Giants1951, 1958, 1959, 1973, 1975, 2010Chicago White Sox1956, 1963, 1966, 1983, 1985, 2014Chicago Cubs1961, 1962, 1989, 1998, 2008, 2015New York Mets1967, 1972, 1983, 1984, 2014, 2019Detroit Tigers51953, 1976, 1978, 2006, 2016Seattle Mariners1984, 2000, 2001, 2020, 2022Cleveland Guardians41955, 1971, 1980, 1990Kansas City Royals1969, 1994, 1999, 2003Philadelphia Phillies1957, 1964, 1997, 2005Miami Marlins2003, 2006, 2009, 2013Tampa Bay Rays2008, 2011, 2013, 2021Montreal Expos/Washington Nationals31970, 1977, 2012Los Angeles Angels1993, 2012, 2018Houston Astros1991, 2015, 2019Milwaukee Brewers1992, 2007, 2020San Diego Padres21976, 1987Toronto Blue Jays1979, 2002Texas Rangers1974, 2010Arizona Diamondbacks12023Colorado Rockies2002Pittsburgh Pirates2004" ], [ "See also", "*Esurance MLB Awards Best Rookie (in MLB)*Players Choice Awards Outstanding Rookie (in each league)*''Baseball America'' Rookie of the Year (in MLB)*''Sporting News'' Rookie of the Year Award (in each league)*Rookie of the Month*Topps All-Star Rookie Teams*Baseball awards*Rookie of the Year (award) (all sports)" ], [ "References", ";General**;Inline citations" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "National League Championship Series" ], [ "Introduction", "Billy Bean NLCS logo at Dodger Stadium in 2016The '''National League Championship Series''' ('''NLCS'''), also known as the '''National League Pennant''', is a best-of-seven playoff and one of two League Championship Series comprising the penultimate round of Major League Baseball's (MLB) postseason.", "It is contested by the winners of the two National League (NL) Division Series.", "The winner of the NLCS wins the NL pennant and advances to the World Series, MLB's championship series, to play the winner of the American League's (AL) Championship Series.", "The NLCS began in 1969 as a best-of-five playoff and used this format until 1985, when it changed to a best-of-seven format." ], [ "History", "Prior to 1969, the National League champion (the \"pennant winner\") was determined by the best win–loss record at the end of the regular season.", "There were four ''ad hoc'' three-game playoff series due to ties under this formulation (in 1946, 1951, 1959, and 1962).A structured postseason series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West.", "The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advance to the World Series.", "In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.The NLCS and ALCS, since the expansion to seven games, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: games 1, 2, 6, and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home field advantage, and games 3, 4, and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.", "Home field advantage is given to the team that has the better record, except a division champion would always get home advantage over a Wild Card team.", "From 1969 to 1993, home field advantage was alternated between divisions each year regardless of regular season record and from 1995 to 1997 home field advantage was predetermined before the season.In 1981, a one-off division series was held due to a split season caused by a players' strike.In 1994, the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a wild card team advancing to a best-of-five postseason round, the now-permanent National League Division Series (NLDS).", "The winners of that round advance to the best-of-seven NLCS; however, due to the player's strike later that season, no postseason was played and the new format did not formally begin until 1995.The playoffs were expanded in 2012 to include a second Wild Card team and in 2022 to include a third Wild Card team.Seven managers have led a team to the NLCS in three consecutive seasons; however, the most consecutive NLCS appearances by one manager is held by Bobby Cox, who led the Atlanta Braves to eight straight from 1991 to 1999.The Braves (1991-1999) are also the only team in the National League to have made more than three consecutive National League Championship Series appearances.", "Tony La Russa and Jim Leyland are the only managers to lead their teams to three consecutive League Championship Series appearances in both leagues.The Milwaukee Brewers, an American League team between 1969 and 1997, and the Houston Astros, a National League team between 1962 and 2012, are the only franchises to play in both the ALCS and NLCS.", "The Astros are the only team to have won both an NLCS (2005) and an ALCS (2017, 2019, 2021, and 2022).", "The Astros made four NLCS appearances before moving to the AL in 2013.Every current National League franchise has appeared in the NLCS and all teams except the Brewers have won an NL Pennant via the NLCS.For the first time in history, two wild card teams played in the 2022 National League Championship Series." ], [ "Championship Trophy", "The Warren C. Giles Trophy is awarded to the NLCS winner.", "Warren Giles served as president of the National League from 1951 to 1969." ], [ "Most Valuable Player Award", ":''See: League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award#National League winners''A Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in the NLCS.", "No MVP award is given for Division Series play.The MVP award has been given to a player on the losing team twice, in 1986 to Mike Scott of the Houston Astros and in 1987 to Jeffrey Leonard of the San Francisco Giants.Although the National League began its LCS MVP award in 1977, the American League did not begin its LCS MVP award until 1980.The winners are listed in several locations:* in the below NLCS results table, in the \"Series MVP\" column* in the article League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award* on the MLB website" ], [ "Results", "+KeyWild cardMVP did not play for winning team Year Winning team Manager Games Losing team Manager Series MVP 1969 New York Mets 3–0 Atlanta Braves   1970 Cincinnati Reds 3–0 Pittsburgh Pirates 1971 Pittsburgh Pirates 3–1 San Francisco Giants 1972 Cincinnati Reds 3–2 Pittsburgh Pirates 1973 New York Mets 3–2 Cincinnati Reds 1974 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–1 Pittsburgh Pirates 1975 Cincinnati Reds 3–0 Pittsburgh Pirates 1976 Cincinnati Reds 3–0 Philadelphia Phillies 1977 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–1 Philadelphia Phillies Dusty Baker, Los Angeles 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–1 Philadelphia Phillies Steve Garvey, Los Angeles 1979 Pittsburgh Pirates 3–0 Cincinnati Reds Willie Stargell, Pittsburgh 1980 Philadelphia Phillies 3–2 Houston Astros Manny Trillo, Philadelphia 1981 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–2 Montreal Expos Burt Hooton, Los Angeles 1982 St. Louis Cardinals 3–0 Atlanta Braves Darrell Porter, St. Louis 1983 Philadelphia Phillies 3–1 Los Angeles Dodgers Gary Matthews, Philadelphia 1984 San Diego Padres 3–2 Chicago Cubs Steve Garvey, San Diego 1985 St. Louis Cardinals 4–2 Los Angeles Dodgers Ozzie Smith, St. Louis 1986 New York Mets 4–2 Houston Astros Mike Scott, Houston* 1987 St. Louis Cardinals 4–3 San Francisco Giants Jeffrey Leonard, San Francisco* 1988 Los Angeles Dodgers 4–3 New York Mets Orel Hershiser, Los Angeles 1989 San Francisco Giants 4–1 Chicago Cubs Will Clark, San Francisco 1990 Cincinnati Reds 4–2 Pittsburgh Pirates Rob Dibble and Randy Myers, Cincinnati 1991 Atlanta Braves 4–3 Pittsburgh Pirates Steve Avery, Atlanta 1992 Atlanta Braves 4–3 Pittsburgh Pirates John Smoltz, Atlanta 1993 Philadelphia Phillies 4–2 Atlanta Braves Curt Schilling, Philadelphia 1994No Series due to a players' strike.", "1995 Atlanta Braves 4–0 Cincinnati Reds Mike Devereaux, Atlanta 1996 Atlanta Braves 4–3 St. Louis Cardinals Javy López, Atlanta 1997 Florida Marlins 4–2 Atlanta Braves Liván Hernández, Florida 1998 San Diego Padres 4–2 Atlanta Braves Sterling Hitchcock, San Diego 1999 Atlanta Braves 4–2 New York Mets Eddie Pérez, Atlanta 2000 New York Mets 4–1 St. Louis Cardinals Mike Hampton, New York 2001 Arizona Diamondbacks 4–1 Atlanta Braves Craig Counsell, Arizona 2002 San Francisco Giants 4–1 St. Louis Cardinals Benito Santiago, San Francisco 2003 Florida Marlins 4–3 Chicago Cubs Iván Rodríguez, Florida 2004 St. Louis Cardinals 4–3 Houston Astros Albert Pujols, St. Louis 2005 Houston Astros 4–2 St. Louis Cardinals Roy Oswalt, Houston 2006 St. Louis Cardinals 4–3 New York Mets Jeff Suppan, St. Louis 2007 Colorado Rockies 4–0 Arizona Diamondbacks Matt Holliday, Colorado 2008 Philadelphia Phillies 4–1 Los Angeles Dodgers Cole Hamels, Philadelphia 2009 Philadelphia Phillies 4–1 Los Angeles Dodgers Ryan Howard, Philadelphia 2010 San Francisco Giants 4–2 Philadelphia Phillies Cody Ross, San Francisco 2011 St. Louis Cardinals 4–2 Milwaukee Brewers David Freese, St. Louis 2012 San Francisco Giants 4–3 St. Louis Cardinals Marco Scutaro, San Francisco 2013 St. Louis Cardinals 4–2 Los Angeles Dodgers Michael Wacha, St. Louis 2014 San Francisco Giants 4–1 St. Louis Cardinals Madison Bumgarner, San Francisco 2015 New York Mets 4–0 Chicago Cubs Daniel Murphy, New York 2016 Chicago Cubs 4–2 Los Angeles Dodgers Javier Báez and Jon Lester, Chicago 2017 Los Angeles Dodgers 4–1 Chicago Cubs Chris Taylor and Justin Turner, Los Angeles 2018 Los Angeles Dodgers 4–3 Milwaukee Brewers Cody Bellinger, Los Angeles 2019 Washington Nationals 4–0 St. Louis Cardinals Howie Kendrick, Washington 2020 Los Angeles Dodgers 4–3 Atlanta Braves Corey Seager, Los Angeles 2021 Atlanta Braves 4–2 Los Angeles Dodgers Eddie Rosario, Atlanta 2022 Philadelphia Phillies 4–1 San Diego Padres Bryce Harper, Philadelphia 2023 Arizona Diamondbacks 4–3 Philadelphia Phillies Ketel Marte, Arizona===Appearances by team===AppsTeamWinsLossesWin %Most recentwinMost recentappearanceGameswonGameslostGamewin %15Los Angeles Dodgers820202021394214St.", "Louis Cardinals720132019384313Atlanta Braves620212021343911Philadelphia Phillies62022202329259Pittsburgh Pirates21979199217258Cincinnati Reds51990199518148New York Mets52015201526177San Francisco Giants52014201424156Chicago Cubs12016201711214Houston Astros 12005200511133Arizona Diamondbacks220232023883San Diego Padres219982022882Miami Marlins220032003852Washington Nationals120192019632Milwaukee Brewers0Never2018581Colorado Rockies12007200740===Years of appearance===In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance.", "In the \"Season(s)\" column, '''bold years''' indicate winning appearances.TeamWinsLossesWin % Season(s)15Los Angeles Dodgers8 '''1974''', '''1977''', '''1978''', '''1981''', 1983, 1985, '''1988''', 2008, 2009, 2013, 2016, '''2017''', '''2018''', '''2020,''' 202114St.", "Louis Cardinals7'''1982''', '''1985''', '''1987''', 1996, 2000, 2002, '''2004''', 2005, '''2006''', '''2011''', 2012, '''2013''', 2014, 201913Atlanta Braves6 1969, 1982, '''1991''', '''1992''', 1993, '''1995''', '''1996''', 1997, 1998, '''1999''', 2001, 2020, '''2021'''11Philadelphia Phillies6 1976, 1977, 1978, '''1980''', '''1983''', '''1993''', '''2008''', '''2009''', 2010, '''2022''', 20238New York Mets5 '''1969''', '''1973''', '''1986''', 1988, 1999, '''2000''', 2006, '''2015'''8Cincinnati Reds5 '''1970''', '''1972''', 1973, '''1975''', '''1976''', 1979, '''1990''', 19957San Francisco Giants5 1971, 1987, '''1989''', '''2002''', '''2010''', '''2012''', '''2014'''9Pittsburgh Pirates2 1970, '''1971''', 1972, 1974, 1975, '''1979''', 1990, 1991, 19923San Diego Padres2'''1984''', '''1998''', 20223Arizona Diamondbacks2'''2001''', 2007, '''2023'''2Miami Marlins2 '''1997''', '''2003'''6Chicago Cubs1 1984, 1989, 2003, 2015, '''2016''', 20174Houston Astros 1 1980, 1986, 2004, '''2005'''2Washington Nationals11981, '''2019'''1Colorado Rockies1'''2007'''2Milwaukee Brewers02011, 2018===Frequent matchups=== Count Matchup Record Years 5 Cincinnati Reds vs. Pittsburgh Pirates Reds, 4–1 1970, 1972, 1975, 1979, 1990 5 Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Philadelphia Phillies Phillies, 3–2 1977, 1978, 1983, 2008, 2009 4 San Francisco Giants vs. St. Louis Cardinals Giants, 3–1 1987, 2002, 2012, 2014 2 Atlanta Braves vs. New York Mets Tied, 1–1 1969, 1999 2 Atlanta Braves vs. St. Louis Cardinals Tied, 1–1 1982, 1996 2 Atlanta Braves vs. Pittsburgh Pirates Braves, 2–0 1991, 1992 2 Atlanta Braves vs. Los Angeles Dodgers Tied, 1–1 2020, 2021 2 Houston Astros vs. St. Louis Cardinals Tied, 1–1 2004, 2005 2 New York Mets vs. St. Louis Cardinals Tied, 1–1 2000, 2006 2 Los Angeles Dodgers vs. St. Louis Cardinals Cardinals, 2–0 1985, 2013 2 Chicago Cubs vs. Los Angeles Dodgers Tied, 1–1 2016, 2017" ], [ "See also", "*List of National League pennant winners*List of National League Wild Card winners*National League Division Series*American League Championship Series" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* League Championship Series History at Baseball Almanac* World Series and MLB Playoffs at Baseball-Reference.com* Post-Season Games Directory at Retrosheet" ] ]
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[ [ "American League Championship Series" ], [ "Introduction", "Boston Red Sox designated hitter David Ortiz jumps onto home plate after winning Game 4 of the 2004 American League Championship Series at Fenway ParkThe '''American League Championship Series''' ('''ALCS'''), also known as the '''American League Pennant''', is a best-of-seven playoff and one of two League Championship Series comprising the penultimate round of Major League Baseball's (MLB) postseason.", "The winner of the ALCS wins the AL pennant and advances to the World Series, MLB's championship series, to play the winner of the National League's (NL) Championship Series.", "The ALCS began in 1969 as a best-of-five playoff and used this format until 1985, when it changed to its current best-of-seven format." ], [ "History", "Prior to 1969, the American League champion (the \"pennant winner\") was determined by the best win–loss record at the end of the regular season.", "There was one ''ad hoc'' single-game playoff held, in , due to a tie under this formulation.The ALCS started in 1969, when the AL reorganized into two divisions, East and West.", "The winners of each division played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advance to the World Series.", "In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.", "In 1981, a division series was held due to a split season caused by a players' strike.", "In 1994, the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a Wild Card team advancing to a best-of-five postseason round, known as the American League Division Series (ALDS).", "The winners of that round then advanced to the best-of-seven ALCS; however, due to the player's strike later that season, no postseason was played and the new format did not formally begin until 1995.The playoffs were expanded in 2012 to include a second Wild Card team and in 2022 to include a third Wild Card team.The ALCS and NLCS, since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2–3–2 format: Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home field advantage, and Games 3, 4, and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.", "The series concludes when one team records its fourth win.", "Since 1998, home field advantage has been given to the team that has the better regular season record, except a division champion would always get home advantage over a Wild Card team.", "If both teams have identical records in the regular season, then home field advantage goes to the team that has the winning head-to-head record.", "From 1969 to 1993, home-field advantage alternated between the two divisions, and from 1995 to 1997 home-field advantage was determined before the season.Nine managers have led a team to the ALCS in three consecutive seasons; however, the most consecutive ALCS appearances by one manager are held by Joe Torre, who led the New York Yankees to four straight from 1998 to 2001, and Dusty Baker who lead the Houston Astros to four straight from 2020 to 2023.The Astros (2017-present) are also the only team in the American League to have made seven consecutive American League Championship Series appearances.", "Tony La Russa and Jim Leyland are the only managers to lead their teams to three consecutive League Championship Series appearances in both leagues.The Milwaukee Brewers, an American League team between 1969 and 1997, and the Houston Astros, a National League team between 1962 and 2012, are the only franchises to play in both the ALCS and NLCS.", "The Astros are the only team to have won both an NLCS (2005) and an ALCS (2017, 2019, 2021, and 2022).", "Every current American League franchise has appeared in the ALCS." ], [ "Championship Trophy", "The William Harridge Trophy is awarded to the ALCS champion.", "Will Harridge served as American League president from 1931 to 1959." ], [ "Most Valuable Player Award", ":''See: League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award#American League winners''The Lee MacPhail Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in the ALCS.", "No MVP award is given for Division Series play.Although the National League began its LCS MVP award in 1977, the American League did not begin its LCS MVP award till 1980.The winners are listed in several locations:* in the below ALCS results table, in the \"Series MVP\" column* in the article League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award* on the MLB website" ], [ "Results", "+KeyWild cardMVP did not play for winning team Year Winning team Manager Games Losing team Manager Series MVP 1969 Baltimore Orioles 3–0 Minnesota Twins   1970 Baltimore Orioles 3–0 Minnesota Twins 1971 Baltimore Orioles 3–0 Oakland Athletics 1972 Oakland Athletics 3–2 Detroit Tigers 1973 Oakland Athletics 3–2 Baltimore Orioles 1974 Oakland Athletics 3–1 Baltimore Orioles 1975 Boston Red Sox 3–0 Oakland Athletics 1976 New York Yankees 3–2 Kansas City Royals 1977 New York Yankees 3–2 Kansas City Royals 1978 New York Yankees 3–1 Kansas City Royals 1979 Baltimore Orioles 3–1 California Angels 1980 Kansas City Royals 3–0 New York Yankees Frank White, Kansas City 1981 New York Yankees 3–0 Oakland Athletics Graig Nettles, New York 1982 Milwaukee Brewers 3–2 California Angels Fred Lynn, California* 1983 Baltimore Orioles 3–1 Chicago White Sox Mike Boddicker, Baltimore 1984 Detroit Tigers 3–0 Kansas City Royals Kirk Gibson, Detroit 1985 Kansas City Royals 4–3 Toronto Blue Jays George Brett, Kansas City 1986 Boston Red Sox 4–3 California Angels Marty Barrett, Boston 1987 Minnesota Twins 4–1 Detroit Tigers Gary Gaetti, Minnesota 1988 Oakland Athletics 4–0 Boston Red Sox Dennis Eckersley, Oakland 1989 Oakland Athletics 4–1 Toronto Blue Jays Rickey Henderson, Oakland 1990 Oakland Athletics 4–0 Boston Red Sox Dave Stewart, Oakland 1991 Minnesota Twins 4–1 Toronto Blue Jays Kirby Puckett, Minnesota 1992 Toronto Blue Jays 4–2 Oakland Athletics Roberto Alomar, Toronto 1993 Toronto Blue Jays 4–2 Chicago White Sox Dave Stewart, Toronto 1994No Series due to a players' strike.", "1995 Cleveland Indians 4–2 Seattle Mariners Orel Hershiser, Cleveland 1996 New York Yankees 4–1 Baltimore Orioles Bernie Williams, New York 1997 Cleveland Indians 4–2 Baltimore Orioles Marquis Grissom, Cleveland 1998 New York Yankees 4–2 Cleveland Indians David Wells, New York 1999 New York Yankees 4–1 Boston Red Sox Orlando Hernández, New York 2000 New York Yankees 4–2 Seattle Mariners David Justice, New York 2001 New York Yankees 4–1 Seattle Mariners Andy Pettitte, New York 2002 Anaheim Angels 4–1 Minnesota Twins Adam Kennedy, Anaheim 2003 New York Yankees 4–3 Boston Red Sox Mariano Rivera, New York 2004 Boston Red Sox 4–3 New York Yankees David Ortiz, Boston 2005 Chicago White Sox 4–1 Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Paul Konerko, Chicago 2006 Detroit Tigers 4–0 Oakland Athletics Plácido Polanco, Detroit 2007 Boston Red Sox 4–3 Cleveland Indians Josh Beckett, Boston 2008 Tampa Bay Rays 4–3 Boston Red Sox Matt Garza, Tampa Bay 2009 New York Yankees 4–2 Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim CC Sabathia, New York 2010 Texas Rangers 4–2 New York Yankees Josh Hamilton, Texas 2011 Texas Rangers 4–2 Detroit Tigers Nelson Cruz, Texas 2012 Detroit Tigers 4–0 New York Yankees Delmon Young, Detroit 2013 Boston Red Sox 4–2 Detroit Tigers Koji Uehara, Boston 2014 Kansas City Royals 4–0 Baltimore Orioles Lorenzo Cain, Kansas City 2015 Kansas City Royals 4–2 Toronto Blue Jays Alcides Escobar, Kansas City 2016 Cleveland Indians 4–1 Toronto Blue Jays Andrew Miller, Cleveland 2017 Houston Astros 4–3 New York Yankees Justin Verlander, Houston 2018 Boston Red Sox 4–1 Houston Astros Jackie Bradley Jr., Boston 2019 Houston Astros 4–2 New York Yankees José Altuve, Houston 2020 Tampa Bay Rays 4–3 Houston Astros Randy Arozarena, Tampa Bay 2021 Houston Astros 4–2 Boston Red Sox Yordan Álvarez, Houston 2022Houston Astros 4–0 New York Yankees Jeremy Peña, Houston 2023Texas Rangers 4–3 Houston Astros Adolis García, Texas===Appearances by team===AppsTeamWinsLossesWin %Most recentwinMost recentappearanceGameswonGameslostGamewin %18 New York Yankees1120092022504412Boston Red Sox620182021323611Oakland Athletics619902006232310Baltimore Orioles51983201421208Kansas City Royals42015201520177Detroit Tigers32012201318157Houston Astros42022202323197Toronto Blue Jays21993201616246Los Angeles Angels12002200913195Cleveland Guardians32016201617135Minnesota Twins2199120029123Chicago White Sox120052005783Seattle Mariners0Never20015123Texas Rangers3202320231272Tampa Bay Rays220202020861Milwaukee Brewers 11982198232===Years of appearance===In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance.", "In the \"Season(s)\" column, '''bold years''' indicate winning appearances.TeamWinsLossesWin % Season(s)18New York Yankees11 '''1976''', '''1977''', '''1978''', 1980, '''1981''', '''1996''', '''1998''', '''1999''', '''2000''', '''2001''', '''2003''', 2004, '''2009''', 2010, 2012, 2017, 2019, 202212Boston Red Sox6 '''1975''', '''1986''', 1988, 1990, 1999, 2003, '''2004''', '''2007''', 2008, '''2013''', '''2018''', 202111Oakland Athletics6 1971, '''1972''', '''1973''', '''1974''', 1975, 1981, '''1988''', '''1989''', '''1990''', 1992, 200610Baltimore Orioles5 '''1969''', '''1970''', '''1971''', 1973, 1974, '''1979''', '''1983''', 1996, 1997, 20148Kansas City Royals4 1976, 1977, 1978, '''1980''', 1984, '''1985''', '''2014''', '''2015'''7Houston Astros4'''2017''', 2018, '''2019''', 2020, '''2021''', '''2022''', 20237Detroit Tigers3 1972, '''1984''', 1987, '''2006''', 2011, '''2012''', 20135Cleveland Guardians3 '''1995''', '''1997''', 1998, 2007, '''2016'''3Texas Rangers3 '''2010''', '''2011''', '''2023'''7Toronto Blue Jays21985, 1989, 1991, '''1992''', '''1993''', 2015, 20165Minnesota Twins2 1969, 1970, '''1987''', '''1991''', 20022Tampa Bay Rays2'''2008''', '''2020'''6Los Angeles Angels1 1979, 1982, 1986, '''2002''', 2005, 20093Chicago White Sox1 1983, 1993, '''2005'''1Milwaukee Brewers 1'''1982'''3Seattle Mariners0 1995, 2000, 2001===Recurring matchups=== Count Matchup Record Years 4 Kansas City Royals vs. New York Yankees Yankees, 3–1 1976, 1977, 1978, 1980 3 Houston Astros vs. New York Yankees Astros, 3–0 2017, 2019, 2022 3 Boston Red Sox vs. New York Yankees Yankees, 2–1 1999, 2003, 2004 3 Baltimore Orioles vs. Oakland Athletics Athletics, 2–1 1971, 1973, 1974 3 Boston Red Sox vs. Oakland Athletics Athletics, 2–1 1975, 1988, 1990 2 Baltimore Orioles vs. Minnesota Twins Orioles, 2–0 1969, 1970 2 Detroit Tigers vs. Oakland Athletics Tied, 1–1 1972, 2006 2 Kansas City Royals vs. Toronto Blue Jays Royals, 2–0 1985, 2015 2 New York Yankees vs. Seattle Mariners Yankees, 2–0 2000, 2001 2 Oakland Athletics vs. Toronto Blue Jays Tied, 1–1 1989, 1992 2 Boston Red Sox vs. Houston Astros Tied, 1–1 2018, 2021" ], [ "See also", "*List of American League pennant winners*List of American League Wild Card winners*American League Division Series*National League Championship Series" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* League Championship Series History at Baseball Almanac* World Series and MLB Playoffs at Baseball-Reference.com* Post-Season Games Directory at Retrosheet" ] ]
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[ [ "American League Division Series" ], [ "Introduction", "In Major League Baseball, the '''American League Division Series''' ('''ALDS''') determines which two teams from the American League will advance to the American League Championship Series.", "The Division Series consists of two best-of-five series, featuring each of the two division winners with the best records and the winners of the wild-card play-off." ], [ "History", "The Division Series was implemented in 1981 as a one-off tournament because of a midseason strike, with the first place teams before the strike taking on the teams in first place after the strike.", "In 1981, a split-season format forced the first ever divisional playoff series, in which the New York Yankees won the Eastern Division series over the Milwaukee Brewers (who were in the American League until 1998) in five games while in the Western Division, the Oakland Athletics swept the Kansas City Royals (the only team with an overall losing record to ever make the postseason).In 1994, it was returned permanently when Major League Baseball (MLB) restructured each league into three divisions, but with a different format than in 1981.Each of the division winners, along with one wild card team, qualify for the Division Series.", "Despite being planned for the 1994 season, the postseason was cancelled that year due to the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike.", "In 1995, the first season to feature a division series, the Western Division champion Seattle Mariners defeated the wild card New York Yankees three games to two, while the Central Division champion Cleveland Indians defeated the Eastern Division champion Boston Red Sox in a three-game sweep.From 1994 to 2011, the wild card was given to the team in the American League with the best overall record that was ''not'' a division champion.", "Beginning with the 2012 season, a second wild card team was added, and the two wild card teams play a single-game playoff to determine which team would play in the ALDS.", "For the 2020 Major League Baseball season only, there was an expanded playoff format, owing to an abbreviated 60-game regular season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Eight teams qualified from the American League: the top two teams in each division plus the next two best records among the remaining teams.", "These eight teams played a best-of-three-game series to determine placement in the ALDS.", "The regular format returned for the 2021 season.As of 2022, the Yankees have played in and won the most division series, with thirteen wins in twenty-two appearances.", "In 2015, the Toronto Blue Jays and Houston Astros were the final American League teams to make their first appearances in the ALDS.", "The Astros had been in the National League through 2012, and had played in the National League Division Series (NLDS) seven times.", "The Astros are the only team to win the ALDS in six consecutive seasons.", "The Yankees record of four consecutive victories was broken by the Astros with their victory in the 2021 ALDS against the Tampa Bay Rays.===Determining the matchups===The ALDS is a best-of-five series where the divisional winner with the best winning percentage in the regular season hosts the winner of the Wild Card Series between the top two wild card teams in one matchup, and the divisional winner with the second best winning percentage hosts the winner of the series between the lowest-seeded divisional winner and the lowest-seeded wild card team.", "(From 2012 to 2021, the wild card team was assigned to play the divisional winner with the best winning percentage in the regular season in one series, and the other two division winners met in the other series.", "From 1998 to 2011, if the wild-card team and the division winner with the best record were from the same division, the wild-card team played the division winner with the second-best record, and the remaining two division leaders played each other.)", "The two series winners move on to the best-of-seven ALCS.", "According to Nate Silver, the advent of this playoff series, and especially of the wild card, has caused teams to focus more on \"getting to the playoffs\" rather than \"winning the pennant\" as the primary goal of the regular season.From 2012 to 2021, the wild card team that advances to the Division Series was to face the number 1 seed, regardless whether or not they are in the same division.", "The two series winners move on to the best-of-seven ALCS.", "Beginning with the 2022 season, the winner between the lowest-ranked division winner and lowest-ranked wild card team faces the number 2 seed division winner in the Division Series, while the 4 v. 5 wild card winner still faces the number 1 seed, as there is no reseeding even if the 6-seeded wild card advances.", "Home-field advantage goes to the team with the better regular season record (or head-to-head record if there is a tie between two or more teams), except for the wild-card team, which never receives the home field advantage.Beginning in 2003, MLB has implemented a new rule to give the team from the league that wins the All-Star Game with the best regular season record a slightly greater advantage.", "In order to spread out the Division Series games for broadcast purposes, the two ALDS series follow one of two off-day schedules.", "Starting in 2007, after consulting the MLBPA, MLB has decided to allow the team with the best record in the league that wins the All-Star Game to choose whether to use the seven-day schedule (1-2-off-3-4-off-5) or the eight-day schedule (1-off-2-off-3-4-off-5).", "The team only gets to choose the schedule; the opponent is still determined by win–loss records.Initially, the best-of-5 series played in a 2–3 format, with the first two games set at home for the lower seed team and the last three for the higher seed.", "Since 1998, the series has followed a 2–2–1 format, where the higher seed team plays at home in Games 1 and 2, the lower seed plays at home in Game 3 and Game 4 (if necessary), and if a Game 5 is needed, the teams return to the higher seed's field.", "When MLB added a second wild card team in 2012, the Division Series re-adopted the 2–3 format due to scheduling conflicts.", "However, it reverted to the 2–2–1 format starting the next season, 2013." ], [ "Results", "+KeyWild card Year Winning team Manager Games Losing team Manager 1981 New York Yankees 3–2 Milwaukee Brewers Oakland Athletics 3–0 Kansas City Royals 1994No Series due to a players' strike.", "1995 Cleveland Indians 3–0 Boston Red Sox Seattle Mariners 3–2 New York Yankees 1996 New York Yankees 3–1 Texas Rangers Baltimore Orioles 3–1 Cleveland Indians 1997 Baltimore Orioles 3–1 Seattle Mariners Cleveland Indians 3–2 New York Yankees 1998 New York Yankees 3–0 Texas Rangers Cleveland Indians 3–1 Boston Red Sox 1999 New York Yankees 3–0 Texas Rangers Boston Red Sox 3–2 Cleveland Indians 2000 Seattle Mariners 3–0 Chicago White Sox New York Yankees 3–2 Oakland Athletics 2001 New York Yankees 3–2 Oakland Athletics Seattle Mariners 3–2 Cleveland Indians 2002 Minnesota Twins 3–2 Oakland Athletics Anaheim Angels 3–1 New York Yankees 2003 New York Yankees 3–1 Minnesota Twins Boston Red Sox 3–2 Oakland Athletics 2004 New York Yankees 3–1 Minnesota Twins Boston Red Sox 3–0 Anaheim Angels 2005 Chicago White Sox 3–0 Boston Red Sox Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim 3–2 New York Yankees 2006 Detroit Tigers 3–1 New York Yankees Oakland Athletics 3–0 Minnesota Twins 2007 Boston Red Sox 3–0 Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Cleveland Indians 3–1 New York Yankees 2008 Boston Red Sox 3–1 Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Tampa Bay Rays 3–1 Chicago White Sox 2009 New York Yankees 3–0 Minnesota Twins Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim 3–0 Boston Red Sox 2010 Texas Rangers 3–2 Tampa Bay Rays New York Yankees 3–0 Minnesota Twins 2011 Texas Rangers 3–1 Tampa Bay Rays Detroit Tigers 3–2 New York Yankees 2012 Detroit Tigers 3–2 Oakland Athletics New York Yankees 3–2 Baltimore Orioles 2013 Detroit Tigers 3–2 Oakland Athletics Boston Red Sox 3–1 Tampa Bay Rays 2014 Baltimore Orioles 3–0 Detroit Tigers Kansas City Royals 3–0 Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim 2015 Toronto Blue Jays 3–2 Texas Rangers Kansas City Royals 3–2 Houston Astros 2016 Cleveland Indians 3–0 Boston Red Sox Toronto Blue Jays 3–0 Texas Rangers 2017 Houston Astros 3–1 Boston Red Sox New York Yankees 3–2 Cleveland Indians 2018 Houston Astros 3–0 Cleveland Indians Boston Red Sox 3–1 New York Yankees 2019 New York Yankees 3–0 Minnesota Twins Houston Astros 3–2 Tampa Bay Rays 2020 Tampa Bay Rays 3–2 New York Yankees Houston Astros 3–1 Oakland Athletics 2021 Boston Red Sox 3–1 Tampa Bay Rays Houston Astros 3–1 Chicago White Sox 2022 Houston Astros 3–0 Seattle Mariners New York Yankees 3–2 Cleveland Guardians 2023 Texas Rangers 3–0 Baltimore Orioles Houston Astros 3–1 Minnesota Twins ===Appearances by team===AppsTeamWinsLossesWin %Most recentwinMost recentappearanceGameswonGameslostGamewin %23New York Yankees1420222022564214Boston Red Sox820212021262611Cleveland Guardians52016202224229Oakland Athletics22006202019218Houston Astros7202320232398Texas Rangers32023202312188Minnesota Twins1200220236237Los Angeles Angels32009201410157Tampa Bay Rays22020202113185Detroit Tigers42013201412105Seattle Mariners32001202210105Baltimore Orioles3201420231184Chicago White Sox120052021593Kansas City Royals220152015652Toronto Blue Jays220162016621Milwaukee Brewers0Never198123===Years of appearance===In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance.", "In the \"Season(s)\" column, '''bold years''' indicate winning appearances.TeamWinsLossesWin % Season(s)23New York Yankees14 '''1981''', 1995, '''1996''', 1997, '''1998''', '''1999''', '''2000''', '''2001''', 2002, '''2003''', '''2004''', 2005, 2006, 2007, '''2009''', '''2010''', 2011, '''2012''', '''2017''', 2018, '''2019''', 2020, '''2022'''14Boston Red Sox8 1995, 1998, '''1999''', '''2003''', '''2004''', 2005, '''2007''', '''2008''', 2009, '''2013''', 2016, 2017, '''2018''', '''2021'''8Houston Astros7 2015, '''2017''', '''2018''', '''2019''', '''2020,''' '''2021''', '''2022''', '''2023'''11Cleveland Guardians5 '''1995''', 1996, '''1997''', '''1998''', 1999, 2001, '''2007''', '''2016''', 2017, 2018, 20225Detroit Tigers4 '''2006''', '''2011''', '''2012''', '''2013''', 20148Texas Rangers3 1996, 1998, 1999, '''2010''', '''2011''', 2015, 2016, '''2023'''7Los Angeles Angels3 '''2002''', 2004, '''2005''', 2007, 2008, '''2009''', 20145Seattle Mariners3 '''1995''', 1997, '''2000''', '''2001''', 20225Baltimore Orioles3 '''1996''', '''1997''', 2012, '''2014''', 20239Oakland Athletics2 '''1981''', 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, '''2006''', 2012, 2013, 20207Tampa Bay Rays2 '''2008''', 2010, 2011, 2013, 2019, '''2020''', 20213Kansas City Royals2 1981, '''2014''', '''2015'''2Toronto Blue Jays2 '''2015''', '''2016'''8Minnesota Twins1 '''2002''', 2003, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2019, 20234Chicago White Sox1 2000, '''2005''', 2008, 20211Milwaukee Brewers 0 1981===Frequent matchups=== Count Matchup Record Years 5 New York Yankees vs. Minnesota Twins Yankees, 5–0 2003, 2004, 2009, 2010, 2019 4 Boston Red Sox vs. Los Angeles Angels Red Sox, 3–1 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009 4 Cleveland Guardians vs. Boston Red Sox Guardians, 3–1 1995, 1998, 1999, 2016 4 Cleveland Guardians vs. New York Yankees Tied, 2–2 1997, 2007, 2017, 2022 3 Texas Rangers vs. New York Yankees Yankees, 3–0 1996, 1998, 1999 2 New York Yankees vs. Oakland Athletics Yankees, 2–0 2000, 2001 2 New York Yankees vs. Anaheim-LA Angels Angels, 2–0 2002, 2005 2 Texas Rangers vs. Tampa Bay Rays Rangers, 2–0 2010, 2011 2 Oakland Athletics vs. Minnesota Twins Tied, 1–1 2002, 2006 2 Detroit Tigers vs. New York Yankees Tigers, 2–0 2006, 2011 2 Detroit Tigers vs. Oakland Athletics Tigers, 2–0 2012, 2013 2 Texas Rangers vs. Toronto Blue Jays Blue Jays, 2–0 2015, 2016 2 Boston Red Sox vs. Tampa Bay Rays Red Sox, 2–0 2013, 2021" ], [ "See also", "*National League Division Series (NLDS)*List of American League pennant winners*List of National League pennant winners*List of World Series champions*MLB division winners*MLB postseason" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Baseball-Reference.com - annual playoffs* MLB.com - MLB's Division Series historical reference - box scores, highlights, etc." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "National League Division Series" ], [ "Introduction", "In Major League Baseball, the '''National League Division Series''' ('''NLDS''') determines which two teams from the National League will advance to the National League Championship Series.", "The Division Series consists of two best-of-five series, featuring each of the two division winners with the best records and the winners of the wild-card play-offs." ], [ "History", "The Division Series was implemented in 1981 as a one-off tournament because of a midseason strike, with the first place teams before the strike taking on the teams in first place after the strike.", "In 1981, a split-season format forced the first ever divisional playoff series, in which the Montreal Expos won the Eastern Division series over the Philadelphia Phillies in five games while in the Western Division, the Los Angeles Dodgers defeated the Houston Astros, also in five games (the Astros were members of the National League until 2012).In 1994, it was returned permanently when Major League Baseball (MLB) restructured each league into three divisions, but with a different format than in 1981.Each of the division winners, along with one wild card team, qualify for the Division Series.", "Despite being planned for the 1994 season, the post-season was cancelled that year due to the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike.", "In 1995, the first season to feature a division series, the Eastern Division champion Atlanta Braves defeated the wild card Colorado Rockies three games to one, while the Central Division champion Cincinnati Reds defeated the Western Division champion Los Angeles Dodgers in a three-game sweep.From 1994 to 2011, the wild card was given to the team in the National League with the best overall record that was ''not'' a division champion.", "Beginning with the 2012 season, a second wild card team was added, and the two wild card teams play a single-game playoff to determine which team would play in the NLDS.", "For the 2020 Major League Baseball season only, there was an expanded playoff format, owing to an abbreviated 60-game regular season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Eight teams qualified from the National League: the top two teams in each division plus the next two best records among the remaining teams.", "These eight teams played a best-of-three-game series to determine placement in the NLDS.", "The regular format returned for the 2021 season.As of 2021, the Atlanta Braves have currently played in the most NL division series with seventeen appearances.", "The St. Louis Cardinals have currently won the most NL division series, winning eleven of the fourteen series in which they have played.", "The Pittsburgh Pirates (who finished with a losing record from 1993 to 2012) were the last team to make their first appearance in the NL division series, making their debut in 2013 after winning the 2013 National League Wild Card Game.", "In 2008, the Milwaukee Brewers became the first team to play in division series in both leagues when they won the National League wild card, their first postseason berth since winning the American League East Division title in 1982 before switching leagues in 1998.Milwaukee had competed in an American League Division Series in the strike-shortened 1981 season.===Format===The NLDS is a best-of-five series where the divisional winner with the best winning percentage in the regular season hosts the winner of the Wild Card Series between the top two wild card teams in one matchup, and the divisional winner with the second best winning percentage hosts the winner of the other Wild Card Series between the lowest-seeded divisional winner and the lowest-seeded wild card team.", "(From 2012 to 2021, the wild card team was assigned to play the divisional winner with the best winning percentage in the regular season in one series, and the other two division winners met in the other series.", "From 1998 to 2011, if the wild-card team and the division winner with the best record were from the same division, the wild-card team played the division winner with the second-best record, and the remaining two division leaders played each other.)", "The two series winners move on to the best-of-seven NLCS.", "According to Nate Silver, the advent of this playoff series, and especially of the wild card, has caused teams to focus more on \"getting to the playoffs\" rather than \"winning the pennant\" as the primary goal of the regular season.From 2012 to 2021, the wild card team that advances to the Division Series was to face the number 1 seed, regardless whether or not they are in the same division.", "The two series winners move on to the best-of-seven NLCS.", "Beginning with the 2022 season, the winner between the lowest-ranked division winner and lowest-ranked wild card team faces the #2 seed division winner in the Division Series, while the 4 v. 5 wild card winner faces the #1 seed, as there is no reseeding even if the 6 seed wild card advances.", "Home-field advantage goes to the team with the better regular season record (or head-to-head record if there is a tie between two or more teams), except for the wild-card team, which never receives the home-field advantage.Beginning in 2003, MLB has implemented a new rule to give the team with the best regular season record from the league that wins the All-Star Game a slightly greater advantage.", "In order to spread out the Division Series games for broadcast purposes, the two NLDS series follow one of two off-day schedules.", "Starting in 2007, after consulting the MLBPA, MLB has decided to allow the team with the best record in the league that wins the All-Star Game to choose whether to use the seven-day schedule (1-2-off-3-4-off-5) or the eight-day schedule (1-off-2-off-3-4-off-5).", "The team only gets to choose the schedule; the opponent is still determined by win–loss records.Initially, the best-of-5 series played in a 2–3 format, with the first two games set at home for the lower seed team and the last three for the higher seed.", "Since 1998, the series has followed a 2–2–1 format, where the higher seed team plays at home in Games 1 and 2, the lower seed plays at home in Game 3 and Game 4 (if necessary), and if a Game 5 is needed, the teams return to the higher seed's field.", "When MLB added a second wild card team in 2012, the Division Series re-adopted the 2–3 format due to scheduling conflicts.", "However, it reverted to the 2–2–1 format starting the next season, 2013." ], [ "Results", "+KeyWild card Year Winning team Manager Games Losing team Manager 1981 Montreal Expos 3–2 Philadelphia Phillies Los Angeles Dodgers 3–2 Houston Astros 1994No Series due to a players' strike.", "1995 Atlanta Braves 3–1 Colorado Rockies Cincinnati Reds 3–0 Los Angeles Dodgers 1996 Atlanta Braves 3–0 Los Angeles Dodgers St. Louis Cardinals 3–0 San Diego Padres 1997 Atlanta Braves 3–0 Houston Astros Florida Marlins 3–0 San Francisco Giants 1998 Atlanta Braves 3–0 Chicago Cubs San Diego Padres 3–1 Houston Astros 1999 Atlanta Braves 3–1 Houston Astros New York Mets 3–1 Arizona Diamondbacks 2000 St. Louis Cardinals 3–0 Atlanta Braves New York Mets 3–1 San Francisco Giants 2001 Atlanta Braves 3–0 Houston Astros Arizona Diamondbacks 3–2 St. Louis Cardinals 2002 St. Louis Cardinals 3–0 Arizona Diamondbacks San Francisco Giants 3–2 Atlanta Braves 2003 Chicago Cubs 3–2 Atlanta Braves Florida Marlins 3–1 San Francisco Giants 2004 St. Louis Cardinals 3–1 Los Angeles Dodgers Houston Astros 3–2 Atlanta Braves 2005 St. Louis Cardinals 3–0 San Diego Padres Houston Astros 3–1 Atlanta Braves 2006 New York Mets 3–0 Los Angeles Dodgers St. Louis Cardinals 3–1 San Diego Padres 2007 Colorado Rockies 3–0 Philadelphia Phillies Arizona Diamondbacks 3–0 Chicago Cubs 2008 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–0 Chicago Cubs Philadelphia Phillies 3–1 Milwaukee Brewers 2009 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–0 St. Louis Cardinals Philadelphia Phillies 3–1 Colorado Rockies 2010 Philadelphia Phillies 3–0 Cincinnati Reds San Francisco Giants 3–1 Atlanta Braves 2011 St. Louis Cardinals 3–2 Philadelphia Phillies Milwaukee Brewers 3–2 Arizona Diamondbacks 2012 San Francisco Giants 3–2 Cincinnati Reds St. Louis Cardinals 3–2 Washington Nationals 2013 St. Louis Cardinals 3–2 Pittsburgh Pirates Los Angeles Dodgers 3–1 Atlanta Braves 2014 St. Louis Cardinals 3–1 Los Angeles Dodgers San Francisco Giants 3–1 Washington Nationals 2015 New York Mets 3–2 Los Angeles Dodgers Chicago Cubs 3–1 St. Louis Cardinals 2016 Los Angeles Dodgers 3–2 Washington Nationals Chicago Cubs 3–1 San Francisco Giants 2017 Chicago Cubs 3–2 Washington Nationals Los Angeles Dodgers 3–0 Arizona Diamondbacks 2018 Milwaukee Brewers 3–0 Colorado Rockies Los Angeles Dodgers 3–1 Atlanta Braves 2019 Washington Nationals 3–2 Los Angeles Dodgers St. Louis Cardinals 3–2 Atlanta Braves 2020 Atlanta Braves 3–0 Miami Marlins Los Angeles Dodgers 3–0 San Diego Padres 2021 Atlanta Braves 3–1 Milwaukee Brewers Los Angeles Dodgers 3–2 San Francisco Giants 2022 San Diego Padres 3–1 Los Angeles Dodgers Philadelphia Phillies 3–1 Atlanta Braves 2023 Philadelphia Phillies 3–1 Atlanta Braves Arizona Diamondbacks 3–0 Los Angeles Dodgers ===Appearances by team===AppsTeamWinsLossesWin %Most recentwinMost recentappearanceGameswonGameslostGamewin %19Atlanta Braves820212023383618Los Angeles Dodgers920212023343514St.", "Louis Cardinals112019201936209San Francisco Giants42014202117218Philadelphia Phillies52023202319137Houston Astros22005200510187Chicago Cubs42017201712157Arizona Diamondbacks32023202312146Washington Nationals22019201913166San Diego Padres2202220227144New York Mets4201520151244Colorado Rockies120072018594Milwaukee Brewers220182021883Cincinnati Reds119952012563Miami Marlins220032020641Pittsburgh Pirates0Never201323===Years of appearance===In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance.", "In the \"Season(s)\" column, '''bold years''' indicate winning appearances.TeamWinsLossesWin % Season(s)14St.", "Louis Cardinals11 '''1996''', '''2000''', 2001, '''2002''', '''2004''', '''2005''', '''2006''', 2009, '''2011''', '''2012''', '''2013''', '''2014''', 2015, '''2019'''18Los Angeles Dodgers9 '''1981''', 1995, 1996, 2004, 2006, '''2008''', '''2009''', '''2013''', 2014, 2015, '''2016''', '''2017''', '''2018''', 2019, '''2020''', '''2021''', 2022, 202319Atlanta Braves8 '''1995''', '''1996''', '''1997''', '''1998''', '''1999''', 2000, '''2001''', 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2010, 2013, 2018, 2019, '''2020''', '''2021''', 2022, 20238Philadelphia Phillies5 1981, 2007, '''2008''', '''2009''', '''2010''', 2011, '''2022''', '''2023'''9San Francisco Giants4 1997, 2000, '''2002''', 2003, '''2010''', '''2012''', '''2014''', 2016, 20217Chicago Cubs4 1998, '''2003''', 2007, 2008, '''2015''', '''2016''', '''2017'''4New York Mets4 '''1999''', '''2000''', '''2006''', '''2015'''7Arizona Diamondbacks3 1999, '''2001''', 2002, '''2007''', 2011, 2017, '''2023'''7Houston Astros 2 1981, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, '''2004''', '''2005'''6Washington Nationals2 '''1981''', 2012, 2014, 2016, 2017, '''2019'''6San Diego Padres2 1996, '''1998''', 2005, 2006, 2020, '''2022'''4Milwaukee Brewers2 2008, '''2011''', '''2018''', 20213Miami Marlins2 '''1997''', '''2003''', 20204Colorado Rockies1 1995, '''2007''', 2009, 20183Cincinnati Reds1 '''1995''', 2010, 20121Pittsburgh Pirates0 2013===Frequent matchups=== Count Matchup Record Years 5 Atlanta Braves vs. Houston Astros Braves, 3–2 1997, 1999, 2001, 2004, 2005 3 San Diego Padres vs. St. Louis Cardinals Cardinals, 3–0 1996, 2005, 2006 3 St. Louis Cardinals vs. Los Angeles Dodgers Cardinals, 2–1 2004, 2009, 2014 3 Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Atlanta Braves Dodgers, 2–1 1996, 2013, 2018 2 St. Louis Cardinals vs. Arizona Diamondbacks Tied, 1–1 2001, 2002 2 Florida Marlins vs. San Francisco Giants Marlins, 2–0 1997, 2003 2 Chicago Cubs vs. Atlanta Braves Tied, 1–1 1998, 2003 2 Philadelphia Phillies vs. Colorado Rockies Tied, 1–1 2007, 2009 2 San Francisco Giants vs. Atlanta Braves Giants, 2–0 2002, 2010 2 New York Mets vs. Los Angeles Dodgers Mets, 2–0 2006, 2015 2 St. Louis Cardinals vs. Atlanta BravesCardinals, 2–0 2000, 2019 2 Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Washington NationalsTied, 1–1 2016, 2019 2 Los Angeles Dodgers vs. San Diego PadresTied, 1–1 2020, 2022 2 Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Arizona DiamondbacksTied, 1–1 2017, 2023 2 Atlanta Braves vs. Philadelphia PhilliesPhillies, 2–0 2022, 2023NOTE: With the Houston Astros move to the American League at the conclusion of the 2012 season, the Braves vs. Astros series is not currently possible." ], [ "See also", "*American League Division Series (ALDS)*List of American League pennant winners*List of National League pennant winners*List of World Series champions*MLB division winners*MLB postseason" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Baseball-Reference.com - annual playoffs* MLB.com - MLB's Division Series historical reference - box scores, highlights, etc." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "2001 World Series" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''2001 World Series''' was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2001 season.", "The 97th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Arizona Diamondbacks and the three-time defending World Series champions and American League (AL) champion New York Yankees.", "The underdog Diamondbacks defeated the heavily favored Yankees, four games to three to win the series.", "Considered one of the greatest World Series of all time,its memorable aspects included two extra-inning games and three late-inning comebacks.", "Diamondbacks pitchers Randy Johnson and Curt Schilling were both named World Series Most Valuable Players.The Yankees advanced to the World Series by defeating the Oakland Athletics, three games to two, in the AL Division Series, and then the Seattle Mariners in the AL Championship Series, four games to one.", "It was the Yankees' fourth consecutive World Series appearance, after winning championships in , , and .", "The Diamondbacks advanced to the World Series by defeating the St. Louis Cardinals, three games to two, in the NL Division Series, and then the Atlanta Braves in the NL Championship Series, four games to one.", "It was the franchise's first appearance in a World Series.The Series began later than usual as a result of a delay in the regular season after the September 11 attacks and was the first to extend into November.", "The Diamondbacks won the first two games at home, limiting the Yankees to just one run.", "The Yankees responded with a close win in Game 3, at which U.S. President George W. Bush threw out the ceremonial first pitch.", "In Games 4 and 5, the Yankees won in comeback fashion, hitting game-tying home runs off Diamondbacks closer Byung-hyun Kim with one out remaining in consecutive games, before winning in extra innings.", "The Diamondbacks won Game 6 in a blowout, forcing a decisive Game 7.In the final game, the Yankees led in the ninth inning before the Diamondbacks staged a comeback against closer Mariano Rivera, capped off by a walk-off, bases-loaded bloop single by Luis Gonzalez to clinch Arizona's championship victory.", "This was the third World Series to end in a bases-loaded, walk-off hit, following and , and to this date, the last Series to end on a walk-off of any kind.", "This series held the record for the latest date that a Series ended (November 4th), until that record was tied during the 2009 World Series and broken during the 2022 World Series.Among several firsts, the 2001 World Series was the first World Series championship for the Diamondbacks; the first World Series played in the state of Arizona or the Mountain Time Zone; the first championship for a Far West state other than California; the first major professional sports team from the state of Arizona to win a championship; and the earliest an MLB franchise had won a World Series (the Diamondbacks had only existed for four years).", "The home team won every game in the Series, which had only happened twice before, in 1987 and 1991, both won by the Minnesota Twins.", "The Diamondbacks outscored the Yankees, 37–14, as a result of large margins of victory achieved by Arizona at Bank One Ballpark (now known as Chase Field) relative to the one-run margins the Yankees achieved at Yankee Stadium.", "Arizona's pitching held powerhouse New York to a .183 batting average, the lowest in a seven-game World Series ever, surpassing the St. Louis Cardinals, who hit .185 in the 1985 World Series.", "This and the 2002 World Series were the last two consecutive World Series to have game sevens until the World Series of 2016 and 2017.The 2001 World Series was the subject of an HBO documentary, ''Nine Innings from Ground Zero'', in 2004." ], [ "Background", "===Arizona Diamondbacks===The Arizona Diamondbacks began play in 1998, along with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, as the youngest expansion team in Major League Baseball (MLB).", "After a mediocre debut season, the Diamondbacks finished the following year first in the National League (NL) West with a record, but lost to the New York Mets in the NL Division series.", "With several All-Star players like Randy Johnson and Matt Williams, the Diamondbacks had high expectations for the 2000 season, but finished third in the NL West with an record.", "During the offseason, team manager Buck Showalter was fired, and replaced by sportscaster Bob Brenly.", "The Diamondbacks acquired several notable free agent players during the offseason, including Miguel Batista, Mark Grace, and Reggie Sanders.", "Most of the Diamondbacks players were above the age of 30, and had already played on a number of teams prior to the 2001 season.", "In fact, the Diamondbacks starting lineup for the World Series did not include a player under the age of 31, making them the oldest team by player age in World Series history.", "With several players nearing the age of retirement, Luis Gonzalez noted that the overall team mentality was \"there's too many good guys in here to let this opportunity slip away\".Although the Diamondbacks were only one game above .500 by the end of April, Gonzalez had a particularly memorable start to the season, in which he tied the MLB record with 13 home runs during the month of April.", "The Diamondbacks found greater success in May and June, and at one point had a six-game lead in the NL West.", "During this span, the team won nine consecutive games, and Johnson tied the MLB record with 20 strikeouts in a nine-inning game.", "The six game lead did not last long however, and by the end of July, the Diamondbacks were a half game behind the Los Angeles Dodgers in the West.", "A resurgent August pushed the team back into first place, a spot they maintained for the rest of the season.", "By the end of the season, several Diamondbacks players had put up exceptional statistics: Curt Schilling had the most wins of any pitcher in MLB that year with 22, while Johnson nearly broke the single season strikeout record with 372.Johnson and Schilling also had the two lowest earned run averages (ERA) in the NL, with 2.49 and 2.98 respectively.", "Gonzalez ended the season with a .325 batting average and 57 home runs, and finished third in voting for the NL Most Valuable Player Award.", "The Diamondbacks were also one of the best defensive teams in MLB that year, second in fewest errors committed, and tied with the Seattle Mariners for the best fielding percentage.The Diamondbacks entered the postseason as the #2 seed in the National League, and played the #4 seed St. Louis Cardinals in the NL Division Series.", "Schilling threw a shutout in Game 1 to give the Diamondbacks an early series lead, but the Cardinals won Game 2 thanks to a two-run home run from Albert Pujols.", "Craig Counsell hit a three-run home run late in Game 3 to give the Diamondbacks a 2–1 series lead, but the Cardinals won Game 4 with strong pitching performances from Bud Smith and their relief pitchers.", "The Diamondbacks clinched the series in Game 5, when Tony Womack hit a game winning single that scored Danny Bautista.", "They then faced the third seeded Atlanta Braves in the NL Championship Series.", "Johnson also threw a shutout in Game 1, while the Braves hit three home runs in Game 2 to tie the series at one game apiece.", "Schilling threw a complete game in Game 3, and the Diamondbacks scored 11 runs in a Game 4 victory to take a 3–1 series lead.", "The Diamondbacks clinched the series in Game 5 with another strong performance from Johnson.", "With the win, they became the fastest expansion team to reach the World Series, in just their fourth year of play.===New York Yankees===In contrast to the Diamondbacks, the New York Yankees were one of the oldest and most recognized teams in all of North American sports.", "The Yankees had built a dynasty in the late 1990s that extended into 2000, which included winning three consecutive World Series' and four of the last five.", "These teams were led by a group of talented young players that became known as the Core Four: Derek Jeter, Andy Pettitte, Jorge Posada, and Mariano Rivera.", "Following the Yankees win over the Braves in the 1999 World Series, sportscaster Bob Costas called the Yankees \"the team of the decade, and most successful franchise of the century.", "\"The Yankees finished the 2001 season in first place in the AL East with a win–loss record of (a winning percentage of ), games ahead of the Boston Red Sox, good enough to secure the #2 seed in the American League playoff bracket.", "The Yankees then defeated the fourth seeded Oakland Athletics 3 games to 2 in the AL Division Series, after losing 2 games at home, and the top seeded Seattle Mariners 4 games to 1 in the AL Championship Series to advance to their fourth consecutive World Series, and fifth in six years.Derek Jeter and Tino Martinez led the Yankees offensively during the 2001 season.", "Jeter batted .311 with 21 home runs and 74 RBI in 150 games, while Martinez batted .280 with 34 home runs and 113 RBI in 154 games.", "Roger Clemens and Mike Mussina were the leaders of the Yankees' pitching staff.", "Clemens who won the Cy Young Award, his sixth of a career total and major league record 7, finished with a win–loss record of 20–3, an earned-run average (ERA) of 3.51, and struck out 213 batters in 220.1 innings pitched and was by far the Yankee's best starter in the World Series.", "Mussina finished with a win–loss record of 17–11, an ERA of 3.15, and struck out 214 batters in 228.2 innings pitched.=== September 11 and the month of November ===Donning an FDNY fleece, with a bulletproof vest underneath, President Bush tosses out the ceremonial first pitch.After MLB games were postponed as a result of the September 11 attacks, the World Series began on October 27, 2001, the latest start date for a World Series until the 2009 World Series, which started on October 28.The last three games were the first major-league games (other than exhibitions) played in the month of November.", "This was just the fourth time that no World Series champion was decided within the traditional month of October.", "The previous three occurrences were in (no series), (series held in September because of World War I), and (series cancelled by the players' strike).", "Game 7 was played on November 4; at the time this was the latest date a World Series game was played, and still tied with Game 6 of the 2009 Series for the second-latest date of a World Series game (only behind 's Game 6, played on November 5).Additionally, the Series took place in New York City only seven weeks after the attacks, representing a remarkable boost in morale for the fatigued city.", "A tattered and torn American flag recovered from the wreckage at Ground Zero, which had been used at funerals of fallen Port Authority police officers after the attacks, was flown over Yankee Stadium during the series.", "According to Port Authority sergeant Antonio Scannella, \"We wanted a place America could see this flag so they could see the rips in it, but it still flies.", "\"President George W. Bush threw out the ceremonial first pitch before Game 3 at Yankee Stadium.", "Bush had been counseled by security officials to appear before Game 1 in Phoenix because they believed it would be more secure there, but Bush thought it would be better for the country to do it in New York.", "Security was extremely tight at Yankee Stadium before the game, with bomb sniffing dogs sweeping the property, snipers positioned around the stadium, and vendors screened by federal agents.", "A Secret Service agent dressed as an umpire and stood on the field with the other umpires before the game, briefly appearing on the TV broadcast.", "Bush wore a bulletproof vest underneath an FDNY sweater.", "Having been counseled by Derek Jeter to throw from the rubber on top of the pitcher's mound rather than the base of the mound, Bush strode to the rubber, gave a thumbs up to the crowd, and fired a strike over home plate as the crowd chanted \"U-S-A\".", "Bush later reflected, \"I had never had such an adrenaline rush as when I finally made it to the mound.", "I was saying to the crowd, 'I'm with you, the country's with you' ... And I wound up and fired the pitch.", "I've been to conventions and rallies and speeches: I've never felt anything so powerful and emotions so strong, and the collective will of the crowd so evident.\"" ], [ "Summary" ], [ "Matchups", "===Game 1===Curt Schilling (pictured with the Boston Red Sox) held the Yankees' offense to just one run and picked up the win in Game 1.The Series commenced on October 27, which was the latest a World Series had started, beating the previous record by four days (1999 World Series, October 23).", "The Yankees struck first in Game 1 when Derek Jeter was hit by a pitch with one out in the first and scored on Bernie Williams's double two batters later.", "However, Arizona's Curt Schilling and two relievers, Mike Morgan and Greg Swindell held the Yankees scoreless afterward.", "They managed to get only two walks and two hits for the rest of the game, Scott Brosius's double in the second and Jorge Posada's single in the fourth, both with two outs.Meanwhile, the Diamondbacks tied the game on Craig Counsell's one-out home run in the first off of Mike Mussina.", "After a scoreless second, Mussina led off the third by hitting Tony Womack with a pitch.", "He moved to second on Counsell's sacrifice bunt before Luis Gonzalez's home run put the Diamondbacks up 3–1.A single and right fielder David Justice's error put runners on second and third before Matt Williams's sacrifice fly put Arizona up 4–1.After Mark Grace was intentionally walked, Damian Miller's RBI double gave Arizona a 5–1 lead.Next inning, Gonzalez hit a two-out double off of Randy Choate.", "Reggie Sanders was intentionally walked before Gonzalez scored on Steve Finley's single.", "An error by third baseman Brosius scored Sanders, put Finley at third, and Williams at second.", "Both men scored on Mark Grace's double, putting Arizona up 9–1.Though the Diamondbacks got just one more hit for the rest of the game off of Sterling Hitchcock and Mike Stanton (Williams' leadoff single in the seventh), they went up 1–0 in the series.The Diamondbacks' win in Game 1 was the first World Series game won by a non-New York City team since 1997.In every World Series between 1997 and 2001, either both teams were from New York City or a New York City team won in a sweep (1998 and 1999).===Game 2===Matt Williams (pictured in 2015) hit a three-run home run for the Diamondbacks in the bottom of the seventh to seal a Game 2 win for Arizona.Arizona continued to take control of the Series with the strong pitching performance of Randy Johnson.", "The Big Unit pitched a complete-game shutout, allowing only four baserunners and three hits while striking out 11 Yankees.", "Andy Pettitte meanwhile nearly matched him, retiring Arizona in order in five of the seven innings he pitched.", "In the second, he allowed a leadoff single to Reggie Sanders, who scored on Danny Bautista's double.", "Bautista was the only Arizona runner stranded for the entire game.", "In the seventh, Pettitte hit Luis Gonzalez with a pitch before Sanders grounded into a forceout.", "After Bautista singled, Matt Williams's three-run home run put Arizona up 4–0.They won the game with that score and led the series two games to none as it moved to New York City.", "This was the 1,000th game played in the history of the MLB postseason.===Game 3===Roger Clemens pitched a three-hitter and struck out nine to clinch Game 3 for the Yankees.The game was opened in New York City by President George W. Bush, who threw the ceremonial first pitch, a strike to Yankees backup catcher Todd Greene.", "Bush became the first incumbent U.S. president to throw a World Series first pitch since Jimmy Carter in .", "He also threw the baseball from the mound where the pitcher would be set (unlike most ceremonial first pitches which are from in front of the mound) and threw it for a strike.", "Chants of ''\"U-S-A, U-S-A\"'' rang throughout Yankee Stadium.", "Yankees starter Roger Clemens was outstanding allowing only three hits and struck out nine in seven innings of work.", "Yankees closer Mariano Rivera pitched two innings for the save.Jorge Posada's leadoff home run off of Brian Anderson in the second put the Yankees up 1–0.The Diamondbacks loaded the bases in the fourth on two walks and one hit before Matt Williams's sacrifice fly tied the game.", "Bernie Williams hit a leadoff single in the sixth and moved to second on a wild pitch one out later before Posada walked.", "Mike Morgan relieved Anderson and struck out David Justice before Scott Brosius broke the tie with an RBI single.", "That would be all the scoring as Morgan and Greg Swindell pitched the rest of the game for the Diamondbacks.", "The Yankees cut Arizona's series lead to 2–1 with the win.===Game 4===Derek Jeter's walk off solo home run for the Yankees evened the series up at two games apiece and also earned him the nickname of \"Mr. November\".Game 4 saw the Yankees send Orlando Hernández to the mound while the Diamondbacks elected to bring back Curt Schilling on three days' rest.", "Both pitchers gave up home runs, with Schilling doing so to Shane Spencer in the third inning and Hernandez doing so to Mark Grace in the fourth.", "Hernandez pitched solid innings, giving up four hits while Schilling went seven innings and gave up three.With the game still tied entering the eighth, Arizona struck.", "After Mike Stanton recorded the first out of the inning, Luis Gonzalez singled and Erubiel Durazo hit a double to bring him in.", "Matt Williams followed by grounding into a fielder's choice off of Ramiro Mendoza, which scored pinch runner Midre Cummings and gave the team a 3–1 lead.With his team on the verge of taking a commanding 3–1 series lead, Diamondbacks manager Bob Brenly elected to bring in closer Byung-hyun Kim in the bottom of the eighth for a two-inning save.", "Kim, at 22, became the first Korean-born player to play in the MLB World Series.", "Kim struck out the side in the eighth, but ran into trouble in the ninth.Derek Jeter led off by trying to bunt for a hit but was thrown out by Williams.", "Paul O'Neill then lined a single in front of Gonzalez.", "After Bernie Williams struck out, Kim seemed to be out of trouble with Tino Martinez coming to the plate.", "However, Martinez drove the first pitch he saw from Kim into the right-center field bleachers, tying the score at 3–3.The Yankees were not done, as Jorge Posada walked and David Justice moved him into scoring position with a single.", "Kim struck Spencer out to end the threat.When the scoreboard clock in Yankee Stadium passed midnight, World Series play in November began, with the message on the scoreboard \"Welcome to November Baseball\".Mariano Rivera took the hill for the Yankees in the tenth and retired the Diamondbacks in order.", "Kim went out for a third inning of work and retired Scott Brosius and Alfonso Soriano, but Jeter hit an opposite field home run on a 3–2 pitch count from Kim.", "This home run gave the Yankees a 4–3 victory and tied the Series at two games apiece which guaranteed a return trip to Arizona and made Jeter the first player to hit a November home run and earning him the tongue-in-cheek nickname of \"Mr. November\".===Game 5===Alfonso Soriano hit the game-winning single for the Yankees in the bottom of the twelfth inning, bringing the Yankees one win away from a title.Game 5 saw the Yankees return to Mike Mussina for the start while the Diamondbacks sent Miguel Batista, who had not pitched in twelve days, to the mound.", "Batista pitched a strong scoreless innings, striking out six.", "Mussina bounced back from his poor Game 1 start, recording ten strikeouts, but allowed solo home runs in the fifth inning to Steve Finley and Rod Barajas.In the top of the ninth, Paul O'Neill was honored by Yankee fans who chanted his name to which O'Neill, who was visibly in tears, tipped his hat.", "With the Diamondbacks leading 2–0 in the ninth, Byung-hyun Kim was called upon for the save despite having thrown three innings the night before.", "Jorge Posada doubled to open the inning, but Kim got Shane Spencer to ground out and then struck out Chuck Knoblauch.", "As had happened the previous night, Kim could not hold the lead as Scott Brosius hit a 1–0 pitch over the left field wall, the second straight game tying home run in the bottom of the ninth for the Yankees.", "Kim was pulled from the game in favor of Mike Morgan who recorded the final out.Morgan retired the Yankees in order in the 10th and 11th innings, while the Diamondbacks got to Mariano Rivera in the 11th.", "Danny Bautista and Erubiel Durazo opened the inning with hits and Matt Williams advanced them into scoring position with a sacrifice bunt.", "Rivera then intentionally walked Steve Finley to load the bases, then got Reggie Sanders to line out and Mark Grace grounded out to end the inning.Arizona went to midseason trade acquisition Albie Lopez in the 12th, and in his first at bat he gave up a single to Knoblauch (who had entered the game as a pinch runner).", "Brosius moved him over with a bunt, and then Alfonso Soriano ended the game with an RBI single to give the Yankees a 3–2 victory and a 3–2 series lead as the series went back to Phoenix.", "Lopez would not pitch again in the series.", "Sterling Hitchcock got the win for the Yankees after he relieved Rivera for the twelfth.===Game 6===Randy Johnson allowed just two runs and struck out seven to pick up his second win of the series.With Arizona in a must-win situation, Randy Johnson pitched seven innings and struck out seven, giving up just two runs, and Bobby Witt and Troy Brohawn finished the blowout.", "The Diamondbacks struck first when Tony Womack hit a leadoff double off of Andy Pettitte and scored on Danny Bautista's single in the first.", "Next inning, Womack's bases-loaded single scored two and Bautista's single scored another.", "The Yankees loaded the bases in the third on a single and two walks, but Johnson struck out Jorge Posada to end the inning.", "The Diamondbacks broke the game open with eight runs in the bottom half.", "Pettitte allowed a leadoff walk to Greg Colbrunn and subsequent double to Matt Williams before being relieved by Jay Witasick, who allowed four straight singles to Reggie Sanders, Jay Bell, Damian Miller, and Johnson that scored three runs.", "After Womack struck out, Bautista's single scored two more runs and Luis Gonzalez's double scored another, with Bautista being thrown out at home.", "Colbrunn's single and Williams's double scored a run each before Sanders struck out to end the inning.", "In the fourth, Bell reached first on a strike-three wild pitch before scoring on Miller's double.", "Johnson struck out before Womack singled to knock Witasick out of the game.", "With Randy Choate pitching, Yankees second baseman Alfonso Soriano's error on Bautista's ground ball allowed Miller to score and put runners on first and second before Gonzalez's single scored the Diamondbacks' final run.", "Choate and Mike Stanton kept them scoreless for the rest of the game.", "Pettitte was charged with six runs in two innings while Witasick was charged with nine runs in innings, the most runs allowed by any pitcher in a World Series game since Hall of Famer Walter Johnson also allowed nine runs in Game 7 of the 1925 World Series.", "The Yankees scored their only runs in the sixth on back-to-back one-out singles by Shane Spencer and Luis Sojo with runners on second and third, but by then the score had become so far out of reach that it didn't do the Yankees much good.", "The Diamondbacks hit six doubles and Danny Bautista batted 3-for-4 with five RBIs.", "The team set a World Series record with 22 hits and defeated the New York Yankees in its most lopsided postseason loss in 293 postseason games, since surpassed by a 16–1 loss to the Boston Red Sox in Game 3 of the 2018 American League Division Series.", "The 15–2 win evened the series at three games apiece and set up a Game 7 for the ages between Roger Clemens and Curt Schilling.===Game 7===It was a matchup of two 20-game winners in the Series finale.", "Roger Clemens, at 39 years old, became the oldest Game 7 starter.", "Curt Schilling had already started two games of the Series and pitched his 300th inning of the season on just three days' rest.", "The two aces matched each other inning by inning and after seven full innings, the game was tied at 1–1.The Diamondbacks scored first in the sixth inning with a Steve Finley single and a Danny Bautista double (Bautista, trying to stretch it into a triple, was called out at third base).", "The Yankees responded with an RBI single from Tino Martinez, which drove in Derek Jeter who had singled earlier.", "Brenly stayed with Schilling into the eighth, and the move backfired as Alfonso Soriano hit a home run on an 0–2 pitch.", "After Schilling struck out Scott Brosius, he gave up a single to David Justice, and he left the game trailing 2–1.When Brenly came to the mound to remove Schilling, he was heard on the Sounds of the Game microphone telling his clearly upset pitcher, \"love you brother, you're my hero\" and assuring him that \"that ain't gonna beat us, we're gonna get that back and then some.\"", "He then brought in Game 5 starter Miguel Batista to get Jeter out and then in an unconventional move, brought in the previous night's starter and winner Randy Johnson, who had thrown 104 pitches, in relief to keep it a one-run game.", "It proved to be a smart move, as Johnson retired pinch hitter Chuck Knoblauch (who batted for the left handed Paul O'Neill) on a fly out to Bautista in right field, then returned to the mound for the top of the ninth where he got Bernie Williams to fly out to Steve Finley in center field and Martinez to ground out to Tony Womack at shortstop, and then struck out catcher Jorge Posada to send the game to the bottom of the ninth inning.With the Yankees ahead 2–1 in the bottom of the eighth, manager Joe Torre turned the game over to his ace closer Mariano Rivera for a two-inning save.", "Rivera struck out the side in the eighth, including Arizona's Luis Gonzalez, Matt Williams, and Bautista.", "Although he was effective in the eighth, this game would end in the third ninth-inning comeback of the Series.Mark Grace led off the inning with a single to center on a 1–0 pitch.", "Rivera's errant throw to second base on a bunt attempt by catcher Damian Miller on an 0–1 pitch put runners on first and second.", "Jeter tried to reach for the ball, but got tangled in the legs of pinch-runner David Dellucci, who was sliding in an attempt to break up the double play.", "During the next at bat, Rivera appeared to regain control when he fielded pinch hitter Jay Bell's (who was hitting for Johnson) bunt and threw out Dellucci at third base, but third baseman Brosius decided to hold onto the baseball instead of throwing to first to complete the double play.", "Midre Cummings was sent in to pinch-run for Damian Miller, who had reached second base safely.", "With Cummings at second and Bell at first, the next batter, Womack, hit a double down the right-field line on a 2–2 pitch that tied the game and earned Rivera a blown save, his first in a postseason since 1997.Bell advanced to third and the Yankees pulled the infield and outfield in as the potential winning run (Bell) stood at third with fewer than two outs.", "After Rivera hit Craig Counsell unintentionally with an 0–1 pitch, the bases were loaded.", "On an 0–1 pitch, with Williams in the on-deck circle, Gonzalez lofted a soft floater single over the drawn-in Jeter that barely reached the outfield grass, plating Jay Bell with the winning run.Gonzalez's single ended New York's bid for a fourth consecutive title and brought Arizona its first championship in its fourth year of existence, making the Diamondbacks the fastest expansion team to win a World Series (beating out the 1997 Florida Marlins, who had done it in their fifth season at that time).", "It was also the first, and remains the only, major professional sports championship for the state of Arizona.", "Randy Johnson picked up his third win.", "Rivera took the loss, his only postseason loss in his career.", "Coincidentally, this was also the second World Series in a 5-year span (1997 to 2001) to end with a game-winning RBI single.", "Edgar Renteria hit the game-winner in the 1997 series, while Gonzalez hit it here, with Craig Counsell being on the basepaths for each.", "No other World Series has ended with a game-winning hit since 2001.In 2009, Game 7 of the 2001 World Series was chosen by ''Sports Illustrated'' as the Best Postseason Game of the Decade (2000–2009).In the years that have followed, many fans regardless of team allegiance consider Game 7 of the 2001 World Series to be one of the greatest games ever played in the history of professional baseball." ], [ "Composite box", "2001 World Series '''(4–3): Arizona Diamondbacks (N.L.)'''", "over New York Yankees (A.L.)" ], [ "Media coverage", "For the second consecutive year, Fox carried the World Series over its network with its top broadcast team, Joe Buck and Tim McCarver (himself a Yankees broadcaster).", "This was the first year of Fox's exclusive rights to the World Series (in the previous contract, Fox only broadcast the World Series in even numbered years while NBC broadcast it in odd numbered years), which it has held since (this particular contract also had given Fox exclusive rights to the entire baseball postseason, which aired over its family of networks; the contract was modified following Disney's purchase of Fox Family Channel shortly after the World Series ended, as ESPN regained their postseason rights following a year of postseason games on ABC Family, Fox Family's successor).", "ESPN Radio provided national radio coverage for the fourth consecutive year, with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan calling the action.Locally, the Series was broadcast by KTAR-AM in Phoenix with Thom Brennaman, Greg Schulte, Rod Allen and Jim Traber, and by WABC-AM in New York City with John Sterling and Michael Kay.", "This would be Sterling and Kay's last World Series working together, and Game 7 would be the last Yankee broadcast on WABC.", "Kay moved to television and the new YES Network the following season and WCBS picked up radio rights to the Yankees.", "It was Kay who announced Derek Jeter's game-winning home run in Game 4 of the series and subsequently anointed him as \"Mr. November\".===Books and films===Buster Olney, who covered the Yankees for ''The New York Times'' before joining ESPN, would write a book titled ''The Last Night of the Yankee Dynasty'', published in 2004.The book is a play by play account of Game 7 in addition to stories about key players, executives, and moments from the 1996–2001 dynasty.", "In a 2005 reprinting, Olney included a new epilogue covering the aftermath of the 2001 World Series up to the Boston Red Sox epic comeback from down 3–0 in the 2004 ALCS.The official MLB Productions documentary film of the series was released in 2001.In 2004, HBO released ''Nine Innings from Ground Zero'', a documentary focusing on the special role that baseball, and particularly the Yankees, played in helping to heal New York after 9/11.The film features interviews with players, fans who lost family members, firefighters, sportswriters, and George W. Bush.In 2005, A&E Home Video released the ''New York Yankees Fall Classic Collectors Edition (1996–2001)'' DVD set.", "Game 4 of the 2001 World Series is included in the set.", "In 2008, ''The Arizona Diamondbacks 2001 World Series'' DVD set was released.", "All seven games are included on this set." ], [ "Aftermath", "Rivera's blown save and the Yankees' loss proved to be life-saving for Yankees utility player Enrique Wilson.", "Had the Yankees won, Wilson was planning to fly home to the Dominican Republic on American Airlines Flight 587 on November 12 after what would have been a Yankees victory parade down the Canyon of Heroes.", "But after the Yankees lost, Wilson moved up his flight.", "Flight 587 would crash in Belle Harbor, Queens, killing everyone on board.", "Rivera later said, \"I am glad we lost the World Series because it means that I still have a friend.", "\"During the offseason, several Yankees moved on to other teams or retired, the most notable changes being the free agent departures of Martinez and Knoblauch to the St. Louis Cardinals and Kansas City Royals, and Brosius and O'Neill retiring.", "Martinez would later return to the Yankees to finish his career in 2005.After winning the NL West again in 2002 the Diamondbacks were swept 3–0 by St. Louis in the NLDS.", "From here they declined, losing 111 games in 2004 as Bob Brenly was fired during that season.", "Arizona would not win another NL West title until 2007.Schilling was traded to the Boston Red Sox after the 2003 season and in 2004 helped lead them to their first World Series championship since 1918.He helped them win another championship in 2007 and retired after four years with Boston, missing the entire 2008 season with a shoulder injury.", "Johnson was traded to the Yankees after the 2004 season, a season that saw him throw a perfect game against the Atlanta Braves, though he would be traded back to the Diamondbacks two years later and finish his career with the San Francisco Giants in 2009.The last player from the 2001 Diamondbacks roster, Lyle Overbay, retired following the 2014 season with the Milwaukee Brewers while the last player from the 2001 Yankees, Randy Choate, retired following the 2016 season.From 2002 through 2007, the Yankees' misfortune in the postseason continued, with the team losing the ALDS to the Anaheim Angels in 2002, the World Series to the Florida Marlins in 2003, the ALCS to the Boston Red Sox (in the process becoming the first team in postseason history to blow a 3–0 series lead) in 2004, the ALDS again to the Angels in 2005, and then losing the ALDS to the Detroit Tigers and the Cleveland Indians in 2006 and 2007, respectively.", "In addition, including the World Series loss in 2001, every World Series champion from 2001 to 2004 won the title at the Yankees' expense in postseason play, which is an AL record and as of 2023 tied for the MLB record with the Los Angeles Dodgers from 2016 to 2019.Joe Torre's contract was allowed to expire and he was replaced by Joe Girardi in 2008, a season in which the Yankees would miss the playoffs for the first time since 1993.The Yankees won their 27th World Series championship in 2009, defeating the defending 2008 champion Philadelphia Phillies in six games, but could not pull off another dynasty like they did during the late 1990s and early 2000s; in fact, they failed to reach the World Series during the entirety of the 2010s.To date, this is the state of Arizona's only championship among the four major North American men’s professional sports.", "However, the WNBA's Phoenix Mercury have won three championships since then (2007, 2009, and 2014).The Diamondbacks and the Baltimore Ravens, who won the Super Bowl earlier in 2001, created the first instance of two major sports teams winning a championship game or series on their first attempts.", "This would not occur again until 2019, when the Toronto Raptors and Washington Nationals accomplished this feat.The Diamondbacks would not return to the World Series again until 2023; this time, they would go on to lose to the Texas Rangers in five games." ], [ "See also", "* 2001 Japan Series" ], [ "General sources", "*" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "External links", "* Book on 2001 WS is \"the last word on the inside game of baseball\"* SI.com: MLB Postseason 2001* USA Today: Quest for a Title* CBS Sportsline: 2001 MLB Playoffs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "1903 World Series" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''1903 World Series''' was the first modern World Series to be played in Major League Baseball.", "It matched the American League (AL) champion Boston Americans against the National League (NL) champion Pittsburgh Pirates in a best-of-nine series, with Boston prevailing five games to three, winning the last four.", "The first three games were played in Boston, the next four in Allegheny (home of the Pirates), and the eighth (last) game in Boston.Pittsburgh pitcher Sam Leever injured his shoulder while trap shooting, so his teammate Deacon Phillippe pitched five complete games.", "Phillippe won three of his games, but it was not enough to overcome the club from the new American League.", "Boston pitchers Bill Dinneen and Cy Young led Boston to victory.", "In Game 1, Phillippe struck out ten Boston batters.", "The next day, Dinneen bettered that mark, striking out 11 Pittsburgh batters in Game 2.Honus Wagner, bothered by injuries, batted only 6-for-27 (.222) in the Series and committed six errors.", "The shortstop was deeply distraught by his performance.", "The following spring, Wagner (who in 1903 led the National League in batting average) refused to send his portrait to a \"Hall of Fame\" for batting champions.", "\"I was too bum last year\", he wrote.", "\"I was a joke in that Boston-Pittsburgh Series.", "What does it profit a man to hammer along and make a few hits when they are not needed only to fall down when it comes to a pinch?", "I would be ashamed to have my picture up now.", "\"Due to overflow crowds at the Exposition Park games in Allegheny City, if a batted ball rolled under a rope in the outfield that held spectators back, a \"ground-rule triple\" would be scored.", "17 ground-rule triples were hit in the four games played at the stadium.In the series, Boston came back from a three games to one deficit, winning the final four games to capture the title.", "Such a large comeback would not happen again until the Pirates came back to defeat the Washington Senators in the 1925 World Series, and has happened only 11 times in baseball history.", "(The Pirates themselves repeated this feat in against the Baltimore Orioles.)", "Much was made of the influence of Boston's \"Royal Rooters\", who traveled to Exposition Park and sang their theme song \"Tessie\" to distract the opposing players (especially Wagner).", "Boston wound up winning three out of four games in Allegheny City.Pirates owner Barney Dreyfuss added his share of the gate receipts to the players' share, so the losing team's players actually finished with a larger individual share than the winning team's.The Series brought the new American League prestige and proved its best could beat the best of the National League, thus strengthening the demand for future World Series competitions." ], [ "Background", "===A new league===In 1901, Ban Johnson, president of the Western League, a minor league organization, formed the American League to take advantage of the National League's 1900 contraction from twelve teams to eight.", "Johnson and fellow owners raided the National League and signed away many star players, including Cy Young and Jimmy Collins.", "Johnson had a list of 46 National Leaguers he targeted for the American League; by 1902, all but one had made the jump.", "The constant raiding, however, nixed the idea of a championship between the two leagues.", "Pirates owner Barney Dreyfuss, whose team ran away with the 1902 National League pennant, was open to a postseason contest and even said he would allow the American League champion to stock its roster with all-stars.", "However, Johnson had spoken of putting a team in Pittsburgh and even attempted to raid the Pirates' roster in August 1902, which soured Dreyfuss.", "At the end of the season, however, the Pirates played a group of American League All-Stars in a four-game exhibition series, winning two games to one, with one tie.The leagues finally called a truce in the winter of 1902–03 and formed the National Commission to preside over organized baseball.", "The following season, the Boston Americans and Pittsburgh Pirates had secured their respective championship pennants by September.", "That August, Dreyfuss challenged the American League to an 11-game championship series.", "Encouraged by Johnson and National League President Harry Pulliam, Americans owner Henry J. Killilea met with Dreyfuss in Pittsburgh in September and instead agreed to a best-of-nine championship, with the first three games played in Boston, the next four in Allegheny City, and the remaining two (if necessary) in Boston.One significant point about this agreement was that it was an arrangement primarily between the two clubs rather than a formal arrangement between the leagues.", "In short, it was a voluntary event, a fact which would result in no Series at all for .", "The formal establishment of the Series as a compulsory event started in ." ], [ "The teams", "The 1903 Pittsburgh PiratesThe Pirates won their third straight pennant in 1903 thanks to a powerful lineup that included legendary shortstop Honus Wagner, who hit .355 and drove in 101 runs, player-manager Fred Clarke, who hit .351, and Ginger Beaumont, who hit .341 and led the league in hits and runs.", "The Pirates' pitching was weaker than it had been in previous years but boasted 24-game winner Deacon Phillippe and 25-game winner Sam Leever.The Americans had a strong pitching staff, led by Cy Young, who went 28–9 in 1903 and became the all-time wins leader that year.", "Bill Dinneen and Long Tom Hughes, right-handers like Young, had won 21 games and 20 games each.", "The Boston outfield, featuring Chick Stahl (.274), Buck Freeman (.287, 104 RBI) and Patsy Dougherty (.331, 101 runs scored) was considered excellent.The 1903 Boston Americans and Pittsburgh PiratesAlthough the Pirates had dominated their league for the previous three years, they went into the series riddled with injuries and plagued by bizarre misfortunes.", "Otto Krueger, the team's only utility player, was beaned on September 19 and never fully played in the series.", "16-game winner Ed Doheny left the team three days later, exhibiting signs of paranoia; he was committed to an insane asylum the following month.", "Leever had been battling an injury to his pitching arm (which he made worse by entering a trapshooting competition).", "Worst of all, Wagner, who had a sore thumb throughout the season, injured his right leg in September and was never 100 percent for the postseason.Some sources say Boston were heavy underdogs.", "Boston bookies actually gave even odds to the teams (and only because Dreyfuss and other \"sports\" were alleged to have bet on Pittsburgh to bring down the odds).", "The teams were generally thought to be evenly matched, with the Americans credited with stronger pitching and the Pirates with superior offense and fielding.", "The outcome, many believed, hinged on Wagner's health.", "\"If Wagner does not play, bet your money at two to one on Boston\", said the ''Sporting News'', \"but if he does play, place your money at two to one on Pittsburg.\"" ], [ "Summary" ], [ "Matchups", "===Game 1===Jimmy Sebring hit the first home run in World Series history, an inside-the-park home run in Game 1.The Pirates started Game 1 strong, scoring six runs in the first four innings, and held on to win the first World Series game in baseball history.", "They extended their lead to 7–0 on an inside-the-park home run by Jimmy Sebring in the seventh, the first home run in World Series history.", "Boston scored a few runs in the last three innings, but it was too little, too late; they ended up losing 7–3 in the first ever World Series game.", "Both Phillippe and Young threw complete games, with Phillippe striking out ten and Young fanning five, but Young also gave up twice as many hits and allowed three earned runs to Phillippe's two.===Game 2===In Game 2, Patsy Dougherty hit the first over-the-fence home run in World Series history.After starting out strong in Game 1, the Pirates simply shut down offensively, eking out a mere three hits, all singles.", "Pittsburgh starter Sam Leever went 1 inning and gave up three hits and two runs, before his ailing arm forced him to leave in favor of Bucky Veil, who finished the game.", "Bill Dinneen struck out 11 and pitched a complete game for the Americans, while Patsy Dougherty hit home runs in the first and sixth innings for two of the Boston's three runs.", "The Americans' Patsy Dougherty led off the Boston scoring with an inside-the-park home run, the first time a lead-off batter did just that until Alcides Escobar of the Kansas City Royals duplicated the feat in the 2015 World Series, 112 years later.", "Dougherty's second home run was the first in World Series history to actually sail over the fence, an incredibly rare feat at the time.===Game 3===Members of the Boston Police Department at Huntington Avenue Grounds during the seriesPhillippe, pitching after only a single day of rest, started Game 3 for the Pirates and didn't let them down, hurling his second complete-game victory of the Series to put Pittsburgh up two games to one.===Game 4===Exposition ParkAfter two days of rest, Phillippe was ready to pitch a second straight game.", "He threw his third complete-game victory of the series against Bill Dinneen, who was making his second start of the series.", "But Phillippe's second straight win was almost not to be, as the Americans, down 5–1 in the top of the ninth, rallied to narrow the deficit to one run.", "The comeback attempt failed, as Phillippe managed to put an end to it and give the Pirates a commanding 3–1 series lead.===Game 5===Game 5 winning pitcher Cy YoungGame 5 was a pitcher's duel for the first five innings, with Boston's Cy Young and Pittsburgh's Brickyard Kennedy giving up no runs.", "That changed in the top of the sixth, however, when the Americans scored a then-record six runs before being retired.", "Young, on the other hand, managed to keep his shutout intact before finally giving up a pair of runs in the bottom of the eighth.", "He went the distance and struck out four for his first World Series win.===Game 6===Game 6 winning pitcher Bill DinneenGame 6 was a rematch between the starters of Game 2, Boston's Dinneen and Pittsburgh's Leever.", "Leever pitched a complete game this time but so did Dinneen, who outmatched him to earn his second complete-game victory of the series.", "After losing three of the first four games of the World Series, the underdog Americans had tied the series at three games apiece.===Game 7===Souvenir card of the \"World's Championship Games\"The fourth and final game in Allegheny saw Phillippe start his fourth game of the Series for the Pirates.", "This time, however, he did not fare as well as he did in his first three starts.", "Cy Young, in his third start of the Series, held the Pirates to three runs and put the Americans ahead for the first time as the Series moved back to Boston.===Game 8===The final game of this inaugural World Series started out as an intense pitcher's duel, scoreless until the bottom of the fourth when Hobe Ferris hit a two-run single.", "Phillippe started his fifth and final game of the series and Dinneen his fourth.", "As he did in Game 2, Dinneen threw a complete-game shutout, striking out seven and leading his Americans to victory, while Phillippe pitched respectably but could not match Dinneen because his arm had been worn out with five starts in the eight games, giving up three runs to give the first 20th-century World Championship to the Boston Americans, Honus Wagner striking out to end the Series." ], [ "Composite line score", "1903 World Series '''(5–3): Boston Americans (A.L.)'''", "over Pittsburgh Pirates (N.L.)" ], [ "Series Statistics", "===Boston Americans=======Batting====''Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage''PlayerGPABRH2B3BHRRBIBBAVGOBPSLGReferenceJimmy Collins8365912011.250.270.389Lou Criger8261600042.231.286.231Bill Dinneen4121221001.167.231.167Patsy Dougherty8343802252.235.297.529Duke Farrell220000010.000.000.000Hobe Ferris8313901050.290.313.355Buck Freeman8326903042.281.324.469Long Tom Hughes100000000.000.000.000Candy LaChance8275621043.222.300.370Jack O'Brien220000000.000.000.000Freddy Parent8328903041.281.324.469Chick Stahl83361013031.303.324.515Cy Young4151101030.067.067.200====Pitching====''Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; ERA=Earned Run Average; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; R=Runs; ER= Earned Runs; BB=Walks; SO= Strikeouts'' PlayerGGSERAWLSVIPHRERBBSOReference Bill Dinneen 4 4 2.06 3 1 0 35.0 29 8 8 8 28 Tom Hughes 1 1 9.00 0 1 0 2.0 4 3 2 2 0 Cy Young 4 3 1.85 2 1 0 34.0 31 13 7 4 17===Pittsburgh Pirates=======Batting====''Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage''PlayerGPABRH2B3BHRRBIBBAVGOBPSLGReference Ginger Beaumont 8 34 6 9 01 0 2 2 .265 .306.324 Kitty Bransfield 8 29 3 6 02 0 1 1 .207 .233.345 Fred Clarke 8 34 3 9 21 0 01 .265 .286 .382 Brickyard Kennedy 1 2 0 1 10 0 00 .500 .5001.000 Tommy Leach 8 33 3 9 04 0 81 .273 .294 .515 Sam Leever 2 4 0 0 00 0 0 0 .000 .000 .000 Ed Phelps 8 26 1 6 20 0 11 .231 .259.308 Deacon Phillippe 5 18 1 4 00 0 1 0 .222 .222 .222 Claude Ritchey 8 27 2 4 10 0 2 4 .148 .258 .185 Jimmy Sebring 8 30 3 10 01 1 41 .333 .355 .500 Harry Smith 1 3 0 0 00 0 00 .000 .000 .000 Gus Thompson 1 1 0 0 00 0 0 0 .000 .000 .000 Bucky Veil 1 2 0 0 00 0 0 0 .000 .000 .000 Honus Wagner 8 27 2 6 10 0 33 .222 .323.259====Pitching====''Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; ERA=Earned Run Average; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; R=Runs; ER= Earned Runs; BB=Walks; SO= Strikeouts''PlayerGGSERAWLSVIPHRERBBSOReference Brickyard Kennedy 1 1 5.14 0 1 0 7.0 10 10 4 3 3 Sam Leever 2 2 5.40 0 2 0 10.0 13 8 6 3 2 Deacon Phillippe 5 5 3.07 3 2 0 44.0 38 19 15 3 22 Gus Thompson 1 0 4.50 0 0 0 2.0 3 1 1 0 1 Bucky Veil 1 0 1.29 0 0 0 7.0 5 1 1 5 1" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "****" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bluetongue disease" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bluetongue disease''' is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and less frequently cattle, yaks, goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope.", "It is caused by Bluetongue virus ('''''BTV''''').", "The virus is transmitted by the midges ''Culicoides imicola'', ''Culicoides variipennis'', and other culicoids." ], [ "Signs", "Infected sheepA domestic yak is infected with ''Bluetongue virus''.", "The tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality.", "BTV also infects goats, cattle, and other domestic animals, as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue, and cyanosis of the tongue.", "Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign is confined to a minority of the animals.", "Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge and stertorous respiration.Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness.", "In sheep, this can lead to knee-walking.", "In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives bluetongue the nickname '''the dancing disease'''.", "Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is observed in severely affected animals.Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a week.", "For affected animals that do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month.", "The mortality rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep.", "In Africa, local breeds of sheep may have no mortality, but in imported breeds, it may be up to 90%.In cattle, goats, and wild ruminants, infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in blood.", "Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep." ], [ "Microbiology", "Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, ''Bluetongue virus'' (''BTV''), of the genus ''Orbivirus'', of the Reoviridae family.", "Twenty-seven serotypes are now recognised for this virus.", "The twenty-seven serotypes are the result of the high variability of a single outer capsid protein, VP2.The virus particle consists of 10 strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.", "Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope.", "The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.", "The structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure to be solved.The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the target cell.", "VP2 and VP5 are the primary antigenic targets for antibody targeting by the host immune system.", "The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated endocytosis of the virus.", "The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal membrane.", "Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the dsRNA genome.", "There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with these cores, as has been described for reovirus.", "The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus.", "Subviral particles are probably akin to cores derived ''in vitro'' from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase.", "In addition to the seven structural proteins, three non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected cells.", "Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus.", "The two remaining non-structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis." ], [ "Evolution", "The viral genome is replicated via structural protein VP1, an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.", "The lack of proof-reading abilities results in high levels of transcription errors, resulting in single nucleotide mutations.", "Despite this, the BTV genome is quite stable, exhibiting a low rate of variants arising in populations.", "Evidence suggests this is due to purifying selection across the genome as the virus is transmitted alternately through its insect and animal hosts.", "However, individual gene segments undergo different selective pressures and some, particularly segments 4 and 5, are subject to positive selection.Genetic diversification of BTV occurs primarily through reassortment of the gene segments during co-infection of the host cell.", "Reassortment can lead to a rapid shift in phenotypes independent of the slow rate of mutation.", "During this process, gene segments are not randomly reassorted.", "Rather, there appears to be a mechanism for selecting for or against certain segments from the parental serotypes present.", "However, this selective mechanism is still poorly understood." ], [ "Epidemiology", "The molecular epidemiology of ''Bluetongue virus'' in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different serotypes and individual virus strainsBluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe.", "An outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during milder winters.A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been the ability of ''C.", "obsoletus'' and ''C.pulicaris'' to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are spread widely throughout Europe.", "This is in contrast to the original ''C.imicola'' vector, which is limited to North Africa and the Mediterranean.", "The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and Luxembourg.In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich, Suffolk.Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.By October 2007, bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerlandand the first outbreak in Denmark was reported.", "In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.Norway had its first finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an immune response to bluetongue.", "Norway was declared free of the disease in 2011.As of November 2023, cases of bluetongue have been recorded in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Spain, and the UK.Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.===Overwintering===A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions.", "Adults of ''Culicoides'' are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to survive until the next spring.", "It is believed that the virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals.", "Multiple mechanisms have been proposed.", "A few adult ''Culicoides'' midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the temperate zone.", "Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.", "Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means for BTV to survive the winter.", "BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus.", "The outcome is abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.", "However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb.", "Midges then spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.===Climate change===" ], [ "Treatment and prevention", "Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine, and control of the midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.===Livestock management and insect control======Vaccines===Protection by live attenuated vaccines (LAVs) are serotype specific.", "Multiserotype LAV cocktails can induce neutralizing antibodies against unincluded serotypes, and subsequent vaccinations with three different pentavalent LAV cocktails induce broad protection.", "These pentavalent cocktails contain 15 different serotypes in total: serotypes 1 through 14, as well as 19.Immunization with any of the available vaccines, though, precludes later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem that could be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines.In January 2015, Indian researchers launched a vaccine named Raksha Blu that is designed to protect livestock against five strains of the bluetongue virus prevalent in the country." ], [ "History", "Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th century.", "In 1906, Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent.", "He also created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BT V strain.", "For many decades, bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa.", "The first confirmed outbreak outside of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.Recently, a vessel owned by Khalifeh Livestock Trading and managed by Talia Shipping Line, both based in Lebanon, has been denied right to dock in Spain, as it has about 895 male calves suspected to be infected by bluetongue disease." ], [ "Related diseases", "African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges (''Culicoides'' species).", "It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the infected horses during an epidemic.", "''Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus'' is closely related and crossreacts with ''Bluetongue virus'' on many blood tests." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease Information** Bluetongue disease fact sheet** Biosecurity training video** Farm-level biosecurity practices* News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the UK, ''Farmers Guardian''" ] ]
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[ [ "Bruce Perens" ], [ "Introduction", "Perens at the World Summit on the Information Society 2005 in Tunis speaking on \"Is Free/Open Source Software the Answer?", "\"'''Bruce Perens''' (born around 1958) is an American computer programmer and advocate in the free software movement.", "He created ''The Open Source Definition'' and published the first formal announcement and manifesto of open source.", "He co-founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI) with Eric S. Raymond.In 2005, Perens represented Open Source at the United Nations World Summit on the Information Society, at the invitation of the United Nations Development Programme.", "He has appeared before national legislatures and is often quoted in the press, advocating for open source and the reform of national and international technology policy.Perens is also an amateur radio operator, with call sign K6BP.", "He promotes open radio communications standards and open-source hardware.In 2016 Perens, along with Boalt Hall (Berkeley Law) professor Lothar Determann, co-authored \"Open Cars\" which appeared in the Berkeley Technology Law Journal.In 2018 Perens founded the Open Research Institute (ORI), a non-profit research and development organization to address technologies involving Open Source, Open Hardware, Open Standards, Open Content, and Open Access to Research.", "In April 2022 he divorced himself from the organization and reported he was starting a new charity, HamOpen.org, to redirect his focus, and align with the ARRL organization for their liability insurance benefit.", "HamOpen has been most visible supporting the convention exhibitions of projects Perens supports, including M17 and FreeDV." ], [ "Companies", "Perens operates two companies: Algoram is a start-up which is creating a web-based control system for radio transmitters and other devices.", "Legal Engineering is a legal-technical consultancy which specializes in resolving copyright infringement in relation to open source software." ], [ "Early life", "Perens grew up in Long Island, New York.", "He was born with cerebral palsy, which caused him to have slurred speech as a child, a condition that led to a misdiagnosis of him as developmentally disabled in school and led the school to fail to teach him to read.", "He developed an interest in technology at an early age: besides his interest in amateur radio, he ran a pirate radio station in the town of Lido Beach and briefly engaged in phone phreaking." ], [ "Career", "===Computer graphics===Perens worked for seven years at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab.", "After that, he worked at Pixar for 12 years, from 1987 to 1999.He is credited as a studio tools engineer on the Pixar films ''A Bug's Life'' (1998) and ''Toy Story 2'' (1999).===No-Code International===Perens founded No-Code International in 1998 with the goal of ending the Morse Code test then required for an amateur radio license.", "His rationale was that amateur radio should be a tool for young people to learn advanced technology and networking, rather than something that preserved antiquity and required new hams to master outmoded technology before they were allowed on the air.Perens lobbied intensively on the Internet, at amateur radio events in the United States, and during visits to other nations.", "One of his visits was to Iceland, where he had half of that nation's radio amateurs in the room, and their vote in the International Amateur Radio Union was equivalent to that of the entire United States.===Debian Social Contract===In 1997, Perens was carbon-copied on an email conversation between Donnie Barnes of Red Hat and Ean Schuessler, who was then working on Debian.", "Schuessler bemoaned that Red Hat had never stated its social contract with the developer community.", "Perens took this as inspiration to create a formal social contract for Debian.", "In a blog posting, Perens claims not to have made use of the Three Freedoms (later the Four Freedoms) published by the Free Software Foundation in composing his document.", "Perens proposed a draft of the Debian Social Contract to the Debian developers on the debian-private mailing list early in June 1997.Debian developers contributed discussion and changes for the rest of the month while Perens edited, and the completed document was then announced as Debian project policy.", "Part of the Debian Social Contract was the Debian Free Software Guidelines, a set of 10 guidelines for determining whether a set of software can be described as \"free software\", and thus whether it could be included in Debian.===Open Source Definition and The Open Source Initiative===On February 3, 1998, a group of people (not including Perens) met at VA Linux Systems to discuss the promotion of Free Software to business in pragmatic terms, rather than the moral terms preferred by Richard Stallman.", "Christine Petersen of the nanotechnology organization Foresight Institute, who was present because Foresight took an early interest in Free Software, suggested the term \"Open Source\".", "The next day, Eric S. Raymond recruited Perens to work with him on the formation of Open Source.", "Perens modified the Debian Free Software Guidelines into the Open Source Definition by removing Debian references and replacing them with \"Open Source\".The original announcement of The Open Source Definition was made on February 9, 1998, on Slashdot and elsewhere; the definition was given in Linux Gazette on February 10, 1998.Concurrently, Perens and Raymond established the Open Source Initiative, an organization intended to promote open source software.Perens left OSI in 1999, a year after co-founding it.", "In February 1999 in an email to the Debian developers mailing list he explained his decision and stated that, though \"most hackers know that Free Software and Open Source are just two words for the same thing\", the success of \"open source\" as a marketing term had \"de-emphasized the importance of the freedoms involved in Free Software\"; he added, \"It's time for us to fix that.\"", "He stated his regret that OSI co-founder Eric Raymond \"seems to be losing his free software focus.\"", "But in the following 2000s he spoke about Open source again.", "Perens presently volunteers as the Open Source Initiative's representative to the European Technical Standards Institute (\"ETSI\"), and is a frequent participant in review of license texts submitted to OSI for certification as Open Source licenses.===Linux Capital Group===In 1999, Perens left Pixar and became the president of Linux Capital Group, a business incubator and venture capital firm focusing on Linux-based businesses.", "Their major investment was in Progeny Linux Systems, a company headed by Debian founder Ian Murdock.", "In 2000, as a result of the economic downturn, Perens shut down Linux Capital Group.", "(Progeny Linux Systems would end operations in 2007.", ")===Hewlett-Packard===From December 2000 to September 2002, Perens served as \"Senior Global Strategist for Linux and Open Source\" at Hewlett-Packard, internally evangelizing for the use of Linux and other open-source software.", "He was fired as a result of his anti-Microsoft statements, which especially became an issue after HP acquired Compaq, a major manufacturer of Microsoft Windows-based PCs, in 2002.===UserLinux===In 2003 Perens created UserLinux, a Debian-based distribution whose stated goal was, \"Provide businesses with freely available, high quality Linux operating systems accompanied by certifications, service, and support options designed to encourage productivity and security while reducing overall costs.\"", "UserLinux was eventually overtaken in popularity by Ubuntu, another Debian-based distribution, which was started in 2004, and UserLinux became unmaintained in 2006.===SourceLabs===Perens was an employee of SourceLabs, a Seattle-based open source software and services company, from June 2005 until December 2007.He produced a video commercial, ''Impending Security Breach'', for SourceLabs in 2007.", "(SourceLabs was acquired by EMC in 2009.", ")===University faculty===Between 1981 and 1986, Perens was on the staff of the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab as a Unix kernel programmer.In 2002, Perens was a remote Senior Scientist for Open Source with the Cyber Security Policy Laboratory of George Washington University under the direction of Tony Stanco.", "Stanco was director of the laboratory for a year, while its regular director was on sabbatical.Between 2006 and 2007, Perens was a visiting lecturer and researcher for the University of Agder under a three-year grant from the Competence Fund of Southern Norway.", "During this time he consulted the Norwegian Government and other entities on government policy issues related to computers and software.", "After this time Perens worked remotely on Agder programs, mainly concerning the European Internet Accessibility Observatory.===Other activities===In 2007, some of Perens's government advisory roles included a meeting with the President of the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house of parliament) in Italy and testimony to the Culture Committee of the Chamber of Deputies; a keynote speech at the foundation of Norway's Open Source Center, following Norway's Minister of Governmental Reform (Perens is on the advisory board of the center); he provided input on the revision of the European Interoperability Framework; and he was keynote speaker at a European Commission conference on ''Digital Business Ecosystems at the Centre Borschette, Brussels, on November 7''.In 2009, Perens acted as an expert witness on open source in the Jacobsen v. Katzer U.S. Federal lawsuit.", "His report, which was made publicly available by Jacobsen, presented the culture and impact of open-source software development to the federal courts.Perens delivered one of the keynote addresses at the 2012 linux.conf.au conference in Ballarat, Australia.", "He discussed the need for open source software to market itself better to non-technical users.", "He also discussed some of the latest developments in open-source hardware, such as Papilio and Bus Pirate.In 2013, Perens spoke in South America, as the closing keynote at Latinoware 2013.He was the keynote of CISL – Conferencia Internacional de Software Libre, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and keynoted a special event along with the Minister of software and innovation of Chubut Province, in Puerto Madrin, Patagonia, Argentina.", "He keynoted the Festival de Software Libre 2013, in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico.In 2014–2015, Perens took a break from Open Source conferences, having spoken at them often since 1996.In 2016, he returned to the conference circuit, keynoting the Open Source Insight conference in Seoul, sponsored by the Copyright Commission of South Korea.", "Perens web site presently advertises his availability to keynote conferences as long as travel and lodging expenses are compensated.In 2020, Perens delivered the talk, \"What Comes After Open Source?\"", "for DebConf 2020.He discussed the future of open source licensing and the need to develop alternative licensing structures so that open source developers could get paid for their work." ], [ "Views", "Perens poses \"Open Source\" as a means of marketing the free and open-source software idea to business people and mainstream who might be more interested in the practical benefits of an open source development model and ecosystem than abstract ethics.", "He states that open source and free software are only two ways of talking about the same phenomenon, a point of view not shared by Stallman and his free software movement.", "Perens postulated in 2004 an economic theory for business use of Open Source in his paper ''The Emerging Economic Paradigm of Open Source'' and his speech ''Innovation Goes Public''.", "This differs from Raymond's theory in ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar'', which having been written before there was much business involvement in open source, explains open source as a consequence of programmer motivation and leisure.In February 2008, for the 10th anniversary of the phrase \"open source\", Perens published a message to the community called \"State of Open Source Message: A New Decade For Open Source\".", "Around the same time the ezine RegDeveloper published an interview with Perens where he spoke of the successes of open source, but also warned of dangers, including a proliferation of OSI-approved licenses which had not undergone legal scrutiny.", "He advocated the use of the GPLv3 license, especially noting Linus Torvalds' refusal to switch away from GPLv2 for the Linux kernel.Bruce Perens supported Bernie Sanders for President and he claims that his experience with the open source movement influenced that decision.", "On July 13, 2016, following Sanders's endorsement of Hillary Clinton for president, Perens endorsed Clinton.In January 2013, Perens advocated for abolishment of the Second Amendment to the U.S. constitution, stating that he does \"not believe in private ownership of firearms\" and that he would \"take away guns currently held by individuals, without compensation for their value.\"", "He reiterated this view in a June 2014 interview in Slashdot, and in November 2017 on his Twitter account." ], [ "Amateur radio and other activities", "Perens is an avid amateur radio enthusiast (call sign K6BP) and maintained technocrat.net, which he closed in late 2008, because its revenues did not cover its costs." ], [ "Media appearances", "Perens is featured in the 2001 documentary film ''Revolution OS'' and the 2006 BBC television documentary ''The Code-Breakers''.From 2002 to 2006, Prentice Hall PTR published the Bruce Perens' Open Source Series, a set of 24 books covering various open source software tools, for which Perens served as the series editor.", "It was the first book series to be published under an open license." ], [ "Personal life", "Perens lives in Berkeley, California with his wife, Valerie, and son, Stanley, born in 2000." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Project Proposal and Call for Participation: The Linux Standard Base* \"It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again\", 1999* Video with Bruce Perens at Hannover Industry Trade Fair, Germany, May 2008* A talk about open source recorded in Rome in June 2007" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bundle theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bundle theory''', originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection (''bundle'') of properties, relations or tropes.According to bundle theory, an object consists of its properties and nothing more; thus, there cannot be an object without properties and one cannot ''conceive'' of such an object.", "For example, when we think of an apple, we think of its properties: redness, roundness, being a type of fruit, ''etc''.", "There is nothing above and beyond these properties; the apple is nothing more than the collection of its properties.", "In particular, there is no ''substance'' in which the properties are ''inherent''." ], [ "Arguments in favor", "The difficulty in conceiving and or describing an object without also conceiving and or describing its properties is a common justification for bundle theory, especially among current philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition.The inability to comprehend any aspect of the thing other than its properties implies, this argument maintains, that one cannot conceive of a ''bare particular'' (a ''substance'' without properties), an implication that directly opposes substance theory.", "The conceptual difficulty of ''bare particulars'' was illustrated by John Locke when he described a ''substance'' by itself, apart from its properties as \"something, I know not what.", "...", "The idea then we have, to which we give the general name substance, being nothing but the supposed, but unknown, support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine cannot subsist sine re substante, without something to support them, we call that support substantia; which, according to the true import of the word, is, in plain English, standing under or upholding.", "\"Whether a ''relation'' of an object is one of its properties may complicate such an argument.", "However, the argument concludes that the conceptual challenge of ''bare particulars'' leaves a bundle of properties and nothing more as the only possible conception of an object, thus justifying bundle theory." ], [ "Objections", "Bundle theory maintains that properties are ''bundled'' together in a collection without describing how they are tied together.", "For example, bundle theory regards an apple as red, four inches (100 mm) wide, and juicy but lacking an underlying ''substance''.", "The apple is said to be a ''bundle of properties'' including redness, being four inches (100 mm) wide, and juiciness.Hume used the term \"bundle\" in this sense, also referring to the personal identity, in his main work: \"I may venture to affirm of the rest of mankind, that they are nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement\".Critics question how bundle theory accounts for the properties' ''compresence'' (the ''togetherness'' relation between those properties) without an underlying ''substance''.", "Critics also question how any two given properties are determined to be properties of the same object if there is no ''substance'' in which they both ''inhere''.", "This argument is done away with if one considers spatio-temporal location to be a property as well.Traditional bundle theory explains the ''compresence'' of properties by defining an object as a collection of properties ''bound'' together.", "Thus, different combinations of properties and relations produce different objects.", "Redness and juiciness, for example, may be found together on top of the table because they are part of a bundle of properties located on the table, one of which is the \"looks like an apple\" property.By contrast, substance theory explains the ''compresence'' of properties by asserting that the properties are found together because it is the ''substance'' that has those properties.", "In substance theory, a ''substance'' is the thing in which properties ''inhere''.", "For example, redness and juiciness are found on top of the table because redness and juiciness ''inhere'' in an apple, making the apple red and juicy.The ''bundle theory of substance'' explains ''compresence''.", "Specifically, it maintains that properties' compresence itself engenders a ''substance''.", "Thus, it determines ''substancehood'' empirically by the ''togetherness'' of properties rather than by a ''bare particular'' or by any other non-empirical underlying strata.", "The ''bundle theory of substance'' thus rejects the substance theories of Aristotle, Descartes, Leibniz, and more recently, J. P. Moreland, Jia Hou, Joseph Bridgman, Quentin Smith, and others." ], [ "Buddhism", "The Indian Madhyamaka philosopher, Chandrakirti, used the aggregate nature of objects to demonstrate the lack of essence in what is known as the sevenfold reasoning.", "In his work, ''Guide to the Middle Way'' (Sanskrit: ''Madhyamakāvatāra''), he says:He goes on to explain what is meant by each of these seven assertions, but briefly in a subsequent commentary he explains that the conventions of the world do not exist essentially when closely analyzed, but exist only through being taken for granted, without being subject to scrutiny that searches for an essence within them.Another view of the Buddhist theory of the self, especially in early Buddhism, is that the Buddhist theory is essentially an eliminativist theory.", "According to this understanding, the self can not be reduced to a bundle because there is nothing that answers to the concept of a self.", "Consequently, the idea of a self must be eliminated." ], [ "See also", "*Anattā**Platonic realism*Substance theory" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*David Hume (1738), ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', Book I, Part IV, Section VI*Derek Parfit (1984), ''Reasons and Persons''" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bernard Montgomery" ], [ "Introduction", "Field Marshal '''Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein''', (; 17 November 1887 – 24 March 1976), nicknamed \"'''Monty'''\", was a senior British Army officer who served in the First World War, the Irish War of Independence and the Second World War.Montgomery first saw action in the First World War as a junior officer of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment.", "At Méteren, near the Belgian border at Bailleul, he was shot through the right lung by a sniper, during the First Battle of Ypres.", "On returning to the Western Front as a general staff officer, he took part in the Battle of Arras in AprilMay 1917.He also took part in the Battle of Passchendaele in late 1917 before finishing the war as chief of staff of the 47th (2nd London) Division.In the inter-war years he commanded the 17th (Service) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers and, later, the 1st Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment before becoming commander of the 9th Infantry Brigade and then general officer commanding (GOC), 8th Infantry Division.During the Western Desert campaign of the Second World War, Montgomery commanded the British Eighth Army from August 1942, through the Second Battle of El Alamein and on to the final Allied victory in Tunisia in May 1943.He subsequently commanded the British Eighth Army during the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy and was in command of all Allied ground forces during the Battle of Normandy (Operation Overlord), from D-Day on 6 June 1944 until 1 September 1944.He then continued in command of the 21st Army Group for the rest of the North West Europe campaign, including the failed attempt to cross the Rhine during Operation Market Garden.When German armoured forces broke through the US lines in Belgium during the Battle of the Bulge, Montgomery received command of the northern shoulder of the Bulge.", "This included temporary command of the US First Army and the US Ninth Army, which held up the German advance to the north of the Bulge while the US Third Army under Lieutenant General George Patton relieved Bastogne from the south.Montgomery's 21st Army Group, including the US Ninth Army and the First Allied Airborne Army, crossed the Rhine in Operation Plunder in March 1945, two weeks after the US First Army had crossed the Rhine in the Battle of Remagen.", "By the end of the war, troops under Montgomery's command had taken part in the encirclement of the Ruhr Pocket, liberated the Netherlands, and captured much of north-west Germany.", "On 4 May 1945, Montgomery accepted the surrender of the German forces in north-western Europe at Lüneburg Heath, south of Hamburg, after the surrender of Berlin to the USSR on 2 May.After the war he became Commander-in-Chief of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) in Germany and then Chief of the Imperial General Staff (1946–1948).", "From 1948 to 1951, he served as Chairman of the Commanders-in-Chief Committee of the Western Union.", "He then served as NATO's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe until his retirement in 1958." ], [ "Early life", "Montgomery was born in Kennington, Surrey, in 1887, the fourth child of nine, to a Church of Ireland minister, Henry Montgomery, and his wife, Maud (''née'' Farrar).", "The Montgomerys, an 'Ascendancy' gentry family, were the County Donegal branch of the Clan Montgomery.", "The Rev.", "Henry Montgomery, at that time Vicar of St Mark's Church, Kennington, was the second son of Sir Robert Montgomery, a native of Inishowen in County Donegal in the north-west of Ulster, the noted colonial administrator in British India; Sir Robert died a month after his grandson's birth.", "He was probably a descendant of Colonel Alexander Montgomery (1686–1729).", "Bernard's mother, Maud, was the daughter of Frederic William Canon Farrar, the famous preacher, and was eighteen years younger than her husband.After the death of Sir Robert Montgomery, Henry inherited the Montgomery ancestral estate of New Park in Moville, a small town in Inishowen in the north of County Donegal in Ulster, the northern province in Ireland.", "There was still £13,000 to pay on a mortgage, a large debt in the 1880s (equivalent to £ in ) and Henry was at the time still only an Anglican vicar.", "Despite selling off all the farms that were in the townland of Ballynally, on the north-western shores of Lough Foyle, \"there was barely enough to keep up New Park and pay for the blasted summer holiday\" (i.e., at New Park).It was a financial relief of some magnitude when, in 1889, Henry was made Bishop of Tasmania, then still a British colony, and Bernard spent his formative years there.", "Bishop Montgomery considered it his duty to spend as much time as possible in the rural areas of Tasmania and was away for up to six months at a time.", "While he was away, his wife, still in her mid-twenties, gave her children \"constant\" beatings, then ignored them most of the time as she performed the public duties of the bishop's wife.", "Of Bernard's siblings, Sibyl died prematurely in Tasmania, and Harold, Donald and Una all emigrated.", "Maud Montgomery took little active interest in the education of her young children other than to have them taught by tutors brought from Britain, although he briefly attended the then coeducational St Michael's Collegiate School.", "The loveless environment made Bernard something of a bully, as he himself recalled, \"I was a dreadful little boy.", "I don't suppose anybody would put up with my sort of behaviour these days.\"", "Later in life Montgomery refused to allow his son David to have anything to do with his grandmother, and refused to attend her funeral in 1949.The family returned to England once for a Lambeth Conference in 1897, and Bernard and his brother Harold were educated at The King's School, Canterbury.", "In 1901, Bishop Montgomery became secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the family returned to London.", "Montgomery attended St Paul's School and then the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, from which he was almost expelled for rowdiness and violence.", "On graduation in September 1908 he was commissioned into the 1st Battalion the Royal Warwickshire Regiment as a second lieutenant, and first saw overseas service later that year in India.", "He was promoted to lieutenant in 1910, and in 1912 became adjutant of the 1st Battalion of his regiment at Shorncliffe Army Camp." ], [ "First World War", "J. W. Sandilands, commander of the 104th Brigade, 35th Division.", "Montgomery served as brigade major with the 104th Brigade from January 1915 until early 1917.The Great War began in August 1914 and Montgomery moved to France with his battalion that month, which was at the time part of the 10th Brigade of the 4th Division.", "He saw action at the Battle of Le Cateau that month and during the retreat from Mons.", "At Méteren, near the Belgian border at Bailleul on 13 October 1914, during an Allied counter-offensive, he was shot through the right lung by a sniper.", "Lying in the open, he remained still and pretended to be dead, in the hope that he would not receive any more enemy attention.", "One of his men did attempt to rescue him but was shot dead by a hidden enemy sniper and collapsed over Montgomery.", "The sniper continued to fire and Montgomery was hit once more, in the knee, but the dead soldier, in Montgomery's words, \"received many bullets meant for me.\"", "Assuming them to both be dead, the officers and men of Montgomery's battalion chose to leave them where they were until darkness arrived and stretcher bearers managed to recover the two bodies, with Montgomery by this time barely clinging on to life.", "The doctors at the Advanced Dressing Station, too, had no hope for him and ordered a grave to be dug.", "Miraculously, however, Montgomery was still alive and, after being placed in an ambulance and then being sent to a hospital, was treated and eventually evacuated to England, where he would remain for well over a year.", "He was appointed a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order, for his gallant leadership during this period: the citation for this award, published in ''The London Gazette'' in December 1914 reads:After recovering in early 1915, he was appointed brigade major, first of the 112th Brigade, and then with 104th Brigade training in Lancashire.", "He returned to the Western Front in early 1916 as a general staff officer in the 33rd Division and took part in the Battle of Arras in AprilMay 1917.He became a general staff officer with IX Corps, part of General Sir Herbert Plumer's Second Army, in July 1917.The Minister of Munitions, Winston Churchill, watching the march past of the 47th (2nd London) Division in the Grande Place, Lille, France, October 1918.In front of him is the 47th Division's chief of staff, Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Montgomery.Montgomery served at the Battle of Passchendaele in late 1917 before finishing the war as GSO1 (effectively chief of staff) of the 47th (2nd London) Division, with the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel.", "A photograph from October 1918, reproduced in many biographies, shows the then unknown Lieutenant-Colonel Montgomery standing in front of Winston Churchill (then the Minister of Munitions) at the parade following the liberation of Lille.Montgomery was profoundly influenced by his experiences during the war, in particular by the leadership, or rather the lack of it, being displayed by the senior commanders.", "He later wrote:" ], [ "Between the world wars", "===1920s===After the First World War, Montgomery commanded the 17th (Service) Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers, a battalion in the British Army of the Rhine, before reverting to his substantive rank of captain (brevet major) in November 1919.He had not at first been selected for the Staff College in Camberley, Surrey (his only hope of ever achieving high command).", "But at a tennis party in Cologne, he was able to persuade the Commander-in-chief (C-in-C) of the British Army of Occupation, Field Marshal Sir William Robertson, to add his name to the list.After graduating from the Staff College, he was appointed brigade major in the 17th Infantry Brigade in January 1921.The brigade was stationed in County Cork, Ireland, carrying out counter-guerilla operations during the final stages of the Irish War of Independence.Montgomery came to the conclusion that the conflict could not be won without harsh measures, and that self-government for Ireland was the only feasible solution; in 1923, after the establishment of the Irish Free State and during the Irish Civil War, Montgomery wrote to Colonel Arthur Ernest Percival of the Essex Regiment:In one noteworthy incident on 2 May 1922, Montgomery led a force of 60 soldiers and 4 armoured cars to the town of Macroom to search for four British officers who were missing in the area.", "While he had hoped the show of force would assist in finding the men, he was under strict orders not to attack the IRA.", "On arriving in the town square in front of Macroom Castle, he summoned the IRA commander, Charlie Browne, to parley.", "At the castle gates Montgomery spoke to Browne explaining what would happen should the officers not be released.", "Once finished, Browne responded with his own ultimatum to Montgomery to \"leave town within 10 minutes\".", "Browne then turned heels and returned to the Castle.", "At this point another IRA officer, Pat O'Sullivan, whistled to Montgomery drawing his attention to scores of IRA volunteers who had quietly taken up firing positions all around the square—surrounding Montgomery's forces.", "Realising his precarious position, Montgomery led his troops out of the town, a decision which raised hostile questions in the House of Commons but was later approved by Montgomery's own superiors.", "Unknown to Montgomery at this time, the four missing officers had already been executed.In May 1923, Montgomery was posted to the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, a Territorial Army (TA) formation.", "He returned to the 1st Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment in 1925 as a company commander and was promoted to major in July 1925.From January 1926 to January 1929 he served as Deputy Assistant Adjutant General at the Staff College, Camberley, in the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel.=== Marriage and family ===In 1925, in his first known courtship of a woman, Montgomery, then in his late thirties, proposed to a 17-year-old girl, Betty Anderson.", "His approach included drawing diagrams in the sand of how he would deploy his tanks and infantry in a future war, a contingency which seemed very remote at that time.", "She respected his ambition and single-mindedness but declined his proposal of marriage.In 1927, he met and married Elizabeth (Betty) Carver, ''née'' Hobart.", "She was the sister of the future Second World War commander Major-General Sir Percy Hobart.", "Betty Carver had two sons in their early teens, John and Dick, from her first marriage to Oswald Carver.", "Dick Carver later wrote that it had been \"a very brave thing\" for Montgomery to take on a widow with two children.", "Montgomery's son, David, was born in August 1928.While on holiday in Burnham-on-Sea in 1937, Betty suffered an insect bite which became infected, and she died in her husband's arms from septicaemia following amputation of her leg.", "The loss devastated Montgomery, who was then serving as a brigadier, but he insisted on throwing himself back into his work immediately after the funeral.", "Montgomery's marriage had been extremely happy.", "Much of his correspondence with his wife was destroyed when his quarters at Portsmouth were bombed during the Second World War.", "After Montgomery's death, John Carver wrote that his mother had arguably done the country a favour by keeping his personal oddities—his extreme single-mindedness, and his intolerance of and suspicion of the motives of others—within reasonable bounds long enough for him to have a chance of attaining high command.Both of Montgomery's stepsons became army officers in the 1930s (both were serving in India at the time of their mother's death), and both served in the Second World War, each eventually attaining the rank of colonel.", "While serving as a GSO2 with Eighth Army, Dick Carver was sent forward during the pursuit after El Alamein to help identify a new site for Eighth Army HQ.", "He was taken prisoner at Mersa Matruh on 7 November 1942.Montgomery wrote to his contacts in England asking that inquiries be made via the Red Cross as to where his stepson was being held, and that parcels be sent to him.", "Like many British POWs, the most famous being General Richard O'Connor, Dick Carver escaped in September 1943 during the brief hiatus between Italy's departure from the war and the German seizure of the country.", "He eventually reached British lines on 5 December 1943, to the delight of his stepfather, who sent him home to Britain to recuperate.===1930s===In January 1929 Montgomery was promoted to brevet lieutenant-colonel.", "That month he returned to the 1st Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment again, as Commander of Headquarters Company; he went to the War Office to help write the Infantry Training Manual in mid-1929.In 1931 Montgomery was promoted to substantive lieutenant-colonel and became the Commanding officer (CO) of the 1st Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment and saw service in Palestine and British India.", "He was promoted to colonel in June 1934 (seniority from January 1932).", "He attended and was then recommended to become an instructor at the Indian Army Staff College (now the Pakistan Command and Staff College) in Quetta, British India.On completion of his tour of duty in India, Montgomery returned to Britain in June 1937 where he took command of the 9th Infantry Brigade with the temporary rank of brigadier.", "His wife died that year.In 1938, he organised an amphibious combined operations landing exercise that impressed the new C-in-C of Southern Command, General Sir Archibald Percival Wavell.", "He was promoted to major-general on 14 October 1938 and took command of the 8th Infantry Division in the British mandate of Palestine.", "In Palestine, Montgomery was involved in suppressing an Arab revolt which had broken out over opposition to Jewish emigration.", "He returned in July 1939 to Britain, suffering a serious illness on the way, to command the 3rd (Iron) Infantry Division.", "Reporting the suppression of the revolt in April 1939, Montgomery wrote, \"I shall be sorry to leave Palestine in many ways, as I have enjoyed the war out here\"." ], [ "Second World War", "===British Expeditionary Force=======Phoney war====Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 and the 3rd Division, together with its new General Officer Commanding (GOC), was deployed to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), commanded by General Lord Gort.", "Shortly after the division's arrival overseas, Montgomery faced serious trouble from his military superiors and the clergy for his frank attitude regarding the sexual health of his soldiers, but was defended from dismissal by his superior Alan Brooke, commander of II Corps, of which Montgomery's division formed a part.", "Montgomery had issued a circular on the prevention of venereal disease, worded in such \"obscene language\" that both the Church of England and Roman Catholic senior chaplains objected; Brooke told Monty that he did not want any further errors of this kind, though deciding not to get him to formally withdraw it as it would remove any \"vestige of respect\" left for him.Dudley Johnson, GOC 4th Infantry Division, pictured here in either 1939 or 1940Although Montgomery's new command was a Regular Army formation, comprising the 7th (Guards), and the 8th and 9th Infantry Brigades along with supporting units, he was not impressed with its readiness for battle.", "As a result, while most of the rest of the BEF set about preparing defences for an expected German attack sometime in the future, Montgomery began training his 3rd Division in offensive tactics, organising several exercises, each of which lasted for several days at a time.", "Mostly they revolved around the division advancing towards an objective, often a river line, only to come under attack and forced to withdraw to another position, usually behind another river.", "These exercises usually occurred at night with only very minimal lighting being allowed.", "By the spring of 1940 Montgomery's division had gained a reputation of being a very agile and flexible formation.", "By then the Allies had agreed to Plan D, where they would advance deep into Belgium and take up positions on the River Dyle by the time the German forces attacked.", "Brooke, Montgomery's corps commander, was pessimistic about the plan but Montgomery, in contrast, was not concerned, believing that he and his division would perform well regardless of the circumstances, particularly in a war of movement.====Battle of France====Montgomery's training paid off when the Germans began their invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May 1940 and the 3rd Division advanced to its planned position, near the Belgian city of Louvain.", "Soon after arrival, the division was fired on by members of the Belgian 10th Infantry Division who mistook them for German paratroopers; Montgomery resolved the incident by approaching them and offering to place himself under Belgian command, although Montgomery himself took control when the Germans arrived.", "During this time he began to develop a particular habit, which he would keep throughout the war, of going to bed at 21:30 every night without fail and giving only a single order—that he was not to be disturbed—which was only very rarely disobeyed.The 3rd Division saw little action compared to many other units and formations in the BEF but, owing to the strict training methods of Montgomery, who ensured that his division was thoroughly well-trained, disciplined and rehearsed, the division always managed to be in the right place at the right time, especially so during the retreat into France.", "By 27 May, when the Belgian Army on the left flank of the BEF began to disintegrate, the 3rd Division achieved something very difficult, the movement at night from the right to the left of another division and only 2,000 yards behind it.", "This was performed with great professionalism and occurred without any incidents and thereby filled a very vulnerable gap in the BEF's defensive line.", "On 29/30 May, as the 3rd Division moved into the Dunkirk bridgehead, Montgomery temporarily took over from Brooke, who received orders to return to the United Kingdom, as GOC of II Corps for the final stages of the Dunkirk evacuation.The 3rd Division, temporarily commanded by Kenneth Anderson in Montgomery's absence, returned to Britain intact with minimal casualties.", "Operation Dynamo—codename for the Dunkirk evacuation—saw 330,000 Allied military personnel, including most of the BEF, to Britain, although the BEF was forced to leave behind a significant amount of equipment.===Service in the United Kingdom 1940−1942===Montgomery, GOC V Corps, with war correspondents during a large-scale exercise in Southern Command, March 1941On his return Montgomery antagonised the War Office with trenchant criticisms of the command of the BEF and was briefly relegated to divisional command of 3rd Division, which was the only fully equipped division in Britain.", "He was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath.Montgomery inspecting men of the 7th Battalion, Suffolk Regiment, at Sandbanks near Poole, Dorset, 22 March 1941.To his right, wearing a peaked cap, is Brigadier Gerald Templer, commanding the 210th Brigade, the 7th Suffolks' parent formation.Montgomery was ordered to make ready the 3rd Division to invade the neutral Portuguese Azores.", "Models of the islands were prepared and detailed plans worked out for the invasion.", "The invasion plans did not go ahead and plans switched to invading Cape Verde island also belonging to neutral Portugal.", "These invasion plans also did not go ahead.", "Montgomery was then ordered to prepare plans for the invasion of neutral Ireland and to seize Cork, Cobh and Cork harbour.", "These invasion plans, like those of the Portuguese islands, also did not go ahead and in July 1940, Montgomery was appointed acting lieutenant-general and after handing over command of his division to James Gammell, he was placed in command of V Corps, responsible for the defence of Hampshire and Dorset and started a long-running feud with the new Commander-in-chief (C-in-C) of Southern Command, Lieutenant-General Claude Auchinleck.During Exercise 'Bumper' on 2 October 1941 Montgomery, the Chief Umpire, talks to General Sir Alan Brooke (C-in-C Home Forces).In April 1941, he became commander of XII Corps responsible for the defence of Kent.", "During this period he instituted a regime of continuous training and insisted on high levels of physical fitness for both officers and other ranks.", "He was ruthless in sacking officers he considered unfit for command in action.", "Promoted to temporary lieutenant-general in July, overseeing the defence of Kent, Sussex and Surrey.", "In December Montgomery was given command of South-Eastern Command He renamed his command the South-Eastern Army to promote offensive spirit.", "During this time he further developed and rehearsed his ideas and trained his soldiers, culminating in Exercise Tiger in May 1942, a combined forces exercise involving 100,000 troops.===North Africa and Italy=======Montgomery's early command====Grant tank in North Africa, November 1942In 1942, a new field commander was required in the Middle East, where Auchinleck was fulfilling both the role of C-in-C of Middle East Command and commander Eighth Army.", "He had stabilised the Allied position at the First Battle of El Alamein, but after a visit in August 1942, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, replaced him as C-in-C with General Sir Harold Alexander and William Gott as commander of the Eighth Army in the Western Desert.", "However, after Gott was killed flying back to Cairo, Churchill was persuaded by Brooke, who by this time was Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), to appoint Montgomery, who had only just been nominated to replace Alexander, as commander of the British First Army for Operation Torch, the invasion of French North Africa.A story, probably apocryphal but popular at the time, is that the appointment caused Montgomery to remark that \"After having an easy war, things have now got much more difficult.\"", "A colleague is supposed to have told him to cheer up—at which point Montgomery said \"I'm not talking about me, I'm talking about Rommel!", "\"Montgomery's assumption of command transformed the fighting spirit and abilities of the Eighth Army.", "Taking command on 13 August 1942, he immediately became a whirlwind of activity.", "He ordered the creation of the X Corps, which contained all armoured divisions, to fight alongside his XXX Corps, which was all infantry divisions.", "This arrangement differed from the German Panzer Corps: one of Rommel's Panzer Corps combined infantry, armour and artillery units under one corps commander.", "The only common commander for Montgomery's all-infantry and all-armour corps was the Eighth Army Commander himself.", "Writing post-war the English historian Correlli Barnett commented that Montgomery's solution \"... was in every way opposite to Auchinleck's and in every way wrong, for it carried the existing dangerous separatism still further.\"", "Montgomery reinforced the long front line at El Alamein, something that would take two months to accomplish.", "He asked Alexander to send him two new British divisions (51st Highland and 44th Home Counties) that were then arriving in Egypt and were scheduled to be deployed in defence of the Nile Delta.", "He moved his field HQ to Burg al Arab, close to the Air Force command post in order to better coordinate combined operations.Montgomery was determined that the army, navy and air forces should fight their battles in a unified, focused manner according to a detailed plan.", "He ordered immediate reinforcement of the vital heights of Alam Halfa, just behind his own lines, expecting the German commander, Erwin Rommel, to attack with the heights as his objective, something that Rommel soon did.", "Montgomery ordered all contingency plans for retreat to be destroyed.", "\"I have cancelled the plan for withdrawal.", "If we are attacked, then there will be no retreat.", "If we cannot stay here alive, then we will stay here dead\", he told his officers at the first meeting he held with them in the desert, though, in fact, Auchinleck had no plans to withdraw from the strong defensive position he had chosen and established at El Alamein.Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, the new commander of the British Eighth Army, and Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks, the new GOC XIII Corps, discussing troop dispositions at 22nd Armoured Brigade HQ, 20 August 1942.The brigade commander, Brigadier George Roberts is on the right (in beret).Montgomery made a great effort to appear before troops as often as possible, frequently visiting various units and making himself known to the men, often arranging for cigarettes to be distributed.", "Although he still wore a standard British officer's cap on arrival in the desert, he briefly wore an Australian broad-brimmed hat before switching to wearing the black beret (with the badge of the Royal Tank Regiment and the British General Officer's cap badge) for which he became notable.", "The black beret was offered to him by Jim Fraser while the latter was driving him on an inspection tour.", "Both Brooke and Alexander were astonished by the transformation in atmosphere when they visited on 19 August, less than a week after Montgomery had taken command.Alan Brooke said that Churchill was always impatient for his generals to attack at once, and he wrote that Montgomery was always \"my Monty\" when Montgomery was out of favour with Churchill!", "Eden had some late night drinks with Churchill, and Eden said at a meeting of the Chiefs of Staff the next day (29 October 1942) that the Middle East offensive was \"petering out\".", "Alanbrooke had told Churchill \"fairly plainly\" what he thought of Eden's ability to judge the tactical situation from a distance, and was supported at the Chiefs of Staff meeting by Smuts.====First battles with Rommel====General Montgomery with his pets, the puppies \"Hitler\" (left) and \"Rommel\", and a cage of canaries which also travelled with him (at Blay, his second HQ in France in July 1944)Rommel attempted to turn the left flank of the Eighth Army at the Battle of Alam el Halfa from 31 August 1942.The German/Italian armoured corps infantry attack was stopped in very heavy fighting.", "Rommel's forces had to withdraw urgently lest their retreat through the British minefields be cut off.", "Montgomery was criticised for not counter-attacking the retreating forces immediately, but he felt strongly that his methodical build-up of British forces was not yet ready.", "A hasty counter-attack risked ruining his strategy for an offensive on his own terms in late October, planning for which had begun soon after he took command.", "He was confirmed in the permanent rank of lieutenant-general in mid-October.The conquest of Libya was essential for airfields to support Malta and to threaten the rear of Axis forces opposing Operation Torch.", "Montgomery prepared meticulously for the new offensive after convincing Churchill that the time was not being wasted.", "(Churchill sent a telegram to Alexander on 23 September 1942 which began, \"We are in your hands and of course a victorious battle makes amends for much delay.\")", "He was determined not to fight until he thought there had been sufficient preparation for a decisive victory, and put into action his beliefs with the gathering of resources, detailed planning, the training of troops—especially in clearing minefields and fighting at night—and in the use of 252 of the latest American-built Sherman tanks, 90 M7 Priest self-propelled howitzers, and making a personal visit to every unit involved in the offensive.", "By the time the offensive was ready in late October, Eighth Army had 231,000 men on its ration strength.====El Alamein====9th Australian Division in a posed photograph during the Second Battle of El AlameinThe Second Battle of El Alamein began on 23 October 1942, and ended 12 days later with one of the first large-scale, decisive Allied land victories of the war.", "Montgomery correctly predicted both the length of the battle and the number of casualties (13,500).Historian Correlli Barnett has pointed out that the rain also fell on the Germans, and that the weather is therefore an inadequate explanation for the failure to exploit the breakthrough, but nevertheless the Battle of El Alamein had been a great success.", "Over 30,000 prisoners of war were taken, including the German second-in-command, General von Thoma, as well as eight other general officers.", "Rommel, having been in a hospital in Germany at the start of the battle, was forced to return on 25 October 1942 after Stumme—his replacement as German commander—died of a heart attack in the early hours of the battle.====Tunisia====The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill with military leaders during his visit to Tripoli.", "The group includes: Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, General Sir Harold Alexander, General Sir Alan Brooke and General Sir Bernard Montgomery.Montgomery was advanced to KCB and promoted to full general.", "He kept the initiative, applying superior strength when it suited him, forcing Rommel out of each successive defensive position.", "On 6 March 1943, Rommel's attack on the over-extended Eighth Army at Medenine (Operation Capri) with the largest concentration of German armour in North Africa was successfully repulsed.", "At the Mareth Line, 20 to 27 March, when Montgomery encountered fiercer frontal opposition than he had anticipated, he switched his major effort into an outflanking inland pincer, backed by low-flying RAF fighter-bomber support.", "For his role in North Africa he was awarded the Legion of Merit by the United States government in the rank of Chief Commander.====Sicily====Montgomery visits Patton in Palermo, Sicily, July 1943.The next major Allied attack was the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky).", "Montgomery considered the initial plans for the Allied invasion, which had been agreed in principle by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander Allied Forces Headquarters, and General Alexander, the 15th Army Group commander, to be unworkable because of the dispersion of effort.", "He managed to have the plans recast to concentrate the Allied forces, having Lieutenant General George Patton's US Seventh Army land in the Gulf of Gela (on the Eighth Army's left flank, which landed around Syracuse in the south-east of Sicily) rather than near Palermo in the west and north of Sicily.", "Inter-Allied tensions grew as the American commanders, Patton and Omar Bradley (then commanding US II Corps under Patton), took umbrage at what they saw as Montgomery's attitudes and boastfulness.", "However, while they were considered three of the greatest soldiers of their time, due to their competitiveness they were renowned for \"squabbling like three schoolgirls\" thanks to their \"bitchiness\", \"whining to their superiors\" and \"showing off\".====Italy====Wartime photograph of General Montgomery with his Miles Messenger aircraft (location and date unknown)From left to right: Freddie de Guingand, Harry Broadhurst, Montgomery, Sir Bernard Freyberg, Miles Dempsey and Charles AllfreyMontgomery's Eighth Army was then fully involved in the Allied invasion of Italy in early September 1943, becoming the first of the Allied forces to land in Western Europe.", "Led by Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey's XIII Corps, the Eighth Army landed on the toe of Italy in Operation Baytown on 3 September, four years to the day after Britain declared war on Germany.", "They encountered little enemy resistance.", "The Germans had made the decision to fall back and did what they could to stall the Eighth Army's advance, including blowing up bridges, laying mines, and setting up booby-traps.", "All of these slowed the Army's advance north on the awful Italian roads, although it was Montgomery who was later much criticised for the lack of progress.", "On 9 September the British 1st Airborne Division landed at the key port of Taranto in the heel of Italy as part of Operation Slapstick, capturing the port unopposed.", "On the same day the U.S. Fifth Army under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark (which actually contained a large number of British troops) landed at Salerno, near Naples, as part of Operation Avalanche but soon found itself fighting for its very existence with the Germans launching several determined counterattacks to try and push the Allies back into the sea, with Montgomery's men being too far away to provide any real assistance.", "The situation was tense over the next few days but the two armies (both of which formed the 15th Army Group under General Alexander) finally began to meet on 16 September, by which time the crisis at Salerno was virtually over.The time has come to deal the enemy a terrific blow ...Clark's Fifth Army then began to advance to the west of the Apennine Mountains while Montgomery, with Lieutenant General Charles Allfrey's V Corps having arrived to reinforce Dempsey's XIII Corps, advanced to the east.", "The Foggia airfields soon fell to Allfrey's V Corps, but the Germans fought hard in the defence of Termoli and Biferno.", "Movement soon came to an almost complete halt in the early part of November when the Eighth Army came up against a new defensive line established by the Germans on the River Sangro, which was to be the scene of much bitter and heavy fighting for the next month.", "While some ground was gained, it was often at the expense of heavy casualties and the Germans always managed to retreat to new defensive positions.Montgomery abhorred what he considered to be a lack of coordination, a dispersion of effort, a strategic muddle and a lack of opportunism in the Allied campaign in Italy, describing the whole affair as a \"dog's breakfast\".===Normandy===Montgomery with officers of the First Canadian Army.", "From left, Major-General Vokes, General Crerar, Field Marshal Montgomery, Lieutenant-General Horrocks, Lieutenant-General Simonds, Major-General Spry, and Major-General MatthewsAs a result of his dissatisfaction with Italy, he was delighted to receive the news that he was to return to Britain in January 1944.He was assigned to command the 21st Army Group consisting of all Allied ground forces participating in Operation Overlord, codename for the Allied invasion of Normandy.", "Overall direction was assigned to the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces, American General Dwight D. Eisenhower.", "Both Churchill and Eisenhower had found Montgomery difficult to work with in the past and wanted the position to go to the more affable General Sir Harold Alexander.", "However Montgomery's patron, General Sir Alan Brooke, firmly argued that Montgomery was a much superior general to Alexander and ensured his appointment.", "Without Brooke's support, Montgomery would have remained in Italy.", "At St Paul's School on 7 April and 15 May Montgomery presented his strategy for the invasion.", "He envisaged a ninety-day battle, with all forces reaching the Seine.", "The campaign would pivot on an Allied-held Caen in the east of the Normandy bridgehead, with relatively static British and Canadian armies forming a shoulder to attract and defeat German counter-attacks, relieving the US armies who would move and seize the Cotentin Peninsula and Brittany, wheeling south and then east on the right forming a pincer.General Montgomery inspects men of the 5th/7th Battalion, Gordon Highlanders of the 51st (Highland) Division, at Beaconsfield, February 1944.During the ten weeks of the Battle of Normandy, unfavourable autumnal weather conditions disrupted the Normandy landing areas.", "Montgomery's initial plan was for the Anglo-Canadian troops under his command to break out immediately from their beachheads on the Calvados coast towards Caen with the aim of taking the city on either D Day or two days later.", "Montgomery attempted to take Caen with the 3rd Infantry Division, 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and the 3rd Canadian Division but was stopped from 6–8 June by 21st Panzer Division and 12th SS Panzer Division ''Hitlerjugend'', who hit the advancing Anglo-Canadian troops very hard.", "Rommel followed up this success by ordering the 2nd Panzer Division to Caen while Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt asked for and received permission from Hitler to have the elite 1st Waffen SS Division ''Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler'' and 2nd Waffen SS Division ''Das Reich'' sent to Caen as well.", "Montgomery thus had to face what Stephen Badsey called the \"most formidable\" of all the German divisions in France.", "The 12th Waffen SS Division ''Hitlerjugend'', as its name implies, was drawn entirely from the more fanatical elements of the Hitler Youth and commanded by the ruthless SS-''Brigadeführer'' Kurt Meyer, aka \"Panzer Meyer\".General Montgomery passes German POWs while being driven along a road in a jeep, shortly after arriving in Normandy, 8 June 1944.The failure to take Caen immediately has been the source of an immense historiographical dispute with bitter nationalist overtones.", "Broadly, there has been a \"British school\" which accepts Montgomery's post-war claim that he never intended to take Caen at once, and instead the Anglo-Canadian operations around Caen were a \"holding operation\" intended to attract the bulk of the German forces towards the Caen sector to allow the Americans to stage the \"break out operation\" on the left flank of the German positions, which was all part of Montgomery's \"Master Plan\" that he had conceived long before the Normandy campaign.", "By contrast, the \"American school\" argued that Montgomery's initial \"master plan\" was for the 21st Army Group to take Caen at once and move his tank divisions into the plains south of Caen, to then stage a breakout that would lead the 21st Army Group into the plains of northern France and hence into Antwerp and finally the Ruhr.", "Letters written by Eisenhower at the time of the battle make it clear that Eisenhower was expecting from Montgomery \"the early capture of the important focal point of Caen\".", "Later, when this plan had clearly failed, Eisenhower wrote that Montgomery had \"evolved\" the plan to have the US forces achieve the break-out instead.Douglas Graham, GOC 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, pictured here in Normandy, 20 June 1944As the campaign progressed, Montgomery altered his initial plan for the invasion and continued the strategy of attracting and holding German counter-attacks in the area north of Caen rather than to the south, to allow the U.S. First Army in the west to take Cherbourg.", "A memo summarising Montgomery's operations written by Eisenhower's chief of staff, General Walter Bedell Smith who met with Montgomery in late June 1944 says nothing about Montgomery conducting a \"holding operation\" in the Caen sector, and instead speaks of him seeking a \"breakout\" into the plains south of the Seine.", "On 12 June, Montgomery ordered the 7th Armoured Division into an attack against the Panzer Lehr Division that made good progress at first but ended when the Panzer Lehr was joined by the 2nd Panzer Division.", "At Villers Bocage on 14 June, the British lost twenty Cromwell tanks to five Tiger tanks led by SS ''Obersturmführer'' Michael Wittmann, in about five minutes.", "Despite the setback at Villers Bocage, Montgomery was still optimistic as the Allies were landing more troops and supplies than they were losing in battle, and though the German lines were holding, the ''Wehrmacht'' and ''Waffen SS'' were suffering considerable attrition.", "Air Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder complained that it was impossible to move fighter squadrons to France until Montgomery had captured some airfields, something he asserted that Montgomery appeared incapable of doing.", "The first V-1 flying bomb attacks on London, which started on 13 June, further increased the pressure on Montgomery from Whitehall to speed up his advance.The King with Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey, GOC British Second Army, and General Montgomery, at his HQ in Creullet, 16 June 1944On 18 June, Montgomery ordered Bradley to take Cherbourg while the British were to take Caen by 23 June.", "In Operation Epsom, the British VII Corps commanded by Sir Richard O'Connor attempted to outflank Caen from the west by breaking through the dividing line between the Panzer Lehr and the 12th SS to take the strategic Hill 112.Epsom began well with O'Connor's assault force (the British 15th Scottish Division) breaking through and with the 11th Armoured Division stopping the counter-attacks of the 12th SS Division.", "General Friedrich Dollmann of Seventh Army had to commit the newly arrived II SS Corps to stop the British offensive.", "Dollmann, fearing that Epsom would be a success, committed suicide and was replaced by SS ''Oberstegruppenführer'' Paul Hausser.", "O'Connor, at the cost of about 4,000 men, had won a salient deep and wide but placed the Germans into an unviable long-term position.", "There was a strong sense of crisis in the Allied command, as the Allies had advanced only about inland, at a time when their plans called for them to have already taken Rennes, Alençon and St. Malo.", "After Epsom, Montgomery had to tell General Harry Crerar that the activation of the First Canadian Army would have to wait as there was only room at present, in the Caen sector, for the newly arrived XII Corps under Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie, which caused some tension with Crerar, who was anxious to get into the field.", "Epsom had forced further German forces into Caen but all through June and the first half of July Rommel, Rundstedt, and Hitler were engaged in planning for a great offensive to drive the British into the sea; it was never launched and would have required the commitment of a large number of German forces to the Caen sector.It was only after several failed attempts to break out in the Caen sector that Montgomery devised what he later called his \"master plan\" of having the 21st Army Group hold the bulk of the German forces, thus allowing the Americans to break out.", "The Canadian historians Terry Copp and Robert Vogel wrote about the dispute between the \"American school\" and \"British school\" after having suffered several setbacks in June 1944:Hampered by stormy weather and the bocage terrain, Montgomery had to ensure that Rommel focused on the British in the east rather than the Americans in the west, who had to take the Cotentin Peninsula and Brittany before the Germans could be trapped by a general swing east.", "Montgomery told General Sir Miles Dempsey, the commander of Second British Army: \"Go on hitting, drawing the German strength, especially some of the armour, onto yourself—so as to ease the way for Brad Bradley.\"", "The Germans had deployed twelve divisions, of which six were Panzer divisions, against the British while deploying eight divisions, of which three were Panzer divisions, against the Americans.", "By the middle of July Caen had not been taken, as Rommel continued to prioritise prevention of the break-out by British forces rather than the western territories being taken by the Americans.", "This was broadly as Montgomery had planned, albeit not with the same speed as he outlined at St Paul's, although as the American historian Carlo D'Este pointed out the actual situation in Normandy was \"vastly different\" from what was envisioned at the St. Paul's conference, as only one of four goals outlined in May had been achieved by 10 July.Prime Minister Churchill with General Montgomery at the latter's HQ in Normandy, July 1944On 7 July, Montgomery began Operation Charnwood with a carpet bombing offensive that turned much of the French countryside and the city of Caen into a wasteland.", "The British and Canadians succeeded in advancing into northern Caen before the Germans, who used the ruins to their advantage and stopped the offensive.", "On 10 July, Montgomery ordered Bradley to take Avranches, after which U.S. Third Army would be activated to drive towards Le Mans and Alençon.", "On 14 July 1944, Montgomery wrote to his patron Brooke, saying he had chosen on a \"real show down on the eastern flanks, and to loose a Corps of three armoured divisions in the open country about the Caen-Falaise road ...", "The possibilities are immense; with seven hundred tanks loosed to the South-east of Caen, and the armoured cars operating far ahead, anything can happen.\"", "The French Resistance had launched Plan Violet in June 1944 to systematically destroy the telephone system of France, which forced the Germans to use their radios more and more to communicate, and as the code-breakers of Bletchley Park had broken many of the German codes, Montgomery had, thanks to \"Ultra\" intelligence, a good idea of the German situation.", "Montgomery thus knew German Army Group B had lost 96,400 men while receiving 5,200 replacements and the Panzer Lehr Division now based at St. Lô was down to only 40 tanks.", "Montgomery later wrote that he knew he had the Normandy campaign won at this point as the Germans had almost no reserves while he had three armoured divisions in reserve.An American break-out was achieved with Operation Cobra and the encirclement of German forces in the Falaise pocket at the cost of British losses with the diversionary Operation Goodwood.", "On the early morning of 18 July 1944, Operation Goodwood began with British heavy bombers beginning carpet bombing attacks that further devastated what was left of Caen and the surrounding countryside.", "A British tank crewman from the Guards Armoured Division later recalled: \"At 0500 hours a distant thunder in the air brought all the sleepy-eyed tank crews out of their blankets.", "1,000 Lancasters were flying from the sea in groups of three or four at .", "Ahead of them the pathfinders were scattering their flares and before long the first bombs were dropping.\"", "A German tankman from the 21st Panzer Division at the receiving end of this bombardment remembered: \"We saw little dots detach themselves from the planes, so many of them that the crazy thought occurred to us: are those leaflets? ...", "Among the thunder of the explosions, we could hear the wounded scream and the insane howling of men who had been driven mad.\"", "The British bombing had badly smashed the German front-line units; e.g., tanks were thrown up on the roofs of French farmhouses.", "Initially, the three British armoured divisions assigned to lead the offensive, the 7th, 11th and the Guards, made rapid progress and were soon approaching the Borguebus ridge, which dominated the landscape south of Caen, by noon.General Montgomery stops his car to chat with troops during a tour of I Corps area near Caen, 11 July 1944.If the British could take the Borguebus Ridge, the way to the plains of northern France would be wide open, and potentially Paris could be taken, which explains the ferocity with which the Germans defended the ridge.", "One German officer, Lieutenant Baron von Rosen, recalled that to motivate a Luftwaffe officer commanding a battery of four 88 mm guns to fight against the British tanks, he had to hold his handgun to the officer's head \"and asked him whether he would like to be killed immediately or get a high decoration.", "He decided for the latter.\"", "The well dug-in 88 mm guns around the Borguebus Ridge began taking a toll on the British Sherman tanks, and the countryside was soon dotted with dozens of burning Shermans.", "One British officer reported with worry: \"I see palls of smoke and tanks brewing up with flames belching forth from their turrets.", "I see men climbing out, on fire like torches, rolling on the ground to try and douse the flames.\"", "Despite Montgomery's orders to try to press on, fierce German counter-attacks stopped the British offensive.The objectives of Operation Goodwood were all achieved except the complete capture of the Bourgebus Ridge, which was only partially taken.", "The operation was a strategic Allied success in drawing in the last German reserves in Normandy towards the Caen sector away from the American sector, greatly assisting the American breakout in Operation Cobra.", "By the end of Goodwood on 25 July 1944, the Canadians had finally taken Caen while the British tanks had reached the plains south of Caen, giving Montgomery the \"hinge\" he had been seeking, while forcing the Germans to commit the last of their reserves to stop the Anglo-Canadian offensive.", "\"Ultra\" decrypts indicated that the Germans now facing Bradley were seriously understrength, with Operation Cobra about to commence.", "During Operation Goodwood, the British had 400 tanks knocked out, with many recovered returning to service.", "The casualties were 5,500 with of ground gained.", "Bradley recognised Montgomery's plan to pin down German armour and allow U.S. forces to break out:The long-running dispute over what Montgomery's \"master plan\" in Normandy led historians to differ greatly about the purpose of Goodwood.", "The British journalist Mark Urban wrote that the purpose of Goodwood was to draw German troops to their left flank to allow the American forces to break out on the right flank, arguing that Montgomery had to lie to his soldiers about the purpose of Goodwood, as the average British soldier would not have understood why they were being asked to create a diversion to allow the Americans to have the glory of staging the breakout with Operation Cobra.", "By contrast, the American historian Stephen Power argued that Goodwood was intended to be the \"breakout\" offensive and not a \"holding operation\", writing: \"It is unrealistic to assert that an operation which called for the use of 4,500 Allied aircraft, 700 artillery pieces and over 8,000 armored vehicles and trucks and that cost the British over 5,500 casualties was conceived and executed for so limited an objective.\"", "Power noted that Goodwood and Cobra were supposed to take effect on the same day, 18 July 1944, but Cobra was cancelled owing to heavy rain in the American sector, and argued that both operations were meant to be breakout operations to trap the German armies in Normandy.", "American military writer Drew Middleton wrote that there is no doubt that Montgomery wanted Goodwood to provide a \"shield\" for Bradley, but at the same time Montgomery was clearly hoping for more than merely diverting German attention away from the American sector.", "British historian John Keegan pointed out that Montgomery made differing statements before Goodwood about the purpose of the operation.", "Keegan wrote that Montgomery engaged in what he called a \"hedging of his bets\" when drafting his plans for Goodwood, with a plan for a \"break out if the front collapsed, if not, sound documentary evidence that all he had intended in the first place was a battle of attrition\".", "Again Bradley confirmed Montgomery's plan and that the capture of Caen was only incidental to his mission, not critical.", "The American magazine ''LIFE'' quoted Bradley in 1951: With Goodwood drawing the Wehrmacht towards the British sector, U.S. First Army enjoyed a two-to-one numerical superiority.", "Bradley accepted Montgomery's advice to begin the offensive by concentrating at one point instead of a \"broad front\" as Eisenhower would have preferred.Operation Goodwood almost cost Montgomery his job, as Eisenhower seriously considered sacking him and only chose not to do so because to sack the popular \"Monty\" would have caused such a political backlash in Britain against the Americans at a critical moment in the war that the resulting strains in the Atlantic alliance were not considered worth it.", "Montgomery expressed his satisfaction at the results of Goodwood when calling the operation off.", "Eisenhower was under the impression that Goodwood was to be a break-out operation.", "Either there was a miscommunication between the two men or Eisenhower did not understand the strategy.", "Bradley fully understood Montgomery's intentions.", "Both men would not give away to the press the true intentions of their strategy.General Montgomery with Lieutenant Generals George S. Patton (left) and Omar Bradley (centre) at 21st Army Group HQ, 7 July 1944Many American officers had found Montgomery a difficult man to work with, and after Goodwood, pressured Eisenhower to fire Montgomery.", "Although the Eisenhower–Montgomery dispute is sometimes depicted in nationalist terms as being an Anglo-American struggle, it was the British Air Marshal Arthur Tedder who was pressing Eisenhower most strongly after Goodwood to fire Montgomery.", "An American officer wrote in his diary that Tedder had come to see Eisenhower to \"pursue his current favourite subject, the sacking of Monty\".", "With Tedder leading the \"sack Monty\" campaign, it encouraged Montgomery's American enemies to press Eisenhower to fire Montgomery.", "Brooke was sufficiently worried about the \"sack Monty\" campaign to visit Montgomery at his Tactical Headquarters (TAC) in France and as he wrote in his diary; \"warned Montgomery of a tendency in the PM Churchill to listen to suggestions that Monty played for safety and was not prepared to take risks\".", "Brooke advised Montgomery to invite Churchill to Normandy, arguing that if the \"sack Monty\" campaign had won the Prime Minister over, then his career would be over, as having Churchill's backing would give Eisenhower the political \"cover\" to fire Montgomery.", "On 20 July, Montgomery met Eisenhower and on 21 July, Churchill, at the TAC in France.", "One of Montgomery's staff officers wrote afterwards that it was \"common knowledge at Tac that Churchill had come to sack Monty\".", "No notes were taken at the Eisenhower–Montgomery and Churchill–Montgomery meetings, but Montgomery was able to persuade both men not to sack him.With the success of Cobra, which was soon followed by unleashing Patton's Third Army, Eisenhower wrote to Montgomery: \"Am delighted that your basic plan has begun brilliantly to unfold with Bradley's initial success.\"", "The success of Cobra was aided by Operation Spring, when the II Canadian Corps under General Guy Simonds (the only Canadian general whose skill Montgomery respected) began an offensive south of Caen that made little headway, but which the Germans regarded as the main offensive.", "Once Third Army arrived, Bradley was promoted to take command of the newly created 12th Army Group, consisting of U.S. First and Third Armies.", "Following the American breakout, there followed the Battle of Falaise Gap.", "British, Canadian, and Polish soldiers of 21st Army Group commanded by Montgomery advanced south, while the American and French soldiers of Bradley's 12th Army Group advanced north to encircle the German Army Group B at Falaise, as Montgomery waged what Urban called \"a huge battle of annihilation\" in August 1944.Montgomery began his offensive into the ''Suisse Normande'' region with Operation Bluecoat, with Sir Richard O'Connor's VIII Corps and Gerard Bucknall's XXX Corps heading south.", "A dissatisfied Montgomery sacked Bucknall for being insufficiently aggressive and replaced him with General Brian Horrocks.", "At the same time, Montgomery ordered Patton—whose Third Army was supposed to advance into Brittany—to instead capture Nantes, which was soon taken.Hitler waited too long to order his soldiers to retreat from Normandy, leading Montgomery to write: \"He Hitler refused to face the only sound military course.", "As a result the Allies caused the enemy staggering losses in men and materials.\"", "Knowing via \"Ultra\" that Hitler was not planning to retreat from Normandy, Montgomery, on 6 August 1944, ordered an envelopment operation against Army Group B—with the First Canadian Army under Harry Crerar to advance towards Falaise, British Second Army under Miles Dempsey to advance towards Argentan, and Patton's Third Army to advance to Alençon.", "On 11 August, Montgomery changed his plan, with the Canadians to take Falaise and to meet the Americans at Argentan.", "The First Canadian Army launched two operations, Operation Totalize on 7 August, which advanced only in four days in the face of fierce German resistance, and Operation Tractable on 14 August, which finally took Falaise on 17 August.", "In view of the slow Canadian advance, Patton requested permission to take Falaise, but was refused by Bradley on 13 August.", "This prompted much controversy, many historians arguing that Bradley lacked aggression and that Montgomery should have overruled Bradley.The so-called Falaise Gap was closed on 22 August 1944, but several American generals, most notably Patton, accused Montgomery of being insufficiently aggressive in closing it.", "About 60,000 German soldiers were trapped in Normandy, but before 22 August, about 20,000 Germans had escaped through the Falaise Gap.", "About 10,000 Germans had been killed in the Battle of the Falaise Gap, which led a stunned Eisenhower, who viewed the battlefield on 24 August, to comment with horror that it was impossible to walk without stepping on corpses.", "The successful conclusion of the Normandy campaign saw the beginning of the debate between the \"American school\" and \"British school\" as both American and British generals started to advance claims about who was most responsible for this victory.", "Brooke wrote in defence of his protégé Montgomery: \"Ike knows nothing about strategy and is 'quite' unsuited to the post of Supreme Commander.", "It is no wonder that Monty's real high ability is not always realised.", "Especially so when 'national' spectacles pervert the perspective of the strategic landscape.\"", "About Montgomery's conduct of the Normandy campaign, Badsey wrote:===Replaced as Ground Forces Commander===Eisenhower took over Ground Forces Command on 1 September, while continuing as Supreme Commander, with Montgomery continuing to command the 21st Army Group, now consisting mainly of British and Canadian units.", "Montgomery bitterly resented this change, although it had been agreed before the D-Day invasion.", "The British journalist Mark Urban writes that Montgomery seemed unable to grasp that as the majority of the 2.2 million Allied soldiers fighting against Germany on the Western Front were now American (the ratio was 3''':'''1) that it was politically unacceptable to American public opinion to have Montgomery remain as Land Forces Commander as: \"Politics would not allow him to carry on giving orders to great armies of Americans simply because, in his view, he was better than their generals.", "\"Winston Churchill had Montgomery promoted to field marshal by way of compensation.===Advance to the Rhine===By September, ports like Cherbourg were too far away from the front line, causing the Allies great logistical problems.", "Antwerp was the third largest port in Europe.", "It was a deep water inland port connected to the North Sea via the river Scheldt.", "The Scheldt was wide enough and dredged deep enough to allow the passage of ocean-going ships.On 3 September 1944 Hitler ordered Fifteenth Army, which had been stationed in the Pas de Calais region and was withdrawing north into the Low Countries, to hold the mouth of the river Scheldt to deprive the Allies of the use of Antwerp.", "Von Rundstedt, the German commander of the Western Front, ordered General Gustav-Adolf von Zangen, the commander of 15th Army, that: \"The attempt of the enemy to occupy the West Scheldt in order to obtain the free use of the harbor of Antwerp must be ''resisted to the utmost''\" (emphasis in the original).", "Rundstedt argued with Hitler that as long as the Allies could not use the port of Antwerp, the Allies would lack the logistical capacity for an invasion of Germany.The ''Witte Brigade'' (White Brigade) of the Belgian resistance had captured the Port of Antwerp before the Germans could destroy key port facilities, and on 4 September, Antwerp was captured by Horrocks with its harbour mostly intact.", "The British declined to immediately advance over the Albert Canal, and an opportunity to destroy the German Fifteenth Army was lost.", "The Germans had mined the river Scheldt, the mouth of the Scheldt was still in German hands making it impossible for the Royal Navy to clear the mines in the river, and therefore the port of Antwerp was still useless to the Allies.On 5 September, SHAEF's naval commander, Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay, had urged Montgomery to make clearing the mouth of the Scheldt his number-one priority.", "Alone among the senior commanders, only Ramsay saw opening Antwerp as crucial.", "Thanks to \"Ultra,\" Montgomery was aware of Hitler's order by 5 September.On 9 September, Montgomery wrote to Brooke that \"one good Pas de Calais port\" would be sufficient to meet all the logistical needs of the 21st Army Group, but only the supply needs of the same formation.", "At the same time, Montgomery noted that \"one good Pas de Calais port\" would be insufficient for the American armies in France, which would thus force Eisenhower, if for no other reasons than logistics, to favour Montgomery's plans for an invasion of northern Germany by the 21st Army Group, whereas if Antwerp were opened up, then all of the Allied armies could be supplied.The importance of ports closer to Germany was highlighted with the liberation of the city of Le Havre, which was assigned to John Crocker's I Corps.", "To take Le Havre, two infantry divisions, two tank brigades, most of the artillery of the Second British Army, the specialised armoured \"gadgets\" of Percy Hobart's 79th Armoured Division, the battleship and the monitor were all committed.", "On 10 September 1944, Bomber Command dropped 4,719 tons of bombs on Le Havre, which was the prelude to Operation Astonia, the assault on Le Havre by Crocker's men, which was taken two days later.", "The Canadian historian Terry Copp wrote that the commitment of this much firepower and men to take only one French city might \"seem excessive\", but by this point, the Allies desperately needed ports closer to the front line to sustain their advance.In September 1944, Montgomery ordered Crerar and his First Canadian Army to take the French ports on the English Channel, namely Calais, Boulogne and Dunkirk, and to clear the Scheldt, a task that Crerar stated was impossible as he lacked enough troops to perform both operations at once.", "Montgomery refused Crerar's request to have British XII Corps under Neil Ritchie assigned to help clear the Scheldt as Montgomery stated he needed XII Corps for Operation Market Garden.", "On 6 September 1944, Montgomery told Crerar that \"I want Boulogne badly\" and that city should be taken no matter what the cost.", "On 22 September 1944, Simonds's II Canadian Corps took Boulogne, followed up by taking Calais on 1 October 1944.Montgomery was highly impatient with Simonds, complaining that it had taken Crocker's I Corps only two days to take Le Havre while it took Simonds two weeks to take Boulogne and Calais, but Simonds noted that at Le Havre, three divisions and two brigades had been employed, whereas at both Boulogne and Calais, only two brigades were sent in to take both cities.", "After an attempt to storm the Leopold Canal by the 4th Canadian Division had been badly smashed by the German defenders, Simonds ordered a stop to further attempts to clear the river Scheldt until his mission of capturing the French ports on the English Channel had been accomplished; this allowed the German Fifteenth Army ample time to dig into its new home on the Scheldt.", "The only port that was not captured by the Canadians was Dunkirk, as Montgomery ordered the 2nd Canadian Division on 15 September to hold his flank at Antwerp as a prelude for an advance up the Scheldt.Holland, 13 October 1944: Montgomery outlines his future strategy to King George VI in his mobile headquarters.Montgomery pulled away from the First Canadian Army (temporarily commanded now by Simonds as Crerar was ill), the British 51st Highland Division, 1st Polish Division, British 49th (West Riding) Division and 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade, and sent all of these formations to help the Second British Army to expand the Market Garden salient with Operations Constellation, Aintree, and towards the end of October Pheasant.", "However, Simonds seems to have regarded the Scheldt campaign as a test of his ability, and he felt he could clear the Scheldt with only three Canadian divisions, namely the 2nd, the 3rd, and the 4th, despite having to take on the entire Fifteenth Army, which held strongly fortified positions in a landscape that favoured the defence.", "Simonds never complained about the lack of air support (made worse by the cloudy October weather), shortages of ammunition or having insufficient troops, regarding these problems as challenges for him to overcome, rather than a cause for complaint.", "As it was, Simonds made only slow progress in October 1944 during the fighting in the Battle of the Scheldt, although he was praised by Copp for imaginative and aggressive leadership who managed to achieve much, despite all of the odds against him.", "Montgomery had little respect for the Canadian generals, whom he dismissed as mediocre, with the exception of Simonds, whom he consistently praised as Canada's only \"first-rate\" general in the entire war.Montgomery in conversation with Major General Stanisław Maczek during his visit to the 1st Polish Armoured Division Headquarters in Breda, 25 November 1944Admiral Ramsay, who proved to be a far more articulate and forceful champion of the Canadians than their own generals, starting on 9 October demanded of Eisenhower in a meeting that he either order Montgomery to make supporting the First Canadian Army in the Scheldt fighting his number one priority or sack him.", "Ramsay in very strong language argued to Eisenhower that the Allies could only invade Germany if Antwerp was opened, and that as long as the three Canadian divisions fighting in the Scheldt had shortages of ammunition and artillery shells because Montgomery made the Arnhem salient his first priority, then Antwerp would not be opened anytime soon.", "Even Brooke wrote in his diary: \"I feel that Monty's strategy for once is at fault.", "Instead of carrying out the advance to Arnhem he ought to have made certain of Antwerp\".", "On 9 October 1944, at Ramsay's urging, Eisenhower sent Montgomery a cable that emphasised the \"supreme importance of Antwerp\", that \"the Canadian Army will not, repeat not, be able to attack until November unless immediately supplied with adequate ammunition\", and warned that the Allied advance into Germany would totally stop by mid-November unless Antwerp was opened by October.", "Montgomery replied by accusing Ramsay of making \"wild statements\" unsupported by the facts, denying the Canadians were having to ration ammunition, and claimed that he would soon take the Ruhr thereby making the Scheldt campaign a sideshow.", "Montgomery further issued a memo entitled \"Notes on Command in Western Europe\" demanding that he once again be made Land Forces Commander.", "This led to an exasperated Eisenhower telling Montgomery that the question was not the command arrangement but rather his (Montgomery's) ability and willingness to obey orders.", "Eisenhower further told Montgomery to either obey orders to immediately clear the mouth of the Scheldt or be sacked.A chastised Montgomery told Eisenhower on 15 October 1944 that he was now making clearing the Scheldt his \"top priority\", and the ammunition shortages in the First Canadian Army, a problem which he denied even existed five days earlier, were now over as supplying the Canadians was henceforth his first concern.", "Simonds, now reinforced with British troops and Royal Marines, cleared the Scheldt by taking Walcheren island, the last of the German \"fortresses\" on the Scheldt, on 8 November 1944.With the Scheldt in Allied hands, Royal Navy minesweepers removed the German mines in the river, and Antwerp was finally opened to shipping on 28 November 1944.Reflecting Antwerp's importance, the Germans spent the winter of 1944–45 firing V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets at it in an attempt to shut down the port, and the German offensive in December 1944 in the Ardennes had as its ultimate objective the capture of Antwerp.", "Urban wrote that Montgomery's most \"serious failure\" in the entire war was not the well publicised Battle of Arnhem, but rather his lack of interest in opening up Antwerp, as without it the entire Allied advance from the North Sea to the Swiss Alps stalled in the autumn of 1944 for logistical reasons.===Operation Market Garden===Montgomery was able to persuade Eisenhower to allow him to test his strategy of a single thrust to the Ruhr with Operation Market Garden in September 1944.The offensive was strategically bold.", "Following the Allied breakout from Normandy, Eisenhower, favored pursuing the German armies northwards and eastwards to the Rhine on a broad front.", "Eisenhower relied on speed, which in turn depended on logistics, which were \"stretched to the limit\".", "Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) did provide Montgomery with additional resources, principally additional locomotives and rolling stock, and priority for air supply.", "Eisenhower's decision to launch Market Garden was influenced by his desire to keep the retreating Germans under pressure, and by the pressure from the United States to use the First Allied Airborne Army as soon as possible.Montgomery's plan for Operation Market Garden (17–25 September 1944) was to outflank the Siegfried Line and cross the Rhine, setting the stage for later offensives into the Ruhr region.", "The 21st Army Group would attack north from Belgium, through the Netherlands, across the Rhine and consolidate north of Arnhem on the far side of the Rhine.", "The risky plan required three Airborne Divisions to capture numerous intact bridges along a single-lane road, on which an entire Corps had to attack and use as its main supply route.", "The offensive failed to achieve its objectives.Both Churchill and Montgomery claimed that the operation was nearly or 90% successful, although in Montgomery's equivocal acceptance of responsibility he blames lack of support, and also refers to the Battle of the Scheldt which was undertaken by Canadian troops not involved in Market Garden.", "Montgomery later said:In the aftermath of Market Garden, Montgomery made holding the Arnhem salient his first priority, arguing that the Second British Army might still be able to break through and reach the wide open plains of northern Germany, and that he might be able to take the Ruhr by the end of October.", "The Germans under Field Marshal Walther Model in early October attempted to retake the Nijmegen salient but were beaten back.", "In the meantime, the First Canadian Army finally achieved the task of clearing the mouth of the river Scheldt, despite the fact that in the words of Copp and Vogel \"... that Montgomery's Directive required the Canadians to continue to fight alone for almost two weeks in a battle which everyone agreed could only be won with the aid of additional divisions\".===Battle of the Bulge===On 16 December 1944, at the start of the Battle of the Bulge, Montgomery's 21st Army Group was on the northern flank of the allied lines.", "Bradley's US 12th Army Group was to Montgomery's south, with William Simpson's U.S. Ninth Army adjacent to 21st Army Group, Courtney Hodges' U.S. First Army, holding the Ardennes and Patton's U.S. Third Army further south.John Anderson, GOC U.S. XVI Corps.", "Behind are General Bradley and Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke.SHAEF believed the Wehrmacht was no longer capable of launching a major offensive, and that no offensive could be launched through such rugged terrain as the Ardennes Forest.", "Because of this, the area was held by refitting and newly arrived American formations.", "The Wehrmacht planned to exploit this by making a surprise attack through the Ardennes Forest whilst bad weather grounded Allied air power, splitting the Allied Armies in two.", "They would then turn north to recapture the port of Antwerp.", "If the attack were to succeed in capturing Antwerp, the whole of 21st Army Group, along with U.S. Ninth Army and most of U.S. First Army would be trapped without supplies behind German lines.The attack initially advanced rapidly, splitting U.S. 12th Army Group in two, with all of U.S. Ninth Army and the bulk of U.S. First Army on the northern shoulder of the German 'bulge'.", "The 12th Army Group commander, Bradley, was located in Luxembourg, south of the bulge, making command of the U.S. forces north of the bulge problematic.", "As Montgomery was the nearest army group commander on the ground, on 20 December, Eisenhower temporarily transferred command of U.S. Ninth Army and U.S. First Army to Montgomery's 21st Army Group.", "Bradley was \"concerned because it might discredit the American command\" but that it might mean Montgomery would commit more of his reserves to the battle.", "In practice the change led to \"great resentment on the part of many Americans, particularly at Headquarters, 12th Army Group, and Third Army\".With the British and American forces under Montgomery's command holding the northern flank of the German assault, General Patton's Third Army, which was to the south, turned north and fought its way through the severe weather and German opposition to relieve the besieged American forces in Bastogne.", "Four days after Montgomery took command of the northern flank, the bad weather cleared and the USAAF and RAF resumed operations, inflicting heavy casualties on German troops and vehicles.", "Six days after Montgomery took command of the northern flank, Patton's Third Army relieved the besieged American forces in Bastogne.", "Unable to advance further, and running out of fuel, the Wehrmacht abandoned the offensive.Morelock states that Montgomery was preoccupied with leading a \"single thrust offensive\" to Berlin as the overall commander of Allied ground forces, and that he accordingly treated the Ardennes counteroffensive \"as a sideshow, to be finished with the least possible effort and expenditure of resources.", "\"Montgomery subsequently wrote of his actions:After the war Hasso von Manteuffel, who commanded the 5th Panzer Army in the Ardennes, was imprisoned awaiting trial for war crimes.", "During this period he was interviewed by B. H. Liddell Hart, a British author who has since been accused of putting words in the mouths of German generals, and attempting to \"rewrite the historical record\".", "After conducting several interviews via an interpreter, Liddell Hart in a subsequent book attributed to Manteuffel the following statement about Montgomery's contribution to the battle in the Ardennes:However, American historian Stephen Ambrose, writing in 1997, maintained that \"Putting Monty in command of the northern flank had no effect on the battle\".", "Ambrose wrote that: \"Far from directing the victory, Montgomery had gotten in everyone's way, and had botched the counter-attack.\"", "General Omar Bradley blamed Montgomery's \"stagnating conservatism\" for his failure to counter-attack when ordered to do so by Eisenhower.Command of U.S. First Army reverted to 12th Army Group on 17 January 1945, whilst command of U.S. Ninth Army remained with 21st Army Group for the coming operations to cross the Rhine.===Crossing the Rhine===Sir Arthur Coningham (centre) and the Commander of the British Second Army, Lieutenant-General Sir Miles Dempsey, talking after a conference in which Montgomery gave the order for the Second Army to begin Operation Plunder.Montgomery was awarded the Order of Victory on 5 June 1945.Dwight Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Sir Arthur Tedder were also present.In February 1945, Montgomery's 21st Army Group advanced to the Rhine in Operation Veritable and Operation Grenade.", "It crossed the Rhine on 24 March 1945, in Operation Plunder, which took place two weeks after U.S. First Army had crossed the Rhine after capturing the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen.21st Army Group's river crossing was followed by the encirclement of the Ruhr Pocket.", "During this battle, U.S. Ninth Army, which had remained part of 21st Army Group after the Battle of the Bulge, formed the northern arm of the envelopment of German Army Group B, with U.S. First Army forming the southern arm.", "The two armies linked up on 1 April 1945, encircling 370,000 German troops, and on 4 April 1945, Ninth Army reverted to Omar Bradley's 12th Army Group.By the war's end, the remaining formations of 21st Army group, First Canadian Army and British Second Army, had liberated the northern part of the Netherlands and captured much of north-west Germany, occupied Hamburg and Rostock and sealed off the Danish peninsula.On 4 May 1945, on Lüneburg Heath, Montgomery accepted the surrender of German forces in north-west Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands." ], [ "Casualty conservation policy", "The British high command were not only concerned with winning the war and defeating Germany, but also with ensuring that it retained sufficient influence in the post-war world to govern global policy.", "Suffering heavy losses in Normandy would diminish British leadership and prestige within its empire and on post-war Europe in particular.", "Many of Montgomery's clashes with Eisenhower were based on his determination to pursue the war \"on lines most suitable to Britain\".The fewer the number of combat-experienced divisions the British had left at the end of the war, the smaller Britain's influence in Europe was likely to be, compared to the emerging superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union.", "Montgomery was thus caught in a dilemma—the British Army needed to be seen to be pulling at least half the weight in the liberation of Europe, but without incurring the heavy casualties that such a role would inevitably produce.", "21st Army Group scarcely possessed sufficient forces to achieve such a military prominence, and the remaining divisions had to be expended sparingly.Britain, in 1944, did not possess the manpower to rebuild shattered divisions and it was imperative for Montgomery to protect the viability of the British army so that Britain could still play an important part in the final victory.", "It was reported to the War Office that \"Montgomery has to be very careful of what he does on his eastern flank because on that flank is the only British Army there is left in this part of the world\".", "The context of British casualties and the shortage of reinforcements, prompted Montgomery to \"excessive caution\".", "Dempsey wrote on 13 June, that Caen could only be taken by a \"set piece assault and we did not have the men or the ammunition for that at the time\".Montgomery's solution to the dilemma was to attempt to remain Commander of All Land Forces until the end of the war, so that any victory attained on the Western front—although achieved primarily by American formations—would accrue in part to him and thus to Britain.", "He would also be able to ensure that British units were spared some of the high-attrition actions, but would be most prominent when the final blows were struck.", "When that strategy failed, he persuaded Eisenhower to occasionally put some American formations under the control of the 21st Army Group, so as to bolster his resources while still maintaining the outward appearance of successful British effort.Montgomery initially remained prepared to push Second (British) Army hard to capture the vital strategic town of Caen, and consequently incur heavy losses.", "In the original Overlord plan, Montgomery was determined to push past Caen to Falaise as quickly as possible.", "However, after the heavy casualties incurred in capturing Caen, he changed his mind." ], [ "Personality", "Montgomery was notorious for his lack of tact and diplomacy.", "Even his \"patron\", the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Sir Alan Brooke, frequently mentions it in his war diaries: \"he is liable to commit untold errors in lack of tact\" and \"I had to haul him over the coals for his usual lack of tact and egotistical outlook which prevented him from appreciating other people's feelings\".One incident that illustrated this occurred during the North African campaign when Montgomery bet Walter Bedell Smith that he could capture Sfax by the middle of April 1943.Smith jokingly replied that if Montgomery could do it he would give him a Flying Fortress complete with crew.", "Smith promptly forgot all about it, but Montgomery did not, and when Sfax was taken on 10 April he sent a message to Smith \"claiming his winnings\".", "Smith tried to laugh it off, but Montgomery was having none of it and insisted on his aircraft.", "It got as high as Eisenhower who, with his renowned skill in diplomacy, ensured Montgomery did get his Flying Fortress, though at a great cost in ill feeling.", "Even Brooke thought it crass stupidity.Antony Beevor, in discussing Montgomery's counterproductive lack of tact in the final months of the war, described him as \"insufferable\".", "Beevor says that in January 1945 Montgomery had tried to claim far too much credit for the British (and for himself) in defeating the German counter-attack in the Ardennes in December 1944.This \"crass and unpleasant blunder\" helped make it impossible for Churchill and Alan Brooke to persuade Eisenhower of the need for an immediate thrust—to be led by Montgomery—through Germany to Berlin.", "Eisenhower did not accept the viability of the \"dagger thrust\" approach, it had already been agreed that Berlin would fall into the future Soviet occupation zone, and he was not willing to accept heavy casualties for no gain, so Eisenhower disregarded the British suggestions and continued with his conservative broad front strategy, and the Red Army reached Berlin well ahead of the Western Allies.In August 1945, while Brooke, Sir Andrew Cunningham and Sir Charles Portal were discussing their possible successors as \"Chiefs of Staff\", they concluded that Montgomery would be very efficient as CIGS from the Army's point of view but that he was also very unpopular with a large proportion of the Army.", "Despite this, Cunningham and Portal were strongly in favour of Montgomery succeeding Brooke after his retirement.", "Churchill, by all accounts a faithful friend, is quoted as saying of Montgomery, \"In defeat, unbeatable; in victory, unbearable.", "\"Montgomery suffered from \"an overbearing conceit and an uncontrollable urge for self-promotion.\"", "General Hastings Ismay, who was at the time Winston Churchill's chief staff officer and trusted military adviser, once stated of Montgomery: \"I have come to the conclusion that his love of publicity is a disease, like alcoholism or taking drugs, and that it sends him equally mad.\"" ], [ "Later life", "===Post-war military career===Soviet Marshals Zhukov (red sash) and Rokossovsky (medal with solid red ribbon) with General Sokolovsky (medal with red and white ribbon) leave the Brandenburg Gate on 12 July 1945 after being decorated by Montgomery.After the war, Montgomery became the C-in-C of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR), the name given to the British Occupation Forces, and was the British member of the Allied Control Council.====Chief of the Imperial General Staff====Montgomery was Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) from 1946 to 1948, succeeding Alan Brooke.As CIGS, Montgomery toured Africa in 1947 and in a secret 1948 report to Prime Minister Clement Attlee's government proposed a \"master plan\" to amalgamate British Africa territories and to exploit the raw materials of Africa, thereby counteracting the loss of British influence in Asia.However, Montgomery was barely on speaking terms with his fellow service chiefs, sending his deputy Kenneth Crawford to attend their meetings and he clashed particularly with Sir Arthur Tedder, who was by now Chief of the Air Staff (CAS).When Montgomery's term of office expired, Prime Minister Attlee appointed Sir William Slim from retirement with the rank of field marshal as his successor.", "When Montgomery protested that he had told his protégé, General Sir John Crocker, former commander of I Corps in the 1944–45 North-West Europe Campaign, that the job was to be his, Attlee is said to have retorted \"Untell him\".====Western Union Defence Organization====Montgomery in New Zealand in 1947Montgomery was then appointed Chairman of the Western Union Defence Organization's C-in-C committee.", "Volume 3 of Nigel Hamilton's ''Life of Montgomery of Alamein'' gives an account of the bickering between Montgomery and his land forces chief, French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, which created splits through the Union headquarters.====NATO====On the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951, Montgomery became Eisenhower's deputy.", "He would continue to serve under Eisenhower's successors, Generals Matthew Ridgway and Al Gruenther, until his retirement, aged nearly 71, in 1958.===Personal===Montgomery was created 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein in 1946.Montgomery's mother, Maude Montgomery, died at New Park in Moville in Inishowen in 1949.She was buried alongside her husband in the kirkyard behind St Columb's Church, the small Church of Ireland church beside New Park, overlooking Lough Foyle.", "Montgomery did not attend the funeral, claiming he was \"too busy\".Montgomery was an Honorary Member of the Winkle Club, a charity in Hastings, East Sussex, and introduced Winston Churchill to the club in 1955.He was chairman of the governing body of St. John's School in Leatherhead, Surrey, from 1951 to 1966, and a generous supporter.He was also President of Portsmouth Football Club between 1944 and 1961.In the mid-1950s, the ''Illustrated London News'' published sets of photographs taken by Montgomery while flying over the Swiss Alps.", "In February 1957, views of Mount Toedi taken with a Rolleiflex camera were reproduced.===Opinions=======Memoirs====CIGS with Lord Wavell, Viceroy of India, and Auchinleck, Commander in Chief Indian Army.", "Delhi 1946Montgomery's memoirs (1958) criticised many of his wartime comrades in harsh terms, including Eisenhower.", "He was threatened with legal action by Field Marshal Auchinleck for suggesting that Auchinleck had intended to retreat from the Alamein position if attacked again, and had to give a radio broadcast (20 November 1958) expressing his gratitude to Auchinleck for having stabilised the front at the First Battle of Alamein.The 1960 paperback edition of Montgomery's memoirs contains a publisher's note drawing attention to that broadcast, and stating that although the reader might assume from Montgomery's text that Auchinleck had been planning to retreat \"into the Nile Delta or beyond\" in the publisher's view it had been Auchinleck's intention to launch an offensive as soon as the Eighth Army was \"rested and regrouped\".", "Montgomery was stripped of his honorary citizenship of Montgomery, Alabama, and was challenged to a duel by an Italian lawyer.Montgomery mentioned to the American journalist John Gunther in April 1944 that (like Alanbrooke) he kept a secret diary.", "Gunther remarked that it would surely be an essential source for historians.", "When Montgomery asked whether it would be worth money one day, Gunther suggested \"at least $100,000.\"", "This was converted into pounds sterling, and he is supposed to have grinned and said \"Well, I guess I won't die in the poor house after all.", "\"====Military opinions====Montgomery twice met Israeli general Moshe Dayan.", "After an initial meeting in the early 1950s, Montgomery met Dayan again in the 1960s to discuss the Vietnam War, which Dayan was studying.", "Montgomery was harshly critical of US strategy in Vietnam, which involved deploying large numbers of combat troops, aggressive bombing attacks, and uprooting entire village populations and forcing them into strategic hamlets.", "Montgomery said that the Americans' most important problem was that they had no clear-cut objective, and allowed local commanders to set military policy.", "At the end of their meeting, Montgomery asked Dayan to tell the Americans, in his name, that they were \"insane\".During a visit to the Alamein battlefields in May 1967, he bluntly told high-ranking Egyptian Army officers that they would lose any war with Israel, a warning that was shown to be justified only a few weeks later in the Six-Day War.====Social opinions====In retirement, Montgomery publicly supported apartheid after a visit to South Africa in 1962, and after a visit to China declared himself impressed by the Chinese leadership led by Chairman Mao Tse-tung.", "He spoke out against the legalisation of homosexuality in the United Kingdom, arguing that the Sexual Offences Act 1967 was a \"charter for buggery\" and that \"this sort of thing may be tolerated by the French, but we're British—thank God\".Montgomery was a non-smoking teetotaller, a vegetarian, and a Christian." ], [ "Death", "Statue of Montgomery in Whitehall, London, by Oscar Nemon, unveiled in 1980Montgomery died from unspecified causes in 1976 at his home Isington Mill in Isington, Hampshire, aged 88.After a funeral at St George's Chapel, Windsor, his body was buried in Holy Cross churchyard, in Binsted, Hampshire.", "He was survived by his son and only child David Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein (1928–2020), as well as two grandchildren.", "His wife Betty Carver died in 1937.His Garter banner, which had hung in St. George's Chapel in Windsor during his lifetime, is now on display in St Mary's, Warwick.File:Montgomery grave2.jpg|Montgomery's grave, Holy Cross churchyard, BinstedFile:Warwick, Collegiate Church of St Mary, interior - 1st Visc Montgomery of Alamein's Garter Banner.jpg|Montgomery's Garter banner on display in St Mary's, Warwick.File:Statue de Bernard Montgomery.jpg|Statue of Field Marshal The 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein in Montgomery Square, Brussels" ], [ "Legacy", "* Montgomery's portrait by Frank O. Salisbury (1945) hangs in the National Portrait Gallery.", "* A statue of Montgomery by Oscar Nemon stands outside the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall, alongside those of Field Marshal Lord Slim and Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke.", "* Montgomery gave his name to the French commune Colleville-Montgomery in Normandy.Montgomery's Grant command tank, on display at the Imperial War Museum in London* The Imperial War Museum holds a variety of material relating to Montgomery in its collections.", "These include Montgomery's Grant command tank (on display in the atrium at the Museum's London branch), his command caravans as used in North West Europe (on display at IWM Duxford), and his papers are held by the Museum's Department of Documents.", "The Museum maintains a permanent exhibition about Montgomery, entitled ''Monty: Master of the Battlefield''.", "* The World Champion Field Marshal Montgomery Pipe Band from Northern Ireland is named after him.", "* Montgomery's Rolls-Royce staff car is on display at the Royal Logistic Corps Museum, Deepcut, Surrey.", "* The Montgomery cocktail is a martini mixed at a ratio of 15 parts gin to 1 part vermouth, and popular with Ernest Hemingway at Harry's Bar in Venice.", "The drink was facetiously named for Montgomery's supposed refusal to go into battle unless his numerical advantage was at least fifteen to one, and it appeared in Hemingway's 1950 novel ''Across the River and into the Trees''.", "Ironically, following severe internal injuries received in the First World War, Montgomery himself could neither smoke nor drink." ], [ "Honours and awards", "Arms of Montgomery: ''Azure two lions passant guardant between three fleur-de-lis two in chief and one in base and two trefoils in fess all or.", "''* Viscountcy as ''Montgomery of Alamein'' (UK, January 1946)* Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (UK, 1946)* Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (UK, 1945) KCB – 11 November 1942, CB – 11 July 1940* Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (UK, 1914)* Mentioned in Despatches (UK, 17 February 1915, 4 January 1917, 11 December 1917, 20 May 1918, 20 December 1918, 5 July 1919, 15 July 1939, 24 June 1943, 13 January 1944)* Croix de Guerre 1914-1918 (France, 1919)* Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur (France, May 1945)* Médaille militaire (France, 9 September 1958)* Distinguished Service Medal (US, 1947)* Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (US, 10 August 1943)* Member of the Order of Victory (USSR, 21 June 1945)* Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark, 2 August 1945)* Grand Commander of the Order of George I (Greece, 20 June 1944)* Silver Cross (V Class) of the Virtuti Militari (Poland, 31 October 1944)* Grand Cross of the Military Order of the White Lion (Czechoslovakia, 1947)* Grand Cordon of the Seal of Solomon (Ethiopia, 1949)* Grand Officer with Palm of the Order of Leopold II (Belgium, 1947)* Croix de Guerre 1940 with Palm (Belgium)* Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Netherlands, 16 January 1947)* Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav (Norway) (1951)" ], [ "See also", "* Afrika Korps* M. E. Clifton James (Montgomery's double during the World War II)* Tex Banwell (another double)* Irish military diaspora* Panzer Army Africa* ''I Was Monty's Double'', 1958 film adapted from the autobiography of M. E. Clifton James" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ====Primary sources====* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* British Army Officers 1939–1945* Generals of World War II* * Montgomery and Anglo Polish relations during WWII* * Biography of Montgomery, Jewish Virtual Library website.", "Retrieved 10 April 2014.", "* Profile, desertwar.net.", "Retrieved 10 April 2014.", "* Viscount Montgomery of Alamein interview on BBC Radio 4 ''Desert Island Discs'', 20 December 1969*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Herman Boerhaave" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herman Boerhaave''' (, 31 December 1668 – 23 September 1738) was a Dutch botanist, chemist, Christian humanist, and physician of European fame.", "He is regarded as the founder of clinical teaching and of the modern academic hospital and is sometimes referred to as \"the father of physiology,\" along with Venetian physician Santorio Santorio (1561–1636).", "Boerhaave introduced the quantitative approach into medicine, along with his pupil Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777) and is best known for demonstrating the relation of symptoms to lesions.", "He was the first to isolate the chemical urea from urine.", "He was the first physician to put thermometer measurements to clinical practice.", "His motto was ''Simplex sigillum veri'': 'Simplicity is the sign of the truth'.", "He is often hailed as the \"Dutch Hippocrates\"." ], [ "Biography", "Oud Poelgeest Castle, Herman Boerhaave's home in Oegstgeest, near Leiden.", "This was the site of his outdoor botanical garden that was renowned during his lifetime and rivalled Hortus Cliffortianus, the garden of his friend and sponsor to Linnaeus.", "He travelled back and forth to his friend's garden and to the Leiden University by trekschuit.Boerhaave was born at Voorhout near Leiden.", "The son of a Protestant pastor, in his youth Boerhaave studied for a divinity degree and wanted to become a preacher.", "After the death of his father, however, he was offered a scholarship and he entered the University of Leiden, where he took his master's degree in philosophy in 1690, with a dissertation titled ''De distinctione mentis a corpore'' (''On the Difference of the Mind from the Body'').", "There he attacked the doctrines of Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza.", "He then turned to the study of medicine.", "He earned his medical doctorate from the University of Harderwijk (present-day Gelderland) in 1693, with a dissertation titled ''De utilitate explorandorum in aegris excrementorum ut signorum'' (''The Utility of Examining Signs of Disease in the Excrement of the Sick'').In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, ''De commendando Hippocratis studio'', he recommended to his pupils that great physician as their model.", "In 1709 he became professor of botany and medicine, and in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university, but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the botanic garden of Leiden, and by the publication of numerous works descriptive of new species of plants.On 14 September 1710, Boerhaave married Maria Drolenvaux, the daughter of the rich merchant, Alderman Abraham Drolenvaux.", "They had four children, of whom one daughter, Maria Joanna, lived to adulthood.", "In 1722, he began to suffer from an extreme case of gout, recovering the next year.In 1714, when he was appointed rector of the university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo in the chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he introduced the modern system of clinical instruction.", "Four years later he was appointed to the chair of chemistry as well.", "In 1728 he was elected into the French Academy of Sciences, and two years later into the Royal Society of London.", "In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and painful illness, at Leiden." ], [ "Legacy", "His reputation so increased the fame of the University of Leiden, especially as a school of medicine, that it became popular with visitors from every part of Europe.", "All the princes of Europe sent him pupils, who found in this skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate guardian.", "When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1716 (he had been in Holland before in 1697 to instruct himself in maritime affairs), he also took lessons from Boerhaave.", "Voltaire travelled to see him, as did Carl Linnaeus, who became a close friend and named the genus ''Boerhavia'' for him.", "His reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin sent him a letter addressed to \"the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe,\" and it reached him in due course.Bronze statue made by J.Stracke (1817–1891)The operating theatre of the University of Leiden in which he once worked as an anatomist is now at the centre of a museum named after him; the Boerhaave Museum.", "Asteroid 8175 Boerhaave is named after Boerhaave.", "From 1955 to 1961 Boerhaave's image was printed on Dutch 20-guilder banknotes.", "The Leiden University Medical Centre organises medical trainings called ''Boerhaave-courses''.He had a prodigious influence on the development of medicine and chemistry in Scotland.", "British medical schools credit Boerhaave for developing the system of medical education upon which their current institutions are based.", "Every founding member of the Edinburgh Medical School had studied at Leyden and attended Boerhaave's lectures on chemistry including John Rutherford and Francis Home.", "Boerhaave's ''Elementa Chemiae (1732)'' is recognised as the first text on chemistry.", "Boerhaave first described Boerhaave syndrome, which involves tearing of the oesophagus, usually a consequence of vigorous vomiting.", "Notoriously, in 1724 he described the case of Baron Jan van Wassenaer, a Dutch admiral who died of this condition following a gluttonous feast and subsequent regurgitation.", "The condition was uniformly fatal prior to modern surgical techniques allowing repair of the oesophagus.Boerhaave was critical of his Dutch contemporary Baruch Spinoza, attacking him in his 1688 dissertation.", "At the same time, he admired Isaac Newton and was a devout Christian who often wrote about God in his works.", "A collection of his religious thoughts on medicine, translated from Latin to English, has been compiled by the ''Sir Thomas Browne Instituut Leiden'' under the name ''Boerhaave's Orations'' (meaning \"Boerhaave's Prayers\").", "Among other things, he considered nature as God's Creation and he used to say that the poor were his best patients because God was their paymaster." ], [ "Medical contributions", "Boerhaave devoted himself intensively to the study of the human body.", "He was strongly influenced by the mechanistic theories of René Descartes, and those of the 17th-century astronomer and mathematician Giovanni Borelli, who described animal movements in terms of mechanical motion.", "On such premises Boerhaave proposed a hydraulic model of human physiology.", "His writings refer to simple machines such as levers and pulleys and similar mechanisms, and he saw the bodily organs and members as being assembled from pipe-like structures.", "The physiology of veins, for example, he compared to the operation of pipes.", "He asserted the importance of a proper balance of fluid pressure, noting that fluids should be able to move around the body freely, without obstacles.", "For its well-being the body needed to be self-regulating, so as to maintain a healthy state of equilibrium.", "Boerhaave's concept of the body as apparatus centred his medical attention on material problems rather than upon ontological or esoteric explanations of illness.Boerhaave's teaching of his knowledge and philosophy drew many students to the University of Leiden.", "He emphasised the importance of anatomical research based on practical observation and scientific experiment.", "His concept of the bodily system took hold throughout Europe, and helped to transform medical education in the European schools.", "His insights aroused great interest among other critical medical thinkers, not least in Friedrich Hoffmann, who strongly advocated the importance of physico-mechanical principles for the preservation or indeed the restoration of health.", "As a professor at Leiden, Boerhaave influenced many students.", "Some in their experiments upheld and furthered his philosophy, while others rejected it and proposed alternative theories of human physiology.", "He produced a great many textbooks and writings through which the digested brilliance of his lectures at Leiden was circulated widely in Europe.", "In 1708 his publication of the ''Institutiones Medicae'' was issued in over five languages, and went into approximately ten editions.", "His ''Elementa Chemia'', a world-renowned chemistry textbook, was published in 1732.The mechanistic concept of the human body departed from the age-old precepts laid down by Galen and Aristotle.", "In place of a servile dependence upon teachings handed down from antiquity, Boerhaave understood the importance of establishing definitive findings through his own investigation, and by the direct application of his own methods of testing.", "This new reasoning expanded the field of Renaissance anatomy: it opened the way to reforms of medical practice and understanding in the field of iatrochemistry." ], [ "Works", "''Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis'', 1728*''Oratio academica qua probatur, bene intellectam a Cicerone et confutatam esse sententiam Epicuri de summo bono'' (Leiden, 1688)*''Het Nut der Mechanistische Methode in de Geneeskunde'' (Leiden, 1703)*''Institutiones medicae'' (Leiden, 1708)*''Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis'' (Leiden, 1709), on which his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772) published a commentary in 5 vols.", "** * * ** *''Institutiones et Experimenta chemiae'' (Paris, 1724) (unauthorised).", "(Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf)* * ** Translated from the original Latin by Timothy Dallowe, MD.", "** * ** Boerhaave, Herman – Historia plantarum quae in Horto Academico Lugduni-Batavorum crescunt, 1727 – BEIC 6963111.jpg|''Historia plantarum quae in Horto Academico Lugduni-Batavorum crescunt'', 1727Elementa Chemiae-Boerhaave.jpg|''Elementa Chemiae'', 1732" ], [ "References", "* Guggenheim, K. Y.", "\"Herman Boerhaave on nutrition.\"", "''The Journal of Nutrition'' 118, no.", "2 (1988): 141-143.", "* Mendelsohn, Everett (2003).", "''Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Rina Knoeff (2002), \"Herman Boerhaave (1668–1783): Calvinist chemist and physician.\"", "History of Science and Scholarship in the Netherlands, Volume 3.Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "* Underwood, E. Ashworth.", "\"Boerhaave After Three Hundred Years.\"", "''The British Medical Journal'' 4, no.", "5634 (1968): 820–25." ], [ "Further reading", "* Ducheyne, Steffen (2017) \"Different Shades of Newton: Herman Boerhaave on Isaac Newton ''mathematicus'', ''philosophus'', and ''opto-chemicus''\", ''Annals of Science'' 74(2): 108-125.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* *Samuel Johnson's 1739 biography of him online: Life of Herman Boerhaave* Museum Boerhaave in Leiden, National Museum of the History of Science and Medicine* A recent discussion of Boerhaave's Syndrome in the New England Journal of Medicine (subscription required)* * * Works at Open Library* * \"Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis\" (1709; “Aphorisms on the Recognition and Treatment of Diseases”)* \"Elementa Chemiae\" (1733) (''Elements of Chemistry'')* \"A New Method of Chemistry\" (1741 & 1753) (''English Translation of ''\"Elementa Chemiae\"'' by Peter Shaw'')* Javed Chaudhry Article about Herman Boerhaave" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Benjamin Disraeli" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield''', (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman, Conservative politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.", "He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.", "Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or \"Tory democracy\".", "He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the British Empire and military action to expand it, both of which were popular among British voters.", "He is the only British Prime Minister to have been born Jewish.Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then a part of Middlesex.", "His father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue; Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12.After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837.In 1846, Prime Minister Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws, which involved ending the tariff on imported grain.", "Disraeli clashed with Peel in the House of Commons, becoming a major figure in the party.", "When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s, Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.Upon Derby's retirement in 1868, Disraeli became prime minister briefly before losing that year's general election.", "He returned to the Opposition before leading the party to a majority in the 1874 general election.", "He maintained a close friendship with Queen Victoria who, in 1876, elevated him to the peerage, as Earl of Beaconsfield.", "Disraeli's second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other European powers, such as Russia, to gain at its expense.", "Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company in Egypt.", "In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the Congress of Berlin to obtain peace in the Balkans at terms favourable to Britain and unfavourable to Russia, its longstanding enemy.", "This diplomatic victory established Disraeli as one of Europe's leading statesmen.World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives.", "Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support.", "He angered farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain.", "With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign, the Liberals defeated Disraeli's Conservatives at the 1880 general election.", "In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in Opposition.", "Disraeli wrote novels throughout his career, beginning in 1826, and published his last completed novel, ''Endymion'', shortly before he died at the age of 76." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood===Disraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 King's Road, Bedford Row, Bloomsbury, London, the second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, a literary critic and historian, and Maria (Miriam), ''née'' Basevi.", "The family was mostly from Italy, of Sephardic Jewish mercantile background.", "He also had some Ashkenazi Jewish ancestors.", "He later romanticised his origins, claiming his father's family was of grand Iberian and Venetian descent; in fact, Isaac's family was of no great distinction, but on Disraeli's mother's side, in which he took no interest, there were some distinguished forebears, including Isaac Cardoso, as well as members of the Goldsmids, the Mocattas and the Montefiores.", "Historians differ on Disraeli's motives for rewriting his family history: Bernard Glassman argues that it was intended to give him status comparable to that of England's ruling elite; Sarah Bradford believes \"his dislike of the commonplace would not allow him to accept the facts of his birth as being as middle-class and undramatic as they really were\".Isaac, Maria and Sarah|alt=Three portraits; a man and two womenDisraeli's siblings were Sarah, Naphtali (born and died 1807), Ralph and James (\"Jem\").", "He was close to his sister and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers.", "Details of his schooling are sketchy.", "From the age of about six he was a day boy at a dame school in Islington, which one of his biographers described as \"for those days a very high-class establishment\".", "Two years later or so—the exact date has not been ascertained—he was sent as a boarder to Rev John Potticary's school at Blackheath.Following a quarrel in 1813 with the Bevis Marks Synagogue, his father renounced Judaism and had the four children baptised into the Church of England in July and August 1817.Isaac D'Israeli had never taken religion very seriously but had remained a conforming member of the synagogue.", "His father Benjamin was a prominent and devout member; it was probably out of respect for him that Isaac did not leave when he fell out with the synagogue authorities in 1813.After Benjamin senior died in 1816, Isaac felt free to leave the congregation following a second dispute.", "Isaac's friend Sharon Turner, a solicitor, convinced him that although he could comfortably remain unattached to any formal religion it would be disadvantageous to the children if they did so.", "Turner stood as godfather when Benjamin was baptised, aged twelve, on 31 July 1817.Conversion enabled Disraeli to contemplate a career in politics.", "There had been Members of Parliament (MPs) from Jewish families since Sampson Gideon in 1770.However, until the Jews Relief Act 1858, MPs were required to take the oath of allegiance \"on the true faith of a Christian\", necessitating at least nominal conversion.", "It is not known whether Disraeli formed any ambition for a parliamentary career at the time of his baptism, but there is no doubt that he bitterly regretted his parents' decision not to send him to Winchester College, one of the great public schools which consistently provided recruits to the political elite.", "His two younger brothers were sent there, and it is not clear why Isaac chose to send his eldest son to a much less prestigious school.", "The boy evidently held his mother responsible for the decision; Bradford speculates that \"Benjamin's delicate health and his obviously Jewish appearance may have had something to do with it.\"", "The school chosen for him was run by Eliezer Cogan at Higham Hill in Walthamstow.", "He began there in the autumn term of 1817; he later recalled his education:===1820s===In November 1821, shortly before his seventeenth birthday, Disraeli was articled as a clerk to a firm of solicitors—Swain, Stevens, Maples, Pearse and Hunt—in the City of London.", "T F Maples was not only the young Disraeli's employer and a friend of his father's, but also his prospective father-in-law: Isaac and Maples considered that the latter's only daughter might be a suitable match for Benjamin.", "A friendship developed, but there was no romance.", "The firm had a large and profitable business, and as the biographer R W Davis observes, the clerkship was \"the kind of secure, respectable position that many fathers dream of for their children\".", "Although biographers including Robert Blake and Bradford comment that such a post was incompatible with Disraeli's romantic and ambitious nature, he reportedly gave his employers satisfactory service, and later professed to have learnt a good deal there.", "He recalled: I had some scruples, for even then I dreamed of Parliament.", "My father's refrain always was 'Philip Carteret Webb', who was the most eminent solicitor of his boyhood and who was an MP.", "It would be a mistake to suppose that the two years and more that I was in the office of our friend were wasted.", "I have often thought, though I have often regretted the University, that it was much the reverse.alt=A young man of vaguely Semitic appearance, with long and curly black hairThe year after joining Maples' firm, Benjamin changed his surname from D'Israeli to Disraeli.", "His reasons are unknown, but the biographer Bernard Glassman surmises that it was to avoid being confused with his father.", "Disraeli's sister and brothers adopted the new version of the name; Isaac and his wife retained the older form.Disraeli toured Belgium and the Rhine Valley with his father in the summer of 1824.He later wrote that while travelling on the Rhine he decided to abandon his position: \"I determined when descending those magical waters that I would not be a lawyer.\"", "On their return to England he left the solicitors, at the suggestion of Maples, with the aim of qualifying as a barrister.", "He enrolled as a student at Lincoln's Inn and joined the chambers of his uncle, Nathaniel Basevy, and then those of Benjamin Austen, who persuaded Isaac that Disraeli would never make a barrister and should be allowed to pursue a literary career.", "He had made a tentative start: in May 1824 he submitted a manuscript to his father's friend, the publisher John Murray, but withdrew it before Murray could decide whether to publish it.Released from the law, Disraeli did some work for Murray, but turned most of his attention to speculative dealing on the stock exchange.", "There was at the time a boom in shares in South American mining companies.", "Spain was losing its South American colonies in the face of rebellions.", "At the urging of George Canning the British government recognised the new independent governments of Argentina (1824), Colombia and Mexico (both 1825).", "With no money of his own, Disraeli borrowed money to invest.", "He became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, who was prominent among those encouraging the mining boom.", "In 1825, Disraeli wrote three anonymous pamphlets for Powles, promoting the companies.", "The pamphlets were published by John Murray, who invested heavily in the boom.Murray had ambitions to establish a new morning paper to compete with ''The Times''.", "In 1825 Disraeli convinced him that he should proceed.", "The new paper, ''The Representative'', promoted the mines and those politicians who supported them, particularly Canning.", "Disraeli impressed Murray with his energy and commitment to the project, but he failed in his key task of persuading the eminent writer John Gibson Lockhart to edit the paper.", "After that, Disraeli's influence on Murray waned, and to his resentment he was sidelined in the affairs of ''The Representative''.", "The paper survived only six months, partly because the mining bubble burst in late 1825, and partly because, according to Blake, the paper was \"atrociously edited\".The bursting of the mining bubble was ruinous for Disraeli.", "By June 1825 he and his business partners had lost £7,000.Disraeli could not pay off the last of his debts from this debacle until 1849.He turned to writing, motivated partly by his desperate need for money, and partly by a wish for revenge on Murray and others by whom he felt slighted.", "There was a vogue for what was called \"silver-fork fiction\"—novels depicting aristocratic life, usually by anonymous authors, read by the aspirational middle classes.", "Disraeli's first novel, ''Vivian Grey'', published anonymously in four volumes in 1826–27, was a thinly veiled re-telling of the affair of ''The Representative''.", "It sold well, but caused much offence in influential circles when the authorship was discovered.", "Disraeli, then just 23, did not move in high society, as the numerous solecisms in his book made obvious.", "Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book.", "Murray and Lockhart, men of great influence in literary circles, believed that Disraeli had caricatured them and abused their confidence—an accusation denied by the author but repeated by many of his biographers.", "In later editions Disraeli made many changes, softening his satire, but the damage to his reputation proved long-lasting.Disraeli's biographer Jonathan Parry writes that the financial failure and personal criticism that Disraeli suffered in 1825 and 1826 were probably the trigger for a serious nervous crisis affecting him over the next four years: \"He had always been moody, sensitive, and solitary by nature, but now became seriously depressed and lethargic.\"", "He was still living with his parents in London, but in search of the \"change of air\" recommended by the family's doctors, Isaac took a succession of houses in the country and on the coast, before Disraeli sought wider horizons.===1830–1837===Together with his sister's fiancé, William Meredith, Disraeli travelled widely in southern Europe and beyond in 1830–31.The trip was financed partly by another high society novel, ''The Young Duke'', written in 1829–30.The tour was cut short suddenly by Meredith's death from smallpox in Cairo in July 1831.Despite this tragedy, and the need for treatment for a sexually transmitted disease on his return, Disraeli felt enriched by his experiences.", "He became, in Parry's words, \"aware of values that seemed denied to his insular countrymen.", "The journey encouraged his self-consciousness, his moral relativism, and his interest in Eastern racial and religious attitudes.\"", "Blake regards the tour as one of the formative experiences of Disraeli's career: \"The impressions that it made on him were life-lasting.", "They conditioned his attitude toward some of the most important political problems which faced him in his later years—especially the Eastern Question; they also coloured many of his novels.", "\"Disraeli wrote two novels in the aftermath of the tour.", "''Contarini Fleming'' (1832) was avowedly a self-portrait.", "It is subtitled \"a psychological autobiography\" and depicts the conflicting elements of its hero's character: the duality of northern and Mediterranean ancestry, the dreaming artist and the bold man of action.", "As Parry observes, the book ends on a political note, setting out Europe's progress \"from feudal to federal principles\".", "''The Wondrous Tale of Alroy'' the following year portrayed the problems of a medieval Jew in deciding between a small, exclusively Jewish state and a large empire embracing all.Croker, Lyndhurst, Henrietta Sykes and Lady Londonderry|alt=Two men and two womenAfter these novels were published, Disraeli declared that he would \"write no more about myself\".", "He had already turned his attention to politics in 1832, during the great crisis over the Reform Bill.", "He contributed to an anti-Whig pamphlet edited by John Wilson Croker and published by Murray entitled ''England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania''.", "The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as strange by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a Radical.", "Indeed, he had objected to Murray about Croker's inserting \"high Tory\" sentiment: Disraeli remarked, \"it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen.\"", "Moreover, at the time ''Gallomania'' was published, Disraeli was electioneering in High Wycombe in the Radical interest.Chair built to carry Disraeli, had he been successful in the by-election.", "Hughenden collection.Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and his desire to make his mark.", "At that time, British politics were dominated by the aristocracy, with a few powerful commoners.", "The Whigs derived from the coalition of Lords who had forced through the Bill of Rights 1689 and in some cases were their descendants.", "The Tories tended to support King and Church and sought to thwart political change.", "A small number of Radicals, generally from northern constituencies, were the strongest advocates of continuing reform.", "In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause.", "The other great party, the Whigs, were anathema to Disraeli: \"Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig.\"", "There was a by-election and a general election in 1832; Disraeli unsuccessfully stood as a Radical at High Wycombe in each.Disraeli's political views embraced certain Radical policies, particularly electoral reform, and also some Tory ones, including protectionism.", "He began to move in Tory circles.", "In 1834 he was introduced to the former Lord Chancellor, Lord Lyndhurst, by Henrietta Sykes, wife of Sir Francis Sykes.", "She was having an affair with Lyndhurst and began another with Disraeli.", "Disraeli and Lyndhurst took an immediate liking to each other.", "Lyndhurst was an indiscreet gossip with a fondness for intrigue; this appealed greatly to Disraeli, who became his secretary and go-between.", "In 1835 Disraeli stood for the last time as a Radical, again unsuccessfully contesting High Wycombe.O'Connell and Labouchere|alt=Two men of Victorian appearanceIn April 1835, Disraeli fought a by-election at Taunton as a Tory candidate.", "The Irish MP Daniel O'Connell, misled by inaccurate press reports, thought Disraeli had slandered him while electioneering at Taunton; he launched an outspoken attack, referring to Disraeli as:Disraeli's public exchanges with O'Connell, extensively reproduced in ''The Times'', included a demand for a duel with the 60-year-old O'Connell's son (which resulted in Disraeli's temporary detention by the authorities), a reference to \"the inextinguishable hatred with which he shall pursue O'Connell's existence\", and the accusation that O'Connell's supporters had a \"princely revenue wrung from a starving race of fanatical slaves\".", "Disraeli was highly gratified by the dispute, which propelled him to general public notice for the first time.", "He did not defeat the incumbent Whig member, Henry Labouchere, but the Taunton constituency was regarded as unwinnable by the Tories.", "Disraeli kept Labouchere's majority down to 170, a good showing that put him in line for a winnable seat in the near future.With Lyndhurst's encouragement Disraeli turned to writing propaganda for his newly adopted party.", "His ''Vindication of the English Constitution'', was published in December 1835.It was couched in the form of an open letter to Lyndhurst, and in Bradford's view encapsulates a political philosophy that Disraeli adhered to for the rest of his life: the value of benevolent aristocratic government, a loathing of political dogma, and the modernisation of Tory policies.", "The following year he wrote a series of satires on politicians of the day, which he published in ''The Times'' under the pen-name \"Runnymede\".", "His targets included the Whigs, collectively and individually, Irish nationalists, and political corruption.", "One essay ended:Disraeli was elected to the exclusively Tory Carlton Club in 1836, and was also taken up by the party's leading hostess, Lady Londonderry.", "In June 1837 WilliamIV died, the young Queen Victoria succeeded him, and parliament was dissolved.", "On the recommendation of the Carlton Club, Disraeli was adopted as a Tory parliamentary candidate at the ensuing general election." ], [ "Parliament", "===Back-bencher===In the election in July 1837, Disraeli won a seat in the House of Commons as one of two members, both Tory, for the constituency of Maidstone.", "The other was Wyndham Lewis, who helped finance Disraeli's election campaign, and who died the following year.", "In the same year Disraeli published a novel, ''Henrietta Temple'', which was a love story and social comedy, drawing on his affair with Henrietta Sykes.", "He had broken off the relationship in late 1836, distraught that she had taken yet another lover.", "His other novel of this period is ''Venetia'', a romance based on the characters of Shelley and Byron, written quickly to raise much-needed money.Disraeli made his maiden speech in Parliament on 7 December 1837.He followed O'Connell, whom he sharply criticised for the latter's \"long, rambling, jumbling, speech\".", "He was shouted down by O'Connell's supporters.", "After this unpromising start Disraeli kept a low profile for the rest of the parliamentary session.", "He was a loyal supporter of the party leader Sir Robert Peel and his policies, with the exception of a personal sympathy for the Chartist movement that most Tories did not share.alt=A portrait of a young woman with elaborately styled brown hair, tied up with a blue bowIn 1839 Disraeli married Mary Anne Lewis, the widow of Wyndham Lewis.", "Twelve years Disraeli's senior, Mary Lewis had a substantial income of £5,000 a year.", "His motives were generally assumed to be mercenary, but the couple came to cherish one another, remaining close until she died more than three decades later.", "\"Dizzy married me for my money\", his wife said later, \"But, if he had the chance again, he would marry me for love.", "\"Finding the financial demands of his Maidstone seat too much, Disraeli secured a Tory nomination for Shrewsbury, winning one of the constituency's two seats at the 1841 general election, despite serious opposition, and heavy debts which opponents seized on.", "The election was a massive defeat for the Whigs across the country, and Peel became prime minister.", "Disraeli hoped, unrealistically, for ministerial office.", "Though disappointed at being left on the back benches, he continued his support for Peel in 1842 and 1843, seeking to establish himself as an expert on foreign affairs and international trade.Although a Tory (or Conservative, as some in the party now called themselves) Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the aims of Chartism, and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the merchants and new industrialists in the middle class.", "After Disraeli won widespread acclaim in March 1842 for worsting Lord Palmerston in debate, he was taken up by a small group of idealistic new Tory MPs, with whom he formed the Young England group.", "They held that the landed interests should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by middle-class businessmen.Disraeli hoped to forge a paternalistic Tory-Radical alliance, but he was unsuccessful.", "Before the Reform Act 1867, the working class did not possess the vote and therefore had little political power.", "Although Disraeli forged a personal friendship with John Bright, a leading Radical, Disraeli was unable to persuade Bright to sacrifice his distinct position for parliamentary advancement.", "When Disraeli attempted to secure a Tory-Radical cabinet in 1852, Bright refused.Bright, Peel, Bentinck and Stanley|alt=Four menDisraeli gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately taking contrary positions.", "The young MP attacked his leader as early as 1843.However, the best known of these stances were over the Maynooth Grant in 1845 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846.The President of the Board of Trade, William Gladstone, resigned from the cabinet over the Maynooth Grant.", "The Corn Laws imposed a tariff on imported wheat, protecting British farmers from foreign competition, but making the cost of bread artificially high.", "Peel hoped that the repeal of the Corn Laws and the resultant influx of cheaper wheat into Britain would relieve the condition of the poor, and in particular the Great Famine caused by successive failure of potato crops in Ireland.The first months of 1846 were dominated by a battle in Parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck.", "An alliance of free-trade Conservatives (the \"Peelites\"), Radicals, and Whigs carried repeal, and the Conservative Party split: the Peelites moved towards the Whigs, while a \"new\" Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and Lord Stanley (later Lord Derby).The split in the Tory party over the repeal of the Corn Laws had profound implications for Disraeli's political career: almost every Tory politician with experience of office followed Peel, leaving the rump bereft of leadership.", "In Blake's words, \"Disraeli found himself almost the only figure on his side capable of putting up the oratorical display essential for a parliamentary leader.\"", "The Duke of Argyll wrote that Disraeli \"was like a subaltern in a great battle where every superior officer was killed or wounded\".", "If the Tory Party could muster the electoral support necessary to form a government, then Disraeli now seemed to be guaranteed high office, but with a group of men who possessed little or no official experience and who, as a group, remained personally hostile to Disraeli.", "In the event the Tory split soon had the party out of office, not regaining power until 1852.The Conservatives would not again have a majority in the House of Commons until 1874.===Bentinck and the leadership===Peel successfully steered the repeal of the Corn Laws through Parliament and was then defeated by an alliance of his enemies on the issue of Irish law and order; he resigned in June 1846.The Tories remained split, and the Queen sent for Lord John Russell, the Whig leader.", "In the 1847 general election, Disraeli stood, successfully, for the Buckinghamshire constituency.", "The new House of Commons had more Conservative than Whig members, but the depth of the Tory schism enabled Russell to continue to govern.", "The Conservatives were led by Bentinck in the Commons and Stanley in the Lords.Russell, Rothschild, Manners and Granby|alt=Four menIn 1847 a small political crisis removed Bentinck from the leadership and highlighted Disraeli's differences with his own party.", "In that year's general election, Lionel de Rothschild had been returned for the City of London.", "As a practising Jew he could not take the oath of allegiance in the prescribed Christian form, and therefore could not take his seat.", "Lord John Russell, the Whig leader who had succeeded Peel as prime minister, proposed in the Commons that the oath should be amended to permit Jews to enter Parliament.Disraeli spoke in favour of the measure, arguing that Christianity was \"completed Judaism\", and asking the House of Commons \"Where is your Christianity if you do not believe in their Judaism?\"", "Russell and Disraeli's future rival Gladstone thought this brave; the speech was badly received by his own party.", "The Tories and the Anglican establishment were hostile to the bill.", "With the exception of Disraeli, every member of the future protectionist cabinet then in Parliament voted against the measure.", "The measure was voted down.", "In the aftermath of the debate Bentinck resigned the leadership and was succeeded by Lord Granby; Disraeli's speech, thought by many of his own party to be blasphemous, ruled him out for the time being.While these intrigues played out, Disraeli was working with the Bentinck family to secure the necessary financing to purchase Hughenden Manor, in Buckinghamshire.", "The possession of a country house and incumbency of a county constituency were regarded as essential for a Tory with leadership ambitions.", "Disraeli and his wife alternated between Hughenden and several homes in London for the rest of their marriage.", "The negotiations were complicated by Bentinck's sudden death on 21 September 1848, but Disraeli obtained a loan of £25,000 from Bentinck's brothers Lord Henry Bentinck and Lord Titchfield.Within a month of his appointment Granby resigned the leadership in the Commons and the party functioned without a leader in the Commons for the rest of the session.", "At the start of the next session, affairs were handled by a triumvirate of Granby, Disraeli, and John Charles Herries—indicative of the tension between Disraeli and the rest of the party, who needed his talents but mistrusted him.", "This confused arrangement ended with Granby's resignation in 1851; Disraeli effectively ignored the two men regardless." ], [ "Chancellor of the Exchequer", "===First Derby government===The Earl of Derby, Prime Minister 1852, 1858–59, 1866–68|alt=A stately-looking gentleman in a dark suit, sitting with a bookIn March 1851, Lord John Russell's government was defeated over a bill to equalise the county and borough franchises, mostly because of divisions among his supporters.", "He resigned, and the Queen sent for Stanley, who felt that a minority government could do little and would not last long, so Russell remained in office.", "Disraeli regretted this, hoping for an opportunity, however brief, to show himself capable in office.", "Stanley, in contrast, deprecated his inexperienced followers as a reason for not assuming office: \"These are not names I can put before the Queen.", "\"At the end of June 1851, Stanley succeeded to the title of Earl of Derby.", "The Whigs were wracked by internal dissensions during the second half of 1851, much of which Parliament spent in recess.", "Russell dismissed Lord Palmerston from the cabinet, leaving the latter determined to deprive the Prime Minister of office.", "Palmerston did so within weeks of Parliament's reassembly on 4 February 1852, his followers combining with Disraeli's Tories to defeat the government on a Militia Bill, and Russell resigned.", "Derby had either to take office or risk damage to his reputation, and he accepted the Queen's commission as prime minister.", "Palmerston declined any office; Derby had hoped to have him as Chancellor of the Exchequer.", "Disraeli, his closest ally, was his second choice and accepted, though disclaiming any great knowledge in the financial field.", "Gladstone refused to join the government.", "Disraeli may have been attracted to the office by the £5,000 annual salary, which would help pay his debts.", "Few of the new cabinet had held office before; when Derby tried to inform the Duke of Wellington of the names of the ministers, the old Duke, who was somewhat deaf, inadvertently branded the new government by incredulously repeating \"Who?", "Who?", "\"In the following weeks, Disraeli served as Leader of the House (with Derby as prime minister in the Lords) and as Chancellor.", "He wrote regular reports on proceedings in the Commons to Victoria, who described them as \"very curious\" and \"much in the style of his books\".", "Parliament was prorogued on 1 July 1852 as the Tories could not govern for long as a minority; Disraeli hoped that they would gain a majority of about 40.Instead, the election later that month had no clear winner, and the Derby government held to power pending the meeting of Parliament.=== Budget ===Disraeli's task as Chancellor was to devise a budget which would satisfy the protectionist elements who supported the Tories, without uniting the free-traders against it.", "His proposed budget, which he presented to the Commons on 3 December, lowered the taxes on malt and tea, provisions designed to appeal to the working class.", "To make his budget revenue-neutral, as funds were needed to provide defences against the French, he doubled the house tax and continued the income tax.", "Disraeli's overall purpose was to enact policies which would benefit the working classes, making his party more attractive to them.", "Although the budget did not contain protectionist features, the Opposition was prepared to destroy it—and Disraeli's career as Chancellor—in part out of revenge for his actions against Peel in 1846.MP Sidney Herbert predicted that the budget would fail because \"Jews make no converts\".Gladstone in the 1850s|alt=A middle-aged man in Victorian clothesDisraeli delivered the budget on 3 December 1852, and prepared to wind up the debate for the government on 16 December—it was customary for the Chancellor to have the last word.", "A massive defeat for the government was predicted.", "Disraeli attacked his opponents individually, and then as a force: \"I face a Coalition ...", "This, too, I know, that England does not love coalitions.\"", "His speech of three hours was quickly seen as a parliamentary masterpiece.", "As MPs prepared to divide, Gladstone rose to his feet and began an angry speech, despite the efforts of Tory MPs to shout him down.", "The interruptions were fewer, as Gladstone gained control of the House, and in the next two hours painted a picture of Disraeli as frivolous and his budget as subversive.", "The government was defeated by 19 votes, and Derby resigned four days later.", "He was replaced by the Peelite Earl of Aberdeen, with Gladstone as his Chancellor.", "Because of Disraeli's unpopularity among the Peelites, no party reconciliation was possible while he remained Tory leader in the Commons.=== Opposition ===With the fall of the government, Disraeli and the Conservatives returned to the Opposition benches.", "Disraeli would spend three-quarters of his 44-year parliamentary career in Opposition.", "Derby was reluctant to seek to unseat the government, fearing a repetition of the Who?", "Who?", "Ministry and knowing that shared dislike of Disraeli was part of what had formed the governing coalition.", "Disraeli, on the other hand, was anxious to return to office.", "In the interim, Disraeli, as Conservative leader in the Commons, opposed the government on all major measures.In June 1853 Disraeli was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford.", "He had been recommended for it by Lord Derby, the university's Chancellor.", "The start of the Crimean War in 1854 caused a lull in party politics; Disraeli spoke patriotically in support.", "The British military efforts were marked by bungling, and in 1855 a restive Parliament considered a resolution to establish a committee on the conduct of the war.", "The Aberdeen government made this a motion of confidence; Disraeli led the Opposition to defeat the government, 305 to 148.Aberdeen resigned, and the Queen sent for Derby, who to Disraeli's frustration refused to take office.", "Palmerston was deemed essential to any Whig ministry, and he would not join any he did not head.", "The Queen reluctantly asked Palmerston to form a government.", "Under Palmerston, the war went better, and was ended by the Treaty of Paris in early 1856.Disraeli was early to call for peace but had little influence on events.When a rebellion broke out in India in 1857, Disraeli took a keen interest, having been a member of a select committee in 1852 which considered how best to rule the subcontinent, and had proposed eliminating the governing role of the British East India Company.", "After peace was restored, and Palmerston in early 1858 brought in legislation for direct rule of India by the Crown, Disraeli opposed it.", "Many Conservative MPs refused to follow him, and the bill passed the Commons easily.Palmerston's grip on the premiership was weakened by his response to the Orsini affair, in which an attempt was made to assassinate the French Emperor Napoleon III by an Italian revolutionary with a bomb made in Birmingham.", "At the request of the French ambassador, Palmerston proposed amending the conspiracy to murder statute to make creating an infernal device a felony.", "He was defeated by 19 votes on the second reading, with many Liberals crossing the aisle against him.", "He immediately resigned, and Lord Derby returned to office.===Second Derby government===Derby took office at the head of a purely \"Conservative\" administration, not in coalition.", "He again offered a place to Gladstone, who declined.", "Disraeli was once more leader of the House of Commons and returned to the Exchequer.", "As in 1852, Derby led a minority government, dependent on the division of its opponents for survival.", "As Leader of the House, Disraeli resumed his regular reports to Queen Victoria, who had requested that he include what she \"could not meet in newspapers\".During its brief life of just over a year, the Derby government proved moderately progressive.", "The Government of India Act 1858 ended the role of the East India Company in governing the subcontinent.", "The Thames Purification Bill funded the construction of much larger sewers for London.", "Disraeli had supported efforts to allow Jews to sit in Parliament with a bill passed through the Commons allowing each house of Parliament to determine what oaths its members should take.", "This was grudgingly agreed to by the House of Lords, with a minority of Conservatives joining with the Opposition to pass it.", "In 1858, Baron Lionel de Rothschild became the first MP to profess the Jewish faith.Faced with a vacancy, Disraeli and Derby tried yet again to bring Gladstone, still nominally a Conservative MP, into the government, hoping to strengthen it.", "Disraeli wrote a personal letter to Gladstone, asking him to place the good of the party above personal animosity: \"Every man performs his office, and there is a Power, greater than ourselves, that disposes of all this.\"", "In response, Gladstone denied that personal feelings played any role in his decisions then and previously whether to accept office, while acknowledging that there were differences between him and Derby \"broader than you may have supposed\".The Tories pursued a Reform Bill in 1859, which would have resulted in a modest increase to the franchise.", "The Liberals were healing the breaches between those who favoured Russell and the Palmerston loyalists, and in late March 1859, the government was defeated on a Russell-sponsored amendment.", "Derby dissolved Parliament, and the ensuing general election resulted in modest Tory gains, but not enough to control the Commons.", "When Parliament assembled, Derby's government was defeated by 13 votes on an amendment to the Address from the Throne.", "He resigned, and the Queen reluctantly sent for Palmerston again.===Opposition and third term as Chancellor===After Derby's second ejection from office, Disraeli faced dissension within Conservative ranks from those who blamed him for the defeat, or who felt he was disloyal to Derby—the former prime minister warned Disraeli of some MPs seeking his removal from the front bench.", "Among the conspirators were Lord Robert Cecil, a Conservative MP who would a quarter century later become prime minister as Lord Salisbury; he wrote that having Disraeli as leader in the Commons decreased the Conservatives' chance of holding office.", "When Cecil's father objected, Lord Robert stated, \"I have merely put into print what all the country gentlemen were saying in private.", "\"Lord Robert Cecil, Disraeli's fierce opponent in the 1860s, but later his ally and successor|alt=A young man with dark hair and huge sideburnsDisraeli led a toothless Opposition in the Commons—seeing no way of unseating Palmerston, Derby privately agreed not to seek the government's defeat.", "Disraeli kept himself informed on foreign affairs, and on what was going on in cabinet, thanks to a source within it.", "When the American Civil War began in 1861, Disraeli said little publicly, but like most Englishmen expected the South to win.", "Less reticent were Palmerston, Gladstone, and Russell, whose statements in support of the South contributed to years of hard feelings in the United States.", "In 1862, Disraeli met Prussian Count Otto von Bismarck and said of him, \"be careful about that man, he means what he says\".The party truce ended in 1864, with Tories outraged over Palmerston's handling of the territorial dispute between the German Confederation and Denmark known as the Schleswig-Holstein Question.", "Disraeli had little help from Derby, who was ill, but he united the party enough on a no-confidence vote to limit the government to a majority of 18—Tory defections and absentees kept Palmerston in office.", "Despite rumours about Palmerston's health as he turned 80, he remained personally popular, and the Liberals increased their margin in the July 1865 general election.", "In the wake of the poor election results, Derby predicted to Disraeli that neither of them would ever hold office again.Political plans were thrown into disarray by Palmerston's death on 18 October 1865.Russell became prime minister again, with Gladstone clearly the Liberal Party's leader-in-waiting, and as Leader of the House Disraeli's direct opponent.", "One of Russell's early priorities was a Reform Bill, but the proposed legislation that Gladstone announced on 12 March 1866 divided his party.", "The Conservatives and the dissident Liberals repeatedly attacked Gladstone's bill, and in June finally defeated the government; Russell resigned on 26 June.", "The dissidents were unwilling to serve under Disraeli in the House of Commons, and Derby formed a third Conservative minority government, with Disraeli again as Chancellor.===Tory Democrat: the 1867 Reform Act===It was Disraeli's belief that if given the vote British people would use it instinctively to put their natural and traditional rulers, the gentlemen of the Conservative Party, into power.", "Responding to renewed agitation for popular suffrage, Disraeli persuaded a majority of the cabinet to agree to a Reform bill.", "With what Derby cautioned was \"a leap in the dark\", Disraeli had outflanked the Liberals who, as the supposed champions of Reform, dared not oppose him.", "In the absence of a credible party rival and for fear of having an election called on the issue, Conservatives felt obliged to support Disraeli despite their misgivings.There were Tory dissenters, most notably Lord Cranborne (as Robert Cecil was by then known) who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of \"a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals\".", "Even as Disraeli accepted Liberal amendments (although pointedly refusing those moved by Gladstone) that further lowered the property qualification, Cranborne was unable to lead an effective rebellion.", "Disraeli gained wide acclaim and became a hero to his party for the \"marvellous parliamentary skill\" with which he secured the passage of Reform in the Commons.From the Liberal benches too there was admiration.", "MP for Nottingham Bernal Ostborne declared:The Reform Act 1867 passed that August.", "It extended the franchise by 938,427 men—an increase of 88%—by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least £10 for rooms.", "It eliminated rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granted constituencies to 15 unrepresented towns, with extra representation to large municipalities such as Liverpool and Manchester." ], [ "Prime Minister (1868)", "=== First term ===Derby had long had attacks of gout which left him bedbound, unable to deal with politics.", "As the new session of Parliament approached in February 1868, he was unable to leave his home but was reluctant to resign, as at 68 he was much younger than either Palmerston or Russell at the end of their premierships.", "Derby knew that his \"attacks of illness would, at no distant period, incapacitate me from the discharge of my public duties\"; doctors had warned him that his health required his resignation.", "In late February, with Parliament in session and Derby absent, he wrote to Disraeli asking for confirmation that \"you will not shrink from the additional heavy responsibility\".", "Reassured, he wrote to the Queen, resigning and recommending Disraeli as \"only he could command the cordial support, en masse, of his present colleagues\".", "Disraeli went to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, where the Queen asked him to form a government.", "The monarch wrote to her daughter, Prussian Crown Princess Victoria, \"Mr. Disraeli is Prime Minister!", "A proud thing for a man 'risen from the people' to have obtained!\"", "The new prime minister told those who came to congratulate him, \"I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole.", "\"===First government, February–December 1868===Chelmsford, Cairns, Hunt and Manning|alt=Four men, the second of whom wears a wig resembling that of a judge, and the fourth of whom wears clerical clothesThe Conservatives remained a minority in the House of Commons and the passage of the Reform Bill required the calling of a new election once the new voting register had been compiled.", "Disraeli's term as prime minister, which began in February 1868, would therefore be short unless the Conservatives won the general election.", "He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced Lord Chelmsford as Lord Chancellor with Lord Cairns and brought in George Ward Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer.", "Derby had intended to replace Chelmsford once a vacancy in a suitable sinecure developed.", "Disraeli was unwilling to wait, and Cairns, in his view, was a far stronger minister.Disraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the Church of Ireland.", "Although Ireland was largely Roman Catholic, the Church of England represented most landowners.", "It remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation, which was greatly resented by the Catholics and Presbyterians.", "An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with Archbishop Manning the establishment of a Catholic university in Dublin foundered in March when Gladstone moved resolutions to disestablish the Irish Church altogether.", "The proposal united the Liberals under Gladstone's leadership, while causing divisions among the Conservatives.The Conservatives remained in office because the new electoral register was not yet ready; neither party wished a poll under the old roll.", "Gladstone began using the Liberal majority in the Commons to push through resolutions and legislation.", "Disraeli's government survived until the December general election, at which the Liberals were returned to power with a majority.In its short life, the first Disraeli government passed noncontroversial laws.", "It ended public executions, and the Corrupt Practices Act did much to end electoral bribery.", "It authorised an early version of nationalisation, having the Post Office buy up the telegraph companies.", "Amendments to the school law, the Scottish legal system, and the railway laws were passed.", "In addition, the Public Health (Scotland) Act instituted sanitary inspectors and medical officers.", "According to one study, \"better sanitation was enforced throughout Scotland.\"", "Disraeli sent the successful expedition against Tewodros II of Ethiopia under Sir Robert Napier.===Opposition leader; 1874 election===Disraeli circa 1870Given Gladstone's majority in the Commons, Disraeli could do little but protest as the government advanced legislation; he chose to await Liberal mistakes.", "He used this leisure time to write a new novel, ''Lothair'' (1870).", "A work of fiction by a former prime minister was a novelty for Britain, and the book became a bestseller.By 1872 there was dissent in the Conservative ranks over the failure to challenge Gladstone.", "This was quieted as Disraeli took steps to assert his leadership, and as divisions among the Liberals became clear.", "Public support for Disraeli was shown by cheering at a thanksgiving service in 1872 on the recovery of the Prince of Wales from illness, while Gladstone was met with silence.", "Disraeli had supported the efforts of party manager John Eldon Gorst to put the administration of the Conservative Party on a modern basis.", "On Gorst's advice, Disraeli gave a speech to a mass meeting in Manchester that year.", "To roaring approval, he compared the Liberal front bench to \"a range of exhausted volcanoes...", "But the situation is still dangerous.", "There are occasional earthquakes and ever and again the dark rumbling of the sea.\"", "Gladstone, Disraeli stated, dominated the scene and \"alternated between a menace and a sigh\".At his first departure from 10 Downing Street in 1868, Disraeli had had Victoria create Mary Anne Viscountess of Beaconsfield in her own right in lieu of a peerage for himself.", "Through 1872 the eighty-year-old peeress had stomach cancer.", "She died on 15 December.", "Urged by a clergyman to turn her thoughts to Jesus Christ in her final days, she said she could not: \"You know Dizzy is my J.C.\"In 1873, Gladstone brought forward legislation to establish a Catholic university in Dublin.", "This divided the Liberals, and on 12 March an alliance of Conservatives and Irish Catholics defeated the government by three votes.", "Gladstone resigned, and the Queen sent for Disraeli, who refused to take office.", "Without a general election, a Conservative government would be another minority; Disraeli wanted the power a majority would bring and felt he could gain it later by leaving the Liberals in office now.", "Gladstone's government struggled on, beset by scandal and unimproved by a reshuffle.", "As part of that change, Gladstone took on the office of Chancellor, leading to questions as to whether he had to stand for re-election on taking on a second ministry—until the 1920s, MPs becoming ministers had to seek re-election.In January 1874, Gladstone called a general election, convinced that if he waited longer, he would do worse at the polls.", "Balloting was spread over two weeks, beginning on 1 February.", "As the constituencies voted, it became clear that the result would be a Conservative majority, the first since 1841.In Scotland, where the Conservatives were perennially weak, they increased from seven seats to nineteen.", "Overall, they won 350 seats to 245 for the Liberals and 57 for the Irish Home Rule League.", "Disraeli became prime minister for the second time." ], [ "Prime Minister (1874–1880)", "=== Second term ===Derby (top) and Northcote|alt=Two gentlemen, the second beardedDisraeli's cabinet of twelve, with six peers and six commoners, was the smallest since Reform.", "Of the peers, five of them had been in Disraeli's 1868 cabinet; the sixth, Lord Salisbury, was reconciled to Disraeli after negotiation and became Secretary of State for India.", "Lord Stanley (who had succeeded his father, the former prime minister, as Earl of Derby) became Foreign Secretary and Sir Stafford Northcote the Chancellor.In August 1876, Disraeli was elevated to the House of Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden.", "The Queen had offered to ennoble him as early as 1868; he had then declined.", "She did so again in 1874, when he fell ill at Balmoral, but he was reluctant to leave the Commons for a house in which he had no experience.", "Continued ill health during his second premiership caused him to contemplate resignation, but his lieutenant, Derby, was unwilling, feeling that he could not manage the Queen.", "For Disraeli, the Lords, where the debate was less intense, was the alternative to resignation.", "Five days before the end of the 1876 session of Parliament, on 11 August, Disraeli was seen to linger and look around the chamber before departing.", "Newspapers reported his ennoblement the following morning.In addition to the viscounty bestowed on Mary Anne Disraeli, the earldom of Beaconsfield was to have been bestowed on Edmund Burke in 1797, but he had died before receiving it.", "The name Beaconsfield, a town near Hughenden, was given to a minor character in ''Vivian Grey''.", "Disraeli made various statements about his elevation, writing to Selina, Lady Bradford on 8 August 1876, \"I am quite tired of that place the Commons\" but when asked by a friend how he liked the Lords, replied, \"I am dead; dead but in the Elysian fields.", "\"===Domestic policy=======Legislation====Under the stewardship of Richard Assheton Cross, the Home Secretary, Disraeli's new government enacted many reforms, including the Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875, which made inexpensive loans available to towns and cities to construct working-class housing.", "Also enacted were the Public Health Act 1875, modernising sanitary codes, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875, and the Elementary Education Act 1876.Disraeli's government introduced a new Factory Act meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy, and Protection of Property Act 1875, which allowed peaceful picketing, and the Employers and Workmen Act 1875 to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts.The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875 prohibited the mixing of injurious ingredients with articles of food or with drugs, and provision was made for the appointment of analysts; all tea \"had to be examined by a customs official on importation, and when in the opinion of the analyst it was unfit for food, the tea had to be destroyed\".", "The Employers and Workmen Act 1875, according to one study, \"finally placed employers and employed on an equal footing before the law\".", "The Conspiracy, and Protection of Property Act 1875 established the right to strike by providing that \"an agreement or combination by one or more persons to do, or procure to be done, any act in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute between employers and workmen, shall not be indictable as a conspiracy if such act committed by one person would not be punishable as a crime\".As a result of these social reforms the Liberal-Labour MP Alexander Macdonald told his constituents in 1879, \"The Conservative party have done more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty.", "\"====Civil Service====Disraeli's failure to appoint Samuel Wilberforce as Bishop of London may have cost him votes in the 1868 election.Gladstone in 1870 had sponsored an Order in Council, introducing competitive examination into the Civil Service, diminishing the political aspects of government hiring.", "Disraeli did not agree, and while he did not seek to reverse the order, his actions often frustrated its intent.", "For example, Disraeli made political appointments to positions previously given to career civil servants.", "He was backed by his party, hungry for office and its emoluments after almost thirty years with only brief spells in government.", "Disraeli gave positions to hard-up Conservative leaders, even—to Gladstone's outrage—creating one office at £2,000 per year.", "Nevertheless, Disraeli made fewer peers (only 22, including one of Victoria's sons) than had Gladstone (37 during his just over five years in office).As he had in government posts, Disraeli rewarded old friends with clerical positions, making Sydney Turner, son of a good friend of Isaac D'Israeli, Dean of Ripon.", "He favoured Low church clergymen in promotion, disliking other movements in Anglicanism for political reasons.", "In this, he came into disagreement with the Queen, who out of loyalty to her late husband Albert preferred Broad church teachings.", "One controversial appointment had occurred shortly before the 1868 election.", "When the position of Archbishop of Canterbury fell vacant, Disraeli reluctantly agreed to the Queen's preferred candidate, Archibald Tait, the Bishop of London.", "To fill Tait's vacant see, Disraeli was urged by many people to appoint Samuel Wilberforce, the former Bishop of Winchester.", "Disraeli disliked Wilberforce and instead appointed John Jackson, the Bishop of Lincoln.", "Blake suggested that, on balance, these appointments cost Disraeli more votes than they gained him.===Foreign policy===Disraeli always considered foreign affairs to be the most critical and interesting part of statesmanship.", "Nevertheless, his biographer Robert Blake doubts that his subject had specific ideas about foreign policy when he took office in 1874.He had rarely travelled abroad; since his youthful tour of the Middle East in 1830–1831, he had left Britain only for his honeymoon and three visits to Paris, the last of which was in 1856.As he had criticised Gladstone for a do-nothing foreign policy, he most probably contemplated what actions would reassert Britain's place in Europe.", "His brief first premiership, and the first year of his second, gave him little opportunity to make his mark in foreign affairs.====Suez====Portrait of Disraeli published in 1873''New Crowns for Old'' depicts Disraeli as Abanazar from the pantomime ''alt=Refer to captionThe Suez Canal, opened in 1869, cut weeks and thousands of miles off the sea journey between Britain and India; in 1875, approximately 80% of the ships using the canal were British.", "In the event of another rebellion in India or a Russian invasion, the time saved at Suez might be crucial.", "Built by French interests, 56% of the stocks in the canal remained in their hands, while 44% of the stock belonged to Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt.", "He was notorious for his profligate spending.", "The canal was losing money, and an attempt by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the canal, to raise the tolls had fallen through when the Khedive had threatened military force to prevent it, and had also attracted Disraeli's attention.", "The Khedive governed Egypt under the Ottoman Empire; as in the Crimea, the issue of the Canal raised the Eastern Question of what to do about the decaying empire governed from Constantinople.", "With much of the pre-canal trade and communications between Britain and India passing through the Ottoman Empire, Britain had done its best to prop up the Ottomans against the threat that Russia would take Constantinople, cutting those communications, and giving Russian ships unfettered access to the Mediterranean.", "The French might also threaten those lines.", "Britain had had the opportunity to purchase shares in the canal but had declined to do so.Disraeli sent the Liberal MP Nathan Rothschild to Paris to enquire about buying de Lesseps's shares.", "On 14 November 1875, the editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'', Frederick Greenwood, learnt from London banker Henry Oppenheim that the Khedive was seeking to sell his shares in the Suez Canal Company to a French firm.", "Greenwood quickly told Lord Derby, the Foreign Secretary, who notified Disraeli.", "The Prime Minister moved immediately to secure the shares.", "On 23 November, the Khedive offered to sell the shares for 100,000,000 francs.", "Rather than seek the aid of the Bank of England, Disraeli borrowed funds from Lionel de Rothschild, who took a commission on the deal.", "The banker's capital was at risk as Parliament could have refused to ratify the transaction.", "The contract for purchase was signed at Cairo on 25 November and the shares deposited at the British consulate the following day.Disraeli told the Queen, \"it is settled; you have it, madam!\"", "The public saw the venture as a daring statement of British dominance of the seas.", "Sir Ian Malcolm described the Suez Canal share purchase as \"the greatest romance of Mr. Disraeli's romantic career\".", "In the following decades, the security of the Suez Canal became a major concern of British foreign policy.", "Under Gladstone Britain took control of Egypt in 1882.A later Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, described the canal in 1909 as \"the determining influence of every considerable movement of British power to the east and south of the Mediterranean\".====Royal Titles Act====Although initially curious about Disraeli when he entered Parliament in 1837, Victoria came to detest him over his treatment of Peel.", "Over time, her dislike softened, especially as Disraeli took pains to cultivate her.", "He told Matthew Arnold, \"Everybody likes flattery; and, when you come to royalty, you should lay it on with a trowel\".", "Disraeli's biographer, Adam Kirsch, suggests that Disraeli's obsequious treatment of his queen was part flattery, part belief that this was how a queen should be addressed by a loyal subject, and part awe that a middle-class man of Jewish birth should be the companion of a monarch.", "By the time of his second premiership, Disraeli had built a strong relationship with Victoria, probably closer to her than any of her prime ministers except her first, Lord Melbourne.", "When Disraeli returned as prime minister in 1874 and went to kiss hands, he did so literally, on one knee; according to Richard Aldous in his book on the rivalry between Disraeli and Gladstone, \"Victoria and Disraeli would exploit their closeness for mutual advantage.", "\"Victoria had long wished to have an imperial title, reflecting Britain's expanding domain.", "She was irked when Tsar Alexander II held a higher rank than her as an emperor, and was appalled that her daughter, the Prussian Crown Princess, would outrank her when her husband came to the throne.", "She also saw an imperial title as proclaiming Britain's increased stature in the world.", "The title \"Empress of India\" had been used informally for some time and she wished to have that title formally bestowed on her.", "The Queen prevailed upon Disraeli to introduce a Royal Titles Bill, and also told of her intent to open Parliament in person, which during this time she did only when she wanted something from legislators.", "Disraeli was cautious in response, as careful soundings of MPs brought a negative reaction, and he declined to place such a proposal in the Queen's Speech.Once the desired bill was finally prepared, Disraeli's handling of it was not adept.", "He neglected to notify either the Prince of Wales or the Opposition and was met by irritation from the prince and a full-scale attack from the Liberals.", "An old enemy of Disraeli, former Liberal Chancellor Robert Lowe, alleged during the debate in the Commons that two previous prime ministers had refused to introduce such legislation for the Queen.", "Gladstone immediately stated that he was not one of them, and the Queen gave Disraeli leave to quote her saying she had never approached a prime minister with such a proposal.", "According to Blake, Disraeli \"in a brilliant oration of withering invective proceeded to destroy Lowe\", who apologised and never held office again.", "Disraeli said of Lowe that he was the only person in London with whom he would not shake hands: \"he is in the mud and there I leave him.", "\"Fearful of losing, Disraeli was reluctant to bring the bill to a vote in the Commons, but when he did it passed with a majority of 75.Once the bill was formally enacted, Victoria began signing her letters \"Victoria R & I\" (, Queen and Empress).", "According to Aldous, the bill \"shattered Disraeli's authority in the House of Commons\".====Balkans and Bulgaria====Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78|alt=Cavalry wielding sabres fight men with guns on footIn July 1875 Serb populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, then provinces of the Ottoman Empire, revolted against the Turks, alleging religious persecution and poor administration.", "The following January, Sultan Abdülaziz agreed to reforms proposed by Hungarian statesman Julius Andrássy, but the rebels, suspecting they might win their freedom, continued their uprising, joined by militants in Serbia and Bulgaria.", "The Turks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising harshly, and when reports of these actions escaped, Disraeli and Derby stated in Parliament that they did not believe them.", "Disraeli called them \"coffee-house babble\" and dismissed allegations of torture by the Ottomans since \"Oriental people usually terminate their connections with culprits in a more expeditious fashion\".Gladstone, who had left the Liberal leadership and retired from public life, was appalled by reports of atrocities in Bulgaria, and in August 1876, penned a hastily written pamphlet arguing that the Turks should be deprived of Bulgaria because of what they had done there.", "He sent a copy to Disraeli, who called it \"vindictive and ill-written ... of all the Bulgarian horrors perhaps the greatest\".", "Gladstone's pamphlet became an immense best-seller and rallied the Liberals to urge that the Ottoman Empire should no longer be a British ally.", "Disraeli wrote to Lord Salisbury on 3 September, \"Had it not been for these unhappy 'atrocities', we should have settled a peace very honourable to England and satisfactory to Europe.", "Now we are obliged to work from a new point of departure, and dictate to Turkey, who has forfeited all sympathy.\"", "In spite of this, Disraeli's policy favoured Constantinople and Ottoman territorial integrity.International delegates at the Constantinople Conference: clockwise from top left, Saffet Pasha (Turkey), General Ignatieff (Russia), Lord Salisbury (Britain) and the Comte de Chaudordy (France)|alt=Four menDisraeli and the cabinet sent Salisbury as lead British representative to the Constantinople Conference, which met in December 1876 and January 1877.In advance of the conference, Disraeli sent Salisbury private word to seek British military occupation of Bulgaria and Bosnia, and British control of the Ottoman Army.", "Salisbury ignored these instructions, which his biographer, Andrew Roberts deemed \"ludicrous\".", "The conference failed to reach agreement with the Turks.Parliament opened in February 1877, with Disraeli now in the Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield.", "He spoke only once there in the 1877 session on the Eastern Question, stating on 20 February that there was a need for stability in the Balkans, and that forcing Turkey into territorial concessions would not secure it.", "The Prime Minister wanted a deal with the Ottomans whereby Britain would temporarily occupy strategic areas to deter the Russians from war, to be returned on the signing of a peace treaty, but found little support in his cabinet, which favoured partition of the Ottoman Empire.", "As Disraeli, by then in poor health, continued to battle within the cabinet, Russia invaded Turkey on 21 April, beginning the Russo-Turkish War.====Congress of Berlin====The Russians pushed through Ottoman territory and by December 1877 had captured the strategic Bulgarian town of Plevna.", "The war divided the British, but the Russian success caused some to forget the atrocities and call for intervention on the Turkish side.", "Others hoped for further Russian successes.", "The fall of Plevna was a major story for weeks, and Disraeli's warnings that Russia was a threat to British interests in the eastern Mediterranean were deemed prophetic.", "The jingoistic attitude of many Britons increased Disraeli's political support, and the Queen showed her favour by visiting him at Hughenden—the first time she had visited the country home of her prime minister since the Melbourne ministry.", "At the end of January 1878, the Ottoman Sultan appealed to Britain to save Constantinople.", "Amid war fever in Britain, the government asked Parliament to vote £6,000,000 to prepare the Army and Navy for war.", "Gladstone opposed the measure, but less than half his party voted with him.", "Popular opinion was with Disraeli, though some thought him too soft for not immediately declaring war on Russia.alt=A map.", "See descriptionWith the Russians close to Constantinople, the Turks yielded and in March 1878, signed the Treaty of San Stefano, conceding a Bulgarian state covering a large part of the Balkans.", "It would be initially Russian-occupied and many feared that it would give them a client state close to Constantinople.", "Other Ottoman possessions in Europe would become independent; additional territory was to be ceded directly to Russia.", "This was unacceptable to the British, who protested, hoping to get the Russians to agree to attend an international conference which German Chancellor Bismarck proposed to hold at Berlin.", "The cabinet discussed Disraeli's proposal to position Indian troops at Malta for possible transit to the Balkans and call out reserves.", "Derby resigned in protest, and Disraeli appointed Salisbury as Foreign Secretary.", "Amid British preparations for war, the Russians and Turks agreed to discussions at Berlin.In advance of the meeting, confidential negotiations took place between Britain and Russia in April and May 1878.The Russians were willing to make changes to the big Bulgaria, but were determined to retain their new possessions, Bessarabia in Europe and Batum and Kars on the east coast of the Black Sea.", "To counterbalance this, Britain required a possession in the Eastern Mediterranean where it might base ships and troops and negotiated with the Ottomans for the cession of Cyprus.", "Once this was secretly agreed, Disraeli was prepared to allow Russia's territorial gains.Disraeli (right) and Salisbury as Knights of the Garter, portrayed by alt=Refer to captionThe Congress of Berlin was held in June and July 1878, the central relationship in it that between Disraeli and Bismarck.", "In later years, the German chancellor would show visitors to his office three pictures on the wall: \"the portrait of my Sovereign, there on the right that of my wife, and on the left, there, that of Lord Beaconsfield\".", "Disraeli caused an uproar in the congress by making his opening address in English, rather than in French, hitherto accepted as the international language of diplomacy.", "By one account, the British ambassador in Berlin, Lord Odo Russell, hoping to spare the delegates Disraeli's awful French accent, told Disraeli that the congress was hoping to hear a speech in English by one of its masters.Disraeli left much of the detailed work to Salisbury, concentrating his efforts on making it as difficult as possible for the broken-up big Bulgaria to reunite.", "Disraeli intended that Batum be demilitarised, but the Russians obtained their preferred language, and in 1886, fortified the town.", "Nevertheless, the Cyprus Convention ceding the island to Britain was announced during the congress, and again made Disraeli a sensation.Disraeli gained agreement that Turkey should retain enough of its European possessions to safeguard the Dardanelles.", "By one account, when met with Russian intransigence, Disraeli told his secretary to order a special train to return them home to begin the war.", "Czar Alexander II later described the congress as \"a European coalition against Russia, under Bismarck\".The Treaty of Berlin was signed on 13 July 1878 at the Radziwill Palace in Berlin.", "Disraeli and Salisbury returned home to heroes' receptions.", "At the door of 10 Downing Street, Disraeli received flowers sent by the Queen.", "There, he told the gathered crowd, \"Lord Salisbury and I have brought you back peace—but a peace I hope with honour.\"", "The Queen offered him a dukedom, which he declined, though accepting the Garter, as long as Salisbury also received it.", "In Berlin, word spread of Bismarck's admiring description of Disraeli, \"''Der alte Jude, das ist der Mann!''", "\"In the weeks after Berlin, Disraeli and the cabinet considered calling a general election to capitalise on the public applause he and Salisbury had received.", "Parliaments were then for a seven-year term, and it was the custom not to go to the country until the sixth year unless forced to by events.", "Only four and a half years had passed and they did not see any clouds on the horizon that might forecast Conservative defeat if they waited.", "This decision not to seek re-election has often been cited as a great mistake by Disraeli.", "Blake, however, pointed out that results in local elections had been moving against the Conservatives, and doubted if Disraeli missed any great opportunity by waiting.====Afghanistan to Zululand====Battle of Kandahar, fought in 1880.Britain's victory in the Second Anglo-Afghan War proved a boost to Disraeli's government.As successful invasions of India generally came through Afghanistan, the British had observed and sometimes intervened there since the 1830s, hoping to keep the Russians out.", "In 1878 the Russians sent a mission to Kabul; it was not rejected by the Afghans, as the British had hoped.", "The British proposed to send their own mission, insisting that the Russians be sent away.", "The Viceroy of India Lord Lytton concealed his plans to issue this ultimatum from Disraeli, and when the Prime Minister insisted he take no action, went ahead anyway.", "When the Afghans made no answer, Lord Cranbrook as Secretary of State for War, ordered the advance against them in the Second Anglo-Afghan War.", "Under Lord Roberts, the British easily defeated them and installed a new ruler, leaving a mission and garrison in Kabul.British policy in South Africa was to encourage federation between the British-run Cape Colony and Natal, and the Boer republics, the Transvaal (annexed by Britain in 1877) and the Orange Free State.", "The governor of Cape Colony, Sir Bartle Frere, believing that the federation could not be accomplished until the native tribes acknowledged British rule, made demands on the Zulu and their king, Cetewayo, which they were certain to reject.", "As Zulu troops could not marry until they had washed their spears in blood, they were eager for combat.", "Frere did not send word to the cabinet of what he had done until the ultimatum was about to expire.", "Disraeli and the cabinet reluctantly backed him, and in early January 1879 resolved to send reinforcements.", "Before they could arrive, on 22 January, a Zulu ''impi'' (army), moving with great speed and endurance, destroyed a British encampment in South Africa in the Battle of Isandlwana.", "Over a thousand British and colonial troops were killed.", "Word of the defeat did not reach London until 12 February.", "Disraeli wrote the next day, \"the terrible disaster has shaken me to the centre\".", "He reprimanded Frere, but left him in charge, attracting fire from all sides.", "Disraeli sent General Sir Garnet Wolseley as High Commissioner and Commander in Chief, and Cetewayo and the Zulus were crushed at the Battle of Ulundi on 4 July 1879.On 8 September 1879 Sir Louis Cavagnari, in charge of the mission in Kabul, was killed with his entire staff by rebelling Afghan soldiers.", "Roberts undertook a successful punitive expedition against the Afghans over the next six weeks.===1880 election===In December 1878, Gladstone was offered the Liberal nomination for Edinburghshire, a constituency popularly known as Midlothian.", "The small Scottish electorate was dominated by two noblemen, the Conservative Duke of Buccleuch and the Liberal Earl of Rosebery.", "The Earl, a friend of both Disraeli and Gladstone who would succeed the latter after his final term as prime minister, had journeyed to the United States to view politics there, and was convinced that aspects of American electioneering techniques could be translated to Britain.", "On his advice, Gladstone accepted the offer in January 1879, and later that year began his Midlothian campaign, speaking not only in Edinburgh, but across Britain, attacking Disraeli, to huge crowds.Conservative chances of re-election were damaged by the poor weather, and consequent effects on agriculture.", "Four consecutive wet summers through 1879 had led to poor harvests.", "In the past, the farmer had the consolation of higher prices at such times, but with bumper crops cheaply transported from the United States, grain prices remained low.", "Other European nations, faced with similar circumstances, opted for protection, and Disraeli was urged to reinstitute the Corn Laws.", "He declined, stating that he regarded the matter as settled.", "Protection would have been highly unpopular among the newly enfranchised urban working classes, as it would raise their cost of living.", "Amid an economic slump generally, the Conservatives lost support among farmers.Disraeli's health continued to fail through 1879.Owing to his infirmities, Disraeli was 45 minutes late for the Lord Mayor's Dinner at the Guildhall in November, at which it is customary that the Prime Minister speaks.", "Though many commented on how healthy he looked, it took him great effort to appear so, and when he told the audience he expected to speak to the dinner again the following year, attendees chuckled.", "Gladstone was then in the midst of his campaign.", "Despite his public confidence, Disraeli recognised that the Conservatives would probably lose the next election and was already contemplating his Resignation Honours.Despite this pessimism, Conservatives hopes were buoyed in early 1880 with successes in by-elections the Liberals had expected to win, concluding with victory in Southwark, normally a Liberal stronghold.", "The cabinet had resolved to wait before dissolving Parliament; in early March they reconsidered, agreeing to go to the country as soon as possible.", "Parliament was dissolved on 24 March; the first borough constituencies began voting a week later.Disraeli took no public part in the electioneering, it being deemed improper for peers to make speeches to influence Commons elections.", "This meant that the chief Conservatives—Disraeli, Salisbury, and India Secretary Lord Cranbrook—would not be heard from.", "The election was thought likely to be close.", "Once returns began to be announced, it became clear that the Conservatives were decisively beaten.", "The final result gave the Liberals an absolute majority of about 50." ], [ "Final months, death, and memorials", "Disraeli refused to cast blame for the defeat, which he understood was likely to be final for him.", "He wrote to Lady Bradford that it was just as much work to end a government as to form one, without any of the fun.", "Queen Victoria was bitter at his departure.", "Among the honours he arranged before resigning as Prime Minister on 21 April 1880 was one for his private secretary, Montagu Corry, who became Baron Rowton.Returning to Hughenden, Disraeli brooded over his electoral dismissal, but also resumed work on ''Endymion'', which he had begun in 1872 and laid aside before the 1874 election.", "The work was rapidly completed and published by November 1880.He carried on a correspondence with Victoria, with letters passed through intermediaries.", "When Parliament met in January 1881, he served as Conservative leader in the Lords, attempting to serve as a moderating influence on Gladstone's legislation.Because of his asthma and gout, Disraeli went out as little as possible, fearing more serious episodes of illness.", "In March, he fell ill with bronchitis, and emerged from bed only for a meeting with Salisbury and other Conservative leaders on the 26th.", "As it became clear that this might be his final sickness, friends and opponents alike came to call.", "Disraeli declined a visit from the Queen, saying, \"She would only ask me to take a message to Albert.\"", "Almost blind, when he received the last letter from Victoria of which he was aware on 5 April, he held it momentarily, then had it read to him by Lord Barrington, a Privy Councillor.", "One card, signed \"A Workman\", delighted its recipient: \"Don't die yet, we can't do without you.", "\"Despite the gravity of Disraeli's condition, the doctors concocted optimistic bulletins for public consumption.", "Prime Minister Gladstone called several times to enquire about his rival's condition, and wrote in his diary, \"May the Almighty be near his pillow.\"", "There was intense public interest in Disraeli's struggles for life.", "Disraeli had customarily taken the sacrament at Easter; when this day was observed on 17 April, there was discussion among his friends and family if he should be given the opportunity, but those against, fearing that he would lose hope, prevailed.", "On the morning of the following day, Easter Monday, he became incoherent, then comatose.", "Disraeli's last confirmed words before dying at his home at 19 Curzon Street in the early morning of 19 April were \"I had rather live but I am not afraid to die\".", "The anniversary of Disraeli's death was for some years commemorated in the United Kingdom as Primrose Day.Despite having been offered a state funeral by Queen Victoria, Disraeli's executors decided against a public procession and funeral, fearing that too large crowds would gather to do him honour.", "The chief mourners at the service at Hughenden on 26 April were his brother Ralph and nephew Coningsby, to whom Hughenden would eventually pass; Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, Viscount Cranbrook, despite most of Disraeli's former cabinet being present, was notably absent in Italy.", "Queen Victoria was prostrated with grief, and considered ennobling Ralph or Coningsby as a memorial to Disraeli (without children, his titles became extinct with his death), but decided against it on the ground that their means were too small for a peerage.", "Protocol forbade her attending Disraeli's funeral (this would not be changed until 1965, when Elizabeth II attended the rites for the former prime minister Sir Winston Churchill) but she sent primroses (\"his favourite flowers\") to the funeral and visited the burial vault to place a wreath four days later.Statue of Disraeli in Parliament Square, London|alt=A statue on a podiumDisraeli is buried with his wife in a vault beneath the Church of St Michael and All Angels which stands in the grounds of his home, Hughenden Manor.", "There is also a memorial to him in the chancel in the church, erected in his honour by Queen Victoria.", "His literary executor was his private secretary, Lord Rowton.", "The Disraeli vault also contains the body of Sarah Brydges Willyams, the wife of James Brydges Willyams of St Mawgan.", "Disraeli carried on a long correspondence with Mrs. Willyams, writing frankly about political affairs.", "At her death in 1865, she left him a large legacy, which helped clear his debts.", "His will was proved in April 1882 at £84,019 18 s. 7 d. (roughly equivalent to £ in ).Disraeli has a memorial in Westminster Abbey, erected by the nation on the motion of Gladstone in his memorial speech on Disraeli in the House of Commons.", "Gladstone had absented himself from the funeral, with his plea of the press of public business met with public mockery.", "His speech was widely anticipated, if only because his dislike for Disraeli was well known.", "In the event, the speech was a model of its kind, in which he avoided comment on Disraeli's politics while praising his personal qualities." ], [ "Legacy", "Disraeli's literary and political career interacted over his lifetime and fascinated Victorian Britain, making him \"one of the most eminent figures in Victorian public life\", and occasioned a large output of commentary.", "Critic Shane Leslie noted three decades after his death that \"Disraeli's career was a romance such as no Eastern vizier or Western plutocrat could tell.", "He began as a pioneer in dress and an aesthete of words ... Disraeli actually made his novels come true.", "\"===Literary===Sybil'' (1845)|alt=The cover of a book, entitled \"Sybil; or, the Two Nations\"Disraeli's novels are his main literary achievement.", "They have from the outset divided critical opinion.", "The writer R. W. Stewart observed that there have always been two criteria for judging Disraeli's novels—political and artistic.", "The critic Robert O'Kell, concurring, writes, \"It is after all, even if you are a Tory of the staunchest blue, impossible to make Disraeli into a first-rate novelist.", "And it is equally impossible, no matter how much you deplore the extravagances and improprieties of his works, to make him into an insignificant one.", "\"Disraeli's early \"silver fork\" novels ''Vivian Grey'' (1826) and ''The Young Duke'' (1831) featured romanticised depictions of aristocratic life (despite his ignorance of it) with character sketches of well-known public figures lightly disguised.", "In some of his early fiction Disraeli also portrayed himself and what he felt to be his Byronic dual nature: the poet and the man of action.", "His most autobiographical novel was ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832), an avowedly serious work that did not sell well.", "The critic William Kuhn suggests that Disraeli's fiction can be read as \"the memoirs he never wrote\", revealing the inner life of a politician for whom the norms of Victorian public life appeared to represent a social straitjacket—particularly with regard to what Kuhn sees as the author's \"ambiguous sexuality\".Of the other novels of the early 1830s, ''Alroy'' is described by Blake as \"profitable but unreadable\", and ''The Rise of Iskander'' (1833), ''The Infernal Marriage'' and ''Ixion in Heaven'' (1834) made little impact.", "''Henrietta Temple'' (1837) was Disraeli's next major success.", "It draws on the events of his affair with Henrietta Sykes to tell the story of a debt-ridden young man torn between a mercenary loveless marriage and a passionate love at first sight for the eponymous heroine.", "''Venetia'' (1837) was a minor work, written to raise much-needed cash.In the 1840s Disraeli wrote a trilogy of novels with political themes.", "''Coningsby'' attacks the evils of the Whig Reform Bill of 1832 and castigates the leaderless conservatives for not responding.", "''Sybil; or, The Two Nations'' (1845) reveals Peel's betrayal over the Corn Laws.", "These themes are expanded in ''Tancred'' (1847).", "With ''Coningsby; or, The New Generation'' (1844), Disraeli, in Blake's view, \"infused the novel genre with political sensibility, espousing the belief that England's future as a world power depended not on the complacent old guard, but on youthful, idealistic politicians.\"", "''Sybil; or, The Two Nations'' was less idealistic than ''Coningsby''; the \"two nations\" of its sub-title referred to the huge economic and social gap between the privileged few and the deprived working classes.", "The last was ''Tancred; or, The New Crusade'' (1847), promoting the Church of England's role in reviving Britain's flagging spirituality.", "Disraeli often wrote about religion, for he was a strong promoter of the Church of England.", "He was troubled by the growth of elaborate rituals in the late 19th century, such as the use of incense and vestments, and heard warnings to the effect that the ritualists were going to turn control of the Church of England over to the Pope.", "He consequently was a strong supporter of the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 which allowed the archbishops to go to court to stop the ritualists.", "''Lothair'' was \"Disraeli's ideological ''Pilgrim's Progress''\", It tells a story of political life with particular regard to the roles of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches.", "It reflected anti-Catholicism of the sort that was popular in Britain, and which fueled support for Italian unification (\"Risorgimento\").", "''Endymion'', despite having a Whig as hero, is a last exposition of the author's economic policies and political beliefs.", "Disraeli continued to the last to pillory his enemies in barely disguised caricatures: the character St Barbe in ''Endymion'' is widely seen as a parody of Thackeray, who had offended Disraeli more than thirty years earlier by lampooning him in ''Punch'' as \"Codlingsby\".", "Disraeli left an unfinished novel in which the priggish central character, Falconet, is unmistakably a caricature of Gladstone.Blake commented that Disraeli \"produced an epic poem, unbelievably bad, and a five-act blank verse tragedy, if possible worse.", "Further he wrote a discourse on political theory and a political biography, the ''Life of Lord George Bentinck'', which is excellent ... remarkably fair and accurate.", "\"===Political===In the years after Disraeli's death, as Salisbury began his reign of more than twenty years over the Conservatives, the party emphasised the late leader's \"One Nation\" views, that the Conservatives at root shared the beliefs of the working classes, with the Liberals the party of the urban élite.", "The memory of Disraeli was used by the Conservatives to appeal to the working classes, with whom he was said to have had a rapport.", "This aspect of his policies has been re-evaluated by historians in the 20th and 21st centuries.", "In 1972 B. H. Abbott stressed that it was not Disraeli but Lord Randolph Churchill who invented the term \"Tory democracy\", though it was Disraeli who made it an essential part of Conservative policy and philosophy.", "In 2007 Parry wrote, \"The tory democrat myth did not survive detailed scrutiny by professional historical writing of the 1960s which demonstrated that Disraeli had very little interest in a programme of social legislation and was very flexible in handling parliamentary reform in 1867.\"", "Despite this, Parry sees Disraeli, rather than Peel, as the founder of the modern Conservative party.", "The Conservative politician and writer Douglas Hurd wrote in 2013, \"Disraeli was not a one-nation Conservative—and this was not simply because he never used the phrase.", "He rejected the concept in its entirety.", "\"Disraeli's enthusiastic propagation of the British Empire has also been seen as appealing to working-class voters.", "Before his leadership of the Conservative Party, imperialism was the province of the Liberals, most notably Palmerston.", "Disraeli made the Conservatives the party that most loudly supported both the Empire and military action to assert its primacy.", "This came about in part because Disraeli's own views stemmed that way, in part because he saw advantage for the Conservatives, and partially in reaction against Gladstone, who disliked the expense of empire.", "Blake argued that Disraeli's imperialism \"decisively orientated the Conservative party for many years to come, and the tradition which he started was probably a bigger electoral asset in winning working-class support during the last quarter of the century than anything else\".", "Some historians have commented on a romantic impulse behind Disraeli's approach to Empire and foreign affairs: Abbott writes, \"To the mystical Tory concepts of Throne, Church, Aristocracy and People, Disraeli added Empire.\"", "Others have identified a strongly pragmatic aspect to his policies.", "Gladstone's biographer Philip Magnus contrasted Disraeli's grasp of foreign affairs with that of Gladstone, who \"never understood that high moral principles, in their application to foreign policy, are more often destructive of political stability than motives of national self-interest.\"", "In Parry's view, Disraeli's foreign policy \"can be seen as a gigantic castle in the air (as it was by Gladstone), or as an overdue attempt to force the British commercial classes to awaken to the realities of European politics.", "\"During his lifetime Disraeli's opponents, and sometimes even his friends and allies, questioned whether he sincerely held the views he propounded, or whether they were adopted by him as politically essential and lacked conviction.", "Lord John Manners, in 1843 at the time of Young England, wrote, \"could I only satisfy myself that D'Israeli believed all that he said, I should be more happy: his historical views are quite mine, but does he believe them?\"", "Paul Smith, in his journal article on Disraeli's politics, argues that Disraeli's ideas were coherently argued over a political career of nearly half a century, and \"it is impossible to sweep them aside as a mere bag of burglar's tools for effecting felonious entry to the British political pantheon.", "\"Stanley Weintraub, in his biography of Disraeli, points out that his subject did much to advance Britain towards the 20th century, carrying one of the two great Reform Acts of the 19th despite the opposition of his Liberal rival, Gladstone.", "He helped preserve constitutional monarchy by drawing the Queen out of mourning into a new symbolic national role and created the climate for what became 'Tory democracy'.", "He articulated an imperial role for Britain that would last into World War II and brought an intermittently self-isolated Britain into the concert of Europe.Frances Walsh comments on Disraeli's multifaceted public life:Historian Llewellyn Woodward has evaluated Disraeli:Historical writers have often played Disraeli and Gladstone against each other as great rivals.", "Roland Quinault, however, cautions not to exaggerate the confrontation:===Role of Jewishness===By 1882, 46,000 Jews lived in England and, by 1890, Jewish emancipation was complete.", "Since 1858, Parliament has never been without practising Jewish members.", "The first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, Sir David Salomons, was elected in 1855, followed by the 1858 emancipation of the Jews.", "On 26 July 1858, Lionel de Rothschild was allowed to sit in the House of Commons when the hitherto specifically Christian oath of office was changed.", "Disraeli, a baptised Christian of Jewish parentage, was already an MP, as the mandated oath of office presented no barrier to him.", "In 1884 Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild became the first Jewish member of the British House of Lords; Disraeli was already a member.Disraeli as a leader of the Conservative Party, with its ties to the landed aristocracy, used his Jewish ancestry to claim an aristocratic heritage of his own.", "His biographer Jonathan Parry argues:Todd Endelman points out that, \"The link between Jews and old clothes was so fixed in the popular imagination that Victorian political cartoonists regularly drew Benjamin Disraeli as an old clothes man in order to stress his Jewishness.\"", "He adds, \"Before the 1990s...few biographers of Disraeli or historians of Victorian politics acknowledged the prominence of the antisemitism that accompanied his climb up the greasy pole or its role in shaping his own singular sense of Jewishness.", "\"According to Michael Ragussis:" ], [ "Popular culture", "Vanity Fair'', 30 January 1869.Caricatures led to a rapid increase in demand for the magazine.In 1929, actor George Arliss won the Oscar for personifying Disraeli's \"paternalistic, kindly, homely statesmanship.", "\"Historian Michael Diamond asserts that for British music hall patrons in the 1880s and 1890s, \"xenophobia and pride in empire\" were reflected in the halls' most popular political heroes: all were Conservatives and Disraeli stood out above all, even decades after his death, while Gladstone was used as a villain.", "Film historian Roy Armes has argued that historical films helped maintain the political status quo in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s by imposing an establishment viewpoint that emphasized the greatness of monarchy, empire, and tradition.", "The films created \"a facsimile world where existing values were invariably validated by events in the film and where all discord could be turned into harmony by an acceptance of the status quo.", "\"Steven Fielding has argued that Disraeli was an especially popular film hero: \"historical dramas favoured Disraeli over Gladstone and, more substantively, promulgated an essentially deferential view of democratic leadership.\"", "Stage and screen actor George Arliss was known for his portrayals of Disraeli, winning the Academy Award for Best Actor for 1929's ''Disraeli''.", "Fielding says Arliss \"personified the kind of paternalistic, kindly, homely statesmanship that appealed to a significant proportion of the cinema audience ...", "Even workers attending Labour party meetings deferred to leaders with an elevated social background who showed they cared.", "\"John Gielgud portrayed Disraeli in 1941, in Thorold Dickinson's morale-boosting film ''The Prime Minister'', which followed the politician from age 30 to 70.Alec Guinness portrayed him in ''The Mudlark'' (1950).Ian McShane starred in the four-part 1978 ATV miniseries ''Disraeli: Portrait of a Romantic'', written by David Butler.", "Presented in the U.S. on PBS's ''Masterpiece Theatre'' in 1980, it was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series.Richard Pasco played Disraeli in the ITV series ''Number 10'' in 1983.In the 1997 film ''Mrs Brown'', Disraeli was played by Antony Sher." ], [ "Works by Disraeli", "===Novels===* ''Vivian Grey'' (1826)* ''Popanilla'' (1828)* ''The Young Duke'' (1831)* ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832)* ''Ixion in Heaven'' (1832/3)* ''The Wondrous Tale of Alroy'' (1833)* ''The Rise of Iskander'' (1833)* ''The Infernal Marriage'' (1834)* ''A Year at Hartlebury, or The Election'' (with Sarah Disraeli, 1834)* ''Henrietta Temple'' (1837)* ''Venetia'' (1837)* ''Coningsby, or the New Generation'' (1844)* ''Sybil, or The Two Nations'' (1845)* ''Tancred, or the New Crusade'' (1847)* ''Lothair'' (1870)* ''Endymion'' (1880)* ''Falconet'' (unfinished 1881)=== Poetry ===* ''The Revolutionary Epick'' (1834)=== Drama ===* ''The Tragedy of Count Alarcos'' (1839)===Non-fiction===* ''An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies'' (1825)* ''Lawyers and Legislators: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies'' (1825)* ''The present state of Mexico'' (1825)* ''England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial Gallomania'' (1832)* ''What Is He?''", "(1833)* ''The Vindication of the English Constitution'' (1835)* ''The Letters of Runnymede'' (1836)* ''Lord George Bentinck'' (1852)" ], [ "Arms" ], [ "Notes and references", "'''Notes''''''References'''" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Text also available online at Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* * * * * * * * Woodward, Llewellyn.", "(1962) ''The Age of Reform, 1815-1870'' (Oxford University Press, 1938; 2nd ed.", "1962) online." ], [ "Further reading", "* Braun, Thom.", "''Disraeli the Novelist'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Bright, J. Franck.", "''A History of England.", "Period 4: Growth of Democracy: Victoria 1837–1880'' (1893) online 608pp; highly detailed political narrative* Cesarani, David.", "''Disraeli: The Novel Politician'' (Yale UP, 2016).", "* Clausson, Nils.", "\"Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil, or The Two.\"", "in ''Handbook of the English Novel, 1830–1900'' ed.", "by Martin Middeke and Monika Pietrzak-Franger (2020) pp 189–204.online* Davis, Richard W. \"Disraeli, the Rothschilds, and anti-Semitism.\"", "''Jewish History'' (1996): 9-19 online.", "* * * * Kalmar, Ivan Davidson.", "\"Benjamin Disraeli, romantic orientalist.\"", "''Comparative studies in society and history'' 47.2 (2005): 348–371.online* * * Malchow, Howard LeRoy.", "''Agitators and Promoters in the Age of Gladstone and Disraeli: A Biographical Dictionary of the Leaders of British Pressure Groups founded between 1865 and 1886'' (2 vol 1983), includes thousands of activists.", "* * (translated by Hamish Miles)* Miller, Henry.", "\"Disraeli, Gladstone and the personification of party, 1868–80.\"", "in Miller, ''Politics personified'' (Manchester University Press, 2016).", "* Monypenny, William Flavelle and George Earle Buckle, ''The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield'' (2 vol.", "London: John Murray, 1929); contains vol 1–4 and vol 5–6 of the original edition ''Life of Benjamin Disraeli'' volume 1 1804–1837, Volume 2 1837–1846, Volume 3 1846–1855, Volume 4 1855–1868, Volume 5 1868–1876, Volume 6 1876–1881.Vol 1 to 6 are available free from Google books: vol 1; vol 2; vol 3; vol 4; vol 5; and vol 6* * Napton, Dani.", "\"Historical Romance and the Mythology of Charles I in D'Israeli, Scott and Disraeli.\"", "''English Studies'' 99.2 (2018): 148–165.", "* Nicolay, Claire.", "\"The anxiety of 'Mosaic' influence: Thackeray, Disraeli, and Anglo‐Jewish assimilation in the 1840s.\"", "''Nineteenth‐Century Contexts'' 25.2 (2003): 119–145.", "* looks at close links between his fiction and his politics.", "* Parry, J. P. \"Disraeli, the East and religion: Tancred in context.\"", "''English Historical Review'' 132.556 (2017): 570–604.", "* Saab, Ann Pottinger.", "\"Disraeli, Judaism, and the Eastern Question.\"", "''International History Review'' 10.4 (1988): 559–578.", "* Schwarz, Daniel R. \"\" Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin\": Jewish Perspectives in Disraeli's Fiction.\"", "''Jewish History'' (1996): 37-55.online* * Seton-Watson, R. W. ''Britain in Europe, 1789–1914.''", "(1938); comprehensive history online* Shannon, Richard.", "''The crisis of imperialism, 1865–1915'' (1976), pp 101–41.", "* Spevack, Marvin.", "\"In the Shadow of the Son: Isaac D'Israeli and Benjamin Disraeli.\"", "''Jewish Culture and History'' 8.2 (2006): 73–92.", "* ===Primary sources===* ''Letters of Benjamin Disraeli.''", "10 vol edited by Michael W. Pharand, et al.", "(1982 to 2014), ending in 1868.online* * Hicks, Geoff, et al.", "eds.", "''Documents on Conservative Foreign Policy, 1852-1878'' (2013), 550 documents excerpt* Partridge, Michael, and Richard Gaunt.", "''Lives of Victorian Political Figures Part 1: Palmerston, Disraeli and Gladstone'' (4 vol.", "Pickering & Chatto.", "2006) reprints 32 original pamphlets on Disraeli.", "* Temperley, Harold and L.M.", "Penson, eds.", "''Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902)'' (1938), primary sources online* ===Historiography===* Parry, Jonathan P. \"Disraeli and England.\"", "''Historical Journal'' (2000): 699-728 online.", "* Quinault, Roland.", "\"Gladstone and Disraeli: A Reappraisal of their Relationship.\"", "''History'' 91.304 (2006): 557–576.", "* St. John, Ian.", "''The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli'' (Anthem Press, 2016) 402 pp excerpt" ], [ "External links", "* * Disraeli as the inventor of modern conservatism at ''The Weekly Standard''* John Prescott interview with Andrew Neill.", "* BBC Radio 4 series ''The Prime Ministers''* Bodleian Library Disraeli bicentenary exhibition, 2004* What Disraeli Can Teach Us by Geoffrey Wheatcroft from ''The New York Review of Books''* * * Benjamin Disraeli letters at Brandeis University ===Electronic editions===* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Binomial distribution" ], [ "Introduction", "Binomial distribution for with ''n'' and ''k'' as in Pascal's triangleThe probability that a ball in a Galton box with 8 layers (''n'' = 8) ends up in the central bin (''k'' = 4) is .In probability theory and statistics, the '''binomial distribution''' with parameters ''n'' and ''p'' is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of ''n'' independent experiments, each asking a yes–no question, and each with its own Boolean-valued outcome: ''success'' (with probability ''p'') or ''failure'' (with probability ).", "A single success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli trial or Bernoulli experiment, and a sequence of outcomes is called a Bernoulli process; for a single trial, i.e., ''n'' = 1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution.", "The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance.The binomial distribution is frequently used to model the number of successes in a sample of size ''n'' drawn with replacement from a population of size ''N''.", "If the sampling is carried out without replacement, the draws are not independent and so the resulting distribution is a hypergeometric distribution, not a binomial one.", "However, for ''N'' much larger than ''n'', the binomial distribution remains a good approximation, and is widely used." ], [ "Definitions", "===Probability mass function===In general, if the random variable ''X'' follows the binomial distribution with parameters ''n'' ∈ and ''p'' ∈ 0,1, we write ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'').", "The probability of getting exactly ''k'' successes in ''n'' independent Bernoulli trials (with the same rate ''p'') is given by the probability mass function::for ''k'' = 0, 1, 2, ..., ''n'', where:is the binomial coefficient, hence the name of the distribution.", "The formula can be understood as follows: ''k'' successes occur with probability ''p''''k'' and ''n'' − ''k'' failures occur with probability .", "However, the ''k'' successes can occur anywhere among the ''n'' trials, and there are different ways of distributing ''k'' successes in a sequence of ''n'' trials.In creating reference tables for binomial distribution probability, usually the table is filled in up to ''n''/2 values.", "This is because for ''k'' > ''n''/2, the probability can be calculated by its complement as:Looking at the expression ''f''(''k'', ''n'', ''p'') as a function of ''k'', there is a ''k'' value that maximizes it.", "This ''k'' value can be found by calculating:and comparing it to 1.There is always an integer ''M'' that satisfies:''f''(''k'', ''n'', ''p'') is monotone increasing for ''k''  ''M'', with the exception of the case where (''n'' + 1)''p'' is an integer.", "In this case, there are two values for which ''f'' is maximal: (''n'' + 1)''p'' and (''n'' + 1)''p'' − 1.", "''M'' is the ''most probable'' outcome (that is, the most likely, although this can still be unlikely overall) of the Bernoulli trials and is called the mode.Equivalently, .", "Taking the floor function, we obtain .===Example===Suppose a biased coin comes up heads with probability 0.3 when tossed.", "The probability of seeing exactly 4 heads in 6 tosses is:===Cumulative distribution function===The cumulative distribution function can be expressed as::where is the \"floor\" under ''k'', i.e.", "the greatest integer less than or equal to ''k''.It can also be represented in terms of the regularized incomplete beta function, as follows::which is equivalent to the cumulative distribution function of the -distribution::Some closed-form bounds for the cumulative distribution function are given below." ], [ "Properties", "===Expected value and variance===If ''X'' ~ ''B''(''n'', ''p''), that is, ''X'' is a binomially distributed random variable, ''n'' being the total number of experiments and ''p'' the probability of each experiment yielding a successful result, then the expected value of ''X'' is::This follows from the linearity of the expected value along with the fact that is the sum of identical Bernoulli random variables, each with expected value .", "In other words, if are identical (and independent) Bernoulli random variables with parameter , then and:The variance is::This similarly follows from the fact that the variance of a sum of independent random variables is the sum of the variances.===Higher moments===The first 6 central moments, defined as , are given by :The non-central moments satisfy:and in general:where are the Stirling numbers of the second kind, and is the th falling power of .A simple bound follows by bounding the Binomial moments via the higher Poisson moments: ::This shows that if , then is at most a constant factor away from ===Mode===Usually the mode of a binomial ''B''(''n'', ''p'') distribution is equal to , where is the floor function.", "However, when (''n'' + 1)''p'' is an integer and ''p'' is neither 0 nor 1, then the distribution has two modes: (''n'' + 1)''p'' and (''n'' + 1)''p'' − 1.When ''p'' is equal to 0 or 1, the mode will be 0 and ''n'' correspondingly.", "These cases can be summarized as follows:: '''Proof:''' Let:For only has a nonzero value with .", "For we find and for .", "This proves that the mode is 0 for and for .Let .", "We find:.From this follows:So when is an integer, then and is a mode.", "In the case that , then only is a mode.===Median===In general, there is no single formula to find the median for a binomial distribution, and it may even be non-unique.", "However, several special results have been established:* If is an integer, then the mean, median, and mode coincide and equal .", "* Any median ''m'' must lie within the interval .", "* A median ''m'' cannot lie too far away from the mean: .", "* The median is unique and equal to ''m'' = round(''np'') when (except for the case when and ''n'' is odd).", "* When ''p'' is a rational number (with the exception of and ''n'' odd) the median is unique.", "* When and ''n'' is odd, any number ''m'' in the interval is a median of the binomial distribution.", "If and ''n'' is even, then is the unique median.===Tail bounds===For ''k'' ≤ ''np'', upper bounds can be derived for the lower tail of the cumulative distribution function , the probability that there are at most ''k'' successes.", "Since , these bounds can also be seen as bounds for the upper tail of the cumulative distribution function for ''k'' ≥ ''np''.Hoeffding's inequality yields the simple bound:which is however not very tight.", "In particular, for ''p'' = 1, we have that ''F''(''k'';''n'',''p'') = 0 (for fixed ''k'', ''n'' with ''k'' < ''n''), but Hoeffding's bound evaluates to a positive constant.A sharper bound can be obtained from the Chernoff bound::where ''D''(''a'' ''p'') is the relative entropy (or Kullback-Leibler divergence) between an ''a''-coin and a ''p''-coin (i.e.", "between the Bernoulli(''a'') and Bernoulli(''p'') distribution)::Asymptotically, this bound is reasonably tight; see for details.One can also obtain ''lower'' bounds on the tail , known as anti-concentration bounds.", "By approximating the binomial coefficient with Stirling's formula it can be shown that:which implies the simpler but looser bound:For ''p'' = 1/2 and ''k'' ≥ 3''n''/8 for even ''n'', it is possible to make the denominator constant::" ], [ "Statistical inference", "=== Estimation of parameters ===When ''n'' is known, the parameter ''p'' can be estimated using the proportion of successes::This estimator is found using maximum likelihood estimator and also the method of moments.", "This estimator is unbiased and uniformly with minimum variance, proven using Lehmann–Scheffé theorem, since it is based on a minimal sufficient and complete statistic (i.e.", ": ''x'').", "It is also consistent both in probability and in MSE.A closed form Bayes estimator for ''p'' also exists when using the Beta distribution as a conjugate prior distribution.", "When using a general as a prior, the posterior mean estimator is::The Bayes estimator is asymptotically efficient and as the sample size approaches infinity (''n'' → ∞), it approaches the MLE solution.", "The Bayes estimator is biased (how much depends on the priors), admissible and consistent in probability.For the special case of using the standard uniform distribution as a non-informative prior, , the posterior mean estimator becomes::(A posterior mode should just lead to the standard estimator.)", "This method is called the rule of succession, which was introduced in the 18th century by Pierre-Simon Laplace.When estimating ''p'' with very rare events and a small ''n'' (e.g.", ": if x=0), then using the standard estimator leads to which sometimes is unrealistic and undesirable.", "In such cases there are various alternative estimators.", "One way is to use the Bayes estimator, leading to::Another method is to use the upper bound of the confidence interval obtained using the rule of three::=== Confidence intervals ===Even for quite large values of ''n'', the actual distribution of the mean is significantly nonnormal.", "Because of this problem several methods to estimate confidence intervals have been proposed.In the equations for confidence intervals below, the variables have the following meaning:* ''n''1 is the number of successes out of ''n'', the total number of trials* is the proportion of successes* is the quantile of a standard normal distribution (i.e., probit) corresponding to the target error rate .", "For example, for a 95% confidence level the error  = 0.05, so  = 0.975 and  = 1.96.==== Wald method ====: A continuity correction of 0.5/''n'' may be added.==== Agresti–Coull method ====: Here the estimate of ''p'' is modified to: This method works well for and .", "See here for .", "For use the Wilson (score) method below.==== Arcsine method ====: ==== Wilson (score) method ====The notation in the formula below differs from the previous formulas in two respects:* Firstly, ''z''''x'' has a slightly different interpretation in the formula below: it has its ordinary meaning of 'the ''x''th quantile of the standard normal distribution', rather than being a shorthand for 'the (1 − ''x'')-th quantile'.", "* Secondly, this formula does not use a plus-minus to define the two bounds.", "Instead, one may use to get the lower bound, or use to get the upper bound.", "For example: for a 95% confidence level the error  = 0.05, so one gets the lower bound by using , and one gets the upper bound by using .", ":: ==== Comparison ====The so-called \"exact\" (Clopper–Pearson) method is the most conservative.", "(''Exact'' does not mean perfectly accurate; rather, it indicates that the estimates will not be less conservative than the true value.", ")The Wald method, although commonly recommended in textbooks, is the most biased." ], [ "Related distributions", "===Sums of binomials===If ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') and ''Y'' ~ B(''m'', ''p'') are independent binomial variables with the same probability ''p'', then ''X'' + ''Y'' is again a binomial variable; its distribution is ''Z=X+Y'' ~ B(''n+m'', ''p'')::A Binomial distributed random variable ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') can be considered as the sum of ''n'' Bernoulli distributed random variables.", "So the sum of two Binomial distributed random variable ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') and ''Y'' ~ B(''m'', ''p'') is equivalent to the sum of ''n'' + ''m'' Bernoulli distributed random variables, which means ''Z=X+Y'' ~ B(''n+m'', ''p'').", "This can also be proven directly using the addition rule.However, if ''X'' and ''Y'' do not have the same probability ''p'', then the variance of the sum will be smaller than the variance of a binomial variable distributed as ===Poisson binomial distribution===The binomial distribution is a special case of the Poisson binomial distribution, which is the distribution of a sum of ''n'' independent non-identical Bernoulli trials B(''pi'').===Ratio of two binomial distributions===This result was first derived by Katz and coauthors in 1978.Let and be independent.", "Let .Then log(''T'') is approximately normally distributed with mean log(''p''1/''p''2) and variance .===Conditional binomials===If ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') and ''Y'' | ''X'' ~ B(''X'', ''q'') (the conditional distribution of ''Y'', given ''X''), then ''Y'' is a simple binomial random variable with distribution ''Y'' ~ B(''n'', ''pq'').For example, imagine throwing ''n'' balls to a basket ''UX'' and taking the balls that hit and throwing them to another basket ''UY''.", "If ''p'' is the probability to hit ''UX'' then ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') is the number of balls that hit ''UX''.", "If ''q'' is the probability to hit ''UY'' then the number of balls that hit ''UY'' is ''Y'' ~ B(''X'', ''q'') and therefore ''Y'' ~ B(''n'', ''pq'').Since and , by the law of total probability,:Since the equation above can be expressed as:Factoring and pulling all the terms that don't depend on out of the sum now yields:After substituting in the expression above, we get:Notice that the sum (in the parentheses) above equals by the binomial theorem.", "Substituting this in finally yields:and thus as desired.===Bernoulli distribution===The Bernoulli distribution is a special case of the binomial distribution, where ''n'' = 1.Symbolically, ''X'' ~ B(1, ''p'') has the same meaning as ''X'' ~ Bernoulli(''p'').", "Conversely, any binomial distribution, B(''n'', ''p''), is the distribution of the sum of ''n'' independent Bernoulli trials, Bernoulli(''p''), each with the same probability ''p''.===Normal approximation===Binomial probability mass function and normal probability density function approximation for ''n'' = 6 and ''p'' = 0.5If ''n'' is large enough, then the skew of the distribution is not too great.", "In this case a reasonable approximation to B(''n'', ''p'') is given by the normal distribution:and this basic approximation can be improved in a simple way by using a suitable continuity correction.The basic approximation generally improves as ''n'' increases (at least 20) and is better when ''p'' is not near to 0 or 1.Various rules of thumb may be used to decide whether ''n'' is large enough, and ''p'' is far enough from the extremes of zero or one:*One rule is that for the normal approximation is adequate if the absolute value of the skewness is strictly less than 0.3; that is, if::This can be made precise using the Berry–Esseen theorem.", "*A stronger rule states that the normal approximation is appropriate only if everything within 3 standard deviations of its mean is within the range of possible values; that is, only if:::This 3-standard-deviation rule is equivalent to the following conditions, which also imply the first rule above.", "::The rule is totally equivalent to request that:Moving terms around yields::Since , we can apply the square power and divide by the respective factors and , to obtain the desired conditions::Notice that these conditions automatically imply that .", "On the other hand, apply again the square root and divide by 3,:Subtracting the second set of inequalities from the first one yields::and so, the desired first rule is satisfied,:*Another commonly used rule is that both values and must be greater than or equal to 5.However, the specific number varies from source to source, and depends on how good an approximation one wants.", "In particular, if one uses 9 instead of 5, the rule implies the results stated in the previous paragraphs.Assume that both values and are greater than 9.Since , we easily have that :We only have to divide now by the respective factors and , to deduce the alternative form of the 3-standard-deviation rule::The following is an example of applying a continuity correction.", "Suppose one wishes to calculate Pr(''X'' ≤ 8) for a binomial random variable ''X''.", "If ''Y'' has a distribution given by the normal approximation, then Pr(''X'' ≤ 8) is approximated by Pr(''Y'' ≤ 8.5).", "The addition of 0.5 is the continuity correction; the uncorrected normal approximation gives considerably less accurate results.This approximation, known as de Moivre–Laplace theorem, is a huge time-saver when undertaking calculations by hand (exact calculations with large ''n'' are very onerous); historically, it was the first use of the normal distribution, introduced in Abraham de Moivre's book ''The Doctrine of Chances'' in 1738.Nowadays, it can be seen as a consequence of the central limit theorem since B(''n'', ''p'') is a sum of ''n'' independent, identically distributed Bernoulli variables with parameter ''p''.", "This fact is the basis of a hypothesis test, a \"proportion z-test\", for the value of ''p'' using ''x/n'', the sample proportion and estimator of ''p'', in a common test statistic.For example, suppose one randomly samples ''n'' people out of a large population and ask them whether they agree with a certain statement.", "The proportion of people who agree will of course depend on the sample.", "If groups of ''n'' people were sampled repeatedly and truly randomly, the proportions would follow an approximate normal distribution with mean equal to the true proportion ''p'' of agreement in the population and with standard deviation:===Poisson approximation===The binomial distribution converges towards the Poisson distribution as the number of trials goes to infinity while the product ''np'' converges to a finite limit.", "Therefore, the Poisson distribution with parameter ''λ'' = ''np'' can be used as an approximation to B(''n'', ''p'') of the binomial distribution if ''n'' is sufficiently large and ''p'' is sufficiently small.", "According to rules of thumb, this approximation is good if ''n'' ≥ 20 and ''p'' ≤ 0.05 such that np ≤ 1, or if n > 50 and p < 0.1 such that np < 5, or if ''n'' ≥ 100 and ''np'' ≤ 10.Concerning the accuracy of Poisson approximation, see Novak, ch.", "4, and references therein.===Limiting distributions===* ''Poisson limit theorem'': As ''n'' approaches ∞ and ''p'' approaches 0 with the product ''np'' held fixed, the Binomial(''n'', ''p'') distribution approaches the Poisson distribution with expected value ''λ = np''.", "* ''de Moivre–Laplace theorem'': As ''n'' approaches ∞ while ''p'' remains fixed, the distribution of:::approaches the normal distribution with expected value 0 and variance 1.This result is sometimes loosely stated by saying that the distribution of ''X'' is asymptotically normal with expected value 0 and variance 1.This result is a specific case of the central limit theorem.===Beta distribution===The binomial distribution and beta distribution are different views of the same model of repeated Bernoulli trials.", "The binomial distribution is the PMF of successes given independent events each with a probability of success.", "Mathematically, when and , the beta distribution and the binomial distribution are related by a factor of ::Beta distributions also provide a family of prior probability distributions for binomial distributions in Bayesian inference: :Given a uniform prior, the posterior distribution for the probability of success given independent events with observed successes is a beta distribution." ], [ "Random number generation", "Methods for random number generation where the marginal distribution is a binomial distribution are well-established.One way to generate random variates samples from a binomial distribution is to use an inversion algorithm.", "To do so, one must calculate the probability that for all values from through .", "(These probabilities should sum to a value close to one, in order to encompass the entire sample space.)", "Then by using a pseudorandom number generator to generate samples uniformly between 0 and 1, one can transform the calculated samples into discrete numbers by using the probabilities calculated in the first step." ], [ "History", "This distribution was derived by Jacob Bernoulli.", "He considered the case where ''p'' = ''r''/(''r'' + ''s'') where ''p'' is the probability of success and ''r'' and ''s'' are positive integers.", "Blaise Pascal had earlier considered the case where ''p'' = 1/2, tabulating the corresponding binomial coefficients in what is now recognized as Pascal's triangle." ], [ "See also", "*Logistic regression*Multinomial distribution*Negative binomial distribution*Beta-binomial distribution*Binomial measure, an example of a multifractal measure.", "*Statistical mechanics*Piling-up lemma, the resulting probability when XOR-ing independent Boolean variables" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Interactive graphic: Univariate Distribution Relationships* Binomial distribution formula calculator* Difference of two binomial variables: X-Y or * Querying the binomial probability distribution in WolframAlpha* Confidence (credible) intervals for binomial probability, p: online calculator available at causaScientia.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Biostatistics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Biostatistics''' (also known as '''biometry''') is a branch of statistics that applies statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology.", "It encompasses the design of biological experiments, the collection and analysis of data from those experiments and the interpretation of the results." ], [ "History", "=== Biostatistics and genetics ===Biostatistical modeling forms an important part of numerous modern biological theories.", "Genetics studies, since its beginning, used statistical concepts to understand observed experimental results.", "Some genetics scientists even contributed with statistical advances with the development of methods and tools.", "Gregor Mendel started the genetics studies investigating genetics segregation patterns in families of peas and used statistics to explain the collected data.", "In the early 1900s, after the rediscovery of Mendel's Mendelian inheritance work, there were gaps in understanding between genetics and evolutionary Darwinism.", "Francis Galton tried to expand Mendel's discoveries with human data and proposed a different model with fractions of the heredity coming from each ancestral composing an infinite series.", "He called this the theory of \"Law of Ancestral Heredity\".", "His ideas were strongly disagreed by William Bateson, who followed Mendel's conclusions, that genetic inheritance were exclusively from the parents, half from each of them.", "This led to a vigorous debate between the biometricians, who supported Galton's ideas, as Raphael Weldon, Arthur Dukinfield Darbishire and Karl Pearson, and Mendelians, who supported Bateson's (and Mendel's) ideas, such as Charles Davenport and Wilhelm Johannsen.", "Later, biometricians could not reproduce Galton conclusions in different experiments, and Mendel's ideas prevailed.", "By the 1930s, models built on statistical reasoning had helped to resolve these differences and to produce the neo-Darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis.Solving these differences also allowed to define the concept of population genetics and brought together genetics and evolution.", "The three leading figures in the establishment of population genetics and this synthesis all relied on statistics and developed its use in biology.", "* Ronald Fisher worked alongside statistician Betty Allan developing several basic statistical methods in support of his work studying the crop experiments at Rothamsted Research, published in Fisher's books Statistical Methods for Research Workers (1925) and The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (1930), as well as Allan's scientific papers.", "Fisher went on to give many contributions to genetics and statistics.", "Some of them include the ANOVA, p-value concepts, Fisher's exact test and Fisher's equation for population dynamics.", "He is credited for the sentence \"Natural selection is a mechanism for generating an exceedingly high degree of improbability\".", "* Sewall G. Wright developed F-statistics and methods of computing them and defined inbreeding coefficient.", "* J.", "B. S. Haldane's book, ''The Causes of Evolution'', reestablished natural selection as the premier mechanism of evolution by explaining it in terms of the mathematical consequences of Mendelian genetics.", "He also developed the theory of primordial soup.These and other biostatisticians, mathematical biologists, and statistically inclined geneticists helped bring together evolutionary biology and genetics into a consistent, coherent whole that could begin to be quantitatively modeled.In parallel to this overall development, the pioneering work of D'Arcy Thompson in ''On Growth and Form'' also helped to add quantitative discipline to biological study.Despite the fundamental importance and frequent necessity of statistical reasoning, there may nonetheless have been a tendency among biologists to distrust or deprecate results which are not qualitatively apparent.", "One anecdote describes Thomas Hunt Morgan banning the Friden calculator from his department at Caltech, saying \"Well, I am like a guy who is prospecting for gold along the banks of the Sacramento River in 1849.With a little intelligence, I can reach down and pick up big nuggets of gold.", "And as long as I can do that, I'm not going to let any people in my department waste scarce resources in placer mining.\"" ], [ "Research planning", "Any research in life sciences is proposed to answer a scientific question we might have.", "To answer this question with a high certainty, we need accurate results.", "The correct definition of the main hypothesis and the research plan will reduce errors while taking a decision in understanding a phenomenon.", "The research plan might include the research question, the hypothesis to be tested, the experimental design, data collection methods, data analysis perspectives and costs involved.", "It is essential to carry the study based on the three basic principles of experimental statistics: randomization, replication, and local control.=== Research question ===The research question will define the objective of a study.", "The research will be headed by the question, so it needs to be concise, at the same time it is focused on interesting and novel topics that may improve science and knowledge and that field.", "To define the way to ask the scientific question, an exhaustive literature review might be necessary.", "So the research can be useful to add value to the scientific community.=== Hypothesis definition ===Once the aim of the study is defined, the possible answers to the research question can be proposed, transforming this question into a hypothesis.", "The main propose is called null hypothesis (H0) and is usually based on a permanent knowledge about the topic or an obvious occurrence of the phenomena, sustained by a deep literature review.", "We can say it is the standard expected answer for the data under the situation in test.", "In general, HO assumes no association between treatments.", "On the other hand, the alternative hypothesis is the denial of HO.", "It assumes some degree of association between the treatment and the outcome.", "Although, the hypothesis is sustained by question research and its expected and unexpected answers.As an example, consider groups of similar animals (mice, for example) under two different diet systems.", "The research question would be: what is the best diet?", "In this case, H0 would be that there is no difference between the two diets in mice metabolism (H0: μ1 = μ2) and the alternative hypothesis would be that the diets have different effects over animals metabolism (H1: μ1 ≠ μ2).The hypothesis is defined by the researcher, according to his/her interests in answering the main question.", "Besides that, the alternative hypothesis can be more than one hypothesis.", "It can assume not only differences across observed parameters, but their degree of differences (''i.e.''", "higher or shorter).=== Sampling ===Usually, a study aims to understand an effect of a phenomenon over a population.", "In biology, a population is defined as all the individuals of a given species, in a specific area at a given time.", "In biostatistics, this concept is extended to a variety of collections possible of study.", "Although, in biostatistics, a population is not only the individuals, but the total of one specific component of their organisms, as the whole genome, or all the sperm cells, for animals, or the total leaf area, for a plant, for example.It is not possible to take the measures from all the elements of a population.", "Because of that, the sampling process is very important for statistical inference.", "Sampling is defined as to randomly get a representative part of the entire population, to make posterior inferences about the population.", "So, the sample might catch the most variability across a population.", "The sample size is determined by several things, since the scope of the research to the resources available.", "In clinical research, the trial type, as inferiority, equivalence, and superiority is a key in determining sample size.=== Experimental design ===Experimental designs sustain those basic principles of experimental statistics.", "There are three basic experimental designs to randomly allocate treatments in all plots of the experiment.", "They are completely randomized design, randomized block design, and factorial designs.", "Treatments can be arranged in many ways inside the experiment.", "In agriculture, the correct experimental design is the root of a good study and the arrangement of treatments within the study is essential because environment largely affects the plots (plants, livestock, microorganisms).", "These main arrangements can be found in the literature under the names of \"lattices\", \"incomplete blocks\", \"split plot\", \"augmented blocks\", and many others.", "All of the designs might include control plots, determined by the researcher, to provide an error estimation during inference.In clinical studies, the samples are usually smaller than in other biological studies, and in most cases, the environment effect can be controlled or measured.", "It is common to use randomized controlled clinical trials, where results are usually compared with observational study designs such as case–control or cohort.=== Data collection ===Data collection methods must be considered in research planning, because it highly influences the sample size and experimental design.Data collection varies according to type of data.", "For qualitative data, collection can be done with structured questionnaires or by observation, considering presence or intensity of disease, using score criterion to categorize levels of occurrence.", "For quantitative data, collection is done by measuring numerical information using instruments.In agriculture and biology studies, yield data and its components can be obtained by metric measures.", "However, pest and disease injuries in plats are obtained by observation, considering score scales for levels of damage.", "Especially, in genetic studies, modern methods for data collection in field and laboratory should be considered, as high-throughput platforms for phenotyping and genotyping.", "These tools allow bigger experiments, while turn possible evaluate many plots in lower time than a human-based only method for data collection.Finally, all data collected of interest must be stored in an organized data frame for further analysis." ], [ "Analysis and data interpretation", "=== Descriptive tools ===Data can be represented through tables or graphical representation, such as line charts, bar charts, histograms, scatter plot.", "Also, measures of central tendency and variability can be very useful to describe an overview of the data.", "Follow some examples:==== Frequency tables ====One type of table is the frequency table, which consists of data arranged in rows and columns, where the frequency is the number of occurrences or repetitions of data.", "Frequency can be:'''Absolute''': represents the number of times that a determined value appear;'''Relative''': obtained by the division of the absolute frequency by the total number;In the next example, we have the number of genes in ten operons of the same organism.", ": +Genes numberAbsolute frequencyRelative frequency100210.1360.6420.2510.1==== Line graph ==== Figure A: '''Line graph example'''.", "The birth rate in Brazil (2010–2016); Figure B: '''Bar chart example.'''", "The birth rate in Brazil for the December months from 2010 to 2016; Figure C: '''Example of Box Plot''': number of glycines in the proteome of eight different organisms (A-H); Figure D: '''Example of a scatter plot.", "'''Line graphs represent the variation of a value over another metric, such as time.", "In general, values are represented in the vertical axis, while the time variation is represented in the horizontal axis.==== Bar chart ====A bar chart is a graph that shows categorical data as bars presenting heights (vertical bar) or widths (horizontal bar) proportional to represent values.", "Bar charts provide an image that could also be represented in a tabular format.In the bar chart example, we have the birth rate in Brazil for the December months from 2010 to 2016.The sharp fall in December 2016 reflects the outbreak of Zika virus in the birth rate in Brazil.==== Histograms ====350x350pxThe histogram (or frequency distribution) is a graphical representation of a dataset tabulated and divided into uniform or non-uniform classes.", "It was first introduced by Karl Pearson.==== Scatter plot ====A scatter plot is a mathematical diagram that uses Cartesian coordinates to display values of a dataset.", "A scatter plot shows the data as a set of points, each one presenting the value of one variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and another variable on the vertical axis.", "They are also called '''scatter graph''', '''scatter chart''', '''scattergram''', or '''scatter diagram'''.==== Mean ====The arithmetic mean is the sum of a collection of values () divided by the number of items of this collection ().", ": ==== Median ====The median is the value in the middle of a dataset.==== Mode ====The mode is the value of a set of data that appears most often.Comparison among mean, median and modeValues = { 2,3,3,3,3,3,4,4,11 }TypeExampleResultMean ( 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 11 ) / 9'''4'''Median2, 3, 3, 3, '''3''', 3, 4, 4, 11'''3'''Mode2, '''3, 3, 3, 3, 3''', 4, 4, 11'''3'''==== Box plot ====Box plot is a method for graphically depicting groups of numerical data.", "The maximum and minimum values are represented by the lines, and the interquartile range (IQR) represent 25–75% of the data.", "Outliers may be plotted as circles.==== Correlation coefficients ====Although correlations between two different kinds of data could be inferred by graphs, such as scatter plot, it is necessary validate this though numerical information.", "For this reason, correlation coefficients are required.", "They provide a numerical value that reflects the strength of an association.==== Pearson correlation coefficient ====Scatter diagram that demonstrates the Pearson correlation for different values of ''ρ.''", "Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of association between two variables, X and Y.", "This coefficient, usually represented by ''ρ'' (rho) for the population and ''r'' for the sample, assumes values between −1 and 1, where ''ρ'' = 1 represents a perfect positive correlation, ''ρ'' = −1 represents a perfect negative correlation, and ''ρ'' = 0 is no linear correlation.=== Inferential statistics ===It is used to make inferences about an unknown population, by estimation and/or hypothesis testing.", "In other words, it is desirable to obtain parameters to describe the population of interest, but since the data is limited, it is necessary to make use of a representative sample in order to estimate them.", "With that, it is possible to test previously defined hypotheses and apply the conclusions to the entire population.", "The standard error of the mean is a measure of variability that is crucial to do inferences.", "* Hypothesis testingHypothesis testing is essential to make inferences about populations aiming to answer research questions, as settled in \"Research planning\" section.", "Authors defined four steps to be set:# ''The hypothesis to be tested'': as stated earlier, we have to work with the definition of a null hypothesis (H0), that is going to be tested, and an alternative hypothesis.", "But they must be defined before the experiment implementation.# ''Significance level and decision rule'': A decision rule depends on the level of significance, or in other words, the acceptable error rate (α).", "It is easier to think that we define a ''critical value'' that determines the statistical significance when a test statistic is compared with it.", "So, α also has to be predefined before the experiment.# ''Experiment and statistical analysis'': This is when the experiment is really implemented following the appropriate experimental design, data is collected and the more suitable statistical tests are evaluated.# ''Inference'': Is made when the null hypothesis is rejected or not rejected, based on the evidence that the comparison of p-values and α brings.", "It is pointed that the failure to reject H0 just means that there is not enough evidence to support its rejection, but not that this hypothesis is true.", "* Confidence intervalsA confidence interval is a range of values that can contain the true real parameter value in given a certain level of confidence.", "The first step is to estimate the best-unbiased estimate of the population parameter.", "The upper value of the interval is obtained by the sum of this estimate with the multiplication between the standard error of the mean and the confidence level.", "The calculation of lower value is similar, but instead of a sum, a subtraction must be applied." ], [ "Statistical considerations", "=== Power and statistical error ===When testing a hypothesis, there are two types of statistic errors possible: Type I error and Type II error.", "The type I error or false positive is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis and the type II error or false negative is the failure to reject a false null hypothesis.", "The significance level denoted by α is the type I error rate and should be chosen before performing the test.", "The type II error rate is denoted by β and statistical power of the test is 1 − β.=== p-value ===The p-value is the probability of obtaining results as extreme as or more extreme than those observed, assuming the null hypothesis (H0) is true.", "It is also called the calculated probability.", "It is common to confuse the p-value with the significance level (α), but, the α is a predefined threshold for calling significant results.", "If p is less than α, the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected.=== Multiple testing ===In multiple tests of the same hypothesis, the probability of the occurrence of falses positives (familywise error rate) increase and some strategy are used to control this occurrence.", "This is commonly achieved by using a more stringent threshold to reject null hypotheses.", "The Bonferroni correction defines an acceptable global significance level, denoted by α* and each test is individually compared with a value of α = α*/m.", "This ensures that the familywise error rate in all m tests, is less than or equal to α*.", "When m is large, the Bonferroni correction may be overly conservative.", "An alternative to the Bonferroni correction is to control the false discovery rate (FDR).", "The FDR controls the expected proportion of the rejected null hypotheses (the so-called discoveries) that are false (incorrect rejections).", "This procedure ensures that, for independent tests, the false discovery rate is at most q*.", "Thus, the FDR is less conservative than the Bonferroni correction and have more power, at the cost of more false positives.=== Mis-specification and robustness checks ===The main hypothesis being tested (e.g., no association between treatments and outcomes) is often accompanied by other technical assumptions (e.g., about the form of the probability distribution of the outcomes) that are also part of the null hypothesis.", "When the technical assumptions are violated in practice, then the null may be frequently rejected even if the main hypothesis is true.", "Such rejections are said to be due to model mis-specification.", "Verifying whether the outcome of a statistical test does not change when the technical assumptions are slightly altered (so-called robustness checks) is the main way of combating mis-specification.=== Model selection criteria ===Model criteria selection will select or model that more approximate true model.", "The Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) and The Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) are examples of asymptotically efficient criteria." ], [ "Developments and big data", "Recent developments have made a large impact on biostatistics.", "Two important changes have been the ability to collect data on a high-throughput scale, and the ability to perform much more complex analysis using computational techniques.", "This comes from the development in areas as sequencing technologies, Bioinformatics and Machine learning (Machine learning in bioinformatics).=== Use in high-throughput data ===New biomedical technologies like microarrays, next-generation sequencers (for genomics) and mass spectrometry (for proteomics) generate enormous amounts of data, allowing many tests to be performed simultaneously.", "Careful analysis with biostatistical methods is required to separate the signal from the noise.", "For example, a microarray could be used to measure many thousands of genes simultaneously, determining which of them have different expression in diseased cells compared to normal cells.", "However, only a fraction of genes will be differentially expressed.Multicollinearity often occurs in high-throughput biostatistical settings.", "Due to high intercorrelation between the predictors (such as gene expression levels), the information of one predictor might be contained in another one.", "It could be that only 5% of the predictors are responsible for 90% of the variability of the response.", "In such a case, one could apply the biostatistical technique of dimension reduction (for example via principal component analysis).", "Classical statistical techniques like linear or logistic regression and linear discriminant analysis do not work well for high dimensional data (i.e.", "when the number of observations n is smaller than the number of features or predictors p: n 2-values despite very low predictive power of the statistical model.", "These classical statistical techniques (esp.", "least squares linear regression) were developed for low dimensional data (i.e.", "where the number of observations n is much larger than the number of predictors p: n >> p).", "In cases of high dimensionality, one should always consider an independent validation test set and the corresponding residual sum of squares (RSS) and R2 of the validation test set, not those of the training set.Often, it is useful to pool information from multiple predictors together.", "For example, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) considers the perturbation of whole (functionally related) gene sets rather than of single genes.", "These gene sets might be known biochemical pathways or otherwise functionally related genes.", "The advantage of this approach is that it is more robust: It is more likely that a single gene is found to be falsely perturbed than it is that a whole pathway is falsely perturbed.", "Furthermore, one can integrate the accumulated knowledge about biochemical pathways (like the JAK-STAT signaling pathway) using this approach.=== Bioinformatics advances in databases, data mining, and biological interpretation ===The development of biological databases enables storage and management of biological data with the possibility of ensuring access for users around the world.", "They are useful for researchers depositing data, retrieve information and files (raw or processed) originated from other experiments or indexing scientific articles, as PubMed.", "Another possibility is search for the desired term (a gene, a protein, a disease, an organism, and so on) and check all results related to this search.", "There are databases dedicated to SNPs (dbSNP), the knowledge on genes characterization and their pathways (KEGG) and the description of gene function classifying it by cellular component, molecular function and biological process (Gene Ontology).", "In addition to databases that contain specific molecular information, there are others that are ample in the sense that they store information about an organism or group of organisms.", "As an example of a database directed towards just one organism, but that contains much data about it, is the ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' genetic and molecular database – TAIR.", "Phytozome, in turn, stores the assemblies and annotation files of dozen of plant genomes, also containing visualization and analysis tools.", "Moreover, there is an interconnection between some databases in the information exchange/sharing and a major initiative was the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (INSDC) which relates data from DDBJ, EMBL-EBI, and NCBI.Nowadays, increase in size and complexity of molecular datasets leads to use of powerful statistical methods provided by computer science algorithms which are developed by machine learning area.", "Therefore, data mining and machine learning allow detection of patterns in data with a complex structure, as biological ones, by using methods of supervised and unsupervised learning, regression, detection of clusters and association rule mining, among others.", "To indicate some of them, self-organizing maps and ''k''-means are examples of cluster algorithms; neural networks implementation and support vector machines models are examples of common machine learning algorithms.Collaborative work among molecular biologists, bioinformaticians, statisticians and computer scientists is important to perform an experiment correctly, going from planning, passing through data generation and analysis, and ending with biological interpretation of the results.=== Use of computationally intensive methods ===On the other hand, the advent of modern computer technology and relatively cheap computing resources have enabled computer-intensive biostatistical methods like bootstrapping and re-sampling methods.In recent times, random forests have gained popularity as a method for performing statistical classification.", "Random forest techniques generate a panel of decision trees.", "Decision trees have the advantage that you can draw them and interpret them (even with a basic understanding of mathematics and statistics).", "Random Forests have thus been used for clinical decision support systems." ], [ "Applications", "=== Public health ===Public health, including epidemiology, health services research, nutrition, environmental health and health care policy & management.", "In these medicine contents, it's important to consider the design and analysis of the clinical trials.", "As one example, there is the assessment of severity state of a patient with a prognosis of an outcome of a disease.With new technologies and genetics knowledge, biostatistics are now also used for Systems medicine, which consists in a more personalized medicine.", "For this, is made an integration of data from different sources, including conventional patient data, clinico-pathological parameters, molecular and genetic data as well as data generated by additional new-omics technologies.=== Quantitative genetics ===The study of population genetics and statistical genetics in order to link variation in genotype with a variation in phenotype.", "In other words, it is desirable to discover the genetic basis of a measurable trait, a quantitative trait, that is under polygenic control.", "A genome region that is responsible for a continuous trait is called a quantitative trait locus (QTL).", "The study of QTLs become feasible by using molecular markers and measuring traits in populations, but their mapping needs the obtaining of a population from an experimental crossing, like an F2 or recombinant inbred strains/lines (RILs).", "To scan for QTLs regions in a genome, a gene map based on linkage have to be built.", "Some of the best-known QTL mapping algorithms are Interval Mapping, Composite Interval Mapping, and Multiple Interval Mapping.However, QTL mapping resolution is impaired by the amount of recombination assayed, a problem for species in which it is difficult to obtain large offspring.", "Furthermore, allele diversity is restricted to individuals originated from contrasting parents, which limit studies of allele diversity when we have a panel of individuals representing a natural population.", "For this reason, the genome-wide association study was proposed in order to identify QTLs based on linkage disequilibrium, that is the non-random association between traits and molecular markers.", "It was leveraged by the development of high-throughput SNP genotyping.In animal and plant breeding, the use of markers in selection aiming for breeding, mainly the molecular ones, collaborated to the development of marker-assisted selection.", "While QTL mapping is limited due resolution, GWAS does not have enough power when rare variants of small effect that are also influenced by environment.", "So, the concept of Genomic Selection (GS) arises in order to use all molecular markers in the selection and allow the prediction of the performance of candidates in this selection.", "The proposal is to genotype and phenotype a training population, develop a model that can obtain the genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) of individuals belonging to a genotype and but not phenotype population, called testing population.", "This kind of study could also include a validation population, thinking in the concept of cross-validation, in which the real phenotype results measured in this population are compared with the phenotype results based on the prediction, what used to check the accuracy of the model.As a summary, some points about the application of quantitative genetics are:* This has been used in agriculture to improve crops (Plant breeding) and livestock (Animal breeding).", "* In biomedical research, this work can assist in finding candidates gene alleles that can cause or influence predisposition to diseases in human genetics=== Expression data ===Studies for differential expression of genes from RNA-Seq data, as for RT-qPCR and microarrays, demands comparison of conditions.", "The goal is to identify genes which have a significant change in abundance between different conditions.", "Then, experiments are designed appropriately, with replicates for each condition/treatment, randomization and blocking, when necessary.", "In RNA-Seq, the quantification of expression uses the information of mapped reads that are summarized in some genetic unit, as exons that are part of a gene sequence.", "As microarray results can be approximated by a normal distribution, RNA-Seq counts data are better explained by other distributions.", "The first used distribution was the Poisson one, but it underestimate the sample error, leading to false positives.", "Currently, biological variation is considered by methods that estimate a dispersion parameter of a negative binomial distribution.", "Generalized linear models are used to perform the tests for statistical significance and as the number of genes is high, multiple tests correction have to be considered.", "Some examples of other analysis on genomics data comes from microarray or proteomics experiments.", "Often concerning diseases or disease stages.=== Other studies ===* Ecology, ecological forecasting* Biological sequence analysis* Systems biology for gene network inference or pathways analysis.", "* Clinical research and pharmaceutical development* Population dynamics, especially in regards to fisheries science.", "* Phylogenetics and evolution* Pharmacodynamics* Pharmacokinetics* Neuroimaging" ], [ "Tools", "There are a lot of tools that can be used to do statistical analysis in biological data.", "Most of them are useful in other areas of knowledge, covering a large number of applications (alphabetical).", "Here are brief descriptions of some of them:* ASReml: Another software developed by VSNi that can be used also in R environment as a package.", "It is developed to estimate variance components under a general linear mixed model using restricted maximum likelihood (REML).", "Models with fixed effects and random effects and nested or crossed ones are allowed.", "Gives the possibility to investigate different variance-covariance matrix structures.", "* CycDesigN: A computer package developed by VSNi that helps the researchers create experimental designs and analyze data coming from a design present in one of three classes handled by CycDesigN.", "These classes are resolvable, non-resolvable, partially replicated and crossover designs.", "It includes less used designs the Latinized ones, as t-Latinized design.", "* Orange: A programming interface for high-level data processing, data mining and data visualization.", "Include tools for gene expression and genomics.", "* R: An open source environment and programming language dedicated to statistical computing and graphics.", "It is an implementation of S language maintained by CRAN.", "In addition to its functions to read data tables, take descriptive statistics, develop and evaluate models, its repository contains packages developed by researchers around the world.", "This allows the development of functions written to deal with the statistical analysis of data that comes from specific applications.", "In the case of Bioinformatics, for example, there are packages located in the main repository (CRAN) and in others, as Bioconductor.", "It is also possible to use packages under development that are shared in hosting-services as GitHub.", "* SAS: A data analysis software widely used, going through universities, services and industry.", "Developed by a company with the same name (SAS Institute), it uses SAS language for programming.", "* PLA 3.0: Is a biostatistical analysis software for regulated environments (e.g.", "drug testing) which supports Quantitative Response Assays (Parallel-Line, Parallel-Logistics, Slope-Ratio) and Dichotomous Assays (Quantal Response, Binary Assays).", "It also supports weighting methods for combination calculations and the automatic data aggregation of independent assay data.", "* Weka: A Java software for machine learning and data mining, including tools and methods for visualization, clustering, regression, association rule, and classification.", "There are tools for cross-validation, bootstrapping and a module of algorithm comparison.", "Weka also can be run in other programming languages as Perl or R.* Python (programming language) image analysis, deep-learning, machine-learning* SQL databases* NoSQL* NumPy numerical python* SciPy* SageMath* LAPACK linear algebra* MATLAB* Apache Hadoop* Apache Spark* Amazon Web Services" ], [ "Scope and training programs", "Almost all educational programmes in biostatistics are at postgraduate level.", "They are most often found in schools of public health, affiliated with schools of medicine, forestry, or agriculture, or as a focus of application in departments of statistics.In the United States, where several universities have dedicated biostatistics departments, many other top-tier universities integrate biostatistics faculty into statistics or other departments, such as epidemiology.", "Thus, departments carrying the name \"biostatistics\" may exist under quite different structures.", "For instance, relatively new biostatistics departments have been founded with a focus on bioinformatics and computational biology, whereas older departments, typically affiliated with schools of public health, will have more traditional lines of research involving epidemiological studies and clinical trials as well as bioinformatics.", "In larger universities around the world, where both a statistics and a biostatistics department exist, the degree of integration between the two departments may range from the bare minimum to very close collaboration.", "In general, the difference between a statistics program and a biostatistics program is twofold: (i) statistics departments will often host theoretical/methodological research which are less common in biostatistics programs and (ii) statistics departments have lines of research that may include biomedical applications but also other areas such as industry (quality control), business and economics and biological areas other than medicine." ], [ "Specialized journals", "* Biostatistics* International Journal of Biostatistics* Journal of Epidemiology and Biostatistics* Biostatistics and Public Health* Biometrics* Biometrika* Biometrical Journal* Communications in Biometry and Crop Science* Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology* Statistical Methods in Medical Research* Pharmaceutical Statistics* Statistics in Medicine" ], [ "See also", "* Bioinformatics* Epidemiological method* Epidemiology* Group size measures* Health indicator* Mathematical and theoretical biology" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The International Biometric Society* The Collection of Biostatistics Research Archive* Guide to Biostatistics (MedPageToday.com) * Biomedical Statistics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of major biblical figures" ], [ "Introduction", "The Bible is a canonical collection of texts considered sacred in Judaism or Christianity.", "Different religious groups include different books within their canons, in different orders, and sometimes divide or combine books, or incorporate additional material into canonical books.", "Christian Bibles range from the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon to the eighty-one books of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church canon." ], [ "Hebrew Bible", "===Prophets===*Samuel*Enoch===Kings===*David*Solomon===Priests===* Aaron* Eleazar* Eli* Phinehas===Tribes of Israel===According to the Book of Genesis, the Israelites were descendants of the sons of Jacob, who was renamed Israel after wrestling with an angel.", "His twelve male children become the ancestors of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.", "* Asher* Benjamin* Dan* Gad* Issachar* Joseph, which was split into two tribes descended from his sons:** Tribe of Ephraim** Tribe of Manasseh* Judah* Levi* Naphtali* Reuben* Simeon* Zebulun" ], [ "Deuterocanon", "===Maccabees===*Eleazar Avaran*John Gaddi*John Hyrcanus*Jonathan Apphus*Judas Maccabeus*Mattathias*Simon Thassi===Greek rulers===*Alexander the Great*Antiochus III the Great*Antiochus IV Epiphanes*Philip II of Macedon===Persian rulers===*Astyages*Darius III===Others===*Baruch*Tobit*Judith*Susanna" ], [ "New Testament", "===Jesus and his relatives===* Jesus Christ* Mary, mother of Jesus* Joseph* Brothers of Jesus** James (often identified with James, son of Alphaeus)** Joseph (Joses)** Judas (Jude) (often identified with Thaddeus)** Simon* Mary of Clopas* Cleopas (often identified with Alphaeus and Clopas)===Apostles of Jesus===The Thirteen:* Peter (a.k.a.", "Simon or Cephas)* Andrew (Simon Peter's brother)* James, son of Zebedee* John, son of Zebedee* Philip* Bartholomew also known as \"Nathanael\"* Thomas also known as \"Doubting Thomas\"* Matthew also known as \"Levi\"* James, son of Alphaeus* Judas, son of James (a.k.a.", "Thaddeus or Lebbaeus)* Simon the Zealot* Judas Iscariot (the traitor)* MatthiasOthers:* Paul* Barnabas* Mary Magdalene (the one who discovered Jesus’ empty tomb)===Priests===* Caiaphas, high priest* Annas, first high priest of Roman Judea* Zechariah, father of John the Baptist===Prophets===* Agabus* Anna* Simeon* John the Baptist===Other believers===* Apollos* Aquila* Dionysius the Areopagite* Epaphras, fellow prisoner of Paul, fellow worker* John Mark (often identified with Mark)* Joseph of Arimathea* Lazarus* Luke* Mark* Martha* Mary Magdalene* Mary, sister of Martha* Nicodemus* Onesimus* Philemon* Priscilla* Silas* Sopater* Stephen, first martyr* Timothy* Titus===Secular rulers===* Agrippa I, called \"King Herod\" or \"Herod\" in Acts 12* Felix governor of Judea who was present at the trial of Paul, and his wife Drusilla in Acts 24:24* Herod Agrippa II, king over several territories, before whom Paul made his defense in Acts 26.", "* Herod Antipas, called \"Herod the Tetrarch\" or \"Herod\" in the Gospels and in Acts 4:27* Herodias* Herod the Great* Philip the Tetrarch* Pontius Pilate* Salome, the daughter of Herodias* Quirinius====Roman Emperors====* Augustus* Tiberius* Nero" ], [ "See also", "* List of biblical names* List of burial places of biblical figures* List of Jewish biblical figures* List of minor biblical figures, A–K* List of minor biblical figures, L–Z* List of minor New Testament figures" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "British & Irish Lions" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''British & Irish Lions''' is a rugby union team selected from players eligible for the national teams of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.", "The Lions are a test side and most often select players who have already played for their national team, although they can pick uncapped players who are eligible for any of the four unions.", "The team currently tours every four years, with these rotating between Australia, New Zealand and South Africa in order.", "The most recent test series, the 2021 series against South Africa, was won 2–1 by South Africa.From 1888 onwards, combined British rugby sides toured the Southern Hemisphere.", "The first tour was a commercial venture, undertaken without official backing.", "The six subsequent visits enjoyed a growing degree of support from the authorities, before the 1910 South Africa tour, which was the first tour representative of the four Home Unions.", "In 1949 the four Home Unions formally created a Tours Committee and for the first time, every player of the 1950 Lions squad had played internationally before the tour.", "The 1950s tours saw high win rates in provincial games, but the Test series were typically lost or drawn.", "The series wins in 1971 (New Zealand) and 1974 (South Africa) interrupted this pattern.", "The last tour of the amateur age took place in 1993.The Lions have also played occasional matches in the Northern Hemisphere either as one-off exhibitions or before a Southern Hemisphere tour." ], [ "Naming and symbols", "===Name===The Shaw and Shrewsbury team first played in 1888 and is considered the precursor of the British & Irish Lions.", "It was then primarily English in composition but also contained players from Scotland and Wales.", "Later the team used the name British Isles.", "On their 1950 tour of New Zealand and Australia they officially adopted the name British Lions, the nickname first used by British and South African journalists on the 1924 South African tour after the lion emblem on their ties, the emblem on their jerseys having been dropped in favour of the four-quartered badge with the symbols of the four represented unions.When the team first emerged in the 19th century, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was one single state.", "The team continued after the Irish Free State was set up in 1922, but was still known as the British Lions or British Isles.", "The name \"British & Irish Lions\" has been used since the 2001 tour of Australia.", "The team is often referred to simply as the Lions.===Anthem===As the Lions represent four rugby unions, which cover two sovereign states, they do not currently have a national anthem.", "For the 1989 tour, the British national anthem \"God Save the Queen\" was used.", "For the 2005 tour to New Zealand, the Lions management commissioned a song, \"The Power of Four\", although it was met with little support among Lions fans at the matches and has not been used since.===Colours and strip===For more than half a century, the Lions have worn a red jersey that sports the amalgamated crests of the four unions.", "Prior to 1950 the strip went through a number of significantly different formats.====Unsanctioned tours====In 1888, the promoter of the first expedition to Australia and New Zealand, Arthur Shrewsbury, demanded \"something that would be good material and yet take them by storm out here\".", "The result was a jersey in thick red, white and blue hoops, worn above white shorts and dark socks.", "The tours to South Africa in 1891 and 1896 retained the red, white and blue theme but this time as red and white hooped jerseys and dark blue shorts and socks.", "The 1899 trip to Australia saw a reversion to red, white and blue jerseys, but with the blue used in thick hoops and the red and white in thin bands.", "The shorts remained blue, as did the socks although a white flash was added to the latter.", "The one-off test in 1999 between England and Australia that was played to commemorate Australia's first test against Reverend Matthew Mullineux's British side saw England wear an updated version of this jersey.", "In 1903, the South Africa tour followed on from the 1896 tour, with red and white hooped jerseys.", "The slight differences were that the red hoops were slightly thicker than the white (the opposite was true in 1896), and the white flash on the socks introduced in 1899 was partially retained.", "The Australia tour of 1904 saw exactly the same kit as in 1899.In 1908, with the Scottish and Irish unions not taking part, the Anglo-Welsh side sported red jerseys with a thick white band on tour to Australia and New Zealand.", "Blue shorts were retained, but the socks were for the first time red, with a white flash.====Blue jerseys, the Lions named and the crest adopted====The Scots were once again involved in Tom Smyth's 1910 team to South Africa.", "Thus, dark blue jerseys were introduced with white shorts and the red socks of 1908.The jerseys also had a single lion-rampant crest.", "The 1924 tour returned to South Africa, retaining the blue jerseys but now with shorts to match.", "It is the 1924 tour that is credited as being the first in which the team were referred to as \"the Lions\", the irony being that it was on this tour that the single lion-rampant crest was replaced with the forerunner of the four-quartered badge with the symbols of the four represented unions, that is still worn today.", "Although the lion had been dropped from the jersey, the players had worn the lion motif on their ties as they arrived in South Africa, which led the press and public referring to them as \"the Lions\".The unofficial 1927 Argentina tour used the same kit and badge, and three heraldic lions returned as the jersey badge in 1930.This was the tour to New Zealand where the tourists' now standard blue jerseys caused some controversy.", "The convention in rugby is for the home side to accommodate its guests when there is a clash of kit.", "The New Zealand side, by then already synonymous with the appellation \"All Blacks\", had an all black kit that clashed with the Lions' blue.", "After much reluctance and debate New Zealand agreed to change for the Tests and New Zealand played in all white for the first time.", "On the 1930 tour a delegation led by the Irish lock George Beamish expressed their displeasure at the fact that while the blue of Scotland, white of England and red of Wales were represented in the strip there was no green for Ireland.", "A green flash was added to the socks, which from 1938 became a green turnover (although on blue socks thus eliminating red from the kit), and that has remained a feature of the strip ever since.", "In 1936, the four-quartered badge returned for the tour to Argentina and has remained on the kits ever since, but other than that the strip remained the same.====Red jerseys====The adoption of the red jersey happened in the 1950 tour.", "A return to New Zealand was accompanied by a desire to avoid the controversy of 1930 and so red replaced blue for the jersey with the resultant kit being that which is still worn today, the combination of red jersey, white shorts and green and blue socks, representing the four unions.", "The only additions to the strip since 1950 began appearing in 1993, with the addition of kit suppliers logos in prominent positions.", "Umbro had in 1989 asked for \"maximum brand exposure whenever possible\" but this did not affect the kit's appearance.", "Since then, Nike, Adidas and Canterbury have had more overt branding on the shirts, with sponsors Scottish Provident (1997), NTL (2001), Zurich (2005), HSBC (2009 and 2013), Standard Life Investments (2017) and Vodafone (2021).====Jersey evolution====" ], [ "Squad", " 2021 South Africa tour squad'''Props'''* '''Zander Fagerson'''* '''Tadhg Furlong'''* '''Wyn Jones'''* '''Kyle Sinckler'''* Rory Sutherland* Mako Vunipola'''Hookers'''* Luke Cowan-Dickie* '''Jamie George'''* '''Ken Owens''''''Locks'''* '''Tadhg Beirne'''* '''Alun Wyn Jones''' (c)* Iain Henderson* '''Jonny Hill'''* Adam Beard* '''Maro Itoje'''* '''Courtney Lawes''''''Back row'''* '''Jack Conan'''* '''Tom Curry'''* '''Taulupe Faletau'''* '''Sam Simmonds'''* Justin Tipuric 12px* Josh Navidi* Hamish Watson'''Scrum-halves'''* '''Gareth Davies'''* Conor Murray* Ali Price'''Fly-halves'''* Dan Biggar* '''Owen Farrell'''* '''Finn Russell'''* Marcus Smith'''Centres'''* '''Bundee Aki'''* '''Elliot Daly''' * Chris Harris* Robbie Henshaw'''Back three'''* '''Josh Adams'''* Louis Rees-Zammit* Duhan van der Merwe* '''Anthony Watson'''* '''Liam Williams'''* '''Stuart Hogg''' (c) Denotes team captain" ], [ "History", "===1888–1909===Shaw & Shrewsbury Team, 1888, The first British or Irish touring rugby team, a private-enterprise trip to Australia and New ZealandThe earliest tours date back to 1888, when a 21-man squad visited Australia and New Zealand.", "The squad drew players from England, Scotland and Wales, though English players predominated.", "The 35-match tour of two host nations included no tests, but the side played provincial, city and academic sides, winning 27 matches.", "They played 19 games of Australian rules football, against prominent clubs in Victoria and South Australia, winning six and drawing one of these (see Australian rules football in England).The first tour, although unsanctioned by rugby bodies, established the concept of Northern Hemisphere sporting sides touring to the Southern Hemisphere.", "Three years after the first tour, the Western Province union invited rugby bodies in Britain to tour South Africa.", "Some saw the 1891 team – the first sanctioned by the Rugby Football Union – as the England national team, though others referred to it as \"the British Isles\".", "The tourists played a total of twenty matches, three of them tests.", "The team also played the regional side of South Africa (South Africa did not exist as a political unit in 1891), winning all three matches.", "In a notable event of the tour, the touring side presented the Currie Cup to Griqualand West, the province they thought produced the best performance on the tour.Five years later a British Isles side returned to South Africa.", "They played one extra match on this tour, making the total of 21 games, including four tests against South Africa, with the British Isles winning three of them.", "The squad had a notable Irish orientation, with the Ireland national team contributing six players to the 21-man squad.The full squad that in 1899 returned to Australia, where they played 21 games, including four testsIn 1899 the British Isles touring side returned to Australia for the first time since the unofficial tour of 1888.The squad of 23 for the first time ever had players from each of the home nations.", "The team again participated in 21 matches, playing state teams as well as northern Queensland sides and Victorian teams.", "A four-test series took place against Australia, the tourists winning three out of the four.", "The team returned via Hawaii and Canada playing additional games en route.Four years later, in 1903, the British Isles team returned to South Africa.", "The opening performance of the side proved disappointing from the tourists' point of view, with defeats in its opening three matches by Western Province sides in Cape Town.", "From then on the team experienced mixed results, though more wins than losses.", "The side lost the test series to South Africa, drawing twice, but with the South Africans winning the decider 8 to nil.The ''Lions'' team that toured on Australia and New Zealand in 1904.They played four test, winning threeNo more than twelve months passed before the British Isles team ventured to Australia and New Zealand in 1904.The tourists devastated the Australian teams, winning every single game.", "Australia also lost all three tests to the visitors, even getting held to a standstill in two of the three games.", "Though the New Zealand leg of the tour did not take long in comparison to the number of Australian games, the British Isles experienced considerable difficulty across the Tasman after whitewashing the Australians.", "The team managed two early wins before losing the test to New Zealand and only winning one more game as well as drawing once.", "Despite their difficulties in New Zealand, the tour proved a raging success on-field for the British Isles.In 1908, another tour took place to Australia and New Zealand.", "In a reversal of previous practice, the planners allocated more matches in New Zealand rather than in Australia: perhaps the strength of the New Zealand teams and the heavy defeats of all Australian teams on the previous tour influenced this decision.", "Some commentators thought that this tour hoped to reach out to rugby communities in Australia, as rugby league (infamously) started in Australia in 1908.The Anglo-Welsh side (Irish and Scottish unions did not participate) performed well in all the non-test matches, but drew a test against New Zealand and lost the other two.===1910–1949===Official photo of the squad that toured on South Africa in 1910Visits that took place before the 1910 South Africa tour (the first selected by a committee from the four Home Unions) had enjoyed a growing degree of support from the authorities, although only one of these included representatives of all four nations.", "The 1910 tour to South Africa marked the official beginning of British Isles rugby tours: the inaugural tour operating under all four unions.", "The team performed moderately against the non-test teams, claiming victories in just over half their matches, and the test series went to South Africa, who won two of the three games.", "A side managed by Oxford University — supposedly the England rugby team, but actually including three Scottish players — toured Argentina at the time: the people of Argentina termed it the \"Combined British\".The next British Isles team tour did not take place until 1924, again in South Africa.", "The team, led by Ronald Cove-Smith, struggled with injuries and lost three of the four test matches, drawing the other 3–3.In total, 21 games were played, with the touring side winning 9, drawing 3 and losing 9.Argentina during their second tour to the country in 1927In 1927 a short, nine-game series took place in Argentina, with the British isles winning all nine encounters, and the tour was a financial success for Argentine rugby.", "The Lions returned to New Zealand in 1930 with some success.", "The Lions won all of their games that did not have test status except for the matches against Auckland, Wellington and Canterbury, but they lost three of their four test matches against New Zealand, winning the first test 6–3.The side also visited Australia, losing a test but winning five out of the six non-test games.In 1936 the British Isles visited Argentina for the third time, winning all ten of their matches and only conceding nine points in the whole tour.", "Two years later in 1938 the British Isles toured in South Africa, winning more than half of their normal matches.", "Despite having lost the test series to South Africa by game three, they won the final test.", "This is when they were named THE LIONS by their then Captain Sam Walker.===1950–1969===The first post-war tour went to New Zealand and Australia in 1950.The Lions, sporting newly redesigned jerseys and displaying a fresh style of play, managed to win 22 and draw one of 29 matches over the two nations.", "The Lions won the opening four fixtures before losing to Otago and Southland, but succeeded in holding New Zealand to a 9–9 draw.", "The Lions performed well in the remaining All Black tests though they lost all three, the team did not lose another non-test in the New Zealand leg of the tour.", "The Lions won all their games in Australia except for their final fixture against a New South Wales XV in Newcastle.", "They won both tests against Australia, in Brisbane, Queensland and in Sydney.In 1955 the Lions toured South Africa and left with another imposing record, one draw and 19 wins from the 25 fixtures.", "The four-test series against South Africa, a thrilling affair, ended in a drawn series.The 1959 tour to Australia and New Zealand marked once again a very successful tour for the Lions, who only lost six of their 35 fixtures.", "The Lions easily won both tests against Australia and lost the first three tests against New Zealand, but did find victory (9–6) in the final test.After the glittering decade of the 1950s, the first tour of the 1960s proved not nearly as successful as previous ones.", "The 1962 tour to South Africa saw the Lions still win 16 of their 25 games, but did not fare well against the Springboks, losing three of the four tests.", "For the 1966 tour to Australia and New Zealand John Robins became the first Lions coach, and the trip started off very well for the Lions, who stormed through Australia, winning five non-tests and drawing one, and defeating Australia in two tests.", "The Lions experienced mixed results during the New Zealand leg of the tour, as well as losing all of the tests against New Zealand.", "The Lions also played a test against Canada on their way home, winning 19 to 8 in Toronto.", "The 1968 tour of South Africa saw the Lions win 15 of their 16 provincial matches, but the team actually lost three tests against the Springboks and drew one.===1970–1979===The 1970s saw a renaissance for the Lions.", "The 1971 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia, centred around the skilled Welsh half-back pairing of Gareth Edwards and Barry John, secured a series win over New Zealand.", "The tour started with a loss to Queensland but proceeded to storm through the next provincial fixtures, winning 11 games in a row.", "The Lions then went on to defeat New Zealand in Dunedin.", "The Lions only lost one match on the rest of the tour and won the test series against New Zealand, winning and drawing the last two games, to take the series two wins to one.The 1974 British Lions tour to South Africa was one of the best-known and most successful Lions teams.", "Apartheid concerns meant some players declined the tour.", "Nonetheless, led by the esteemed Irish forward Willie John McBride, the tour went through 22 games unbeaten and triumphed 3–0 (with one drawn) in the test series.", "The series featured a lot of violence.", "The management of the Lions concluded that the Springboks dominated their opponents with physical aggression.", "At that time, test match referees came from the home nation, substitutions took place only if a doctor found a player unable to continue and there were no video cameras or sideline officials to prevent violent play.", "The Lions decided \"to get their retaliation in first\" with the infamous \"99 call\".", "The Lions postulated that a South African referee would probably not send off all of the Lions if they all retaliated against \"blatant thuggery\".", "Famous video footage of the 'battle of Boet Erasmus Stadium' shows JPR Williams running over half of the pitch and launching himself at Van Heerden after such a call.The 1977 British Lions tour to New Zealand saw the Lions drop only one non-test out of 21 games, a loss to a Universities side.", "The team did not win the test series though, winning one game but losing the other three.In August 1977 the British Lions made a stopover in Fiji on the way home from their tour of New Zealand.", "Fiji beat them 25–21 at Buckhurst Park, Suva.===1980–1989===The Lions toured South Africa in 1980, and completed a flawless non-test record, winning 14 out of 14 matches.", "The Lions lost the first three tests to South Africa, only winning the last one once the Springboks were guaranteed to win the series.The 1983 tour to New Zealand saw the team successful in the non-test games, winning all but two games, but being whitewashed in the test series against New Zealand.A tour to South Africa by the Lions was anticipated in 1986, but the invitation for the Lions to tour was never accepted because of controversy surrounding Apartheid and the tour did not go ahead.", "The Lions did not return to South Africa until 1997, after the Apartheid era.", "A Lions team was selected in April 1986 for the International Rugby Board centenary match against 'The Rest'.", "The team was organised by the Four Home Unions Committee and the players were given the status of official British Lions.The Lions tour to Australia in 1989 was a shorter affair, being only 12 matches in total.", "The tour was very successful for the Lions, who won all eight non-test matches and won the test series against Australia, two to one.===1990–1999===The tour to New Zealand in 1993 was the last of the amateur era.", "The Lions won six and lost four non-test matches, and lost the test series 2–1.The tour to South Africa in 1997 was a success for the Lions, who completed the tour with only two losses, and won the test series 2–1.===2000–2009===The British & Irish Lions against New Zealand in 2005In 2001, the ten-game tour to Australia saw the Wallabies win the test series 2–1.This series saw the first award of the Tom Richards Trophy.", "In the Lions' 2005 tour to New Zealand, coached by Clive Woodward, the Lions won seven games against provincial teams, were defeated by the New Zealand Maori team, and suffered heavy defeats in all three tests.In 2009, the Lions toured South Africa.", "There they faced the World Cup winners South Africa, with Ian McGeechan leading a coaching team including Warren Gatland, Shaun Edwards and Rob Howley.", "The Lions were captained by Irish lock Paul O'Connell.", "The initial Lions selection consisted of fourteen Irish players, thirteen Welsh, eight English and two Scots in the 37-man squad.", "In the first Test on 20 June, they lost 26–21, and lost the series in the second 28–25 in a tightly fought game at Loftus Versfeld on 27 June.", "The Lions won the third Test 28–9 at Ellis Park, and the series finished 2–1 to South Africa.===2010–2019===During June 2013 the British & Irish Lions toured Australia.", "Former Scotland and Lions full-back Andy Irvine was appointed as tour manager in 2010.Wales head coach Warren Gatland was the Lions' head coach, and their tour captain was Sam Warburton.", "The tour started in Hong Kong with a match against the Barbarians before moving on to Australia for the main tour featuring six provincial matches and three tests.", "The Lions won all but one non-test matches, losing to the Brumbies 14–12 on 18 June.", "The first test was followed shortly after this, which saw the Lions go 1-up over Australia winning 23–21.Australia did have a chance to take the win in the final moments of the game, but a missed penalty by Kurtley Beale saw the Lions take the win.", "The Wallabies drew the series in the second test winning 16–15, though the Lions had a chance to steal the win had it not been because of a missed penalty by Leigh Halfpenny.", "With tour captain Warburton out of the final test due to injury, Alun Wyn Jones took over the captaincy in the final test in Sydney.", "The final test was won by the Lions in what was a record win, winning 41–16 to earn their first series win since 1997 and their first over Australia since 1989.Following his winning tour of Australia in 2013, Warren Gatland was reappointed as Lions Head Coach for the tour to New Zealand in June and July 2017.In April 2016, it was announced that the side would again be captained again by Sam Warburton.", "The touring schedule included 10 games: an opening game against the Provincial Barbarians, challenge matches against all five of New Zealand's Super Rugby sides, a match against the Māori All Blacks and three tests against .", "The Lions defeated the Provincial Barbarians in the first game of the tour, before being beaten by the Blues three days later.", "The team recovered to beat the Crusaders but this was followed up with another midweek loss, this time against the Highlanders.", "The Lions then faced the Māori All Blacks, winning comfortably to restore optimism and followed up with their first midweek victory of the tour against the Chiefs.", "On 24 June, the Lions, captained by Peter O'Mahony, faced New Zealand in Eden Park in the first Test and were beaten 30–15.This was followed by the final midweek game of the tour, a draw against the Hurricanes.", "For the second Test, Gatland recalled Warburton to the starting team as captain.", "In Wellington Regional Stadium, the Lions beat a 14-man New Zealand side 24–21 after Sonny Bill Williams was red-carded at the 24-minute mark after a shoulder charge on Anthony Watson.", "This tied the series going into the final game, ending the side's 47-game winning run at home.", "In the final test at Eden Park the following week, the teams were tied at 15 points apiece with 78 minutes gone.", "Romain Poite signaled a penalty to New Zealand for an offside infringement after Ken Owens received the ball in front of his teammate Liam Williams, giving New Zealand the opportunity to kick for goal and potentially win the series.", "Poite, however, decided to downgrade the penalty to a free-kick after discussing with assistant referee Jérôme Garcès and Lions captain Sam Warburton.", "The match finished as a draw and the series was tied.===2020–present===Warren Gatland was Lions head coach again for the tour to South Africa in 2021.In December 2019, the Lions' Test venues were announced, but the tour was significantly disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, and all the games were played behind closed doors.", "South Africa won the test series by two games to one.", "In the deciding third test, Morne Steyn again kicked a late penalty to win the series.", "In 2024, it was announced that Andy Farrell would succeed Gatland as the Lions head coach.", "A women's Lions team was established in 2024, with their inaugural tour to New Zealand to take place in 2027." ], [ "Overall test match record", ".", "Team Played Won Lost Drawn For Against ANZAC XV 1 1 0 0 19 15 +4 7 6 0 1 236 31 +205 23 17 6 0 414 248 +166 1 1 0 0 19 8 +11 2 2 0 0 89 6 +83 East Africa 2 2 0 0 89 12 +77 1 0 1 0 21 25 –4 1 1 0 0 29 27 +2 1 1 0 0 28 10 +18 41 7 30 4 399 700 –301 Rest of Europe XV 1 1 0 0 43 18 +25 9 9 0 0 265 83 +182 49 18 25 6 554 636 –82 South West Africa 4 4 0 0 69 22 +47 The Rest 1 0 1 0 7 15 –8 Total 144 70 63 11 2,281 1,856 +425 '''Overall test series results''' Team Tours Won Lost Drawn 3 3 0 0 9 7 2 0 12 1 10 1 14 4 9 1 Total 38 15 21 2" ], [ "Tours", "===Format===The Lions now regularly tour three Southern Hemisphere countries; Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.", "They also toured Argentina three times before the Second World War.", "Since 1989 tours have been held every four years.", "The most recent tour was to South Africa in 2021.In a break with tradition, the 2005 tour of New Zealand was preceded by a \"home\" fixture against Argentina at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff on 23 May 2005.It finished in a 25–25 draw.", "A similar fixture was held against Japan before the 2021 tour of South Africa at Murrayfield, with the Lions winning 28-10.On tour, games take place against local provinces, clubs or representative sides as well as test matches against the host's national team.The Lions and their predecessor teams have also played games against other nearby countries on tour.", "For example, they played Rhodesia in 1910, 1924, 1938, 1955, 1962, 1968 and 1974 during their tours to South Africa.", "They were also beaten by Fiji on their 1977 tour to New Zealand.", "In addition, they visited pre-independence Namibia (then South West Africa), in 1955, 1962, 1968 and 1974.There have also been games in other countries on the way home.", "These include games in in 1959 and 1966, East Africa (then mostly Kenya, and held in Nairobi), and an unofficial game against Ceylon (future Sri Lanka) in 1950.YearToCaptainHead coachTop scorer in TestsTest series resultTests record1888New Zealandand Australia Robert Seddon Andrew Stoddart Alfred Shaw Arthur Shrewsbury''No Test matches played''1891South Africa Bill Maclagan Edwin Ash Arthur Rotherham, 4Won1896South Africa Johnny HammondThomas Crean Roger Walker J. F. Byrne, 12Won1899Australia Matthew Mullineux Frank Stout Matthew Mullineux Charlie Adamson, 17Won1903South Africa Mark Morrison Johnny Hammond John Gillespie, 4Lost1904Australia and New Zealand David Bedell-SivrightTeddy Morgan Arthur O'Brien Percy Bush, 20WonLost (Australia) (New Zealand)1908New Zealandand Australia Arthur Harding George Harnett Reggie Gibbs, 3 Jack Jones, 3Lost (NZ)No tests against Australia1910South Africa Tommy Smyth Jack Jones William CailWalter E. Rees Jack Spoors, 9Lost1910Argentina John Raphael R.V.", "Stanley Harold Monks, 10''(no test caps awarded)''Won1924South Africa Ronald Cove-Smith Harry Packer Tom Voyce, 6Lost1927Argentina David MacMyn James Baxter Ernest Hammett, 40''(no test caps awarded)''Won1930New Zealandand Australia Doug Prentice Carl Aarvold James Baxter Carl Aarvold, 9LostLost (New Zealand) (Australia)1936Argentina Bernard Gadney Doug Prentice John Brett, 7''(no test caps awarded)''Won1938South Africa Sam Walker Major B.C.", "Hartley Vivian Jenkins, 9Lost1950New Zealandand Australia Karl MullenBleddyn Williams Leslie B. Osborne Lewis Jones, 26LostWon (NZ) (Australia)1955South Africa Robin ThompsonCliff Morgan Jack Siggins Jeff Butterfield, 12Tied1959Australiaand New Zealand Ronnie Dawson O.", "B. Glasgow David Hewitt, 16WonLost (Australia) (New Zealand)1962South Africa Arthur SmithDickie Jeeps Harry McKibbin John Willcox, 5Lost1966Australiaand New Zealand David Watkins Mike Campbell-Lamerton John Robins Stewart Wilson, 30WonLost (Australia) (New Zealand)1968South Africa Tom Kiernan Ronnie Dawson Tom Kiernan, 35Lost1971New Zealand John Dawes Carwyn James Barry John, 30Won1974South Africa Willie John McBride Syd Millar Phil Bennett, 26Won1977New Zealand Phil Bennett John Dawes Phil Bennett, 18Lost1980South Africa Bill Beaumont Noel Murphy Tony Ward, 18Lost1983New Zealand Ciaran Fitzgerald Jim Telfer Ollie Campbell, 15Lost1989Australia Finlay Calder Ian McGeechan Gavin Hastings, 28Won1993New Zealand Gavin Hastings Ian McGeechan Gavin Hastings, 38Lost1997South Africa Martin Johnson Ian McGeechan Neil Jenkins, 41Won2001Australia Martin Johnson Graham Henry Jonny Wilkinson, 36Lost2005New Zealand Brian O'Driscoll Gareth Thomas Clive Woodward Stephen Jones, 14Lost2009South Africa Paul O'Connell Ian McGeechan Stephen Jones, 39Lost2013Australia Sam Warburton Alun Wyn Jones Warren Gatland Leigh Halfpenny, 49Won2017New Zealand Sam Warburton Peter O'Mahony Warren Gatland Owen Farrell, 31Tied2021South Africa Alun Wyn Jones Warren Gatland Dan Biggar, 23Lost 2025Australia Andy Farrell2029New Zealand====Other matches=======Lions non-tour and home matches===The Lions have played a number of other matches against international opposition.", "With the exception of the matches against Argentina in 2005 and Japan in 2021, which were preparation matches for Lions tours, these matches have been one-offs to mark special occasions.The Lions played an unofficial international match in 1955 at Cardiff Arms Park against a Welsh XV to mark the 75th anniversary of the Welsh Rugby Union.", "The Lions won 20–17 but did not include all the big names of the 1955 tour, such as Tony O'Reilly, Jeff Butterfield, Phil Davies, Dickie Jeeps, Bryn Meredith and Jim Greenwood.In 1977, the Lions played their first official home game, against the Barbarians as a charity fund-raiser held as part of the Queen's silver jubilee celebrations.", "The Baa-Baas line-up featured JPR Williams, Gerald Davies, Gareth Edwards, Jean-Pierre Rives and Jean-Claude Skrela.", "The Lions included 13 of the team who played in the fourth test against New Zealand three weeks before and won 23–14.In 1986, a match was organised against The Rest as a warm-up to the 1986 South Africa tour, and as a celebration to mark the International Rugby Board's centenary.", "The Lions lost 15–7 and the planned tour was subsequently cancelled.In 1989, the Lions played against France in Paris.", "The game formed part of the celebrations of the bi-centennial of the French Revolution.", "The Lions, captained by Rob Andrew, won 29–27.In 1990, a Four Home Unions team played against the Rest of Europe in a match to raise money for the rebuilding of Romania following the overthrow of Nicolae Ceaușescu in December 1989.The team used the Lions' logo, while the Rest of Europe played under the symbol of the Romanian Rugby Federation." ], [ "Player records", ":''Players in '''bold''' are still active at international level.", "'':''Only matches against full international sides are listed.", "''===Most caps===''Updated 7 August 2021''RankNameToursCapsPosition1 Willie John McBride1962–197417Lock2 Dickie Jeeps1955–196213Scrum-half3 Mike Gibson1966–197112Centre Alun Wyn Jones2009–202112Lock Graham Price1977–198312Prop6 Tony O'Reilly1955–195910Wing R. H. Williams1955–195910Lock Gareth Edwards1968–197410Scrum-half9 Syd Millar1955–19599Prop '''Mako Vunipola'''2013–2021 9Prop===Most points===''Updated 31 July 2021''RankNameCareerPointsCapsPosition1 Gavin Hastings1986–1993697Full-back2 Jonny Wilkinson2001–2005676Fly-half3 Stephen Jones2005–2009536Fly-half4'''''' Leigh Halfpenny2013–2017494Full-back5 Phil Bennett1974–1977448Fly-half6 Neil Jenkins1997–2001414Fly-half7 Tom Kiernan1962–1968355Full-back8 '''Owen Farrell'''2013–2021346Fly-half/centre9 Stewart Wilson1966305Full-back Barry John1968–1971305Fly-half===Most tries===''Updated 31 July 2021''RankNameCareerTriesCapsPosition1 Tony O'Reilly1955–1959610Wing2 J. J. Williams1974–197757Wing3 Willie Llewellyn190444Wing Malcolm Price195946Centre4 Alf Bucher189933Wing Jack Spoors191033Full-back Carl Aarvold193035Centre Jeff Butterfield195534Centre Ken Jones1962–196636Centre Gerald Davies1968–197135Wing" ], [ "See also", "*List of British & Irish Lions test matches*Rugby union and apartheid*Rugby union in the British Isles" ], [ "Notes", "'''a.'''", "Names of the Lions in the languages of Britain and Ireland:* English: ''British & Irish Lions''* * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bass guitar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''bass guitar''', '''electric bass''' or simply '''bass''' () is the lowest-pitched member of the guitar family.", "It is a plucked string instrument similar in appearance and construction to an electric or acoustic guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length, and typically four to six (or more) strings or courses.", "Since the mid-1950s, the bass guitar has largely come to replace the double bass in popular music due to its lighter weight, the use of frets (for easier intonation) and, most importantly, its design for electric amplification.", "The four-string bass guitar is usually tuned the same as the double bass, which corresponds to pitches one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings of a guitar (typically E, A, D, and G).", "It is played primarily with the fingers or thumb, or with a pick.", "To be heard at normal performance volumes, electric bass guitars require external amplification." ], [ "Terminology", "According to the ''New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', an \"Electric bass guitar, usually with four heavy strings tuned E1'–A1'–D2–G2.\"", "It also defines ''bass'' as \"Bass (iv).", "A contraction of Double bass or Electric bass guitar.\"", "According to some authors the proper term is \"electric bass\".", "Common names for the instrument are \"bass guitar\", \"electric bass guitar\", and \"electric bass\" and some authors claim that they are historically accurate.", "A bass guitar whose neck lacks frets is termed a fretless bass.=== Scale ===The scale of a bass is defined as the length of the freely oscillating strings between the nut and the bridge saddles.", "On a modern 4-string bass guitar, 30\" (76 cm) or less is considered short scale, 32\" (81 cm) medium scale, 34\" (86 cm) standard or long scale and 35\" (89 cm) extra-long scale.=== Pickup ===Bass pickups are generally attached to the body of the guitar and located beneath the strings.", "They are responsible for converting the vibrations of the strings into analogous electrical signals, which are in turn passed as input to an instrument amplifier.=== Strings ===Bass guitar strings are composed of a ''core'' and ''winding''.", "The core is a wire which runs through the center of the string and is generally made of steel, nickel, or an alloy.", "The winding is an additional wire wrapped around the core.", "Bass guitar strings vary by the material and cross-sectional shape of the winding.", "Common variants include roundwound, flatwound, halfwound (groundwound), coated, tapewound and taperwound (not to be confused with tapewound) strings.", "Roundwound and flatwound strings feature windings with circular and rounded-square cross-sections, respectively, with halfround (also referred to as halfwound, ground wound, pressure wound) strings being a hybrid between the two.", "Coated strings have their surface coated with a synthetic layer while tapewound strings feature a metal core with a non-metallic winding.", "Taperwound strings have a tapered end where the exposed core sits on the bridge saddle without windings.", "The choice of winding has considerable impact on the sound of the instrument, with certain winding styles often being preferred for certain musical genres." ], [ "History", "=== 1930s ===Paul Tutmarc, inventor of the modern bass guitar, outside his music store in Seattle, WashingtonIn the 1930s, musician and inventor Paul Tutmarc of Seattle, Washington, developed the first electric bass guitar in its modern form, a fretted instrument designed to be played horizontally.", "The 1935 sales catalog for Tutmarc's company Audiovox featured his \"Model 736 Bass Fiddle\", a solid-bodied electric bass guitar with four strings, a scale length, and a single pickup.", "Around 100 were made during this period.Audiovox also sold their \"Model 236\" bass amplifier.=== 1950s ===An early Fender Precision BassIn the 1950s, Leo Fender and George Fullerton developed the first mass-produced electric bass guitar.", "The Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company began producing the Precision Bass, or P-Bass, in October 1951.The design featured a simple uncontoured \"slab\" body design and a single coil pickup similar to that of a Telecaster.", "By 1957 the Precision more closely resembled the Fender Stratocaster with the body edges beveled for comfort, and the pickup was changed to a split coil design.Design patent issued to Leo Fender for the second-generation Precision BassThe Fender Bass was a revolutionary instrument for gigging musicians.", "In comparison with the large, heavy upright bass, which had been the main bass instrument in popular music from the early 20th century to the 1940s, the bass guitar could be easily transported to shows.", "When amplified, the bass guitar was also less prone than acoustic basses to unwanted audio feedback.", "The addition of frets enabled bassists to play in tune more easily than on fretless acoustic or electric upright basses, and allowed guitarists to more easily transition to the instrument.In 1953, Monk Montgomery became the first bassist to tour with the Fender bass, in Lionel Hampton's postwar big band.", "Montgomery was also possibly the first to record with the electric bass, on July 2, 1953, with the Art Farmer Septet.", "Roy Johnson (with Lionel Hampton), and Shifty Henry (with Louis Jordan and His Tympany Five), were other early Fender bass pioneers.", "Bill Black, who played with Elvis Presley, switched from upright bass to the Fender Precision Bass around 1957.The bass guitar was intended to appeal to guitarists as well as upright bass players, and many early pioneers of the instrument, such as Carol Kaye, Joe Osborn, and Paul McCartney were originally guitarists.Also in 1953, Gibson released the first short-scale violin-shaped electric bass, the EB-1, with an extendable end pin so a bassist could play it upright or horizontally.", "In 1958, Gibson released the maple arched-top EB-2 described in the Gibson catalog as a \"hollow-body electric bass that features a Bass/Baritone pushbutton for two different tonal characteristics\".", "In 1959, these were followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass.", "The EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance (although the earliest examples have a slab-sided body shape closer to that of the double-cutaway Les Paul Special).", "The Fender and Gibson versions used bolt-on and set necks.Several other companies also began manufacturing bass guitars during the 1950s.", "Kay Musical Instrument Company began production of the K162 in 1952, while Danelectro released the Longhorn in 1956.Also in 1956, at the German trade fair \"Musikmesse Frankfurt\" the distinctive Höfner 500/1 violin-shaped bass first appeared, constructed using violin techniques by Walter Höfner, a second-generation violin luthier.", "Due to its use by Paul McCartney, it became known as the \"Beatle bass\".", "In 1957, Rickenbacker introduced the model 4000, the first bass to feature a neck-through-body design in which the neck is part of the body wood.", "The Burns London Supersound was introduced in 1958.=== 1960s ===Gibson EB-3With the explosion in popularity of rock music in the 1960s, many more manufacturers began making electric basses, including Yamaha, Teisco and Guyatone.", "Introduced in 1960, the Fender Jazz Bass, initially known as the \"Deluxe Bass\", used a body design known as an offset waist which was first seen on the Jazzmaster guitar in an effort to improve comfort while playing seated.", "The Jazz bass, or J-Bass, features two single-coil pickups.Providing a more \"Gibson-scale\" instrument, rather than the Jazz and Precision, Fender produced the Mustang Bass, a scale-length instrument.", "The Fender VI, a 6 string bass, was tuned one octave lower than standard guitar tuning.", "It was released in 1961, and was briefly favored by Jack Bruce of Cream.Gibson introduced its short-scale EB-3 in 1961, also used by Bruce.", "The EB-3 had a \"mini-humbucker\" at the bridge position.", "Gibson basses tended to be instruments with a shorter 30.5\" scale length than the Precision.", "Gibson did not produce a -scale bass until 1963 with the release of the Thunderbird.The first commercial fretless bass guitar was the Ampeg AUB-1, introduced in 1966.In the late 1960s, eight-string basses, with four octave paired courses (similar to a 12 string guitar), were introduced, such as the Hagström H8.=== 1970s ===In 1972, Alembic established what became known as \"boutique\" or \"high-end\" electric bass guitars.", "These expensive, custom-tailored instruments, as used by Phil Lesh, Jack Casady, and Stanley Clarke, featured unique designs, premium hand-finished wood bodies, and innovative construction techniques such as multi-laminate neck-through-body construction and graphite necks.", "Alembic also pioneered the use of onboard electronics for pre-amplification and equalization.", "Active electronics increase the output of the instrument, and allow more options for controlling tonal flexibility, giving the player the ability to amplify as well as to attenuate certain frequency ranges while improving the overall frequency response (including more low-register and high-register sounds).", "1976 saw the UK company Wal begin production of their own range of active basses.", "In 1974 Music Man Instruments, founded by Tom Walker, Forrest White and Leo Fender, introduced the StingRay, the first widely produced bass with active (powered) electronics built into the instrument.", "Basses with active electronics can include a preamplifier and knobs for boosting and cutting the low and high frequencies.In the mid-1970s, five-string basses, with a very low \"B\" string, were introduced.", "In 1975, bassist Anthony Jackson commissioned luthier Carl Thompson to build a six-string bass tuned (low to high) B0, E1, A1, D2, G2, C3, adding a low B string and a high C string." ], [ "See also", "* Acoustic bass guitar* Fretless bass* Bass guitar tuning* Bass instrument amplification* Bass effects* Pickups* List of bass guitar manufacturers* List of bass guitarists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Basketball" ], [ "Introduction", "Olympic pictogram for basketball'''Basketball''' is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one another on a rectangular court, compete with the primary objective of shooting a basketball (approximately in diameter) through the defender's hoop (a basket in diameter mounted high to a backboard at each end of the court), while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own hoop.", "A field goal is worth two points, unless made from behind the three-point line, when it is worth three.", "After a foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated to shoot a technical foul is given one, two or three one-point free throws.", "The team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but if regulation play expires with the score tied, an additional period of play (overtime) is mandated.Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or by passing it to a teammate, both of which require considerable skill.", "On offense, players may use a variety of shotsthe layup, the jump shot, or a dunk; on defense, they may steal the ball from a dribbler, intercept passes, or block shots; either offense or defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that bounces from rim or backboard.", "It is a violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling.The five players on each side fall into five playing positions.", "The tallest player is usually the center, the second-tallest and strongest is the power forward, a slightly shorter but more agile player is the small forward, and the shortest players or the best ball handlers are the shooting guard and the point guard, who implement the coach's game plan by managing the execution of offensive and defensive plays (player positioning).", "Informally, players may play three-on-three, two-on-two, and one-on-one.Invented in 1891 by Canadian-American gym teacher James Naismith in Springfield, Massachusetts, in the United States, basketball has evolved to become one of the world's most popular and widely viewed sports.", "The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the most significant professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and level of competition (drawing most of its talent from U.S. college basketball).", "Outside North America, the top clubs from national leagues qualify to continental championships such as the EuroLeague and the Basketball Champions League Americas.", "The FIBA Basketball World Cup and Men's Olympic Basketball Tournament are the major international events of the sport and attract top national teams from around the world.", "Each continent hosts regional competitions for national teams, like EuroBasket and FIBA AmeriCup.The FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup and Women's Olympic Basketball Tournament feature top national teams from continental championships.", "The main North American league is the WNBA (NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship is also popular), whereas the strongest European clubs participate in the EuroLeague Women." ], [ "History", "===Creation===James Naismith In December 1891, James Naismith, a Canadian-American professor of physical education and instructor at the International Young Men's Christian Association Training School (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts, was trying to keep his gym class active on a rainy day.", "He sought a vigorous indoor game to keep his students occupied and at proper levels of fitness during the long New England winters.", "After rejecting other ideas as either too rough or poorly suited to walled-in gymnasiums, he invented a new game in which players would pass a ball to teammates and try to score points by tossing the ball into a basket mounted on a wall.", "Naismith wrote the basic rules and nailed a peach basket onto an elevated track.", "Naismith initially set up the peach basket with its bottom intact, which meant that the ball had to be retrieved manually after each \"basket\" or point scored.", "This quickly proved tedious, so Naismith removed the bottom of the basket to allow the balls to be poked out with a long dowel after each scored basket.The first basketball court: Springfield CollegeOld-style basketball with lacesBasketball was originally played with a soccer ball.", "These round balls from \"association football\" were made, at the time, with a set of laces to close off the hole needed for inserting the inflatable bladder after the other sewn-together segments of the ball's cover had been flipped outside-in.", "These laces could cause bounce passes and dribbling to be unpredictable.", "Eventually a lace-free ball construction method was invented, and this change to the game was endorsed by Naismith (whereas in American football, the lace construction proved to be advantageous for gripping and remains to this day).", "The first balls made specifically for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s that Tony Hinkle, searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use.", "Dribbling was not part of the original game except for the \"bounce pass\" to teammates.", "Passing the ball was the primary means of ball movement.", "Dribbling was eventually introduced but limited by the asymmetric shape of early balls.", "Dribbling was common by 1896, with a rule against the double dribble by 1898.The peach baskets were used until 1906 when they were finally replaced by metal hoops with backboards.", "A further change was soon made, so the ball merely passed through.", "Whenever a person got the ball in the basket, his team would gain a point.", "Whichever team got the most points won the game.", "The baskets were originally nailed to the mezzanine balcony of the playing court, but this proved impractical when spectators in the balcony began to interfere with shots.", "The backboard was introduced to prevent this interference; it had the additional effect of allowing rebound shots.", "Naismith's handwritten diaries, discovered by his granddaughter in early 2006, indicate that he was nervous about the new game he had invented, which incorporated rules from a children's game called duck on a rock, as many had failed before it.Frank Mahan, one of the players from the original first game, approached Naismith after the Christmas break, in early 1892, asking him what he intended to call his new game.", "Naismith replied that he had not thought of it because he had been focused on just getting the game started.", "Mahan suggested that it be called \"Naismith ball\", at which he laughed, saying that a name like that would kill any game.", "Mahan then said, \"Why not call it basketball?\"", "Naismith replied, \"We have a basket and a ball, and it seems to me that would be a good name for it.\"", "The first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium in Albany, New York, on January 20, 1892, with nine players.", "The game ended at 1–0; the shot was made from , on a court just half the size of a present-day Streetball or National Basketball Association (NBA) court.At the time, soccer was being played with 10 to a team (which was increased to 11).", "When winter weather got too icy to play soccer, teams were taken indoors, and it was convenient to have them split in half and play basketball with five on each side.", "By 1897–98, teams of five became standard.===College basketball===The 1899 University of Kansas basketball team, with James Naismith at the back, rightBasketball's early adherents were dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United States, and it quickly spread through the United States and Canada.", "By 1895, it was well established at several women's high schools.", "While YMCA was responsible for initially developing and spreading the game, within a decade it discouraged the new sport, as rough play and rowdy crowds began to detract from YMCA's primary mission.", "However, other amateur sports clubs, colleges, and professional clubs quickly filled the void.", "In the years before World War I, the Amateur Athletic Union and the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (forerunner of the NCAA) vied for control over the rules for the game.", "The first pro league, the National Basketball League, was formed in 1898 to protect players from exploitation and to promote a less rough game.", "This league only lasted five years.James Naismith was instrumental in establishing college basketball.", "His colleague C. O. Beamis fielded the first college basketball team just a year after the Springfield YMCA game at the suburban Pittsburgh Geneva College.", "Naismith himself later coached at the University of Kansas for six years, before handing the reins to renowned coach Forrest \"Phog\" Allen.", "Naismith's disciple Amos Alonzo Stagg brought basketball to the University of Chicago, while Adolph Rupp, a student of Naismith's at Kansas, enjoyed great success as coach at the University of Kentucky.", "On February 9, 1895, the first intercollegiate 5-on-5 game was played at Hamline University between Hamline and the School of Agriculture, which was affiliated with the University of Minnesota.", "The School of Agriculture won in a 9–3 game.In 1901, colleges, including the University of Chicago, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, the University of Minnesota, the U.S.", "Naval Academy, the University of Colorado and Yale University began sponsoring men's games.", "In 1905, frequent injuries on the football field prompted President Theodore Roosevelt to suggest that colleges form a governing body, resulting in the creation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS).", "In 1910, that body changed its name to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).", "The first Canadian interuniversity basketball game was played at YMCA in Kingston, Ontario on February 6, 1904, when McGill UniversityNaismith's alma matervisited Queen's University.", "McGill won 9–7 in overtime; the score was 7–7 at the end of regulation play, and a ten-minute overtime period settled the outcome.", "A good turnout of spectators watched the game.The first men's national championship tournament, the National Association of Intercollegiate Basketball tournament, which still exists as the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) tournament, was organized in 1937.The first national championship for NCAA teams, the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in New York, was organized in 1938; the NCAA national tournament began one year later.", "College basketball was rocked by gambling scandals from 1948 to 1951, when dozens of players from top teams were implicated in match fixing and point shaving.", "Partially spurred by an association with cheating, the NIT lost support to the NCAA tournament.===High school basketball===Heart Mountain and Powell High School girls teams, Wyoming, March 1944Before widespread school district consolidation, most American high schools were far smaller than their present-day counterparts.", "During the first decades of the 20th century, basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to its modest equipment and personnel requirements.", "In the days before widespread television coverage of professional and college sports, the popularity of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America.", "Perhaps the most legendary of high school teams was Indiana's Franklin Wonder Five, which took the nation by storm during the 1920s, dominating Indiana basketball and earning national recognition.Today virtually every high school in the United States fields a basketball team in varsity competition.", "Basketball's popularity remains high, both in rural areas where they carry the identification of the entire community, as well as at some larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to participate at higher levels of competition after graduation.", "In the 2016–17 season, 980,673 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic basketball competition, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations.", "The states of Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky are particularly well known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball, commonly called Hoosier Hysteria in Indiana; the critically acclaimed film ''Hoosiers'' shows high school basketball's depth of meaning to these communities.High School of Montreal Girls Junior Basketball team, 1915–1916⁣There is currently no tournament to determine a national high school champion.", "The most serious effort was the National Interscholastic Basketball Tournament at the University of Chicago from 1917 to 1930.The event was organized by Amos Alonzo Stagg and sent invitations to state champion teams.", "The tournament started out as a mostly Midwest affair but grew.", "In 1929 it had 29 state champions.", "Faced with opposition from the National Federation of State High School Associations and North Central Association of Colleges and Schools that bore a threat of the schools losing their accreditation the last tournament was in 1930.The organizations said they were concerned that the tournament was being used to recruit professional players from the prep ranks.", "The tournament did not invite minority schools or private/parochial schools.The National Catholic Interscholastic Basketball Tournament ran from 1924 to 1941 at Loyola University.", "The National Catholic Invitational Basketball Tournament from 1954 to 1978 played at a series of venues, including Catholic University, Georgetown and George Mason.", "The National Interscholastic Basketball Tournament for Black High Schools was held from 1929 to 1942 at Hampton Institute.", "The National Invitational Interscholastic Basketball Tournament was held from 1941 to 1967 starting out at Tuskegee Institute.", "Following a pause during World War II it resumed at Tennessee State College in Nashville.", "The basis for the champion dwindled after 1954 when ''Brown v. Board of Education'' began an integration of schools.", "The last tournaments were held at Alabama State College from 1964 to 1967.===Professional basketball===The Liberator'' magazine promoting an exhibition in Harlem, March 1922.Drawing by Hugo Gellert.Teams abounded throughout the 1920s.", "There were hundreds of men's professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United States, and little organization of the professional game.", "Players jumped from team to team and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls.", "Leagues came and went.", "Barnstorming squads such as the Original Celtics and two all-African American teams, the New York Renaissance Five (\"Rens\") and the (still existing) Harlem Globetrotters played up to two hundred games a year on their national tours.In 1946, the Basketball Association of America (BAA) was formed.", "The first game was played in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between the Toronto Huskies and New York Knickerbockers on November 1, 1946.Three seasons later, in 1949, the BAA merged with the National Basketball League (NBL) to form the National Basketball Association (NBA).", "By the 1950s, basketball had become a major college sport, thus paving the way for a growth of interest in professional basketball.", "In 1959, a basketball hall of fame was founded in Springfield, Massachusetts, site of the first game.", "Its rosters include the names of great players, coaches, referees and people who have contributed significantly to the development of the game.", "The hall of fame has people who have accomplished many goals in their career in basketball.", "An upstart organization, the American Basketball Association, emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's dominance until the ABA-NBA merger in 1976.Today the NBA is the top professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and level of competition.The NBA has featured many famous players, including George Mikan, the first dominating \"big man\"; ball-handling wizard Bob Cousy and defensive genius Bill Russell of the Boston Celtics; charismatic center Wilt Chamberlain, who originally played for the barnstorming Harlem Globetrotters; all-around stars Oscar Robertson and Jerry West; more recent big men Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal, Hakeem Olajuwon and Karl Malone; playmakers John Stockton, Isiah Thomas and Steve Nash; crowd-pleasing forwards Julius Erving and Charles Barkley; European stars Dirk Nowitzki, Pau Gasol and Tony Parker; Latin American stars Manu Ginobili, more recent superstars, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, Tim Duncan, LeBron James, Stephen Curry, Giannis Antetokounmpo, etc.", "; and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its highest level of popularity during the 1980s and 1990s: Larry Bird, Earvin \"Magic\" Johnson, and Michael Jordan.In 2001, the NBA formed a developmental league, the National Basketball Development League (later known as the NBA D-League and then the NBA G League after a branding deal with Gatorade).", "As of the 2023–24 season, the G League has 31 teams.===International basketball===The U.S. playing against Mexico at the 2014 FIBA World CupFIBA (International Basketball Federation) was formed in 1932 by eight founding nations: Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania and Switzerland.", "At this time, the organization only oversaw amateur players.", "Its acronym, derived from the French ''Fédération Internationale de Basket-ball Amateur'', was thus \"FIBA\".", "Men's basketball was first included at the Berlin 1936 Summer Olympics, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904.The United States defeated Canada in the first final, played outdoors.", "This competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has won all but three titles.", "The first of these came in a controversial final game in Munich in 1972 against the Soviet Union, in which the ending of the game was replayed three times until the Soviet Union finally came out on top.", "In 1950 the first FIBA World Championship for men, now known as the FIBA Basketball World Cup, was held in Argentina.", "Three years later, the first FIBA World Championship for women, now known as the FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup, was held in Chile.", "Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976, which were held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada with teams such as the Soviet Union, Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads.In 1989, FIBA allowed professional NBA players to participate in the Olympics for the first time.", "Prior to the 1992 Summer Olympics, only European and South American teams were allowed to field professionals in the Olympics.", "The United States' dominance continued with the introduction of the original Dream Team.", "In the 2004 Athens Olympics, the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while using professional players, falling to Puerto Rico (in a 19-point loss) and Lithuania in group games, and being eliminated in the semifinals by Argentina.", "It eventually won the bronze medal defeating Lithuania, finishing behind Argentina and Italy.", "The Redeem Team, won gold at the 2008 Olympics, and the B-Team, won gold at the 2010 FIBA World Championship in Turkey despite featuring no players from the 2008 squad.", "The United States continued its dominance as they won gold at the 2012 Olympics, 2014 FIBA World Cup and the 2016 Olympics.A EuroLeague game in Moscow in 2018Worldwide, basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels.", "The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in the NBA.", "Players from all six inhabited continents currently play in the NBA.", "Top international players began coming into the NBA in the mid-1990s, including Croatians Dražen Petrović and Toni Kukoč, Serbian Vlade Divac, Lithuanians Arvydas Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis, Dutchman Rik Smits and German Detlef Schrempf.In the Philippines, the Philippine Basketball Association's first game was played on April 9, 1975, at the Araneta Coliseum in Cubao, Quezon City, Philippines.", "It was founded as a \"rebellion\" of several teams from the now-defunct Manila Industrial and Commercial Athletic Association, which was tightly controlled by the Basketball Association of the Philippines (now defunct), the then-FIBA recognized national association.", "Nine teams from the MICAA participated in the league's first season that opened on April 9, 1975.The NBL is Australia's pre-eminent men's professional basketball league.", "The league commenced in 1979, playing a winter season (April–September) and did so until the completion of the 20th season in 1998.The 1998–99 season, which commenced only months later, was the first season after the shift to the current summer season format (October–April).", "This shift was an attempt to avoid competing directly against Australia's various football codes.", "It features 8 teams from around Australia and one in New Zealand.", "A few players including Luc Longley, Andrew Gaze, Shane Heal, Chris Anstey and Andrew Bogut made it big internationally, becoming poster figures for the sport in Australia.", "The Women's National Basketball League began in 1981.===Women's basketball===Australian women's basketball team on winning the 2006 FIBA World Championship for WomenWomen's basketball began in 1892 at Smith College when Senda Berenson, a physical education teacher, modified Naismith's rules for women.", "Shortly after she was hired at Smith, she went to Naismith to learn more about the game.", "Fascinated by the new sport and the values it could teach, she organized the first women's collegiate basketball game on March 21, 1893, when her Smith freshmen and sophomores played against one another.", "However, the first women's interinstitutional game was played in 1892 between the University of California and Miss Head's School.", "Berenson's rules were first published in 1899, and two years later she became the editor of A. G. Spalding's first Women's Basketball Guide.", "Berenson's freshmen played the sophomore class in the first women's intercollegiate basketball game at Smith College, March 21, 1893.The same year, Mount Holyoke and Sophie Newcomb College (coached by Clara Gregory Baer) women began playing basketball.", "By 1895, the game had spread to colleges across the country, including Wellesley, Vassar, and Bryn Mawr.", "The first intercollegiate women's game was on April 4, 1896.Stanford women played Berkeley, 9-on-9, ending in a 2–1 Stanford victory.Women's basketball development was more structured than that for men in the early years.", "In 1905, the executive committee on Basket Ball Rules (National Women's Basketball Committee) was created by the American Physical Education Association.", "These rules called for six to nine players per team and 11 officials.", "The International Women's Sports Federation (1924) included a women's basketball competition.", "37 women's high school varsity basketball or state tournaments were held by 1925.And in 1926, the Amateur Athletic Union backed the first national women's basketball championship, complete with men's rules.", "The Edmonton Grads, a touring Canadian women's team based in Edmonton, Alberta, operated between 1915 and 1940.The Grads toured all over North America, and were exceptionally successful.", "They posted a record of 522 wins and only 20 losses over that span, as they met any team that wanted to challenge them, funding their tours from gate receipts.", "The Grads also shone on several exhibition trips to Europe, and won four consecutive exhibition Olympics tournaments, in 1924, 1928, 1932, and 1936; however, women's basketball was not an official Olympic sport until 1976.The Grads' players were unpaid, and had to remain single.", "The Grads' style focused on team play, without overly emphasizing skills of individual players.", "The first women's AAU All-America team was chosen in 1929.Women's industrial leagues sprang up throughout the United States, producing famous athletes, including Babe Didrikson of the Golden Cyclones, and the All American Red Heads Team, which competed against men's teams, using men's rules.", "By 1938, the women's national championship changed from a three-court game to two-court game with six players per team.Brittney Griner accepting an awardThe NBA-backed Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) began in 1997.Though it had shaky attendance figures, several marquee players (Lisa Leslie, Diana Taurasi, and Candace Parker among others) have helped the league's popularity and level of competition.", "Other professional women's basketball leagues in the United States, such as the American Basketball League (1996–98), have folded in part because of the popularity of the WNBA.", "The WNBA has been looked at by many as a niche league.", "However, the league has recently taken steps forward.", "In June 2007, the WNBA signed a contract extension with ESPN.", "The new television deal ran from 2009 to 2016.Along with this deal, came the first-ever rights fees to be paid to a women's professional sports league.", "Over the eight years of the contract, \"millions and millions of dollars\" were \"dispersed to the league's teams.\"", "In a March 12, 2009, article, NBA commissioner David Stern said that in the bad economy, \"the NBA is far less profitable than the WNBA.", "We're losing a lot of money among a large number of teams.", "We're budgeting the WNBA to break even this year.\"" ], [ "Rules and regulations", "End of a match as the game clock shows no time leftMost important terms related to the basketball courtMeasurements and time limits discussed in this section often vary among tournaments and organizations; international and NBA rules are used in this section.The object of the game is to outscore one's opponents by throwing the ball through the opponents' basket from above while preventing the opponents from doing so on their own.", "An attempt to score in this way is called a shot.", "A successful shot is worth two points, or three points if it is taken from beyond the three-point arc from the basket in international games and in NBA games.", "A one-point shot can be earned when shooting from the foul line after a foul is made.", "After a team has scored from a field goal or free throw, play is resumed with a '''throw-in''' awarded to the non-scoring team taken from a point beyond the endline of the court where the points were scored.===Playing regulations===Games are played in four quarters of 10 (FIBA) or 12 minutes (NBA).", "College men's games use two 20-minute halves, college women's games use 10-minute quarters, and most United States high school varsity games use 8-minute quarters; however, this varies from state to state.", "15 minutes are allowed for a half-time break under FIBA, NBA, and NCAA rules and 10 minutes in United States high schools.", "Overtime periods are five minutes in length except for high school, which is four minutes in length.", "Teams exchange baskets for the second half.", "The time allowed is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while the play is not active.", "Therefore, games generally take much longer to complete than the allotted game time, typically about two hours.Five players from each team may be on the court at one time.", "Substitutions are unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped.", "Teams also have a coach, who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team personnel such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and trainers.For both men's and women's teams, a standard uniform consists of a pair of shorts and a jersey with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed on both the front and back.", "Players wear high-top sneakers that provide extra ankle support.", "Typically, team names, players' names and, outside of North America, sponsors are printed on the uniforms.A limited number of time-outs, clock stoppages requested by a coach (or sometimes mandated in the NBA) for a short meeting with the players, are allowed.", "They generally last no longer than one minute (100 seconds in the NBA) unless, for televised games, a commercial break is needed.The game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee (referred to as crew chief in the NBA), one or two umpires (referred to as referees in the NBA) and the table officials.", "For college, the NBA, and many high schools, there are a total of three referees on the court.", "The table officials are responsible for keeping track of each team's scoring, timekeeping, individual and team fouls, player substitutions, team possession arrow, and the shot clock.===Equipment===basketballThe only essential equipment in a basketball game is the ball and the court: a flat, rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends.", "Competitive levels require the use of more equipment such as clocks, score sheets, scoreboards, alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems.An outdoor basketball netA regulation basketball court in international games is long and wide.", "In the NBA and NCAA the court is .", "Most courts have wood flooring, usually constructed from maple planks running in the same direction as the longer court dimension.", "The name and logo of the home team is usually painted on or around the center circle.The basket is a steel rim diameter with an attached net affixed to a backboard that measures and one basket is at each end of the court.", "The white outlined box on the backboard is high and wide.", "At almost all levels of competition, the top of the rim is exactly above the court and inside the baseline.", "While variation is possible in the dimensions of the court and backboard, it is considered important for the basket to be of the correct height – a rim that is off by just a few inches can have an adverse effect on shooting.", "The net must \"check the ball momentarily as it passes through the basket\" to aid the visual confirmation that the ball went through.", "The act of checking the ball has the further advantage of slowing down the ball so the rebound does not go as far.The size of the basketball is also regulated.", "For men, the official ball is in circumference (size 7, or a \"295 ball\") and weighs .", "If women are playing, the official basketball size is in circumference (size 6, or a \"285 ball\") with a weight of .", "In 3x3, a formalized version of the halfcourt 3-on-3 game, a dedicated ball with the circumference of a size 6 ball but the weight of a size 7 ball is used in all competitions (men's, women's, and mixed teams).===Violations===The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running).The ball must stay within the court; the last team to touch the ball before it travels out of bounds forfeits possession.", "The ball is out of bounds if it touches a boundary line, or touches any player or object that is out of bounds.There are limits placed on the steps a player may take without dribbling, which commonly results in an infraction known as traveling.", "Nor may a player stop their dribble and then resume dribbling.", "A dribble that touches both hands is considered stopping the dribble, giving this infraction the name double dribble.", "Within a dribble, the player cannot carry the ball by placing their hand on the bottom of the ball; doing so is known as carrying the ball.", "A team, once having established ball control in the front half of their court, may not return the ball to the backcourt and be the first to touch it.", "A violation of these rules results in loss of possession.The ball may not be kicked, nor be struck with the fist.", "For the offense, a violation of these rules results in loss of possession; for the defense, most leagues reset the shot clock and the offensive team is given possession of the ball out of bounds.There are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past halfway (8 seconds in FIBA and the NBA; 10 seconds in NCAA and high school for both sexes), before attempting a shot (24 seconds in FIBA, the NBA, and U Sports (Canadian universities) play for both sexes, and 30 seconds in NCAA play for both sexes), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds), and remaining in the restricted area known as the free-throw lane, (or the \"key\") (3 seconds).", "These rules are designed to promote more offense.There are also limits on how players may block an opponent's field goal attempt or help a teammate's field goal attempt.", "Goaltending is a defender's touching of a ball that is on a downward flight toward the basket, while the related violation of basket interference is the touching of a ball that is on the rim or above the basket, or by a player reaching through the basket from below.", "Goaltending and basket interference committed by a defender result in awarding the basket to the offense, while basket interference committed by an offensive player results in cancelling the basket if one is scored.", "The defense gains possession in all cases of goaltending or basket interference.===Fouls===The referee signals that a foul has been committed.An attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through certain types of physical contact is illegal and is called a personal foul.", "These are most commonly committed by defensive players; however, they can be committed by offensive players as well.", "Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds again, or receive one or more free throws if they are fouled in the act of shooting, depending on whether the shot was successful.", "One point is awarded for making a free throw, which is attempted from a line from the basket.The referee is responsible for judging whether contact is illegal, sometimes resulting in controversy.", "The calling of fouls can vary between games, leagues and referees.There is a second category of fouls called technical fouls, which may be charged for various rules violations including failure to properly record a player in the scorebook, or for unsportsmanlike conduct.", "These infractions result in one or two free throws, which may be taken by any of the five players on the court at the time.", "Repeated incidents can result in disqualification.", "A blatant foul involving physical contact that is either excessive or unnecessary is called an intentional foul (flagrant foul in the NBA).", "In FIBA and NCAA women's basketball, a foul resulting in ejection is called a disqualifying foul, while in leagues other than the NBA, such a foul is referred to as flagrant.If a team exceeds a certain limit of team fouls in a given period (quarter or half) – four for NBA, NCAA women's, and international games – the opposing team is awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent non-shooting fouls for that period, the number depending on the league.", "In the US college men's game and high school games for both sexes, if a team reaches 7 fouls in a half, the opposing team is awarded one free throw, along with a second shot if the first is made.", "This is called shooting \"one-and-one\".", "If a team exceeds 10 fouls in the half, the opposing team is awarded two free throws on all subsequent fouls for the half.When a team shoots foul shots, the opponents may not interfere with the shooter, nor may they try to regain possession until the last or potentially last free throw is in the air.After a team has committed a specified number of fouls, the other team is said to be \"in the bonus\".", "On scoreboards, this is usually signified with an indicator light reading \"Bonus\" or \"Penalty\" with an illuminated directional arrow or dot indicating that team is to receive free throws when fouled by the opposing team.", "(Some scoreboards also indicate the number of fouls committed.", ")If a team misses the first shot of a two-shot situation, the opposing team must wait for the completion of the second shot before attempting to reclaim possession of the ball and continuing play.If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is unsuccessful, the player is awarded a number of free throws equal to the value of the attempted shot.", "A player fouled while attempting a regular two-point shot thus receives two shots, and a player fouled while attempting a three-point shot receives three shots.If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is successful, typically the player will be awarded one additional free throw for one point.", "In combination with a regular shot, this is called a \"three-point play\" or \"four-point play\" (or more colloquially, an \"and one\") because of the basket made at the time of the foul (2 or 3 points) and the additional free throw (1 point).", "A foul committed during a shot attempt" ], [ "Common techniques and practices", "===Positions===Basketball positions in the offensive zoneAlthough the rules do not specify any positions whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball.", "During the early years of basketball's evolution, two guards, two forwards, and one center were used.", "In more recent times specific positions evolved, but the current trend, advocated by many top coaches including Mike Krzyzewski, is towards positionless basketball, where big players are free to shoot from outside and dribble if their skill allows it.", "Popular descriptions of positions include:Point guard (often called the \"'''1'''\") : usually the fastest player on the team, organizes the team's offense by controlling the ball and making sure that it gets to the right player at the right time.Shooting guard (the \"'''2'''\") : creates a high volume of shots on offense, mainly long-ranged; and guards the opponent's best perimeter player on defense.Small forward (the \"'''3'''\") : often primarily responsible for scoring points via cuts to the basket and dribble penetration; on defense seeks rebounds and steals, but sometimes plays more actively.Power forward (the \"'''4'''\"): plays offensively often with their back to the basket; on defense, plays under the basket (in a zone defense) or against the opposing power forward (in man-to-man defense).Center (the \"'''5'''\"): uses height and size to score (on offense), to protect the basket closely (on defense), or to rebound.The above descriptions are flexible.", "For most teams today, the shooting guard and small forward have very similar responsibilities and are often called '''the wings''', as do the power forward and center, who are often called '''post players.'''", "While most teams describe two players as guards, two as forwards, and one as a center, on some occasions teams choose to call them by different designations.===Strategy===There are two main defensive strategies: ''zone defense'' and ''man-to-man defense''.", "In a zone defense, each player is assigned to guard a specific area of the court.", "Zone defenses often allow the defense to double team the ball, a manoeuver known as a '''trap'''.", "In a man-to-man defense, each defensive player guards a specific opponent.Offensive plays are more varied, normally involving planned passes and movement by players without the ball.", "A quick movement by an offensive player without the ball to gain an advantageous position is known as a ''cut''.", "A legal attempt by an offensive player to stop an opponent from guarding a teammate, by standing in the defender's way such that the teammate cuts next to him, is a ''screen'' or ''pick''.", "The two plays are combined in the ''pick and roll'', in which a player sets a pick and then \"rolls\" away from the pick towards the basket.", "Screens and cuts are very important in offensive plays; these allow the quick passes and teamwork, which can lead to a successful basket.", "Teams almost always have several offensive plays planned to ensure their movement is not predictable.", "On court, the point guard is usually responsible for indicating which play will occur.===Shooting===Player releases a short jump shot, while her defender is either knocked down, or trying to \"take a charge\".Shooting is the act of attempting to score points by throwing the ball through the basket, methods varying with players and situations.Typically, a player faces the basket with both feet facing the basket.", "A player will rest the ball on the fingertips of the dominant hand (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand supporting the side of the ball.", "The ball is usually shot by jumping (though not always) and extending the shooting arm.", "The shooting arm, fully extended with the wrist fully bent, is held stationary for a moment following the release of the ball, known as a ''follow-through''.", "Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to absorb its impact with the rim.", "The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat controversial, but generally a proper arc is recommended.", "Players may shoot directly into the basket or may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket.Basketball falling through hoopThe two most common shots that use the above described setup are the ''set shot'' and the ''jump shot''.", "Both are preceded by a crouching action which preloads the muscles and increases the power of the shot.", "In a set shot, the shooter straightens up and throws from a standing position with neither foot leaving the floor; this is typically used for free throws.", "For a jump shot, the throw is taken in mid-air with the ball being released near the top of the jump.", "This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender.", "Failure to release the ball before the feet return to the floor is considered a traveling violation.Another common shot is called the ''layup''.", "This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to \"lay\" the ball \"up\" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a ''finger roll'').", "The most crowd-pleasing and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the ''slam dunk'', in which the player jumps very high and throws the ball downward, through the basket while touching it.Slow-motion animation of a dunkAnother shot that is less common than the layup, is the \"circus shot\".", "The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down or facing away from the basket.", "A back-shot is a shot taken when the player is facing away from the basket, and may be shot with the dominant hand, or both; but there is a very low chance that the shot will be successful.A shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an ''air ball''.", "A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick.", "The ''hang time'' is the length of time a player stays in the air after jumping, either to make a slam dunk, layup or jump shot.===Rebounding===A player making an offensive reboundThe objective of rebounding is to successfully gain possession of the basketball after a missed field goal or free throw, as it rebounds from the hoop or backboard.", "This plays a major role in the game, as most possessions end when a team misses a shot.", "There are two categories of rebounds: offensive rebounds, in which the ball is recovered by the offensive side and does not change possession, and defensive rebounds, in which the defending team gains possession of the loose ball.", "The majority of rebounds are defensive, as the team on defense tends to be in better position to recover missed shots; for example, about 75% of rebounds in the NBA are defensive.===Passing===A pass is a method of moving the ball between players.", "Most passes are accompanied by a step forward to increase power and are followed through with the hands to ensure accuracy.A staple pass is the ''chest pass''.", "The ball is passed directly from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest.", "A proper chest pass involves an outward snap of the thumbs to add velocity and leaves the defence little time to react.Another type of pass is the ''bounce pass''.", "Here, the passer bounces the ball crisply about two-thirds of the way from his own chest to the receiver.", "The ball strikes the court and bounces up toward the receiver.", "The bounce pass takes longer to complete than the chest pass, but it is also harder for the opposing team to intercept (kicking the ball deliberately is a violation).", "Thus, players often use the bounce pass in crowded moments, or to pass around a defender.The ''overhead pass'' is used to pass the ball over a defender.", "The ball is released while over the passer's head.The ''outlet pass'' occurs after a team gets a defensive rebound.", "The next pass after the rebound is the ''outlet pass''.The crucial aspect of any good pass is it being difficult to intercept.", "Good passers can pass the ball with great accuracy and they know exactly where each of their other teammates prefers to receive the ball.", "A special way of doing this is passing the ball without looking at the receiving teammate.", "This is called a ''no-look pass''.Another advanced style of passing is the ''behind-the-back pass'', which, as the description implies, involves throwing the ball behind the passer's back to a teammate.", "Although some players can perform such a pass effectively, many coaches discourage no-look or behind-the-back passes, believing them to be difficult to control and more likely to result in turnovers or violations.===Dribbling===A demonstration of the basic types of dribbling in basketballA U.S.", "Naval Academy (\"Navy\") player, left, posts up a U.S. Military Academy (\"Army\") defender.Dribbling is the act of bouncing the ball continuously with one hand and is a requirement for a player to take steps with the ball.", "To dribble, a player pushes the ball down towards the ground with the fingertips rather than patting it; this ensures greater control.When dribbling past an opponent, the dribbler should dribble with the hand farthest from the opponent, making it more difficult for the defensive player to get to the ball.", "It is therefore important for a player to be able to dribble competently with both hands.Good dribblers (or \"ball handlers\") tend to keep their dribbling hand low to the ground, reducing the distance of travel of the ball from the floor to the hand, making it more difficult for the defender to \"steal\" the ball.", "Good ball handlers frequently dribble behind their backs, between their legs, and switch directions suddenly, making a less predictable dribbling pattern that is more difficult to defend against.", "This is called a crossover, which is the most effective way to move past defenders while dribbling.A skilled player can dribble without watching the ball, using the dribbling motion or peripheral vision to keep track of the ball's location.", "By not having to focus on the ball, a player can look for teammates or scoring opportunities, as well as avoid the danger of having someone steal the ball away from him/her.===Blocking===A block is performed when, after a shot is attempted, a defender succeeds in altering the shot by touching the ball.", "In almost all variants of play, it is illegal to touch the ball after it is in the downward path of its arc; this is known as ''goaltending''.", "It is also illegal under NBA and Men's NCAA basketball to block a shot after it has touched the backboard, or when any part of the ball is directly above the rim.", "Under international rules it is illegal to block a shot that is in the downward path of its arc or one that has touched the backboard until the ball has hit the rim.", "After the ball hits the rim, it is again legal to touch it even though it is no longer considered as a block performed.To block a shot, a player has to be able to reach a point higher than where the shot is released.", "Thus, height can be an advantage in blocking.", "Players who are taller and playing the power forward or center positions generally record more blocks than players who are shorter and playing the guard positions.", "However, with good timing and a sufficiently high vertical leap, even shorter players can be effective shot blockers." ], [ "Height", "Joonas Suotamo, a Finnish-American former professional center, is tall.", "Many professional centers' heights exceed .At the professional level, most male players are above and most women above .", "Guards, for whom physical coordination and ball-handling skills are crucial, tend to be the smallest players.", "Almost all forwards in the top men's pro leagues are or taller.", "Most centers are over tall.", "According to a survey given to all NBA teams, the average height of all NBA players is just under , with the average weight being close to .", "The tallest players ever in the NBA were Manute Bol and Gheorghe Mureșan, who were both tall.", "At , Margo Dydek was the tallest player in the history of the WNBA.The shortest player ever to play in the NBA is Muggsy Bogues at .", "Other average-height or relatively short players have thrived at the pro level, including Anthony \"Spud\" Webb, who was tall, but had a vertical leap, giving him significant height when jumping, and Temeka Johnson, who won the WNBA Rookie of the Year Award and a championship with the Phoenix Mercury while standing only .", "While shorter players are often at a disadvantage in certain aspects of the game, their ability to navigate quickly through crowded areas of the court and steal the ball by reaching low are strengths.Players regularly inflate their height in high school or college.", "Many prospects exaggerate their height while in high school or college to make themselves more appealing to coaches and scouts, who prefer taller players.", "Charles Barkley stated; \"I've been measured at 6–5, 6-.", "But I started in college at 6–6.\"", "Sam Smith, a former writer from the ''Chicago Tribune'', said: \"We sort of know the heights, because after camp, the sheet comes out.", "But you use that height, and the player gets mad.", "And then you hear from his agent.", "Or you file your story with the right height, and the copy desk changes it because they have the 'official' N.B.A.", "media guide, which is wrong.", "So you sort of go along with the joke.", "\"Since the 2019-20 NBA season heights of NBA players are recorded definitively by measuring players with their shoes off." ], [ "Variations and similar games", "Variations of basketball are activities based on the game of basketball, using common basketball skills and equipment (primarily the ball and basket).", "Some variations only have superficial rule changes, while others are distinct games with varying degrees of influence from basketball.", "Other variations include children's games, contests or activities meant to help players reinforce skills.An earlier version of basketball, played primarily by women and girls, was six-on-six basketball.", "Horseball is a game played on horseback where a ball is handled and points are scored by shooting it through a high net (approximately 1.5m×1.5m).", "The sport is like a combination of polo, rugby, and basketball.", "There is even a form played on donkeys known as Donkey basketball, which has attracted criticism from animal rights groups.=== Half-court ===Perhaps the single most common variation of basketball is the half-court game, played in informal settings without referees or strict rules.", "Only one basket is used, and the ball must be \"taken back\" or \"cleared\" – passed or dribbled outside the three-point line each time possession of the ball changes from one team to the other.", "Half-court games require less cardiovascular stamina, since players need not run back and forth a full court.", "Half-court raises the number of players that can use a court or, conversely, can be played if there is an insufficient number to form full 5-on-5 teams.Half-court basketball is usually played 1-on-1, 2-on-2 or 3-on-3.The latter variation is gradually gaining official recognition as 3x3, originally known as FIBA 33.It was first tested at the 2007 Asian Indoor Games in Macau and the first official tournaments were held at the 2009 Asian Youth Games and the 2010 Youth Olympics, both in Singapore.", "The first FIBA 3x3 Youth World Championships were held in Rimini, Italy in 2011, with the first FIBA 3x3 World Championships for senior teams following a year later in Athens.", "The sport is highly tipped to become an Olympic sport as early as 2016.In the summer of 2017, the BIG3 basketball league, a professional 3x3 half court basketball league that features former NBA players, began.", "The BIG3 features several rule variants including a four-point field goal.=== Other variations ===Variations of basketball with their own page or subsection include:* '''21''' (also known as '''American''', '''cutthroat''' and '''roughhouse''')* '''42'''* '''Around the World'''* '''Bounce'''* '''Firing Squad'''* '''Fives'''* '''H-O-R-S-E'''* '''Hotshot'''* '''Knockout'''* '''One-shot conquer'''* '''Steal The Bacon'''* '''Tip-it'''* '''Tips'''* '''\"The One\"'''* '''Basketball War'''* '''Water basketball'''* '''Beach basketball'''* '''Streetball'''* '''One-on-one''' is a variation in which two players will use only a small section of the court (often no more than a half of a court) and compete to play the ball into a single hoop.", "Such games tend to emphasize individual dribbling and ball stealing skills over shooting and team play.", "* '''Dunk Hoops''' is a variation played on basketball hoops with lowered (under basketball regulation 10 feet) rims.", "It originated when the popularity of the slam dunk grew and was developed to create better chances for dunks with lowered rims and using altered goaltending rules.", "* '''Unicycle basketball''' is played using a regulation basketball on a regular basketball court with the same rules, for example, one must dribble the ball while riding.", "There are a number of rules that are particular to unicycle basketball as well, for example, a player must have at least one foot on a pedal when in-bounding the ball.", "Unicycle basketball is usually played using 24\" or smaller unicycles, and using plastic pedals, both to preserve the court and the players' shins.", "Popular unicycle basketball games are organized in North America.Spin-offs from basketball that are now separate sports include:* '''Ringball''', a traditional South African sport that stems from basketball, has been played since 1907.The sport is now promoted in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, India, and Mauritius to establish Ringball as an international sport.", "* '''Korfball''' (Dutch: Korfbal, ''korf'' meaning 'basket') started in the Netherlands and is now played worldwide as a mixed-gender team ball game, similar to mixed netball and basketball.", "* '''Netball''' is a limited-contact team sport in which two teams of seven try to score points against one another by placing a ball through a high hoop.", "Australia New Zealand champions (so called ANZ Championship) is very famous in Australia and New Zealand as the premier netball league.", "Formerly played exclusively by women, netball today features mixed-gender competitions.", "* '''Slamball''', invented by television writer Mason Gordon, is a full-contact sport featuring trampolines.", "The main difference from basketball is the court; below the padded rim and backboard are four trampolines set into the floor, which serve to propel players to great heights for slam dunks.", "The rules also permit some physical contact between the members of the four-player teams.", "Professional games of Slamball aired on Spike TV in 2002, and the sport has since expanded to China and other countries.File:Dan Hadani collection (990044347560205171).jpg|A basketball player in Israel, 1969File:Girls play basketball in Dharmsala, India.jpg|Schoolgirls shooting hoops among the Himalayas in Dharamsala, India.File:Sân trường THPT Phan Đình Phùng, Hà Nội.JPG|A basketball training course at the Phan Đình Phùng High School, Hanoi, VietnamFile:MECVOLLEYBALL GROUND.JPG|A basketball court in Tamil Nadu, India" ], [ "Social forms of basketball", "alt=Basketball as a social and communal sport features environments, rules and demographics different from those seen in professional and televised basketball.=== Recreational basketball ===Basketball is played widely as an extracurricular, intramural or amateur sport in schools and colleges.", "Notable institutions of recreational basketball include:* '''Basketball schools and academies''', where students are trained in developing basketball fundamentals, undergo fitness and endurance exercises and learn various basketball skills.", "Basketball students learn proper ways of passing, ball handling, dribbling, shooting from various distances, rebounding, offensive moves, defense, layups, screens, basketball rules and basketball ethics.", "Also popular are the basketball camps organized for various occasions, often to get prepared for basketball events, and basketball clinics for improving skills.", "* '''College and university basketball''' played in educational institutions of higher learning.", "This includes National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) intercollegiate basketball.=== Disabled basketball ===* '''Deaf basketball''': One of several deaf sports, deaf basketball relies on signing for communication.", "Any deaf sporting event that happens, its purpose is to serve as a catalyst for the socialization of a low-incidence and geographically dispersed population.", "* '''Wheelchair basketball''': A sport based on basketball but designed for disabled people in wheelchairs and considered one of the major disabled sports practiced.", "There is a functional classification system that is used to help determine if the wheelchair basketball player classification system reflects the existing differences in the performance of elite female players.", "This system gives an analysis of the players' functional resources through field-testing and game observation.", "During this system's process, players are assigned a score of 1 to 4.5.=== Other forms ===* '''Biddy basketball''' played by minors, sometimes in formal tournaments, around the globe.", "* '''Gay basketball''' played in LGBTQIA+ communities.", "The sport is a major event during the Gay Games, World Outgames and EuroGames.", "* '''Midnight basketball''', an initiative to curb inner-city crime in the United States and elsewhere by engaging youth in urban areas with sports as an alternative to drugs and crime.", "* '''Rezball''', short for reservation ball, is the avid Native American following of basketball, particularly a style of play particular to Native American teams of some areas." ], [ "Fantasy basketball", "'''Fantasy basketball''' was popularized during the 1990s by ESPN Fantasy Sports, NBA.com, and Yahoo!", "Fantasy Sports.", "On the model of fantasy baseball and football, players create fictional teams, select professional basketball players to \"play\" on these teams through a mock draft or trades, then calculate points based on the players' real-world performance." ], [ "See also", "* Basketball moves* Basketball National League* Continental Basketball Association* Glossary of basketball terms* Index of basketball-related articles* List of basketball films* List of basketball leagues* Timeline of women's basketball* ULEB, Union des Ligues Européennes de Basket, in English Union of European Leagues of Basketball" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======General references===* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "===Historical===* Basketball Hall of Fame – Springfield, MA* National Basketball Foundationruns the Naismith Museum in Ontario* Hometown Sports Heroes ===Organizations===* Basketball at the Olympic Games* International Basketball Federation* National Basketball Association* Women's National Basketball Association* Continental Basketball Association (oldest professional basketball league in the world)* National Wheelchair Basketball Association===Other sources===* \"Basketball\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.", "* * Eurobasket website* Basketball-Reference.com: Basketball Statistics, Analysis and History * Ontario's Historical Plaques – Dr. James Naismith (1861–1939)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Blowfish (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blowfish''' are species of fish in the family Tetraodontidae.", "'''Blowfish''' may also refer to:* Porcupinefish, belonging to the family Diodontidae* Blowfish (cipher), an encryption algorithm* Blowfish (company), an American erotic goods supplier* ''The Blowfish'', a satirical newspaper at Brandeis University* Lexington County Blowfish, a baseball team* Vice President Blowfish, a character in the animated series ''Adventure Time'' episode \"President Porpoise Is Missing!\"" ], [ "See also", "* Hootie & the Blowfish, an American rock band" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ball" ], [ "Introduction", "Group of ballsA '''ball''' is a round object (usually spherical, but can sometimes be ovoid) with several uses.", "It is used in ball games, where the play of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, kicked or thrown by players.", "Balls can also be used for simpler activities, such as catch or juggling.", "Balls made from hard-wearing materials are used in engineering applications to provide very low friction bearings, known as ball bearings.", "Black-powder weapons use stone and metal balls as projectiles.Although many types of balls are today made from rubber, this form was unknown outside the Americas until after the voyages of Columbus.", "The Spanish were the first Europeans to see the bouncing rubber balls (although solid and not inflated) which were employed most notably in the Mesoamerican ballgame.", "Balls used in various sports in other parts of the world prior to Columbus were made from other materials such as animal bladders or skins, stuffed with various materials.As balls are one of the most familiar spherical objects to humans, the word \"ball\" may refer to or describe spherical or near-spherical objects.", "\"Ball\" is used metaphorically sometimes to denote something spherical or spheroid, e.g., armadillos and human beings curl up into a ball, making a fist into a ball." ], [ "Etymology", "The first known use of the word ''ball'' in English in the sense of a globular body that is played with was in 1205 in '''' in the phrase, \"\" The word came from the Middle English ''bal'' (inflected as ''ball-e, -es'', in turn from Old Norse ''böllr'' (pronounced ; compare Old Swedish ''baller'', and Swedish ''boll'') from Proto-Germanic ''ballu-z'' (whence probably Middle High German ''bal, ball-es'', Middle Dutch ''bal''), a cognate with Old High German ''ballo, pallo'', Middle High German balle from Proto-Germanic ''*ballon'' (weak masculine), and Old High German ''ballâ, pallâ'', Middle High German ''balle'', Proto-Germanic ''*ballôn'' (weak feminine).", "No Old English representative of any of these is known.", "(The answering forms in Old English would have been ''beallu, -a, -e''—compare ''bealluc, ballock''.)", "If ''ball-'' was native in Germanic, it may have been a cognate with the Latin ''foll-is'' in sense of a \"thing blown up or inflated.\"", "In the later Middle English spelling ''balle'' the word coincided graphically with the French ''balle'' \"ball\" and \"bale\" which has hence been erroneously assumed to be its source.", "French ''balle'' (but not ''boule'') is assumed to be of Germanic origin, itself, however.", "In Ancient Greek the word πάλλα (''palla'') for \"ball\" is attested besides the word σφαίρα (''sfaíra''), ''sphere''." ], [ "History", "Russian leather balls (), 12th-13th century.A ball, as the essential feature in many forms of gameplay requiring physical exertion, must date from the very earliest times.", "A rolling object appeals not only to a human baby, but to a kitten and a puppy.", "Some form of game with a ball is found portrayed on Egyptian monuments.", "In Homer, Nausicaa was playing at ball with her maidens when Odysseus first saw her in the land of the Phaeacians (Od.", "vi.", "100).", "And Halios and Laodamas performed before Alcinous and Odysseus with ball play, accompanied with dancing (Od.", "viii.", "370).", "The most ancient balls in Eurasia have been discovered in Karasahr, China and are 3000 years old.", "They were made of hair-filled leather.===Ancient Greeks===Among the ancient Greeks, games with balls (σφαῖραι) were regarded as a useful subsidiary to the more violent athletic exercises, as a means of keeping the body supple, and rendering it graceful, but were generally left to boys and girls.", "Of regular rules for the playing of ball games, little trace remains, if there were any such.", "The names in Greek for various forms, which have come down to us in such works as the Ὀνομαστικόν of Julius Pollux, imply little or nothing of such; thus, ἀπόρραξις (''aporraxis'') only means the putting of the ball on the ground with the open hand, οὐρανία (''ourania''), the flinging of the ball in the air to be caught by two or more players; φαινίνδα (''phaininda'') would seem to be a game of catch played by two or more, where feinting is used as a test of quickness and skill.", "Pollux (i. x.", "104) mentions a game called episkyros (ἐπίσκυρος), which has often been looked on as the origin of football.", "It seems to have been played by two sides, arranged in lines; how far there was any form of \"goal\" seems uncertain.", "It was impossible to produce a ball that was perfectly spherical; children usually made their own balls by inflating pig's bladders and heating them in the ashes of a fire to make them rounder, although Plato (fl.", "420s BC – 340s BC) described \"balls which have leather coverings in twelve pieces\".===Ancient Romans===Among the Romans, ball games were looked upon as an adjunct to the bath, and were graduated to the age and health of the bathers, and usually a place (sphaeristerium) was set apart for them in the baths (thermae).", "There appear to have been three types or sizes of ball, the pila, or small ball, used in catching games, the paganica, a heavy ball stuffed with feathers, and the follis, a leather ball filled with air, the largest of the three.", "This was struck from player to player, who wore a kind of gauntlet on the arm.", "There was a game known as trigon, played by three players standing in the form of a triangle, and played with the follis, and also one known as harpastum, which seems to imply a \"scrimmage\" among several players for the ball.", "These games are known to us through the Romans, though the names are Greek.===Modern ball games===An early manual for teaching basketballThe various modern games played with a ball or balls and subject to rules are treated under their various names, such as polo, cricket, football, etc." ], [ "Physics", "In sports, many modern balls are pressurized.", "Some are pressurized at the factory (e.g.", "tennis, squash (sport)) and others are pressurized by users (e.g.", "volleyball, basketball, football).", "Almost all pressurized balls gradually leak air.", "If the ball is factory pressurized, there is usually a rule about whether the ball retains sufficient pressure to remain playable.", "Depressurized balls lack bounce and are often termed \"dead\".", "In extreme cases a dead ball becomes flaccid.", "If the ball is pressured on use, there are generally rules about how the ball is pressurized before the match, and when (or whether) the ball can be repressurized or replaced.", "Due to the ideal gas law, ball pressure is a function of temperature, generally tracking ambient conditions.", "Softer balls that are struck hard (especially squash balls) increase in temperature due to inelastic collision.", "In outdoor sports, wet balls play differently than dry balls.", "In indoor sports, balls may become damp due to hand sweat.", "Any form of humidity or dampness will affect a ball's surface friction, which will alter a player's ability to impart spin on the ball.", "The action required to apply spin to a ball is governed by the physics of angular momentum.", "Spinning balls travelling through air (technically a fluid) will experience the Magnus effect, which can produce lateral deflections in addition to the normal up-down curvature induced by a combination of wind resistance and gravity." ], [ "Round balls", "File:Football Pallo valmiina-cropped.jpg|Football from association football (soccer)File:Гандбол.jpg|HandballFile:Bandy ball (Orange).JPG|Bandy ballFile:Baseball (crop).jpg|BaseballFile:Basketball.png|BasketballFile:Billiards balls.jpg|Billiard ballsFile:Ball and pin.jpg|Bowling ball (and pin)File:Cricket-ball-red-madeinaustralia.jpg|Cricket ballFile:Golfball.jpg|Golf ballFile:Brine lax ball.jpg|Lacrosse ballFile:Rink bandy ball.JPG|RinkballFile:Roller-hockey-(Quad)-Ball.jpg|Roller hockey ballFile:Green_Rubber_Band_Ball.jpg|Rubber band ballFile:Squash Ball Dunlop Revelation Pro 1.jpg|Squash ballFile:Black Super Ball.jpg|Super BallFile:Assortment of 40 mm table tennis balls.jpg|Table tennis ballsFile:Tennis_ball_01.jpg|Tennis ballFile:A cherry utility ball in a field (cropped).jpg|Utility ballFile:Volleyball.jpg|VolleyballFile:NewWaterPoloBall.JPG|Water polo ball" ], [ "Prolate spheroid balls", "Several sports use a ball in the shape of a prolate spheroid:File:Wilson American football.jpg|American football.File:Sherrin.png|Australian rules football.File:Canadian football.png|Canadian football.File:Rugbyball2.jpg|Rugby union ball." ], [ "See also", "* Ball (mathematics)* Buckminster Fullerene \"Bucky balls\"* Football (ball)* Hockey puck, can also spin, bounce, and roll* Kickball* Marbles* Penny floater* Prisoner Ball* Shuttlecock* Super Ball" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Binary relation" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''binary relation''' associates elements of one set, called the ''domain'', with elements of another set, called the ''codomain''.", "A binary relation over sets and is a new set of ordered pairs consisting of elements from and from .", "It is a generalization of the more widely understood idea of a unary function.", "It encodes the common concept of relation: an element is ''related'' to an element , if and only if the pair belongs to the set of ordered pairs that defines the ''binary relation''.", "A binary relation is the most studied special case of an -ary relation over sets , which is a subset of the Cartesian product An example of a binary relation is the \"divides\" relation over the set of prime numbers and the set of integers , in which each prime is related to each integer that is a multiple of , but not to an integer that is not a multiple of .", "In this relation, for instance, the prime number 2 is related to numbers such as −4, 0, 6, 10, but not to 1 or 9, just as the prime number 3 is related to 0, 6, and 9, but not to 4 or 13.Binary relations are used in many branches of mathematics to model a wide variety of concepts.", "These include, among others:* the \"is greater than\", \"is equal to\", and \"divides\" relations in arithmetic;* the \"is congruent to\" relation in geometry;* the \"is adjacent to\" relation in graph theory;* the \"is orthogonal to\" relation in linear algebra.A function may be defined as a binary relation that meets additional constraints.", "Binary relations are also heavily used in computer science.A binary relation over sets and is an element of the power set of Since the latter set is ordered by inclusion (⊆), each relation has a place in the lattice of subsets of A binary relation is called a homogeneous relation when ''X'' = ''Y''.", "A binary relation is also called a heterogeneous relation when it is not necessary that ''X'' = ''Y''.Since relations are sets, they can be manipulated using set operations, including union, intersection, and complementation, and satisfying the laws of an algebra of sets.", "Beyond that, operations like the converse of a relation and the composition of relations are available, satisfying the laws of a calculus of relations, for which there are textbooks by Ernst Schröder, Clarence Lewis, and Gunther Schmidt.", "A deeper analysis of relations involves decomposing them into subsets called , and placing them in a complete lattice.In some systems of axiomatic set theory, relations are extended to classes, which are generalizations of sets.", "This extension is needed for, among other things, modeling the concepts of \"is an element of\" or \"is a subset of\" in set theory, without running into logical inconsistencies such as Russell's paradox.The terms , '''dyadic relation''' and '''two-place relation''' are synonyms for binary relation, though some authors use the term \"binary relation\" for any subset of a Cartesian product without reference to and , and reserve the term \"correspondence\" for a binary relation with reference to and ." ], [ "Definition", "Given sets ''X'' and ''Y'', the Cartesian product is defined as and its elements are called ordered pairs.A ''R'' over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' is a subset of The set ''X'' is called the or of ''R'', and the set ''Y'' the or of ''R''.", "In order to specify the choices of the sets ''X'' and ''Y'', some authors define a or as an ordered triple , where ''G'' is a subset of called the of the binary relation.", "The statement reads \"''x'' is ''R''-related to ''y''\" and is denoted by ''xRy''.", "The or of ''R'' is the set of all ''x'' such that ''xRy'' for at least one ''y''.", "The ''codomain of definition'', , or of ''R'' is the set of all ''y'' such that ''xRy'' for at least one ''x''.", "The of ''R'' is the union of its domain of definition and its codomain of definition.When a binary relation is called a (or ).", "To emphasize the fact that ''X'' and ''Y'' are allowed to be different, a binary relation is also called a heterogeneous relation.In a binary relation, the order of the elements is important; if then ''yRx'' can be true or false independently of ''xRy''.", "For example, 3 divides 9, but 9 does not divide 3." ], [ "Operations", "=== Union ===If ''R'' and ''S'' are binary relations over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' then is the of ''R'' and ''S'' over ''X'' and ''Y''.The identity element is the empty relation.", "For example, is the union of and =.=== Intersection ===If ''R'' and ''S'' are binary relations over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' then is the of ''R'' and ''S'' over ''X'' and ''Y''.The identity element is the universal relation.", "For example, the relation \"is divisible by 6\" is the intersection of the relations \"is divisible by 3\" and \"is divisible by 2\".=== Composition ===If ''R'' is a binary relation over sets ''X'' and ''Y'', and ''S'' is a binary relation over sets ''Y'' and ''Z'' then (also denoted by ) is the of ''R'' and ''S'' over ''X'' and ''Z''.The identity element is the identity relation.", "The order of ''R'' and ''S'' in the notation used here agrees with the standard notational order for composition of functions.", "For example, the composition (is parent of)(is mother of) yields (is maternal grandparent of), while the composition (is mother of)(is parent of) yields (is grandmother of).", "For the former case, if ''x'' is the parent of ''y'' and ''y'' is the mother of ''z'', then ''x'' is the maternal grandparent of ''z''.=== Converse ===If ''R'' is a binary relation over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' then is the , also called , of ''R'' over ''Y'' and ''X''.For example, is the converse of itself, as is and and are each other's converse, as are and A binary relation is equal to its converse if and only if it is symmetric.=== Complement ===If ''R'' is a binary relation over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' then (also denoted by or ) is the of ''R'' over ''X'' and ''Y''.For example, and are each other's complement, as are and and and and and, for total orders, also and and and The complement of the converse relation is the converse of the complement: If the complement has the following properties:* If a relation is symmetric, then so is the complement.", "* The complement of a reflexive relation is irreflexive—and vice versa.", "* The complement of a strict weak order is a total preorder—and vice versa.=== Restriction ===If ''R'' is a binary homogeneous relation over a set ''X'' and ''S'' is a subset of ''X'' then is the of ''R'' to ''S'' over ''X''.If ''R'' is a binary relation over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' and if ''S'' is a subset of ''X'' then is the of ''R'' to ''S'' over ''X'' and ''Y''.If ''R'' is a binary relation over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' and if ''S'' is a subset of ''Y'' then is the of ''R'' to ''S'' over ''X'' and ''Y''.If a relation is reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, asymmetric, transitive, total, trichotomous, a partial order, total order, strict weak order, total preorder (weak order), or an equivalence relation, then so too are its restrictions.However, the transitive closure of a restriction is a subset of the restriction of the transitive closure, i.e., in general not equal.", "For example, restricting the relation \"''x'' is parent of ''y''\" to females yields the relation \"''x'' is mother of the woman ''y''\"; its transitive closure does not relate a woman with her paternal grandmother.", "On the other hand, the transitive closure of \"is parent of\" is \"is ancestor of\"; its restriction to females does relate a woman with her paternal grandmother.Also, the various concepts of completeness (not to be confused with being \"total\") do not carry over to restrictions.", "For example, over the real numbers a property of the relation is that every non-empty subset with an upper bound in has a least upper bound (also called supremum) in However, for the rational numbers this supremum is not necessarily rational, so the same property does not hold on the restriction of the relation to the rational numbers.A binary relation ''R'' over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' is said to be a relation ''S'' over ''X'' and ''Y'', written if ''R'' is a subset of ''S'', that is, for all and if ''xRy'', then ''xSy''.", "If ''R'' is contained in ''S'' and ''S'' is contained in ''R'', then ''R'' and ''S'' are called written ''R'' = ''S''.", "If ''R'' is contained in ''S'' but ''S'' is not contained in ''R'', then ''R'' is said to be than ''S'', written For example, on the rational numbers, the relation is smaller than and equal to the composition === Matrix representation ===Binary relations over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' can be represented algebraically by logical matrices indexed by ''X'' and ''Y'' with entries in the Boolean semiring (addition corresponds to OR and multiplication to AND) where matrix addition corresponds to union of relations, matrix multiplication corresponds to composition of relations (of a relation over ''X'' and ''Y'' and a relation over ''Y'' and ''Z''), the Hadamard product corresponds to intersection of relations, the zero matrix corresponds to the empty relation, and the matrix of ones corresponds to the universal relation.", "Homogeneous relations (when ) form a matrix semiring (indeed, a matrix semialgebra over the Boolean semiring) where the identity matrix corresponds to the identity relation." ], [ "Examples", "+ 2nd example relation ball car doll cup John '''+''' − − − Mary − − '''+''' − Venus − '''+''' − −+ 1st example relation ball car doll cup John '''+''' − − − Mary − − '''+''' − Ian − − − − Venus − '''+''' − −" ], [ "Specific types of binary relations", "Examples of four types of binary relations over the real numbers: one-to-one (in green), one-to-many (in blue), many-to-one (in red), many-to-many (in black).Some important types of binary relations ''R'' over sets ''X'' and ''Y'' are listed below.Uniqueness properties:* '''Injective''' (also called '''left-unique'''): for all and all if and then .", "For such a relation, is called ''a primary key'' of ''R''.", "For example, the green and blue binary relations in the diagram are injective, but the red one is not (as it relates both −1 and 1 to 1), nor the black one (as it relates both −1 and 1 to 0).", "* '''Univalent''' (also called '''right-unique''', '''right-definite''' or '''functional'''): for all and all if and then .", "Such a binary relation is called a .", "For such a relation, is called of ''R''.", "For example, the red and green binary relations in the diagram are univalent, but the blue one is not (as it relates 1 to both −1 and 1), nor the black one (as it relates 0 to both −1 and 1).", "* '''One-to-one''': injective and functional.", "For example, the green binary relation in the diagram is one-to-one, but the red, blue and black ones are not.", "* '''One-to-many''': injective and not functional.", "For example, the blue binary relation in the diagram is one-to-many, but the red, green and black ones are not.", "* '''Many-to-one''': functional and not injective.", "For example, the red binary relation in the diagram is many-to-one, but the green, blue and black ones are not.", "* '''Many-to-many''': not injective nor functional.", "For example, the black binary relation in the diagram is many-to-many, but the red, green and blue ones are not.Totality properties (only definable if the domain ''X'' and codomain ''Y'' are specified):* '''Total''' (also called '''left-total'''): for all ''x'' in ''X'' there exists a ''y'' in ''Y'' such that .", "In other words, the domain of definition of ''R'' is equal to ''X''.", "This property, is different from the definition of (also called by some authors) in Properties.", "Such a binary relation is called a .", "For example, the red and green binary relations in the diagram are total, but the blue one is not (as it does not relate −1 to any real number), nor the black one (as it does not relate 2 to any real number).", "As another example, > is a total relation over the integers.", "But it is not a total relation over the positive integers, because there is no in the positive integers such that .", "However, is not." ], [ "Sets versus classes", "Certain mathematical \"relations\", such as \"equal to\", \"subset of\", and \"member of\", cannot be understood to be binary relations as defined above, because their domains and codomains cannot be taken to be sets in the usual systems of axiomatic set theory.", "For example, to model the general concept of \"equality\" as a binary relation take the domain and codomain to be the \"class of all sets\", which is not a set in the usual set theory.In most mathematical contexts, references to the relations of equality, membership and subset are harmless because they can be understood implicitly to be restricted to some set in the context.", "The usual work-around to this problem is to select a \"large enough\" set ''A'', that contains all the objects of interest, and work with the restriction =''A'' instead of =.", "Similarly, the \"subset of\" relation needs to be restricted to have domain and codomain P(''A'') (the power set of a specific set ''A''): the resulting set relation can be denoted by Also, the \"member of\" relation needs to be restricted to have domain ''A'' and codomain P(''A'') to obtain a binary relation that is a set.", "Bertrand Russell has shown that assuming to be defined over all sets leads to a contradiction in naive set theory, see ''Russell's paradox''.Another solution to this problem is to use a set theory with proper classes, such as NBG or Morse–Kelley set theory, and allow the domain and codomain (and so the graph) to be proper classes: in such a theory, equality, membership, and subset are binary relations without special comment.", "(A minor modification needs to be made to the concept of the ordered triple , as normally a proper class cannot be a member of an ordered tuple; or of course one can identify the binary relation with its graph in this context.)", "With this definition one can for instance define a binary relation over every set and its power set." ], [ "Homogeneous relation", "A '''homogeneous relation''' over a set ''X'' is a binary relation over ''X'' and itself, i.e.", "it is a subset of the Cartesian product It is also simply called a (binary) relation over ''X''.A homogeneous relation ''R'' over a set ''X'' may be identified with a directed simple graph permitting loops, where ''X'' is the vertex set and ''R'' is the edge set (there is an edge from a vertex ''x'' to a vertex ''y'' if and only if ).The set of all homogeneous relations over a set ''X'' is the power set which is a Boolean algebra augmented with the involution of mapping of a relation to its converse relation.", "Considering composition of relations as a binary operation on , it forms a semigroup with involution.Some important properties that a homogeneous relation over a set may have are:* : for all .", "For example, is a reflexive relation but > is not.", "* : for all not .", "For example, is an irreflexive relation, but is not.", "* : for all if then .", "For example, \"is a blood relative of\" is a symmetric relation.", "* : for all if and then For example, is an antisymmetric relation.", "* : for all if then not .", "A relation is asymmetric if and only if it is both antisymmetric and irreflexive.", "For example, > is an asymmetric relation, but is not.", "* : for all if and then .", "A transitive relation is irreflexive if and only if it is asymmetric.", "For example, \"is ancestor of\" is a transitive relation, while \"is parent of\" is not.", "* : for all if then or .", "* : for all or .", "* : for all if then some exists such that and .A is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.", "A is a relation that is irreflexive, asymmetric, and transitive.", "A is a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, transitive and connected.", "A is a relation that is irreflexive, asymmetric, transitive and connected.An is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.For example, \"''x'' divides ''y''\" is a partial, but not a total order on natural numbers \"''x'' < ''y''\" is a strict total order on and \"''x'' is parallel to ''y''\" is an equivalence relation on the set of all lines in the Euclidean plane.All operations defined in section also apply to homogeneous relations.Beyond that, a homogeneous relation over a set ''X'' may be subjected to closure operations like:; : the smallest reflexive relation over ''X'' containing ''R'',; : the smallest transitive relation over ''X'' containing ''R'',; : the smallest equivalence relation over ''X'' containing ''R''." ], [ "Heterogeneous relation", "In mathematics, a '''heterogeneous relation''' is a binary relation, a subset of a Cartesian product where ''A'' and ''B'' are possibly distinct sets.", "The prefix ''hetero'' is from the Greek ἕτερος (''heteros'', \"other, another, different\").A heterogeneous relation has been called a '''rectangular relation''', suggesting that it does not have the square-like symmetry of a homogeneous relation on a set where Commenting on the development of binary relations beyond homogeneous relations, researchers wrote, \"... a variant of the theory has evolved that treats relations from the very beginning as or , i.e.", "as relations where the normal case is that they are relations between different sets.\"" ], [ "Calculus of relations", "Developments in algebraic logic have facilitated usage of binary relations.", "The calculus of relations includes the algebra of sets, extended by composition of relations and the use of converse relations.", "The inclusion meaning that ''aRb'' implies ''aSb'', sets the scene in a lattice of relations.", "But since the inclusion symbol is superfluous.", "Nevertheless, composition of relations and manipulation of the operators according to Schröder rules, provides a calculus to work in the power set of In contrast to homogeneous relations, the composition of relations operation is only a partial function.", "The necessity of matching range to domain of composed relations has led to the suggestion that the study of heterogeneous relations is a chapter of category theory as in the category of sets, except that the morphisms of this category are relations.", "The of the category Rel are sets, and the relation-morphisms compose as required in a category." ], [ "Induced concept lattice", "Binary relations have been described through their induced concept lattices:A '''concept''' ''C'' ⊂ ''R'' satisfies two properties: (1) The logical matrix of ''C'' is the outer product of logical vectors: logical vectors.", "(2) ''C'' is maximal, not contained in any other outer product.", "Thus ''C'' is described as a non-enlargeable rectangle.For a given relation the set of concepts, enlarged by their joins and meets, forms an \"induced lattice of concepts\", with inclusion forming a preorder.The MacNeille completion theorem (1937) (that any partial order may be embedded in a complete lattice) is cited in a 2013 survey article \"Decomposition of relations on concept lattices\".", "The decomposition is: where ''f'' and ''g'' are functions, called or left-total, univalent relations in this context.", "The \"induced concept lattice is isomorphic to the cut completion of the partial order ''E'' that belongs to the minimal decomposition (''f, g, E'') of the relation ''R''.", "\"Particular cases are considered below: ''E'' total order corresponds to Ferrers type, and ''E'' identity corresponds to difunctional, a generalization of equivalence relation on a set.Relations may be ranked by the '''Schein rank''' which counts the number of concepts necessary to cover a relation.", "Structural analysis of relations with concepts provides an approach for data mining." ], [ "Particular relations", "* ''Proposition'': If ''R'' is a serial relation and ''R''T is its transpose, then where is the ''m'' × ''m'' identity relation.", "* ''Proposition'': If ''R'' is a surjective relation, then where is the identity relation.=== Difunctional ===The idea of a difunctional relation is to partition objects by distinguishing attributes, as a generalization of the concept of an equivalence relation.", "One way this can be done is with an intervening set of indicators.", "The partitioning relation is a composition of relations using relations Jacques Riguet named these relations '''difunctional''' since the composition ''F G''T involves univalent relations, commonly called ''partial functions''.In 1950 Rigeut showed that such relations satisfy the inclusion:: In automata theory, the term '''rectangular relation''' has also been used to denote a difunctional relation.", "This terminology recalls the fact that, when represented as a logical matrix, the columns and rows of a difunctional relation can be arranged as a block matrix with rectangular blocks of ones on the (asymmetric) main diagonal.", "More formally, a relation on is difunctional if and only if it can be written as the union of Cartesian products , where the are a partition of a subset of and the likewise a partition of a subset of .", "Using the notation {''y'': ''xRy''} = ''xR'', a difunctional relation can also be characterized as a relation ''R'' such that wherever ''x''1''R'' and ''x''2''R'' have a non-empty intersection, then these two sets coincide; formally implies In 1997 researchers found \"utility of binary decomposition based on difunctional dependencies in database management.\"", "Furthermore, difunctional relations are fundamental in the study of bisimulations.In the context of homogeneous relations, a partial equivalence relation is difunctional.=== Ferrers type ===A strict order on a set is a homogeneous relation arising in order theory.In 1951 Jacques Riguet adopted the ordering of a partition of an integer, called a Ferrers diagram, to extend ordering to binary relations in general.The corresponding logical matrix of a general binary relation has rows which finish with a sequence of ones.", "Thus the dots of a Ferrer's diagram are changed to ones and aligned on the right in the matrix.An algebraic statement required for a Ferrers type relation R isIf any one of the relations is of Ferrers type, then all of them are.=== Contact ===Suppose ''B'' is the power set of ''A'', the set of all subsets of ''A''.", "Then a relation ''g'' is a '''contact relation''' if it satisfies three properties: # # # The set membership relation, ''ε'' = \"is an element of\", satisfies these properties so ''ε'' is a contact relation.", "The notion of a general contact relation was introduced by Georg Aumann in 1970.In terms of the calculus of relations, sufficient conditions for a contact relation include where is the converse of set membership ()." ], [ "Preorder R\\R", "Every relation ''R'' generates a preorder which is the left residual.", "In terms of converse and complements, Forming the diagonal of , the corresponding row of and column of will be of opposite logical values, so the diagonal is all zeros.", "Then : so that is a reflexive relation.To show transitivity, one requires that Recall that is the largest relation such that Then : : (repeat): (Schröder's rule): (complementation): (definition)The inclusion relation Ω on the power set of ''U'' can be obtained in this way from the membership relation on subsets of ''U''::" ], [ "Fringe of a relation", "Given a relation ''R'', a sub-relation called its is defined asWhen ''R'' is a partial identity relation, difunctional, or a block diagonal relation, then fringe(''R'') = ''R''.", "Otherwise the fringe operator selects a boundary sub-relation described in terms of its logical matrix: fringe(''R'') is the side diagonal if ''R'' is an upper right triangular linear order or strict order.", "Fringe(''R'') is the block fringe if R is irreflexive () or upper right block triangular.", "Fringe(''R'') is a sequence of boundary rectangles when ''R'' is of Ferrers type.On the other hand, Fringe(''R'') = ∅ when ''R'' is a dense, linear, strict order." ], [ "Mathematical heaps", "Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', the set of binary relations between them can be equipped with a ternary operation where ''b''T denotes the converse relation of ''b''.", "In 1953 Viktor Wagner used properties of this ternary operation to define semiheaps, heaps, and generalized heaps.", "The contrast of heterogeneous and homogeneous relations is highlighted by these definitions:" ], [ "See also", "* Abstract rewriting system* Additive relation, a many-valued homomorphism between modules* Allegory (category theory)* Category of relations, a category having sets as objects and binary relations as morphisms * Confluence (term rewriting), discusses several unusual but fundamental properties of binary relations* Correspondence (algebraic geometry), a binary relation defined by algebraic equations* Hasse diagram, a graphic means to display an order relation* Incidence structure, a heterogeneous relation between set of points and lines* Logic of relatives, a theory of relations by Charles Sanders Peirce* Order theory, investigates properties of order relations" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Ernst Schröder (1895) Algebra der Logik, Band III, via Internet Archive* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Braille" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Braille''' ( , ) is a tactile writing system used by people who are visually impaired.", "It can be read either on embossed paper or by using refreshable braille displays that connect to computers and smartphone devices.", "Braille can be written using a slate and stylus, a braille writer, an electronic braille notetaker or with the use of a computer connected to a braille embosser.Braille is named after its creator, Louis Braille, a Frenchman who lost his sight as a result of a childhood accident.", "In 1824, at the age of fifteen, he developed the braille code based on the French alphabet as an improvement on night writing.", "He published his system, which subsequently included musical notation, in 1829.The second revision, published in 1837, was the first binary form of writing developed in the modern era.Braille characters are formed using a combination of six raised dots arranged in a 3 × 2 matrix, called the braille cell.", "The number and arrangement of these dots distinguishes one character from another.", "Since the various braille alphabets originated as transcription codes for printed writing, the mappings (sets of character designations) vary from language to language, and even within one; in English Braille there are 3 levels of braille: uncontracted braille a letter-by-letter transcription used for basic literacy; contracted braille an addition of abbreviations and contractions used as a space-saving mechanism; and grade 3 various non-standardized personal stenography that is less commonly used.In addition to braille text (letters, punctuation, contractions), it is also possible to create embossed illustrations and graphs, with the lines either solid or made of series of dots, arrows, and bullets that are larger than braille dots.", "A full braille cell includes six raised dots arranged in two columns, each column having three dots.", "The dot positions are identified by numbers from one to six.", "There are 64 possible combinations, including no dots at all for a word space.", "Dot configurations can be used to represent a letter, digit, punctuation mark, or even a word.Early braille education is crucial to literacy, education and employment among the blind.", "Despite the evolution of new technologies, including screen reader software that reads information aloud, braille provides blind people with access to spelling, punctuation and other aspects of written language less accessible through audio alone.", "While some have suggested that audio-based technologies will decrease the need for braille, technological advancements such as braille displays have continued to make braille more accessible and available.", "Braille users highlight that braille remains as essential as print is to the sighted." ], [ "History", "French for \"first\", can be readBraille was based on a tactile code, now known as night writing, developed by Charles Barbier.", "(The name \"night writing\" was later given to it when it was considered as a means for soldiers to communicate silently at night and without a light source, but Barbier's writings do not use this term and suggest that it was originally designed as a simpler form of writing and for the visually impaired.)", "In Barbier's system, sets of 12 embossed dots were used to encode 36 different sounds.", "Braille identified three major defects of the code: first, the symbols represented phonetic sounds and not letters of the alphabetthus the code was unable to render the orthography of the words.", "Second, the 12-dot symbols could not easily fit beneath the pad of the reading finger.", "This required the reading finger to move in order to perceive the whole symbol, which slowed the reading process.", "(This was because Barbier's system was based only on the number of dots in each of two 6-dot columns but not the pattern of the dots.)", "Third, the code did not include symbols for numerals or punctuation.", "Braille's solution was to use 6-dot cells and to assign a specific pattern to each letter of the alphabet.", "Braille also developed symbols for representing numerals and punctuation.At first, Braille was a one-to-one transliteration of the French alphabet, but soon various abbreviations (contractions) and even logograms were developed, creating a system much more like shorthand.Today, there are braille codes for over 133 languages.In English, some variations in the braille codes have traditionally existed among English-speaking countries.", "In 1991, work to standardize the braille codes used in the English-speaking world began.", "Unified English Braille (UEB) has been adopted in all seven member countries of the International Council on English Braille (ICEB) as well as Nigeria.For blind readers, Braille is an independent writing system, rather than a code of printed orthography.=== Derivation ===Braille is derived from the Latin alphabet, albeit indirectly.", "In Braille's original system, the dot patterns were assigned to letters according to their position within the alphabetic order of the French alphabet of the time, with accented letters and ''w'' sorted at the end.Unlike print, which consists of mostly arbitrary symbols, the braille alphabet follows a logical sequence.", "The first ten letters of the alphabet, ''a''–''j'', use the upper four dot positions: (black dots in the table below).", "These stand for the ten digits ''1''–''9'' and ''0'' in an alphabetic numeral system similar to Greek numerals (as well as derivations of it, including Hebrew numerals, Cyrillic numerals, Abjad numerals, also Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy).Though the dots are assigned in no obvious order, the cells with the fewest dots are assigned to the first three letters (and lowest digits), ''abc'' = ''123'' (), and to the three vowels in this part of the alphabet, ''aei'' (), whereas the even digits, ''4'', ''6'', ''8'', ''0'' (), are corners/right angles.The next ten letters, ''k''–''t'', are identical to ''a''–''j'' respectively, apart from the addition of a dot at position 3 (red dots in the bottom left corner of the cell in the table below): :: + Derivation (colored dots) of the 26 braille letters of the basic Latin alphabet from the 10 numeric digits (black dots)40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40pxa/1b/2c/3d/4e/5f/6g/7h/8i/9j/040px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40pxklmnopqrst40px40px40px40px40px 40pxuvxyzwThe next ten letters (the next \"decade\") are the same again, but with dots also at both position 3 and position 6 (green dots in the bottom row of the cell in the table above).", "Here ''w'' was initially left out as not being a part of the official French alphabet at the time of Braille's life; the French braille order is ''u v x y z ç é à è ù'' ().The next ten letters, ending in ''w'', are the same again, except that for this series position 6 (purple dot in the bottom right corner of the cell in the table above) is used without a dot at position 3.In French braille these are the letters ''â ê î ô û ë ï ü œ w'' ().", "''W'' had been tacked onto the end of 39 letters of the French alphabet to accommodate English.The ''a''–''j'' series shifted down by one dot space () is used for punctuation.", "Letters ''a'' and ''c'' , which only use dots in the top row, were shifted two places for the apostrophe and hyphen: .", "(These are also the decade diacritics, at left in the table below, of the second and third decade.", ")In addition, there are ten patterns that are based on the first two letters () with their dots shifted to the right; these were assigned to non-French letters (''ì ä ò'' ), or serve non-letter functions: (superscript; in English the accent mark), (currency prefix), (capital, in English the decimal point), (number sign), (emphasis mark), (symbol prefix).", ": + The 64 modern braille cells decade numeric sequence shift right1st40px 40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px 40px40px2nd' (apostrophe) 40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px 40px40px3rd40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px 40px# (number)4thUPPERCASE (capital) 40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px40px .", "(decimal point)40px5th shiftdown, (comma); (semicolon): (colon).", "(period)?", "(question mark) (exclamation point)40px“ (quote open)* (asterisk)” (quote close) 40px40pxThe first four decades are similar in respect that in those decades the decade dots are applied to the numeric sequence as a logical \"inclusive OR\" operation whereas the fifth decade applies a \"shift down\" operation to the numeric sequence.Originally there had been nine decades.", "The fifth through ninth used dashes as well as dots, but proved to be impractical and were soon abandoned.", "These could be replaced with what we now know as the number sign (), though that only caught on for the digits (old 5th decade → modern 1st decade).", "The dash occupying the top row of the original sixth decade was simply dropped, producing the modern fifth decade.", "(See 1829 braille.", ")=== Assignment ===Historically, there have been three principles in assigning the values of a linear script (print) to Braille: Using Louis Braille's original French letter values; reassigning the braille letters according to the sort order of the print alphabet being transcribed; and reassigning the letters to improve the efficiency of writing in braille.Under international consensus, most braille alphabets follow the French sorting order for the 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet, and there have been attempts at unifying the letters beyond these 26 (see international braille), though differences remain, for example, in German Braille.", "This unification avoids the chaos of each nation reordering the braille code to match the sorting order of its print alphabet, as happened in Algerian Braille, where braille codes were numerically reassigned to match the order of the Arabic alphabet and bear little relation to the values used in other countries (compare modern Arabic Braille, which uses the French sorting order), and as happened in an early American version of English Braille, where the letters ''w'', ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' were reassigned to match English alphabetical order.", "A convention sometimes seen for letters beyond the basic 26 is to exploit the physical symmetry of braille patterns iconically, for example, by assigning a reversed ''n'' to ''ñ'' or an inverted ''s'' to ''sh''.", "(See Hungarian Braille and Bharati Braille, which do this to some extent.", ")A third principle was to assign braille codes according to frequency, with the simplest patterns (quickest ones to write with a stylus) assigned to the most frequent letters of the alphabet.", "Such frequency-based alphabets were used in Germany and the United States in the 19th century (see American Braille), but with the invention of the braille typewriter their advantage disappeared, and none are attested in modern use they had the disadvantage that the resulting small number of dots in a text interfered with following the alignment of the letters, and consequently made texts more difficult to read than Braille's more arbitrary letter assignment.", "Finally, there are braille scripts that do not order the codes numerically at all, such as Japanese Braille and Korean Braille, which are based on more abstract principles of syllable composition.Texts are sometimes written in a script of eight dots per cell rather than six, enabling them to encode a greater number of symbols.", "(See Gardner–Salinas braille codes.)", "Luxembourgish Braille has adopted eight-dot cells for general use; for example, it adds a dot below each letter to derive its capital variant." ], [ "Form", "Silver wedding bands with names ''Henri(que)'' and ''Tita'' written in brailleBraille was the first writing system with binary encoding.", "The system as devised by Braille consists of two parts:# Character encoding that mapped characters of the French alphabet to tuples of six bits (the dots).# The physical representation of those six-bit characters with raised dots in a braille cell.Within an individual cell, the dot positions are arranged in two columns of three positions.", "A raised dot can appear in any of the six positions, producing 64 (26) possible patterns, including one in which there are no raised dots.", "For reference purposes, a pattern is commonly described by listing the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered, from top to bottom, as 1 to 3 on the left and 4 to 6 on the right.", "For example, dot pattern 1-3-4 describes a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and at the top of the right column: that is, the letter ''m''.", "The lines of horizontal braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the braille text above and below.", "Different assignments of braille codes (or code pages) are used to map the character sets of different printed scripts to the six-bit cells.", "Braille assignments have also been created for mathematical and musical notation.", "However, because the six-dot braille cell allows only 64 (26) patterns, including space, the characters of a braille script commonly have multiple values, depending on their context.", "That is, character mapping between print and braille is not one-to-one.", "For example, the character corresponds in print to both the letter ''d'' and the digit ''4''.In addition to simple encoding, many braille alphabets use contractions to reduce the size of braille texts and to increase reading speed.", "(See Contracted braille.)" ], [ "Writing braille", "Braille typewriterBraille may be produced by hand using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, or it may be produced on a braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler, or an electronic Brailler or braille notetaker.", "Braille users with access to smartphones may also activate the on-screen braille input keyboard, to type braille symbols on to their device by placing their fingers on to the screen according to the dot configuration of the symbols they wish to form.", "These symbols are automatically translated into print on the screen.", "The different tools that exist for writing braille allow the braille user to select the method that is best for a given task.", "For example, the slate and stylus is a portable writing tool, much like the pen and paper for the sighted.", "Errors can be erased using a braille eraser or can be overwritten with all six dots ().", "''Interpoint'' refers to braille printing that is offset, so that the paper can be embossed on both sides, with the dots on one side appearing between the divots that form the dots on the other.Using a computer or other electronic device, Braille may be produced with a braille embosser (printer) or a refreshable braille display (screen).=== Eight-dot braille ===Braille has been extended to an 8-dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays.", "In 8-dot braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide.", "The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot).", "Eight-dot braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell.", "All 256 (28) possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard.", "Braille with six dots is frequently stored as Braille ASCII.=== Letters ===The first 25 braille letters, up through the first half of the 3rd decade, transcribe ''a–z'' (skipping ''w'').", "In English Braille, the rest of that decade is rounded out with the ligatures ''and, for, of, the,'' and ''with''.", "Omitting dot 3 from these forms the 4th decade, the ligatures ''ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, ow'' and the letter ''w''.chshth(See English Braille.", ")=== Formatting ===Various formatting marks affect the values of the letters that follow them.", "They have no direct equivalent in print.", "The most important in English Braille are:CapitalfollowsNumberfollowsThat is, is read as capital 'A', and as the digit '1'.=== Punctuation ===Basic punctuation marks in English Braille include:CommaSemicolonApostropheColonHyphenDecimal pointFull stop (period)Exclamation pointOpen quote, question markClose quoteBracket (parentheses)Slash(fraction) is both the question mark and the opening quotation mark.", "Its reading depends on whether it occurs before a word or after.", "is used for both opening and closing parentheses.", "Its placement relative to spaces and other characters determines its interpretation.Punctuation varies from language to language.", "For example, French Braille uses for its question mark and swaps the quotation marks and parentheses (to and ); it uses the period () for the decimal point, as in print, and the decimal point () to mark capitalization.=== Contractions ===Braille contractions are words and affixes that are shortened so that they take up fewer cells.", "In English Braille, for example, the word ''afternoon'' is written with just three letters, , much like stenoscript.", "There are also several abbreviation marks that create what are effectively logograms.", "The most common of these is dot 5, which combines with the first letter of words.", "With the letter ''m'', the resulting word is ''mother''.", "There are also ligatures (\"contracted\" letters), which are single letters in braille but correspond to more than one letter in print.", "The letter ''and'', for example, is used to write words with the sequence ''a-n-d'' in them, such as ''hand''.", "''afternoon(a-f-n)''''mother(dot 5–m)''''hand(h-and)''=== Page dimensions ===Most braille embossers support between 34 and 40 cells per line, and 25 lines per page.A manually operated Perkins braille typewriter supports a maximum of 42 cells per line (its margins are adjustable), and typical paper allows 25 lines per page.A large interlining Stainsby has 36 cells per line and 18 lines per page.An A4-sized Marburg braille frame, which allows interpoint braille (dots on both sides of the page, offset so they do not interfere with each other), has 30 cells per line and 27 lines per page.=== Braille writing machine ===Braille typewriterStainsby Braille writerA Braille writing machine is a typewriter with six keys that allows the user to write braille on a regular hard copy page.The first Braille typewriter to gain general acceptance was invented by Frank Haven Hall (Superintendent of the Illinois School for the Blind), and was presented to the public in 1892.The Stainsby Brailler, developed by Henry Stainsby in 1903, is a mechanical writer with a sliding carriage that moves over an aluminium plate as it embosses Braille characters.", "An improved version was introduced around 1933.In 1951 David Abraham, a woodworking teacher at the Perkins School for the Blind, produced a more advanced Braille typewriter, the Perkins Brailler.Braille printers or embosser were produced in the 1950s.In 1960 Robert Mann, a teacher in MIT, wrote DOTSYS, a software that allowed automatic braille translation, and another group created an embossing device called \"M.I.T.", "Braillemboss\".", "The Mitre Corporation team of Robert Gildea, Jonathan Millen, Reid Gerhart and Joseph Sullivan (now president of Duxbury Systems) developed DOTSYS III, the first braille translator written in a portable programming language.", "DOTSYS III was developed for the Atlanta Public Schools as a public domain program.In 1991 Ernest Bate developed the Mountbatten Brailler, an electronic machine used to type braille on braille paper, giving it a number of additional features such as word processing, audio feedback and embossing.", "This version was improved in 2008 with a quiet writer that had an erase key.In 2011 David S. Morgan produced the first SMART Brailler machine, with added text to speech function and allowed digital capture of data entered." ], [ "Braille reading", "Braille is traditionally read in hardcopy form, such as with paper books written in braille, documents produced in paper braille (such as restaurant menus), and braille labels or public signage.", "It can also be read on a refreshable braille display either as a stand-alone electronic device or connected to a computer or smartphone.", "Refreshable braille displays convert what is visually shown on a computer or smartphone screen into braille through a series of pins that rise and fall to form braille symbols.", "Currently more than 1% of all printed books have been translated into hardcopy braille.The fastest braille readers apply a light touch and read braille with two hands, although reading braille with one hand is also possible.", "Although the finger can read only one braille character at a time, the brain chunks braille at a higher level, processing words a digraph, root or suffix at a time.", "The processing largely takes place in the visual cortex." ], [ "Literacy", "Georgia Academy for the Blind has been providing braille education and braille literacy since 1876.Children who are blind miss out on fundamental parts of early and advanced education if not provided with the necessary tools, such as access to educational materials in braille.", "Children who are blind or visually impaired can begin learning foundational braille skills from a very young age to become fluent braille readers as they get older.", "Sighted children are naturally exposed to written language on signs, on TV and in the books they see.", "Blind children require the same early exposure to literacy, through access to braille rich environments and opportunities to explore the world around them.", "Print-braille books, for example, present text in both print and braille and can be read by sighted parents to blind children (and vice versa), allowing blind children to develop an early love for reading even before formal reading instruction begins.Adults who experience sight loss later in life or who did not have the opportunity to learn it when they were younger can also learn braille.", "In most cases, adults who learn braille were already literate in print before vision loss and so instruction focuses more on developing the tactile and motor skills needed to read braille.While different countries publish statistics on how many readers in a given organization request braille, these numbers only provide a partial picture of braille literacy statistics.", "For example, this data does not survey the entire population of braille readers or always include readers who are no longer in the school system (adults) or readers who request electronic braille materials.", "Therefore, there are currently no reliable statistics on braille literacy rates, as described in a publication in the ''Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness''.", "Regardless of the precise percentage of braille readers, there is consensus that braille should be provided to all those who benefit from it.Numerous factors influence access to braille literacy, including school budget constraints, technology advancements such as screen-reader software, access to qualified instruction, and different philosophical views over how blind children should be educated.In the USA, a key turning point for braille literacy was the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an act of Congress that moved thousands of children from specialized schools for the blind into mainstream public schools.", "Because only a small percentage of public schools could afford to train and hire braille-qualified teachers, braille literacy has declined since the law took effect.", "Braille literacy rates have improved slightly since the bill was passed, in part because of pressure from consumers and advocacy groups that has led 27 states to pass legislation mandating that children who are legally blind be given the opportunity to learn braille.In 1998 there were 57,425 legally blind students registered in the United States, but only 10% (5,461) of them used braille as their primary reading medium.Early Braille education is crucial to literacy for a blind or low-vision child.", "A study conducted in the state of Washington found that people who learned braille at an early age did just as well, if not better than their sighted peers in several areas, including vocabulary and comprehension.", "In the preliminary adult study, while evaluating the correlation between adult literacy skills and employment, it was found that 44% of the participants who had learned to read in braille were unemployed, compared to the 77% unemployment rate of those who had learned to read using print.", "Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90% of those who are braille-literate are employed.", "Among adults who do not know braille, only 33% are employed.", "Statistically, history has proven that braille reading proficiency provides an essential skill set that allows blind or low-vision children to compete with their sighted peers in a school environment and later in life as they enter the workforce.Regardless of the specific percentage of braille readers, proponents point out the importance of increasing access to braille for all those who can benefit from it." ], [ "Braille transcription", "Taiwanese Braille and corresponding Mandarin text.", "Three Braille cells are needed to transcribe most Mandarin letters.Although it is possible to transcribe print by simply substituting the equivalent braille character for its printed equivalent, in English such a character-by-character transcription (known as ''uncontracted braille'') is typically used by beginners or those who only engage in short reading tasks (such as reading household labels).Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11\" by 11.5\" (28 cm × 30 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 43 characters.", "To reduce space and increase reading speed, most braille alphabets and orthographies use ligatures, abbreviations, and contractions.", "Virtually all English braille books in hardcopy (paper) format are transcribed in contracted braille: The Library of Congress's ''Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing'' runs to over 300 pages, and braille transcribers must pass certification tests.Uncontracted braille was previously known as grade 1 braille, and contracted braille was previously known as grade 2 braille.", "Uncontracted braille is a direct transliteration of print words (one-to-one correspondence); hence, the word \"about\" would contain all the same letters in uncontracted braille as it does in inkprint.", "Contracted braille includes short forms to save space; hence, for example, the letters \"ab\" when standing alone represent the word \"about\" in English contracted braille.", "In English, some braille users only learn uncontracted braille, particularly if braille is being used for shorter reading tasks such as reading household labels.", "However, those who plan to use braille for educational and employment purposes and longer reading texts often go on to contracted braille.The system of contractions in English Braille begins with a set of 23 words contracted to single characters.", "Thus the word ''but'' is contracted to the single letter ''b'', ''can'' to ''c'', ''do'' to ''d'', and so on.", "Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, ''d'' is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb ''do''; the noun ''do'' representing the note of the musical scale is a different word and must be spelled out.Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process.", "For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter \"f\" lowered in the Braille cell) stands for \"ff\" when used in the middle of a word.", "At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word \"to\"; the character is written in braille with no space following it.", "(This contraction was removed in the Unified English Braille Code.)", "At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.Some contractions are more similar than their print equivalents.", "For example, the contraction , meaning \"letter\", differs from , meaning \"little\", only by one dot in the second letter: ''little'', ''letter''.", "This causes greater confusion between the braille spellings of these words and can hinder the learning process of contracted braille.The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are generally not to be used when their use would alter the usual braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added.", "Some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber.", "Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to \"the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation\".", "\"Grade 3 braille\" is a variety of non-standardized systems that include many additional shorthand-like contractions.", "They are not used for publication, but by individuals for their personal convenience." ], [ "Braille translation software", "When people produce braille, this is called braille transcription.", "When computer software produces braille, this is called a braille translator.", "Braille translation software exists to handle almost all of the common languages of the world, and many technical areas, such as mathematics (mathematical notation), for example WIMATS, music (musical notation), and tactile graphics." ], [ "Braille reading techniques", "Since Braille is one of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, as opposed to visual perception, a braille reader must develop new skills.", "One skill important for Braille readers is the ability to create smooth and even pressures when running one's fingers along the words.", "There are many different styles and techniques used for the understanding and development of braille, even though a study by B. F. Holland suggests that there is no specific technique that is superior to any other.Another study by Lowenfield & Abel shows that braille can be read \"the fastest and best... by students who read using the index fingers of both hands\".", "Another important reading skill emphasized in this study is to finish reading the end of a line with the right hand and to find the beginning of the next line with the left hand simultaneously." ], [ "International uniformity", "Braille plate at ''Duftrosengarten'' in Rapperswil, SwitzerlandWhen Braille was first adapted to languages other than French, many schemes were adopted, including mapping the native alphabet to the alphabetical order of French – e.g.", "in English W, which was not in the French alphabet at the time, is mapped to braille X, X to Y, Y to Z, and Z to the first French-accented letter – or completely rearranging the alphabet such that common letters are represented by the simplest braille patterns.", "Consequently, mutual intelligibility was greatly hindered by this state of affairs.", "In 1878, the International Congress on Work for the Blind, held in Paris, proposed an international braille standard, where braille codes for different languages and scripts would be based, not on the order of a particular alphabet, but on phonetic correspondence and transliteration to Latin.This unified braille has been applied to the languages of India and Africa, Arabic, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Russian, and Armenian, as well as nearly all Latin-script languages.", "In Greek, for example, γ (g) is written as Latin ''g'', despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of ''c''; Hebrew ב (b), the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter ''b'', is sometimes pronounced /b/ and sometimes /v/, and is written ''b'' or ''v'' accordingly; Russian ц (ts) is written as ''c'', which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic ف (f) is written as ''f'', despite being historically ''p'' and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic ''o'' and ''q'')." ], [ "Other braille conventions", "Other systems for assigning values to braille patterns are also followed beside the simple mapping of the alphabetical order onto the original French order.", "Some braille alphabets start with unified braille, and then diverge significantly based on the phonology of the target languages, while others diverge even further.In the various Chinese systems, traditional braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels.", "In both Mandarin and Cantonese Braille, however, characters have different readings depending on whether they are placed in syllable-initial (onset) or syllable-final (rime) position.", "For instance, the cell for Latin ''k'', , represents Cantonese ''k'' (''g'' in Yale and other modern romanizations) when initial, but ''aak'' when final, while Latin ''j'', , represents Cantonese initial ''j'' but final ''oei''.Novel systems of braille mapping include Korean, which adopts separate syllable-initial and syllable-final forms for its consonants, explicitly grouping braille cells into syllabic groups in the same way as hangul.", "Japanese, meanwhile, combines independent vowel dot patterns and modifier consonant dot patterns into a single braille cell – an abugida representation of each Japanese mora." ], [ "Uses", "A bottle of Chapoutier wine, with braille on the labelAn embossed map of a German train station, with braille textBraille is read by people who are blind, deafblind or who have low vision, and by both those born with a visual impairment and those who experience sight loss later in life.", "Braille may also be used by print impaired people, who although may be fully sighted, due to a physical disability are unable to read print.", "Even individuals with low vision will find that they benefit from braille, depending on level of vision or context (for example, when lighting or colour contrast is poor).", "Braille is used for both short and long reading tasks.", "Examples of short reading tasks include braille labels for identifying household items (or cards in a wallet), reading elevator buttons, accessing phone numbers, recipes, grocery lists and other personal notes.", "Examples of longer reading tasks include using braille to access educational materials, novels and magazines.", "People with access to a refreshable braille display can also use braille for reading email and ebooks, browsing the internet and accessing other electronic documents.", "It is also possible to adapt or purchase playing cards and board games in braille.In India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in braille, such as ''The Right to Information Act''.", "Sylheti Braille is used in Northeast India.In Canada, passenger safety information in braille and tactile seat row markers are required aboard planes, trains, large ferries, and interprovincial busses pursuant to the Canadian Transportation Agency's regulations.In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires various building signage to be in braille.In the United Kingdom, it is required that medicines have the name of the medicine in Braille on the labeling.=== Currency ===The current series of Canadian banknotes has a tactile feature consisting of raised dots that indicate the denomination, allowing bills to be easily identified by blind or low vision people.", "It does not use standard braille numbers to identify the value.", "Instead, the number of full braille cells, which can be simply counted by both braille readers and non-braille readers alike, is an indicator of the value of the bill.Mexican bank notes, Australian bank notes, Indian rupee notes, Israeli new shekel notes and Russian ruble notes also have special raised symbols to make them identifiable by persons who are blind or have low vision.Euro coins were designed in cooperation with organisations representing blind people, and as a result they incorporate many features allowing them to be distinguished by touch alone.", "In addition, their visual appearance is designed to make them easy to tell apart for persons who cannot read the inscriptions on the coins.", "\"A good design for the blind and partially sighted is a good design for everybody\" was the principle behind the cooperation of the European Central Bank and the European Blind Union during the design phase of the first series Euro banknotes in the 1990s.", "As a result, the design of the first euro banknotes included several characteristics which aid both the blind and partially sighted to confidently use the notes.Australia introduced the tactile feature onto their five-dollar banknote in 2016In the United Kingdom, the front of the £10 polymer note (the side with raised print), has two clusters of raised dots in the top left hand corner, and the £20 note has three.", "This tactile feature helps blind and partially sighted people identify the value of the note.In 2003 the US Mint introduced the commemorative Alabama State Quarter, which recognized State Daughter Helen Keller on the Obverse, including the name Helen Keller in both English script and Braille inscription.", "This appears to be the first known use of Braille on US Coin Currency, though not standard on all coins of this type." ], [ "Unicode", "The Braille set was added to the Unicode Standard in version 3.0 (1999).Most braille embossers and refreshable braille displays do not use the Unicode code points, but instead reuse the 8-bit code points that are assigned to standard ASCII for braille ASCII.", "(Thus, for simple material, the same bitstream may be interpreted equally as visual letter forms for sighted readers or their exact semantic equivalent in tactile patterns for blind readers.", "However some codes have quite different tactile versus visual interpretations and most are not even defined in Braille ASCII.", ")Some embossers have proprietary control codes for 8-dot braille or for full graphics mode, where dots may be placed anywhere on the page without leaving any space between braille cells so that continuous lines can be drawn in diagrams, but these are rarely used and are not standard.The Unicode standard encodes 6-dot and 8-dot braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following their assigned numeric order.", "Dot 1 corresponds to the least significant bit of the low byte of the Unicode scalar value, and dot 8 to the high bit of that byte.The Unicode block for braille is U+2800 ... U+28FF.", "The mapping of patterns to characters etc.", "is language dependent: even for English for example, see American Braille and English Braille." ], [ "Observation", "Every year on 4 January, World Braille Day is observed internationally to commemorate the birth of Louis Braille and to recognize his efforts.", "Although the event is not considered a public holiday, it has been recognized by the United Nations as an official day of celebration since 2019." ], [ "Braille devices", "There is a variety of contemporary electronic devices that serve the needs of blind people that operate in Braille, such as refreshable braille displays and Braille e-book that use different technologies for transmitting graphic information of different types (pictures, maps, graphs, texts, etc.", ")." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (\"the Braille man of India\")* List of binary codes* List of international common standards*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* L'association Valentin Haüy (in French)** Acting for the autonomy of blind and partially sighted persons (Corporate brochure) (Microsoft Word file, in English)* Alternate Text Production Center of the California Community Colleges.", "* Braille Part 1 Text To Speech For The Visually Impaired YouTube* Braille information and advice – Sense UK* Braille at Omniglot" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bastille Day" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bastille Day''' is the common name given in English-speaking countries to the national day of France, which is celebrated on 14 July each year.", "In French, it is formally called the '''''' (; ); legally it is known as '''''' (; ).French National Day is the anniversary of the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, a major event of the French Revolution, as well as the that celebrated the unity of the French people on 14 July 1790.Celebrations are held throughout France.", "One that has been reported as \"the oldest and largest military parade in Europe\" is held on 14 July on the Champs-Élysées in Paris in front of the President of France, along with other French officials and foreign guests." ], [ "History", "In 1789, tensions rose in France between reformist and conservative factions as the country struggled to resolve an economic crisis.", "In May, the Estates General legislative assembly was revived, but members of the Third Estate broke ranks, declaring themselves to be the National Assembly of the country, and on 20 June, vowed to write a constitution for the kingdom.", "On 11 July Jacques Necker, the finance minister of Louis XVI, who was sympathetic to the Third Estate, was dismissed by the King, provoking an angry reaction among Parisians.", "Crowds formed, fearful of an attack by the royal army or by foreign regiments of mercenaries in the King's service, and seeking to arm themselves.", "Early on 14 July, a crowd besieged the Hôtel des Invalides for firearms, muskets, and cannons stored in its cellars.", "That same day, another crowd stormed the Bastille, a fortress-prison in Paris that had historically held people jailed on the basis of ''lettres de cachet'' (literally \"signet letters\"), arbitrary royal indictments that could not be appealed and did not indicate the reason for the imprisonment, and was believed to hold a cache of ammunition and gunpowder.", "As it happened, at the time of the attack, the Bastille held only seven inmates, none of great political significance.", "The crowd was eventually reinforced by the mutinous Régiment des Gardes Françaises (\"Regiment of French Guards\"), whose usual role was to protect public buildings.", "They proved a fair match for the fort's defenders, and Governor de Launay, the commander of the Bastille, capitulated and opened the gates to avoid a mutual massacre.", "According to the official documents, about 200 attackers and just one defender died before the capitulation.", "However, possibly because of a misunderstanding, fighting resumed.", "In this second round of fighting, de Launay and seven other defenders were killed, as was Jacques de Flesselles, the ''prévôt des marchands'' (\"provost of the merchants\"), the elected head of the city's guilds, who under the French monarchy had the responsibilities of a present-day mayor.Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, late in the evening of 4 August, after a very stormy session of the ''Assemblée constituante'', feudalism was abolished.", "On 26 August, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (''Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen'') was proclaimed.===''Fête de la Fédération''===''Fête de la Fédération'', Musée de la Révolution françaiseAs early as 1789, the year of the storming of the Bastille, preliminary designs for a national festival were underway.", "These designs were intended to strengthen the country's national identity through the celebration of the events of 14 July 1789.One of the first designs was proposed by Clément Gonchon, a French textile worker, who presented his design for a festival celebrating the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille to the French city administration and the public on 9 December 1789.There were other proposals and unofficial celebrations of 14 July 1789, but the official festival sponsored by the National Assembly was called the Fête de la Fédération.The ''Fête de la Fédération'' on 14 July 1790 was a celebration of the unity of the French nation during the French Revolution.", "The aim of this celebration, one year after the Storming of the Bastille, was to symbolize peace.", "The event took place on the Champ de Mars, which was located far outside of Paris at the time.", "The work needed to transform the Champ de Mars into a suitable location for the celebration was not on schedule to be completed in time.", "On the day recalled as the Journée des brouettes (\"The Day of the Wheelbarrow\"), thousands of Parisian citizens gathered together to finish the construction needed for the celebration.The day of the festival, the National Guard assembled and proceeded along the boulevard du Temple in the pouring rain, and were met by an estimated 260,000 Parisian citizens at the Champ de Mars.", "A mass was celebrated by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun.", "The popular General Lafayette, as captain of the National Guard of Paris and a confidant of the king, took his oath to the constitution, followed by King Louis XVI.", "After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge four-day popular feast, and people celebrated with fireworks, as well as fine wine and running nude through the streets in order to display their freedom.===Origin of the current celebration===Claude Monet, ''Rue Montorgueil, Paris, Festival of 30 June 1878''On 30 June 1878, a feast was officially arranged in Paris to honour the French Republic (the event was commemorated in a painting by Claude Monet).", "On 14 July 1879, there was another feast, with a semi-official aspect.", "The day's events included a reception in the Chamber of Deputies, organised and presided over by Léon Gambetta (a military reviewer at Longchamp), and a Republican Feast in the Pré Catelan.", "All throughout France, ''Le Figaro'' wrote, \"people feasted much to honour the storming of the Bastille\".In 1880, the government of the Third Republic wanted to revive the 14 July festival.", "The campaign for the reinstatement of the festival was sponsored by the notable politician Léon Gambetta and scholar Henri Baudrillant.", "On 21 May 1880, Benjamin Raspail proposed a law, signed by sixty-four members of government, to have \"the Republic adopt 14 July as the day of an annual national festival\".", "There were many disputes over which date to be remembered as the national holiday, including 4 August (the commemoration of the end of the feudal system), 5 May (when the Estates-General first assembled), 27 July (the fall of Robespierre), and 21 January (the date of Louis XVI's execution).", "The government decided that the date of the holiday would be 14 July, but that was still somewhat problematic.", "The events of 14 July 1789 were illegal under the previous government, which contradicted the Third Republic's need to establish legal legitimacy.", "French politicians also did not want the sole foundation of their national holiday to be rooted in a day of bloodshed and class-hatred as the day of storming the Bastille was.", "Instead, they based the establishment of the holiday as both the celebration of the Fête de la Fédération, a festival celebrating the anniversary of the Republic of France on 14 July 1789, and the storming of the Bastille.", "The Assembly voted in favor of the proposal on 21 May, and 8 June.", "The law was approved on 27 and 29 June.", "The celebration was made official on 6 July 1880.In the debate leading up to the adoption of the holiday, Senator Henri Martin, who wrote the National Day law, addressed the chamber on 29 June 1880:===Bastille Day military parade===Military parade during World War IThe Bastille Day military parade is the French military parade that has been held in the morning, every year in Paris, since 1880.While previously held elsewhere within or near the capital city, since 1918 it has been held on the Champs-Élysées, with the participation of the Allies as represented in the Versailles Peace Conference, and with the exception of the period of German occupation from 1940 to 1944 (when the ceremony took place in London under the command of General Charles de Gaulle); and 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic forced its cancellation.", "The parade passes down the Champs-Élysées from the Arc de Triomphe to the Place de la Concorde, where the President of the French Republic, his government and foreign ambassadors to France stand.", "This is a popular event in France, broadcast on French TV, and is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe.Smaller military parades are held in French garrison towns, including Toulon and Belfort, with local troops.File:Bastille Day Parade 170714-D-PB383-005 (35087624434).jpg|Allied forces participate in the military paradeFile:French Republican Guard Bastille Day 2007 n1.jpg|Horseman of the Republican Guard during the 2007 military parade on the Champs-ÉlyséesFile:Dominique Vallet-IMG 5734.JPG|Surgeon general inspector Dominique Vallet, head of the Laveran military medical school, at the ceremonies for Bastille Day in Marseille, 2012" ], [ "Bastille Day celebrations in other countries", "===Belgium===Liège celebrates Bastille Day each year since the end of the First World War, as Liège was decorated by the Légion d'Honneur for its unexpected resistance during the Battle of Liège.", "The city also hosts a fireworks show outside of Congress Hall.", "Specifically in Liège, celebrations of Bastille Day have been known to be bigger than the celebrations of the Belgian National holiday.", "Around 35,000 people gather to celebrate Bastille Day.", "There is a traditional festival dance of the French consul that draws large crowds, and many unofficial events over the city celebrate the relationship between France and the city of Liège.===Canada===Vancouver, British Columbia holds a celebration featuring exhibits, food and entertainment.", "The Toronto Bastille Day festival is also celebrated in Toronto, Ontario.", "The festival is organized by the French-Canadian community in Toronto and sponsored by the Consulate General of France.", "The celebration includes music, performances, sport competitions, and a French Market.", "At the end of the festival, there is also a traditional French bal populaire.===Czech Republic===Since 2008, Prague has hosted a French market \"\" (\"Fourteenth of July Market\") offering traditional French food and wine as well as music.", "The market takes place on Kampa Island, it is usually between 11 and 14 July.", "It acts as an event that marks the relinquish of the EU presidency from France to the Czech Republic.", "Traditional selections of French produce, including cheese, wine, meat, bread and pastries, are provided by the market.", "Throughout the event, live music is played in the evenings, with lanterns lighting up the square at night.=== Denmark ===The amusement park Tivoli celebrates Bastille Day.Bastille Day fireworks in Budapest, Hungary===Hungary===Budapest's two-day celebration is sponsored by the Institut de France.", "The festival is hosted along the Danube River, with streets filled with music and dancing.", "There are also local markets dedicated to French foods and wine, mixed with some traditional Hungarian specialties.", "At the end of the celebration, a fireworks show is held on the river banks.===India===Bastille Day is celebrated with great festivity in Pondicherry, a former French colony.===Ireland===The Embassy of France in Ireland organizes several events around Dublin, Cork and Limerick for Bastille Day; including evenings of French music and tasting of French food.", "Many members of the French community in Ireland take part in the festivities.", "Events in Dublin include live entertainment, speciality menus on French cuisine, and screenings of popular French films.===New Zealand===The Auckland suburb of Remuera hosts an annual French-themed Bastille Day street festival.", "Visitors enjoy mimes, dancers, music, as well as French foods and drinks.", "The budding relationship between the two countries, with the establishment of a Maori garden in France and exchange of their analyses of cave art, resulted in the creation of an official reception at the Residence of France.", "There is also an event in Wellington for the French community held at the Residence of France.===South Africa===Franschhoek's weekend festival has been celebrated since 1993.", "(Franschhoek, or 'French Corner,' is situated in the Western Cape.)", "As South Africa's gourmet capital, French food, wine and other entertainment is provided throughout the festival.", "The French Consulate in South Africa also celebrates their national holiday with a party for the French community.", "Activities also include dressing up in different items of French clothing.=== French Polynesia===Following colonial rule, France annexed a large portion of what is now French Polynesia.", "Under French rule, Tahitians were permitted to participate in sport, singing, and dancing competitions one day a year: Bastille Day.", "The single day of celebration evolved into the major Heiva i Tahiti festival in Papeete Tahiti, where traditional events such as canoe races, tattooing, and fire walks are held.", "The singing and dancing competitions continue with music composed with traditional instruments such as the nasal flute and ukulele.===United Kingdom===Within the UK, London has a large French contingent, and celebrates Bastille Day at various locations across the city including Battersea Park, Camden Town and Kentish Town.", "Live entertainment is performed at Canary Wharf, with weeklong performances of French theatre at the Lion and Unicorn Theatre in Kentish Town.", "Restaurants feature cabarets and special menus across the city, and other celebrations include garden parties and sports tournaments.", "There is also a large event at the Bankside and Borough Market, where there is live music, street performers, and traditional French games played.===United States===The United States has over 20 cities that conduct annual celebrations of Bastille Day.", "The different cities celebrate with many French staples such as food, music, games, and sometimes the recreation of famous French landmarks.", ";Northeastern StatesBaltimore, Maryland, has a large Bastille Day celebration each year at Petit Louis in the Roland Park area of Baltimore.", "Boston has a celebration annually, hosted by the French Cultural Center for 40 years.", "The street festival occurs in Boston's Back Bay neighborhood, near the Cultural Center's headquarters.", "The celebration includes francophone musical performers, dancing, and French cuisine.", "New York City has numerous Bastille Day celebrations each July, including ''Bastille Day on 60th Street'' hosted by the French Institute Alliance Française between Fifth and Lexington Avenues on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, Bastille Day on Smith Street in Brooklyn, and Bastille Day in Tribeca.", "There is also the annual Bastille Day Ball, taking place since 1924.Philadelphia's Bastille Day, held at Eastern State Penitentiary, involves Marie Antoinette throwing locally manufactured Tastykakes at the Parisian militia, as well as a re-enactment of the storming of the Bastille.", "(This Philadelphia tradition ended in 2018.)", "In Newport, Rhode Island, the annual Bastille Day celebration is organized by the local chapter of the Alliance Française.", "It takes place at King Park in Newport at the monument memorializing the accomplishments of the General Comte de Rochambeau whose 6,000 to 7,000 French forces landed in Newport on 11 July 1780.Their assistance in the defeat of the English in the War of Independence is well documented and is proof of the special relationship between France and the United States.", "In Washington D.C., food, music, and auction events are sponsored by the Embassy of France.", "There is also a French Festival within the city, where families can meet period entertainment groups set during the time of the French Revolution.", "Restaurants host parties serving traditional French food.", ";Southern StatesIn Dallas, Texas, the Bastille Day celebration, \"Bastille On Bishop\", began in 2010 and is held annually in the Bishop Arts District of the North Oak Cliff neighborhood, southwest of downtown just across the Trinity River.", "Dallas' French roots are tied to the short lived socialist Utopian community La Réunion, formed in 1855 and incorporated into the City of Dallas in 1860.Miami's celebration is organized by \"French & Famous\" in partnership with the French American Chamber of Commerce, the Union des Français de l'Etranger and many French brands.", "The event gathers over 1,000 attendees to celebrate \"La Fête Nationale\".", "The location and theme change every year.", "In 2017, the theme was \"Guinguette Party\" and attracted 1,200 francophiles at The River Yacht Club.", "New Orleans, Louisiana, has multiple celebrations, the largest in the historic French Quarter.", "In Austin, Texas, the Alliance Française d’Austin usually conducts a family-friendly Bastille Day party at the French Legation, the home of the French representative to the Republic of Texas from 1841 to 1845.; Midwestern StatesChicago, Illinois, has hosted a variety of Bastille Day celebrations in a number of locations in the city, including Navy Pier and Oz Park.", "The recent incarnations have been sponsored in part by the Chicago branch of the French-American Chamber of Commerce and by the French Consulate-General in Chicago.", "Milwaukee's four-day street festival begins with a \"Storming of the Bastille\" with a 43-foot replica of the Eiffel Tower.", "Minneapolis, Minnesota, has a celebration with wine, French food, pastries, a flea market, circus performers and bands.", "Also in the Twin Cities area, the local chapter of the Alliance Française has hosted an annual event for years at varying locations with a competition for the \"Best Baguette of the Twin Cities.\"", "Montgomery, Ohio, has a celebration with wine, beer, local restaurants' fare, pastries, games and bands.", "St. Louis, Missouri, has annual festivals in the Soulard neighborhood, the former French village of Carondelet, Missouri, and in the Benton Park neighborhood.", "The Chatillon-DeMenil Mansion in the Benton Park neighborhood, holds an annual Bastille Day festival with reenactments of the beheading of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, traditional dancing, and artillery demonstrations.", "Carondelet also began hosting an annual saloon crawl to celebrate Bastille Day in 2017.The Soulard neighborhood in St. Louis, Missouri celebrates its unique French heritage with special events including a parade, which honors the peasants who rejected the monarchy.", "The parade includes a 'gathering of the mob,' a walking and golf cart parade, and a mock beheading of the King and Queen.", "; Western StatesPortland, Oregon, has celebrated Bastille Day with crowds up to 8,000, in public festivals at various public parks, since 2001.The event is coordinated by the Alliance Française of Portland.", "Seattle's Bastille Day celebration, held at the Seattle Center, involves performances, picnics, wine and shopping.", "Sacramento, California, conducts annual \"waiter races\" in the midtown restaurant and shopping district, with a street festival." ], [ "One-time celebrations", "Bronze relief of a memorial dedicated to Bastille Day.", "* 1979: A concert with Jean-Michel Jarre on the Place de la Concorde in Paris was the first concert to have one million attendees.", "* 1989: France celebrated the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution, notably with a monumental show on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, directed by French designer Jean-Paul Goude.", "President François Mitterrand acted as a host for invited world leaders.", "* 1990: A concert with Jarre was held at La Défense near Paris.", "* 1994: The military parade was opened by Eurocorps, a newly created European army unit including German soldiers.", "This was the first time German troops paraded in France since 1944, as a symbol of Franco-German reconciliation.", "* 1995: A concert with Jarre was held at the Eiffel Tower in Paris.", "* 1998: Two days after the French football team became World Cup champions, huge celebrations took place nationwide.", "* 2004: To commemorate the centenary of the Entente Cordiale, the British led the military parade with the Red Arrows flying overhead.", "* 2007: To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome, the military parade was led by troops from the 26 other EU member states, all marching at the French time.", "* 2014: To commemorate the 100th anniversary of the outbreak of the First World War, representatives of 80 countries who fought during this conflict were invited to the ceremony.", "The military parade was opened by 76 flags representing each of these countries.", "* 2017: To commemorate the 100th anniversary of the United States of America's entry into the First World War, president of France Emmanuel Macron invited U.S. president Donald Trump to celebrate a centuries-long transatlantic tie between the two countries.", "Trump was reported to have admired the display, and pushed for the United States to \"top it\" with a proposed military parade on 10 November 2018 (the eve of the Armistice Day centenary)." ], [ "Incidents during Bastille Day", "* In 2002, Maxime Brunerie attempted to shoot French President Jacques Chirac during the Champs-Élysées parade.", "* In 2009, Paris youths set fire to more than 300 cars on Bastille Day.", "* In 2016, Tunisian terrorist Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel drove a truck into crowds during celebrations in the city of Nice.", "86 people were killed and 434 injured along the Promenade des Anglais, before the attacker was killed in a shootout with police." ], [ "See also", "* \"Bastille Day\", a song by Canadian progressive rock band Rush*''Bastille Day'' (1933 film), a French romantic comedy by René Clair*''Bastille Day'' (2016 film), a film starring Idris Elba*Triplets of Bellville (2003 film), an animated film written and directed by Sylvain Chomet*Bastille, a British alternative rock band named after the birthday of their frontman* Bastille Day event* Opération 14 juillet* Place de la Bastille* Public holidays in France* Other national holidays in July:** Canada Day in Canada** Independence Day/Fourth of July in the United States** Battle of the Boyne in Northern Ireland** Belgian National Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** 14 July – Official French website (in English)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Blowfish (cipher)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blowfish''' is a symmetric-key block cipher, designed in 1993 by Bruce Schneier and included in many cipher suites and encryption products.", "Blowfish provides a good encryption rate in software, and no effective cryptanalysis of it has been found to date.", "However, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) now receives more attention, and Schneier recommends Twofish for modern applications.Schneier designed Blowfish as a general-purpose algorithm, intended as an alternative to the aging DES and free of the problems and constraints associated with other algorithms.", "At the time Blowfish was released, many other designs were proprietary, encumbered by patents, or were commercial or government secrets.", "Schneier has stated that \"Blowfish is unpatented, and will remain so in all countries.", "The algorithm is hereby placed in the public domain, and can be freely used by anyone.", "\"Notable features of the design include key-dependent S-boxes and a highly complex key schedule." ], [ "The algorithm", "Blowfish has a 64-bit block size and a variable key length from 32 bits up to 448 bits.", "It is a 16-round Feistel cipher and uses large key-dependent S-boxes.", "In structure it resembles CAST-128, which uses fixed S-boxes.The Feistel structure of BlowfishThe adjacent diagram shows Blowfish's encryption routine.", "Each line represents 32 bits.", "There are five subkey-arrays: one 18-entry P-array (denoted as K in the diagram, to avoid confusion with the Plaintext) and four 256-entry S-boxes (S0, S1, S2 and S3).Every round ''r'' consists of 4 actions: '''Action 1'''XOR the left half (L) of the data with the ''r'' th P-array entry'''Action 2'''Use the XORed data as input for Blowfish's F-function'''Action 3'''XOR the F-function's output with the right half (R) of the data'''Action 4'''Swap L and RThe F-function splits the 32-bit input into four 8-bit quarters and uses the quarters as input to the S-boxes.", "The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output.", "The outputs are added modulo 232 and XORed to produce the final 32-bit output (see image in the upper right corner).After the 16th round, undo the last swap, and XOR L with K18 and R with K17 (output whitening).Decryption is exactly the same as encryption, except that P1, P2, ..., P18 are used in the reverse order.", "This is not so obvious because xor is commutative and associative.", "A common misconception is to use inverse order of encryption as decryption algorithm (i.e.", "first XORing P17 and P18 to the ciphertext block, then using the P-entries in reverse order).Blowfish's key schedule starts by initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from the hexadecimal digits of pi, which contain no obvious pattern (see nothing up my sleeve number).", "The secret key is then, byte by byte, cycling the key if necessary, XORed with all the P-entries in order.", "A 64-bit all-zero block is then encrypted with the algorithm as it stands.", "The resultant ciphertext replaces P1 and P2.The same ciphertext is then encrypted again with the new subkeys, and the new ciphertext replaces P3 and P4.This continues, replacing the entire P-array and all the S-box entries.", "In all, the Blowfish encryption algorithm will run 521 times to generate all the subkeys about 4 KB of data is processed.Because the P-array is 576 bits long, and the key bytes are XORed through all these 576 bits during the initialization, many implementations support key sizes up to 576 bits.", "The reason for that is a discrepancy between the original Blowfish description, which uses 448-bit keys, and its reference implementation, which uses 576-bit keys.", "The test vectors for verifying third-party implementations were also produced with 576-bit keys.", "When asked which Blowfish version is the correct one, Bruce Schneier answered: \"The test vectors should be used to determine the one true Blowfish\".Another opinion is that the 448 bits limit is present to ensure that every bit of every subkey depends on every bit of the key, as the last four values of the P-array don't affect every bit of the ciphertext.", "This point should be taken in consideration for implementations with a different number of rounds, as even though it increases security against an exhaustive attack, it weakens the security guaranteed by the algorithm.", "And given the slow initialization of the cipher with each change of key, it is granted a natural protection against brute-force attacks, which doesn't really justify key sizes longer than 448 bits." ], [ "Blowfish in pseudocode", "uint32_t P18;uint32_t S4256;uint32_t f (uint32_t x) { uint32_t h = S0x >> 24 + S1x >> 16 & 0xff; return ( h ^ S2x >> 8 & 0xff ) + S3x & 0xff;}void blowfish_encrypt(uint32_t *L, uint32_t *R) { for (short r = 0; r 1; r--) {\t\t*L = *L ^ Pr;\t\t*R = f(*L) ^ *R;\t\tswap(L, R);\t}\tswap(L, R);\t*R = *R ^ P1;\t*L = *L ^ P0;} // ... // initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from pi; omitted in the example // ... {\t/* initialize P box w/ key*/\tuint32_t k;\tfor (short i = 0, p = 0; i" ], [ "Blowfish in practice", "Blowfish is a fast block cipher, except when changing keys.", "Each new key requires the pre-processing equivalent of encrypting about 4 kilobytes of text, which is very slow compared to other block ciphers.", "This prevents its use in certain applications, but is not a problem in others.Blowfish must be initialized with a key.", "It is good practice to have this key hashed.", "To prevent this key from being hashed with a hash function too short (SHA-160, SHA-256), appeared in 2005 a hash function based on MD2 by Ron Rivest, only for Blowfish passwords.", "This function hashes a key or password into a 56 or 72 byte key for Blowfish or 528 bytes for Blowfish II.", "In one application Blowfish's slow key changing is actually a benefit: the password-hashing method (crypt $2, i.e.", "bcrypt) used in OpenBSD uses an algorithm derived from Blowfish that makes use of the slow key schedule; the idea is that the extra computational effort required gives protection against dictionary attacks.", "''See'' key stretching.Blowfish has a memory footprint of just over 4 kilobytes of RAM.", "This constraint is not a problem even for older desktop and laptop computers, though it does prevent use in the smallest embedded systems such as early smartcards.Blowfish was one of the first secure block ciphers not subject to any patents and therefore freely available for anyone to use.", "This benefit has contributed to its popularity in cryptographic software.bcrypt is a password hashing function which, combined with a variable number of iterations (work \"cost\"), exploits the expensive key setup phase of Blowfish to increase the workload and duration of hash calculations, further reducing threats from brute force attacks.bcrypt is also the name of a cross-platform file encryption utility developed in 2002 that implements Blowfish." ], [ "Weakness and successors", "Blowfish's use of a 64-bit block size (as opposed to e.g.", "AES's 128-bit block size) makes it vulnerable to birthday attacks, particularly in contexts like HTTPS.", "In 2016, the SWEET32 attack demonstrated how to leverage birthday attacks to perform plaintext recovery (i.e.", "decrypting ciphertext) against ciphers with a 64-bit block size.", "The GnuPG project recommends that Blowfish not be used to encrypt files larger than 4 GB due to its small block size.A reduced-round variant of Blowfish is known to be susceptible to known-plaintext attacks on reflectively weak keys.", "Blowfish implementations use 16 rounds of encryption, and are not susceptible to this attack.Bruce Schneier has recommended migrating to his Blowfish successor, Twofish.Blowfish II was released in 2005, developed by people other than Bruce Schneier.", "It has exactly the same design but has twice as many S tables and uses 64-bit integers instead of 32-bit integers.", "It no longer works on 64-bit blocks but on 128-bit blocks like AES." ], [ "See also", "* Twofish* Threefish* MacGuffin" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Bijection" ], [ "Introduction", "A bijective function, ''f'': ''X'' → ''Y'', where set X is {1, 2, 3, 4} and set Y is {A, B, C, D}.", "For example, ''f''(1) = D.A '''bijection''', '''bijective function''', or '''one-to-one correspondence''' between two mathematical sets is a function such that each element of the second set (the codomain) is mapped to from exactly one element of the first set (the domain).", "Equivalently, a bijection is a relation between two sets such that each element of either set is paired with exactly one element of the other set.A function is bijective if and only if it is invertible; that is, a function is bijective if and only if there is a function the ''inverse'' of , such that each of the two ways for composing the two functions produces an identity function: for each in and for each in For example, the ''multiplication by two'' defines a bijection from the integers to the even numbers, which has the ''division by two'' as its inverse function.A function is bijective if and only if it is both injective (or ''one-to-one'')—meaning that each element in the codomain is mapped to from at most one element of the domain—and surjective (or ''onto'')—meaning that each element of the codomain is mapped to from at least one element of the domain.", "The term ''one-to-one correspondence'' must not be confused with ''one-to-one function''.The elementary operation of counting establishes a bijection from some finite set to the first natural numbers , up to the number of elements in the counted set.", "It results that two finite sets have the same number of elements if and only if there exists a bijection between them.", "More generally, two sets are said to have the same cardinal number if there exists a bijection between them.A bijective function from a set to itself is also called a permutation, and the set of all permutations of a set forms its symmetric group.Some bijections with further properties have received specific names, which include automorphisms, isomorphisms, homeomorphisms, diffeomorphisms, permutation groups, and most geometric transformations.", "Galois correspondences are bijections between sets of mathematical objects of apparently very different nature." ], [ "Definition", "For a binary relation pairing elements of set ''X'' with elements of set ''Y'' to be a bijection, four properties must hold:# each element of ''X'' must be paired with at least one element of ''Y'',# no element of ''X'' may be paired with more than one element of ''Y'',# each element of ''Y'' must be paired with at least one element of ''X'', and# no element of ''Y'' may be paired with more than one element of ''X''.Satisfying properties (1) and (2) means that a pairing is a function with domain ''X''.", "It is more common to see properties (1) and (2) written as a single statement: Every element of ''X'' is paired with exactly one element of ''Y''.", "Functions which satisfy property (3) are said to be \"onto ''Y'' \" and are called surjections (or ''surjective functions'').", "Functions which satisfy property (4) are said to be \"one-to-one functions\" and are called injections (or ''injective functions'').", "With this terminology, a bijection is a function which is both a surjection and an injection, or using other words, a bijection is a function which is both \"one-to-one\" and \"onto\"." ], [ "Examples", "=== Batting line-up of a baseball or cricket team===Consider the batting line-up of a baseball or cricket team (or any list of all the players of any sports team where every player holds a specific spot in a line-up).", "The set ''X'' will be the players on the team (of size nine in the case of baseball) and the set ''Y'' will be the positions in the batting order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.)", "The \"pairing\" is given by which player is in what position in this order.", "Property (1) is satisfied since each player is somewhere in the list.", "Property (2) is satisfied since no player bats in two (or more) positions in the order.", "Property (3) says that for each position in the order, there is some player batting in that position and property (4) states that two or more players are never batting in the same position in the list.=== Seats and students of a classroom===In a classroom there are a certain number of seats.", "A bunch of students enter the room and the instructor asks them to be seated.", "After a quick look around the room, the instructor declares that there is a bijection between the set of students and the set of seats, where each student is paired with the seat they are sitting in.", "What the instructor observed in order to reach this conclusion was that:# Every student was in a seat (there was no one standing),# No student was in more than one seat,# Every seat had someone sitting there (there were no empty seats), and# No seat had more than one student in it.", "The instructor was able to conclude that there were just as many seats as there were students, without having to count either set." ], [ "More mathematical examples", "A bijection from the natural numbers to the integers, which maps 2''n'' to −''n'' and 2''n'' − 1 to ''n'', for ''n'' ≥ 0.", "* For any set ''X'', the identity function '''1'''''X'': ''X'' → ''X'', '''1'''''X''(''x'') = ''x'' is bijective.", "* The function ''f'': '''R''' → '''R''', ''f''(''x'') = 2''x'' + 1 is bijective, since for each ''y'' there is a unique ''x'' = (''y'' − 1)/2 such that ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.", "More generally, any linear function over the reals, ''f'': '''R''' → '''R''', ''f''(''x'') = ''ax'' + ''b'' (where ''a'' is non-zero) is a bijection.", "Each real number ''y'' is obtained from (or paired with) the real number ''x'' = (''y'' − ''b'')/''a''.", "* The function ''f'': '''R''' → (−π/2, π/2), given by ''f''(''x'') = arctan(''x'') is bijective, since each real number ''x'' is paired with exactly one angle ''y'' in the interval (−π/2, π/2) so that tan(''y'') = ''x'' (that is, ''y'' = arctan(''x'')).", "If the codomain (−π/2, π/2) was made larger to include an integer multiple of π/2, then this function would no longer be onto (surjective), since there is no real number which could be paired with the multiple of π/2 by this arctan function.", "* The exponential function, ''g'': '''R''' → '''R''', ''g''(''x'') = e''x'', is not bijective: for instance, there is no ''x'' in '''R''' such that ''g''(''x'') = −1, showing that ''g'' is not onto (surjective).", "However, if the codomain is restricted to the positive real numbers , then ''g'' would be bijective; its inverse (see below) is the natural logarithm function ln.", "* The function ''h'': '''R''' → '''R'''+, ''h''(''x'') = ''x''2 is not bijective: for instance, ''h''(−1) = ''h''(1) = 1, showing that ''h'' is not one-to-one (injective).", "However, if the domain is restricted to , then ''h'' would be bijective; its inverse is the positive square root function.", "*By Schröder–Bernstein theorem, given any two sets ''X'' and ''Y'', and two injective functions ''f'': ''X → Y'' and ''g'': ''Y → X'', there exists a bijective function ''h'': ''X → Y''." ], [ "Inverses", "A bijection ''f'' with domain ''X'' (indicated by ''f'': ''X → Y'' in functional notation) also defines a converse relation starting in ''Y'' and going to ''X'' (by turning the arrows around).", "The process of \"turning the arrows around\" for an arbitrary function does not, ''in general'', yield a function, but properties (3) and (4) of a bijection say that this inverse relation is a function with domain ''Y''.", "Moreover, properties (1) and (2) then say that this inverse ''function'' is a surjection and an injection, that is, the inverse function exists and is also a bijection.", "Functions that have inverse functions are said to be invertible.", "A function is invertible if and only if it is a bijection.Stated in concise mathematical notation, a function ''f'': ''X → Y'' is bijective if and only if it satisfies the condition:for every ''y'' in ''Y'' there is a unique ''x'' in ''X'' with ''y'' = ''f''(''x'').Continuing with the baseball batting line-up example, the function that is being defined takes as input the name of one of the players and outputs the position of that player in the batting order.", "Since this function is a bijection, it has an inverse function which takes as input a position in the batting order and outputs the player who will be batting in that position." ], [ "Composition", "A bijection composed of an injection (X → Y) and a surjection (Y → Z).The composition of two bijections ''f'': ''X → Y'' and ''g'': ''Y → Z'' is a bijection, whose inverse is given by is .Conversely, if the composition of two functions is bijective, it only follows that ''f'' is injective and ''g'' is surjective." ], [ "Cardinality", "If ''X'' and ''Y'' are finite sets, then there exists a bijection between the two sets ''X'' and ''Y'' if and only if ''X'' and ''Y'' have the same number of elements.", "Indeed, in axiomatic set theory, this is taken as the definition of \"same number of elements\" (equinumerosity), and generalising this definition to infinite sets leads to the concept of cardinal number, a way to distinguish the various sizes of infinite sets." ], [ "Properties", "* A function ''f'': '''R''' → '''R''' is bijective if and only if its graph meets every horizontal and vertical line exactly once.", "* If ''X'' is a set, then the bijective functions from ''X'' to itself, together with the operation of functional composition (∘), form a group, the symmetric group of ''X'', which is denoted variously by S(''X''), ''SX'', or ''X''!", "(''X'' factorial).", "* Bijections preserve cardinalities of sets: for a subset ''A'' of the domain with cardinality |''A''| and subset ''B'' of the codomain with cardinality |''B''|, one has the following equalities:*:|''f''(''A'')| = |''A''| and |''f''−1(''B'')| = |''B''|.", "*If ''X'' and ''Y'' are finite sets with the same cardinality, and ''f'': ''X → Y'', then the following are equivalent:*# ''f'' is a bijection.", "*# ''f'' is a surjection.", "*# ''f'' is an injection.", "*For a finite set ''S'', there is a bijection between the set of possible total orderings of the elements and the set of bijections from ''S'' to ''S''.", "That is to say, the number of permutations of elements of ''S'' is the same as the number of total orderings of that set—namely, ''n''!." ], [ "Category theory", "Bijections are precisely the isomorphisms in the category ''Set'' of sets and set functions.", "However, the bijections are not always the isomorphisms for more complex categories.", "For example, in the category ''Grp'' of groups, the morphisms must be homomorphisms since they must preserve the group structure, so the isomorphisms are ''group isomorphisms'' which are bijective homomorphisms." ], [ "Generalization to partial functions", "The notion of one-to-one correspondence generalizes to partial functions, where they are called ''partial bijections'', although partial bijections are only required to be injective.", "The reason for this relaxation is that a (proper) partial function is already undefined for a portion of its domain; thus there is no compelling reason to constrain its inverse to be a total function, i.e.", "defined everywhere on its domain.", "The set of all partial bijections on a given base set is called the symmetric inverse semigroup.Another way of defining the same notion is to say that a partial bijection from ''A'' to ''B'' is any relation ''R'' (which turns out to be a partial function) with the property that ''R'' is the graph of a bijection ''f'':''A′''→''B′'', where ''A′'' is a subset of ''A'' and ''B′'' is a subset of ''B''.When the partial bijection is on the same set, it is sometimes called a ''one-to-one partial transformation''.", "An example is the Möbius transformation simply defined on the complex plane, rather than its completion to the extended complex plane." ], [ "Gallery" ], [ "See also", "* Ax–Grothendieck theorem* Bijection, injection and surjection* Bijective numeration* Bijective proof* Category theory* Multivalued function" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "This topic is a basic concept in set theory and can be found in any text which includes an introduction to set theory.", "Almost all texts that deal with an introduction to writing proofs will include a section on set theory, so the topic may be found in any of these:* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Earliest Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: entry on Injection, Surjection and Bijection has the history of Injection and related terms." ] ]
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[ [ "Binary function" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''binary function''' (also called '''bivariate function''', or '''function of two variables''') is a function that takes two inputs.Precisely stated, a function is binary if there exists sets such that:where is the Cartesian product of and" ], [ "Alternative definitions", "Set-theoretically, a binary function can be represented as a subset of the Cartesian product , where belongs to the subset if and only if .Conversely, a subset defines a binary function if and only if for any and , there exists a unique such that belongs to .", "is then defined to be this .Alternatively, a binary function may be interpreted as simply a function from to .Even when thought of this way, however, one generally writes instead of .", "(That is, the same pair of parentheses is used to indicate both function application and the formation of an ordered pair.)" ], [ "Examples", "Division of whole numbers can be thought of as a function.", "If is the set of integers, is the set of natural numbers (except for zero), and is the set of rational numbers, then division is a binary function .In a vector space ''V'' over a field ''F'', scalar multiplication is a binary function.", "A scalar ''a'' ∈ ''F'' is combined with a vector ''v'' ∈ ''V'' to produce a new vector ''av'' ∈ ''V''.Another example is that of inner products, or more generally functions of the form , where , are real-valued vectors of appropriate size and is a matrix.", "If is a positive definite matrix, this yields an inner product." ], [ "Functions of two real variables", "Functions whose domain is a subset of are often also called functions of two variables even if their domain does not form a rectangle and thus the cartesian product of two sets." ], [ "Restrictions to ordinary functions", "In turn, one can also derive ordinary functions of one variable from a binary function.Given any element , there is a function , or , from to , given by .Similarly, given any element , there is a function , or , from to , given by .", "In computer science, this identification between a function from to and a function from to , where is the set of all functions from to , is called ''currying''." ], [ "Generalisations", "The various concepts relating to functions can also be generalised to binary functions.For example, the division example above is ''surjective'' (or ''onto'') because every rational number may be expressed as a quotient of an integer and a natural number.This example is ''injective'' in each input separately, because the functions ''f'' ''x'' and ''f'' ''y'' are always injective.However, it's not injective in both variables simultaneously, because (for example) ''f'' (2,4) = ''f'' (1,2).One can also consider ''partial'' binary functions, which may be defined only for certain values of the inputs.For example, the division example above may also be interpreted as a partial binary function from '''Z''' and '''N''' to '''Q''', where '''N''' is the set of all natural numbers, including zero.But this function is undefined when the second input is zero.A binary operation is a binary function where the sets ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are all equal; binary operations are often used to define algebraic structures.In linear algebra, a bilinear transformation is a binary function where the sets ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are all vector spaces and the derived functions ''f'' ''x'' and ''f''''y'' are all linear transformations.A bilinear transformation, like any binary function, can be interpreted as a function from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z'', but this function in general won't be linear.However, the bilinear transformation can also be interpreted as a single linear transformation from the tensor product to ''Z''." ], [ "Generalisations to ternary and other functions", "The concept of binary function generalises to ''ternary'' (or ''3-ary'') ''function'', ''quaternary'' (or ''4-ary'') ''function'', or more generally to ''n-ary function'' for any natural number ''n''.A ''0-ary function'' to ''Z'' is simply given by an element of ''Z''.One can also define an ''A-ary function'' where ''A'' is any set; there is one input for each element of ''A''." ], [ "Category theory", "In category theory, ''n''-ary functions generalise to ''n''-ary morphisms in a multicategory.The interpretation of an ''n''-ary morphism as an ordinary morphisms whose domain is some sort of product of the domains of the original ''n''-ary morphism will work in a monoidal category.The construction of the derived morphisms of one variable will work in a closed monoidal category.The category of sets is closed monoidal, but so is the category of vector spaces, giving the notion of bilinear transformation above." ], [ "See also", "* Arity" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Blue Velvet (film)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Blue Velvet''''' is a 1986 American neo-noir mystery thriller film written and directed by David Lynch.", "Blending psychological horror with film noir, the film stars Kyle MacLachlan, Isabella Rossellini, Dennis Hopper, and Laura Dern, and is named after the 1951 song of the same name.", "The film concerns a young college student who, returning home to visit his ill father, discovers a severed human ear in a field.", "The ear then leads him to uncover a vast criminal conspiracy, and enter into a romantic relationship with a troubled lounge singer.The screenplay of ''Blue Velvet'' had been passed around multiple times in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with several major studios declining it due to its strong sexual and violent content.", "After the failure of his 1984 film ''Dune'', Lynch made attempts at developing a more \"personal story\", somewhat characteristic of the surrealist style displayed in his first film ''Eraserhead'' (1977).", "The independent studio De Laurentiis Entertainment Group, owned at the time by Italian film producer Dino De Laurentiis, agreed to finance and produce the film.", "''Blue Velvet'' initially received a divided critical response, with many stating that its explicit content served little artistic purpose.", "Nevertheless, the film earned Lynch his second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director, and received the year's Best Film and Best Director prizes from the National Society of Film Critics.", "It came to achieve cult status.", "As an example of a director casting against the norm, it was credited for revitalizing Hopper's career and for providing Rossellini with a dramatic outlet beyond her previous work as a fashion model and a cosmetics spokeswoman.", "In the years since, the film has been re-evaluated, and it is now widely regarded as one of Lynch's major works and one of the greatest films of the 1980s.", "Publications including ''Sight & Sound'', ''Time'', ''Entertainment Weekly'' and ''BBC Magazine'' have ranked it among the greatest American films ever.", "In 2008, it was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the greatest mystery films ever made." ], [ "Plot", "College student Jeffrey Beaumont returns to his hometown of Lumberton, North Carolina, after his father, Tom, has a near-fatal attack from a medical condition.", "Walking home from the hospital, Jeffrey cuts through a vacant lot and discovers a severed human ear, which he takes to police detective John Williams.", "Williams's daughter Sandy tells Jeffrey that the ear somehow relates to a lounge singer named Dorothy Vallens.", "Intrigued, Jeffrey, posing as a pest exterminator, enters her apartment.", "While there, he steals a spare key while she is distracted by a man in a distinctive yellow sport coat, whom Jeffrey nicknames the \"Yellow Man\".Jeffrey and Sandy attend Dorothy's nightclub act, in which she sings \"Blue Velvet\", and leave early so Jeffrey can infiltrate her apartment.", "Dorothy returns home, stripping naked; she finds Jeffrey hiding in a closet and forces him to undress at knifepoint.", "She attempts to rape Jeffrey, but he retreats to the closet when Frank Booth, a psychopathic gangster and drug lord, arrives and interrupts their encounter.", "Frank beats and rapes Dorothy while inhaling narcotic gas from a canister and alternating between fits of sobbing and violent rage.", "After Frank leaves, Jeffrey sneaks away and seeks comfort from Sandy.After surmising that Frank has abducted Dorothy's husband, Don, and son, Donnie, to force her into sex slavery, Jeffrey suspects Frank cut off Don's ear to intimidate her into submission.", "While continuing to see Sandy, Jeffrey enters into a sadomasochistic sexual relationship in which Dorothy encourages him to hit her.", "Jeffrey sees Frank attending Dorothy's show and later observes him selling drugs and meeting with the Yellow Man.", "Jeffrey then sees the Yellow Man meeting with a \"well-dressed man.", "\"When Frank catches Jeffrey leaving Dorothy's apartment, he abducts them and takes them to the lair of Ben, a criminal associate holding Don and Donnie hostage.", "Frank permits Dorothy to see her family and forces Jeffrey to watch Ben perform an impromptu lip-sync of Roy Orbison's \"In Dreams\", which moves Frank to tears.", "Afterwards, he and his gang take Jeffrey and Dorothy on a high-speed joyride to a sawmill yard, where he again attempts to sexually abuse Dorothy.", "When Jeffrey intervenes and punches him in the face, an enraged Frank and his gang pull him out of the car.", "Replaying the tape of \"In Dreams\", Frank smears lipstick on his face and violently kisses Jeffrey, before savagely beating him unconscious, while Dorothy pleads for Frank to stop.", "Jeffrey awakens the next morning, bruised and bloodied.Visiting the police station, Jeffrey discovers that Detective Williams's partner, Tom Gordon, is the Yellow Man, who has been murdering Frank's rival drug dealers and stealing confiscated narcotics from the evidence room for Frank to sell.", "After Jeffrey and Sandy declare their love for each other at a party, they are pursued by a car which they assume belongs to Frank.", "As they arrive at Jeffrey's home, Sandy realizes the driver is her ex-boyfriend, Mike.", "After Mike threatens to beat Jeffrey for stealing his girlfriend, Dorothy appears on Jeffrey's porch naked, beaten, and confused.", "Mike backs down as Jeffrey and Sandy whisk Dorothy to Sandy's house to summon medical attention.When Dorothy calls Jeffrey \"my secret lover\", a distraught Sandy slaps him for cheating on her.", "Jeffrey asks Sandy to tell her father everything, and Detective Williams then leads a police raid on Frank's headquarters, killing Frank's men.", "Jeffrey returns alone to Dorothy's apartment, where he discovers Don dead and Gordon mortally wounded.", "As Jeffrey leaves the apartment, the \"Well-Dressed Man\" arrives, sees Jeffrey in the stairs, and chases him back inside.", "Jeffrey, realizing that the \"Well-Dressed Man\" is actually Frank, uses Gordon's walkie-talkie to say he is in the bedroom (remembering Frank's own police radio) before hiding in a closet.", "When Frank arrives, he starts shooting around Dorothy's apartment attempting to kill Jeffrey, in the process killing Gordon.", "Frank deduces where Jeffrey is hiding, and Jeffrey kills Frank with Gordon's gun upon Frank opening the door, moments before Sandy and Detective Williams arrive to help.Some time later, Jeffrey and Sandy have continued their relationship, Tom Beaumont has recovered from being hospitalized, and Dorothy has been reunited with her son." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Origin===The film's story originated from three ideas that crystallized in the filmmaker's mind over a period of time starting as early as 1973.The first idea was only \"a feeling\" and the title ''Blue Velvet'', Lynch told ''Cineaste'' in 1987.The second idea was an image of a severed, human ear lying in a field.", "\"I don't know why it had to be an ear.", "Except it needed to be an opening of a part of the body, a hole into something else ...", "The ear sits on the head and goes right into the mind so it felt perfect,\" Lynch remarked in a 1986 interview to ''The New York Times''.The third idea was Bobby Vinton's classic rendition of the song \"Blue Velvet\" and \"the mood that came with that song a mood, a time, and things that were of that time.", "\"The scene in which Dorothy appears naked outside was inspired by a real-life experience Lynch had during childhood when he and his brother saw a naked woman walking down a neighborhood street at night.", "The experience was so traumatic to the young Lynch that it made him cry, and he had never forgotten it.After completing ''The Elephant Man'' (1980), Lynch met producer Richard Roth over coffee.", "Roth had read and enjoyed Lynch's ''Ronnie Rocket'' script, but did not think it was something he wanted to produce.", "He asked Lynch if the filmmaker had any other scripts, but the director only had ideas.", "\"I told him I had always wanted to sneak into a girl's room to watch her into the night and that, maybe, at one point or another, I would see something that would be the clue to a murder mystery.", "Roth loved the idea and asked me to write a treatment.", "I went home and thought of the ear in the field.\"", "Production was announced in August 1984.Lynch wrote two more drafts before he was satisfied with the script of the film.", "The problem with them, Lynch has said, was that \"there was maybe all the unpleasantness in the film but nothing else.", "A lot was not there.", "And so it went away for a while.\"", "Conditions at this point were ideal for Lynch's film: he had made a deal with Dino De Laurentiis that gave him complete artistic freedom and final cut privileges, with the stipulation that the filmmaker take a cut in his salary and work with a budget of only $6 million.", "This deal meant that ''Blue Velvet'' was the smallest film on De Laurentiis's slate.", "Consequently, Lynch would be left mostly unsupervised during production.", "\"After ''Dune'' I was down so far that anything was up!", "So it was just a euphoria.", "And when you work with that kind of feeling, you can take chances.", "You can experiment.", "\"===Casting===The cast of ''Blue Velvet'' included several then-relatively unknown actors.Lynch met Isabella Rossellini at a restaurant, and offered her the role of Dorothy Vallens.", "Helen Mirren had been Lynch's first choice for the role.", "Rossellini had gained some exposure before the film for her Lancôme ads in the early 1980s and for being the daughter of actress Ingrid Bergman and Italian film director Roberto Rossellini.", "After completion of the film, during test screenings, ICM Partners—the agency representing Rossellini—immediately dropped her as a client.", "Furthermore, the nuns at the school in Rome that Rossellini attended in her youth called to say they were praying for her.Kyle MacLachlan had played the central role in Lynch's critical and commercial failure ''Dune'' (1984), a science fiction epic based on the novel of the same name.", "MacLachlan later became a recurring collaborator with Lynch, who remarked: \"Kyle plays innocents who are interested in the mysteries of life.", "He's the person you trust enough to go into a strange world with.", "\"Dennis Hopper was the biggest \"name\" in the film, having starred in ''Easy Rider'' (1969).", "Hopper—said to be Lynch's third choice (Michael Ironside has stated that Frank was written with him in mind)—accepted the role, reportedly having exclaimed, \"I've got to play Frank!", "I am Frank!\"", "as Hopper confirmed in the ''Blue Velvet'' \"making-of\" documentary ''The Mysteries of Love'', produced for the 2002 special edition.", "Harry Dean Stanton and Steven Berkoff both turned down the role of Frank because of the violent content in the film.Laura Dern (then 18 years old) was cast, after various already successful actresses had turned it down; among these had been Molly Ringwald.===Shooting===Principal photography of ''Blue Velvet'' began in August 1985 and completed in November.", "The film was shot at EUE/Screen Gems studio in Wilmington, North Carolina, which also provided the exterior scenes of Lumberton.", "The scene with a raped and battered Dorothy proved to be particularly challenging.", "Several townspeople arrived to watch the filming with picnic baskets and rugs, against the wishes of Rossellini and Lynch.", "However, they continued filming as normal, and when Lynch yelled cut, the townspeople had left.", "As a result, police told Lynch they were no longer permitted to shoot in any public areas of Wilmington.The Carolina Apartments on 5th and Market St in downtown Wilmington served as the location central to the story, with the adjacent Kenan fountain featured prominently in many shots.", "The building is also the birth place and death place of noted artist Claude Howell.", "The apartment building stands today, and the Kenan fountain was refurbished in 2020 after sustaining heavy damage during Hurricane Florence.===Editing===Lynch's original rough cut ran for approximately four hours.", "He was contractually obligated to deliver a two-hour movie by De Laurentiis and cut many small subplots and character scenes.", "He also made cuts at the request of the MPAA.", "For example, when Frank slaps Dorothy after the first rape scene, the audience was supposed to see Frank actually hitting her.", "Instead, the film cuts away to Jeffrey in the closet, wincing at what he has just seen.", "This cut was made to satisfy the MPAA's concerns about violence.", "Lynch thought that the change only made the scene more disturbing.", "In 2011, Lynch announced that footage from the deleted scenes, long thought lost, had been discovered.", "The material was subsequently included on the Blu-ray Disc release of the film.", "Among the deleted footage was Megan Mullally as Jeffrey's college sweetheart Louise Wertham, whose entire role was cut from the theatrical release.", "The final cut of the film runs at just over two hours.===Distribution===Because the material was completely different from anything that would be considered mainstream at the time, De Laurentiis Entertainment Group's marketing employees were unsure of how to promote the film, or even if it would be promoted at all; it wasn't until the positive reception the film received at various film festivals that they began to promote it." ], [ "Interpretations", "robins were set free, unleashing blinding light and love.", "Lighting is a strong symbolic aspect of the film, illustrated in this second shot which is lit from above before fading out, representing a return to normality.Despite ''Blue Velvet''s initial appearance as a mystery, the film operates on a number of thematic levels.", "The film owes a large debt to 1950s film noir, containing and exploring such conventions as the femme fatale (Dorothy Vallens), a seemingly unstoppable villain (Frank Booth), and the questionable moral outlook of the hero (Jeffrey Beaumont), as well as its unusual use of shadowy, sometimes dark cinematography.", "''Blue Velvet'' represents and establishes Lynch's famous \"askew vision\", and introduces several common elements of Lynch's work, some of which would later become his trademarks, including distorted characters, a polarized world, and debilitating damage to the skull or brain.", "Perhaps the most significant Lynchian trademark in the film is the depiction of unearthing a dark underbelly in a seemingly idealized small town; Jeffrey even proclaims in the film that he is \"seeing something that was always hidden\", alluding to the plot's central idea.", "Lynch's characterization of films, symbols, and motifs have become well known, and his particular style, characterised largely in ''Blue Velvet'' for the first time, has been written about extensively using descriptions like \"dreamlike\", \"ultraweird\", \"dark\", and \"oddball\".", "Red curtains also show up in key scenes, specifically in Dorothy's apartment, which have since become a Lynch trademark.", "The film has been compared to Alfred Hitchcock's ''Psycho'' (1960) because of its stark treatment of evil and mental illness.", "The premise of both films is curiosity, leading to an investigation that draws the lead characters into a hidden, voyeuristic underworld of crime.The film's thematic framework harks back to Edgar Allan Poe, Henry James, and early gothic fiction, as well as films such as ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943) and ''The Night of the Hunter'' (1955) and the entire notion of film noir.", "Lynch has called it a \"film about things that are hidden—within a small city and within people.", "\"Feminist psychoanalytic film theorist Laura Mulvey argues that ''Blue Velvet'' establishes a metaphorical Oedipal family—\"the child\", Jeffrey Beaumont, and his \"parents\", Frank Booth and Dorothy Vallens—through deliberate references to film noir and its underlying Oedipal theme.", "Michael Atkinson claims that the resulting violence in the film can be read as symbolic of domestic violence within real families.", "For instance, Frank's violent acts can be seen to reflect the different types of abuse within families, and the control he has over Dorothy might represent the hold an abusive husband has over his wife.", "He reads Jeffrey as an innocent youth who is both horrified by the violence inflicted by Frank, but also tempted by it as the means of possessing Dorothy for himself.", "Atkinson takes a Freudian approach to the film; considering it to be an expression of the traumatised innocence which characterises Lynch's work.", "He states, \"Dorothy represents the sexual force of the mother figure because she is forbidden and because she becomes the object of the unhealthy, infantile impulses at work in Jeffrey's subconscious.", "\"===Symbolism===Symbolism is used heavily in ''Blue Velvet''.", "The most consistent symbolism in the film is an insect motif introduced at the end of the first scene, when the camera zooms in on a well-kept suburban lawn until it unearths a swarming underground nest of bugs.", "This is generally recognized as a metaphor for the seedy underworld that Jeffrey will soon discover under the surface of his own suburban, Reaganesque paradise.", "The severed ear he finds is being overrun by black ants.", "The bug motif is recurrent throughout the film, most notably in the bug-like gas mask that Frank wears, but also the excuse that Jeffrey uses to gain access to Dorothy's apartment: he claims to be an insect exterminator.", "One of Frank's sinister accomplices is also consistently identified through the yellow jacket he wears, possibly reminiscent of the name of a type of wasp.", "Finally, a robin eating a bug on a fence becomes a topic of discussion in the last scene of the film.The severed ear that Jeffrey discovers is also a key symbolic element, leading Jeffrey into danger.", "Indeed, just as Jeffrey's troubles begin, the audience is treated to a nightmarish sequence in which the camera zooms into the canal of the severed, decomposing ear." ], [ "Soundtrack", "The ''Blue Velvet'' soundtrack was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti (who makes a brief cameo appearance as the pianist at the Slow Club where Dorothy performs).", "The soundtrack makes heavy usage of vintage pop songs, such as Bobby Vinton's \"Blue Velvet\" and Roy Orbison's \"In Dreams\", juxtaposed with an orchestral score inspired by Shostakovich.", "During filming, Lynch placed speakers on set and in streets and played Shostakovich to set the mood he wanted to convey.", "The score alludes to Shostakovich's 15th Symphony, which Lynch had been listening to regularly while writing the screenplay.", "Lynch had originally opted to use \"Song to the Siren\" by This Mortal Coil during the scene in which Sandy and Jeffrey share a dance; however, he could not obtain the rights for the song at the time.", "He would go on to use this song in ''Lost Highway'' eleven years later.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked ''Blue Velvet'' soundtrack on its list of the ''100 Greatest Film Soundtracks'', at the 100th position.", "Critic John Alexander wrote, \"the haunting soundtrack accompanies the title credits, then weaves through the narrative, accentuating the noir mood of the film.\"", "Lynch worked with music composer Angelo Badalamenti for the first time in this film and asked him to write a score that had to be \"like Shostakovich, be very Russian, but make it the most beautiful thing but make it dark and a little bit scary.\"", "Badalamenti's success with ''Blue Velvet'' would lead him to contribute to all of Lynch's future full-length films until ''Inland Empire'' as well as the cult television program ''Twin Peaks''.", "Also included in the sound team was long-time Lynch collaborator Alan Splet, a sound editor and designer who had won an Academy Award for his work on ''The Black Stallion'' (1979), and been nominated for ''Never Cry Wolf'' (1983)." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===''Blue Velvet'' premiered in competition at the Montréal World Film Festival in August 1986, and at the Toronto Festival of Festivals on September 12, 1986, and a few days later in the United States.", "It debuted commercially in both countries on September 19, 1986, in 98 theatres across the United States.", "In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $789,409.It eventually expanded to another 15 theatres, and in the US and Canada grossed a total of $8,551,228.", "''Blue Velvet'' was met with uproar during its audience reception, with lines formed around city blocks in New York City and Los Angeles.", "There were reports of mass walkouts and refund demands during its opening week.", "At a Chicago screening, a man fainted and had to have his pacemaker checked.", "Upon completion, he returned to the cinema to see the ending.", "At a Los Angeles cinema, two strangers became engaged in a heated disagreement, but decided to resolve the disagreement to return to the theatre.===Critical reception===''Blue Velvet'' was released to a very polarized reception in the United States.", "The critics who did praise the film were often vociferous.", "''The New York Times'' critic Janet Maslin directed much praise toward the performances of Hopper and Rossellini: \"Mr. Hopper and Miss Rossellini are so far outside the bounds of ordinary acting here that their performances are best understood in terms of sheer lack of inhibition; both give themselves entirely over to the material, which seems to be exactly what's called for.\"", "She called it \"an instant cult classic\".", "Maslin concluded by saying that ''Blue Velvet'' \"is as fascinating as it is freakish.", "It confirms Mr. Lynch's stature as an innovator, a superb technician, and someone best not encountered in a dark alley.", "\"Sheila Benson of the ''Los Angeles Times'' called the film \"the most brilliantly disturbing film ever to have its roots in small-town American life,\" describing it as \"shocking, visionary, rapturously controlled\".", "Film critic Gene Siskel included ''Blue Velvet'' on his list of the best films of 1986, at the fifth spot.", "Peter Travers, film critic for ''Rolling Stone'', named it the best film of the 1980s and referred to it as an \"American masterpiece\".", "Upon its initial release, Woody Allen and Martin Scorsese called ''Blue Velvet'' the \"Best Film of The Year\".Rossellini and Lynch at the Cannes Film FestivalOn the other hand, Paul Attanasio of ''The Washington Post'' said \"the film showcases a visual stylist utterly in command of his talents\" and that Angelo Badalamenti \"contributes an extraordinary score, slipping seamlessly from slinky jazz to violin figures to the romantic sweep of a classic Hollywood score,\" but stated that Lynch \"isn't interested in communicating, he's interested in parading his personality.", "The movie doesn't progress or deepen, it just gets weirder, and to no good end.\"", "A general criticism from US critics was ''Blue Velvet''s approach to sexuality and violence.", "They asserted that this detracted from the film's seriousness as a work of art, and some condemned the film as pornographic.", "One of its detractors, Roger Ebert, stated that the large amount of \"jokey small-town satire\" in the film made it impossible to take its themes seriously.", "Ebert praised Rossellini's performance as \"convincing and courageous\" but criticized how she was depicted in the film, even accusing David Lynch of misogyny: \"degraded, slapped around, humiliated and undressed in front of the camera.", "And when you ask an actress to endure those experiences, you should keep your side of the bargain by putting her in an important film.\"", "While Ebert in later years came to consider Lynch a great filmmaker, his negative view of ''Blue Velvet'' remained unchanged after he revisited it in the 21st century.The film is now widely considered a masterpiece and has a score of 95% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 80 reviews with an average rating of 8.8/10.The website's critical consensus states: \"If audiences walk away from this subversive, surreal shocker not fully understanding the story, they might also walk away with a deeper perception of the potential of film storytelling.\"", "The film also has a score of 76 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 15 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "Looking back in his ''Guardian/Observer'' review, critic Philip French wrote, \"The film is wearing well and has attained a classic status without becoming respectable or losing its sense of danger.", "\"Mark Kermode walked out on the film and gave the film a poor review upon its release, but revised his view of the film over time.", "In 2016, he remarked, \"as a film critic, it taught me that when a film really gets under your skin and really provokes a visceral reaction, you have to be very careful about assessing it ...", "I didn't walk out on ''Blue Velvet'' because it was a bad film.", "I walked out on it because it was a really good film.", "The point was at the time I wasn't good enough for it.", "\"===Accolades===Lynch was nominated for a Best Director Oscar for the film.", "Dennis Hopper was nominated for a Golden Globe for his performance.", "Isabella Rossellini won an Independent Spirit Award for the Best Female Lead in 1987.David Lynch and Dennis Hopper won a Los Angeles Film Critics Association award in 1987 for ''Blue Velvet'' in categories Best Director (Lynch) and Best Supporting Actor (Hopper).", "In 1987, National Society of Film Critics awarded Best Film, Best Director (David Lynch), Best Cinematography (Frederick Elmes), and Best Supporting Actor (Dennis Hopper) awards." ], [ "Home media", "''Blue Velvet'' was released on VHS by Karl-Lorimar Home Video in 1987 and re-issued by Warner Home Video in 1992.After that, it was DVD in 1999 and 2002 by MGM Home Entertainment.", "The film made its Blu-ray debut on November 8, 2011, with a special 25th-anniversary edition featuring never-before-seen deleted scenes.", "On May 28, 2019, the film was re-released on Blu-ray by the Criterion Collection, featuring a 4K digital restoration, the original stereo soundtrack and other special features, including a behind-the-scenes documentary titled ''Blue Velvet Revisited''." ], [ "Legacy", "Although it initially gained a relatively small theatrical audience in North America and was met with controversy over its artistic merit, ''Blue Velvet'' soon became the center of a \"national firestorm\" in 1986, and over time became an American classic.", "In the late 1980s, and early 1990s, after its release on videotape, the film became a widely recognized cult film, for its dark depiction of a suburban America.", "With its many VHS, LaserDisc and DVD releases, the film reached broader American audiences.", "It marked David Lynch's entry into the Hollywood mainstream and Dennis Hopper's comeback.", "Hopper's performance as Frank Booth has itself left an imprint on popular culture, with countless tributes, cultural references and parodies.", "The film's success also helped Hollywood address previously censored issues, as ''Psycho'' (1960) had.", "''Blue Velvet'' has been frequently compared to that ground-breaking film.", "It has become one of the most significant, well-recognized films of its era, spawning countless imitations and parodies in media.", "The film's dark, stylish and erotic production design has served as a benchmark for a number of films, parodies and even Lynch's own later work, notably ''Twin Peaks'' (1990–91), and ''Mulholland Drive'' (2001).", "Peter Travers of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine cited it as one of the most \"influential American films\", as did Michael Atkinson, who dedicated a book to the film's themes and motifs.", "''Blue Velvet'' now frequently appears in various critical assessments of all-time great films, also ranked as one of the greatest films of the 1980s, one of the best examples of American surrealism and one of the finest examples of David Lynch's work.", "In a poll of 54 American critics ranking the \"most outstanding films of the decade\", ''Blue Velvet'' was placed fourth, behind ''Raging Bull'' (1980), ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial'' (1982) and the German film ''Wings of Desire'' (1987).", "An ''Entertainment Weekly'' book special released in 1999 ranked ''Blue Velvet'' 37th of the greatest films of all time.", "The film was ranked by ''The Guardian'' in its list of the 100 Greatest Films.", "''Film Four'' ranked it on their list of 100 Greatest Films.", "In a 2007 poll of the online film community held by ''Variety'', ''Blue Velvet'' came in at the 95th-greatest film of all time.", "''Total Film'' ranked ''Blue Velvet'' as one of the all-time best films in both a critics' list and a public poll, in 2006 and 2007, respectively.", "In December 2002, a UK film critics' poll in ''Sight & Sound'' ranked the film fifth on their list of the 10 Best Films of the Last 25 Years.", "In a special ''Entertainment Weekly'' issue, 100 new film classics were chosen from 1983 to 2008: ''Blue Velvet'' was ranked at fourth.In addition to ''Blue Velvet'' various \"all-time greatest films\" rankings, the American Film Institute has awarded the film three honors in its lists: 96th on ''100 Years ... 100 Thrills'' in 2001, selecting cinema's most thrilling moments and ranked Frank Booth 36th of the 50 greatest villains in ''100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains'' in 2003.In June 2008, the AFI revealed its \"ten Top Ten\"—the best ten films in ten \"classic\" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community.", "''Blue Velvet'' was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the mystery genre.", "''Premiere'' magazine listed Frank Booth, played by Dennis Hopper, as the 54th on its list of 'The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time', calling him one of \"the most monstrously funny creations in cinema history\".", "The film was ranked 84th on Bravo Television's four-hour program ''100 Scariest Movie Moments'' (2004).", "It is frequently sampled musically and an array of bands and solo artists have taken their names and inspiration from the film.", "In August 2012, ''Sight & Sound'' unveiled their latest list of the 250 greatest films of all time, with ''Blue Velvet'' ranking at 69th.", "''Blue Velvet'' was also nominated for the following AFI lists:* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies* AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains** Frank Booth – Ranked 36th-greatest film villain.", "* AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:** \"In Dreams\" - nominated song.", "* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)Inspired by the film, pop singer Lana Del Rey recorded a cover version of Bobby Vinton's classic rendition of the song \"Blue Velvet\" in 2012.Used to endorse clothing line H&M, a music video accompanied the track and aired as a television commercial.", "Set in post-war America, the video drew influence from Lynch and ''Blue Velvet''.", "In the video, Del Rey plays the role of Dorothy Vallens, performing a private concert similar to the scene where Ben (Dean Stockwell) pantomimes \"In Dreams\" for Frank Booth.", "Del Rey's version, however, has her lip-syncing \"Blue Velvet\" when a little person dressed as Frank Sinatra approaches and unplugs a hidden Victrola, revealing Del Rey as a fraud.", "When Lynch heard of the music video, he praised it, telling ''Artinfo'': \"Lana Del Rey, she's got some fantastic charisma and—this is a very interesting thing—it's like she's born out of another time.", "She's got something that's very appealing to people.", "And I didn't know she was influenced by me!", "\"\"Now It's Dark\", a song by American heavy metal band Anthrax on their 1988 album ''State of Euphoria'', was directly inspired by the film, and specifically the character of Frank Booth.", "The same phrase appeared in the liner notes of Rush's album ''Roll the Bones'', and drummer Neil Peart later explained: \"The phrase occurs in David Lynch's comedy classic ''Blue Velvet''.", "\"The sludge metal band Acid Bath sampled the movie on the song \"Cassie Eats Cockroaches\" from their first album ''When the Kite String Pops'' and industrial metal band Ministry sampled the movie in their song \"Jesus Built My Hotrod\".", "The experimental rock band Mr. Bungle also sampled the movie on the songs \"Squeeze Me Macaroni\", \"Stubb - A Dub\", and \"My Ass Is On Fire\" from their debut self-titled album." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Atkinson, Michael (1997).", "''Blue Velvet''.", "Long Island, New York.", ": British Film Institute.", ".", "* Drazin, Charles (2001).", "''Blue Velvet: Bloomsbury Pocket Movie Guide 3''.", "Britain.", "Bloomsbury Publishing.", ".", "* Lynch, David and Rodley, Chris (2005).", "''Lynch on Lynch''.", "Faber and Faber: New York.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Binary operation" ], [ "Introduction", "A binary operation is a rule for combining the arguments and to produce In mathematics, a '''binary operation''' or '''dyadic operation''' is a rule for combining two elements (called operands) to produce another element.", "More formally, a binary operation is an operation of arity two.More specifically, a '''binary operation''' ''on a set'' is a binary operation whose two domains and the codomain are the same set.", "Examples include the familiar arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication.", "Other examples are readily found in different areas of mathematics, such as vector addition, matrix multiplication, and conjugation in groups.An operation of arity two that involves several sets is sometimes also called a ''binary operation''.", "For example, scalar multiplication of vector spaces takes a scalar and a vector to produce a vector, and scalar product takes two vectors to produce a scalar.", "Such binary operations may also be called binary functions.Binary operations are the keystone of most structures that are studied in algebra, in particular in semigroups, monoids, groups, rings, fields, and vector spaces." ], [ "Terminology", "More precisely, a binary operation on a set is a mapping of the elements of the Cartesian product to ::The closure property of a binary operation expresses the existence of a result for the operation given any pair of operands.If is not a function but a partial function, then is called a '''partial binary operation'''.", "For instance, division of real numbers is a partial binary operation, because one can not divide by zero: is undefined for every real number .", "In both model theory and classical universal algebra, binary operations are required to be defined on all elements of .", "However, partial algebras generalize universal algebras to allow partial operations.Sometimes, especially in computer science, the term binary operation is used for any binary function." ], [ "Properties and examples", "Typical examples of binary operations are the addition () and multiplication () of numbers and matrices as well as composition of functions on a single set.For instance,* On the set of real numbers , is a binary operation since the sum of two real numbers is a real number.", "* On the set of natural numbers , is a binary operation since the sum of two natural numbers is a natural number.", "This is a different binary operation than the previous one since the sets are different.", "* On the set of matrices with real entries, is a binary operation since the sum of two such matrices is a matrix.", "* On the set of matrices with real entries, is a binary operation since the product of two such matrices is a matrix.", "* For a given set , let be the set of all functions .", "Define by for all , the composition of the two functions and in .", "Then is a binary operation since the composition of the two functions is again a function on the set (that is, a member of ).Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic are commutative, satisfying for all elements and in , or associative, satisfying for all , , and in .", "Many also have identity elements and inverse elements.The first three examples above are commutative and all of the above examples are associative.On the set of real numbers , subtraction, that is, , is a binary operation which is not commutative since, in general, .", "It is also not associative, since, in general, ; for instance, but .On the set of natural numbers , the binary operation exponentiation, , is not commutative since, (cf.", "Equation xy = yx), and is also not associative since .", "For instance, with , , and , , but .", "By changing the set to the set of integers , this binary operation becomes a partial binary operation since it is now undefined when and is any negative integer.", "For either set, this operation has a ''right identity'' (which is ) since for all in the set, which is not an ''identity'' (two sided identity) since in general.Division (), a partial binary operation on the set of real or rational numbers, is not commutative or associative.", "Tetration (), as a binary operation on the natural numbers, is not commutative or associative and has no identity element." ], [ "Notation", "Binary operations are often written using infix notation such as , , or (by juxtaposition with no symbol) rather than by functional notation of the form .", "Powers are usually also written without operator, but with the second argument as superscript.Binary operations are sometimes written using prefix or (more frequently) postfix notation, both of which dispense with parentheses.", "They are also called, respectively, Polish notation and reverse Polish notation ." ], [ "Binary operations as ternary relations", "A binary operation on a set may be viewed as a ternary relation on , that is, the set of triples in for all and in ." ], [ "Other binary operations", "For example, scalar multiplication in linear algebra.", "Here is a field and is a vector space over that field.Also the dot product of two vectors maps to , where is a field and is a vector space over .", "It depends on authors whether it is considered as a binary operation." ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Properties of binary operations* * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bagpipes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bagpipes''' are a woodwind instrument using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag.", "The Great Highland bagpipes are well known, but people have played bagpipes for centuries throughout large parts of Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia, around the Persian Gulf and northern parts of South Asia.The term ''bagpipe'' is equally correct in the singular or the plural, though pipers usually refer to the bagpipes as \"the pipes\", \"a set of pipes\" or \"a stand of pipes\"." ], [ "Construction", "A detail from the Cantigas de Santa Maria showing bagpipes with one chanter and a parallel drone (Spain, 13th century).On this Bulgarian gajda, the chanter is the short gray pipe at the top, while the drone is the long three-section pipe.A detail from a painting by Hieronymus Bosch showing two bagpipers (15th century).A set of bagpipes minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, a chanter, and usually at least one drone.", "Many bagpipes have more than one drone (and, sometimes, more than one chanter) in various combinations, held in place in stocks—sockets that fasten the various pipes to the bag.=== Air supply ===The most common method of supplying air to the bag is through blowing into a blowpipe or blowstick.", "In some pipes the player must cover the tip of the blowpipe with the tongue while inhaling, in order to prevent unwanted deflation of the bag, but most blowpipes have a non-return valve that eliminates this need.", "In recent times, there are many instruments that assist in creating a clean air flow to the pipes and assist the collection of condensation.The use of a bellows to supply air is an innovation dating from the 16th or 17th century.", "In these pipes, sometimes called \"cauld wind pipes,\" air is not heated or moistened by the player's breathing, so bellows-driven bagpipes can use more refined or delicate reeds.", "Such pipes include the Irish uilleann pipes; the border or Lowland pipes, Scottish smallpipes, Northumbrian smallpipes and pastoral pipes in Britain; the musette de cour, the musette bechonnet and the cabrette in France; and the , koziol bialy, and koziol czarny in Poland.=== Bag ===The bag is an airtight reservoir that holds air and regulates its flow via arm pressure, allowing the player to maintain continuous, even sound.", "The player keeps the bag inflated by blowing air into it through a blowpipe or by pumping air into it with a bellows.", "Materials used for bags vary widely, but the most common are the skins of local animals such as goats, dogs, sheep, and cows.", "More recently, bags made of synthetic materials including Gore-Tex have become much more common.", "Some synthetic bags have zips that allow the player to fit a more effective moisture trap to the inside of the bag.", "However, synthetic bags still carry a risk of colonisation by fungal spores, and the associated danger of lung infection if they are not kept clean, even if they otherwise require less cleaning than do bags made from natural substances.Bags cut from larger materials are usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam and stitched (for skin bags) or glued (for synthetic bags) to reduce leaks.", "Holes are then cut to accommodate the stocks.", "In the case of bags made from largely intact animal skins, the stocks are typically tied into the points where the limbs and the head joined the body of the whole animal, a construction technique common in Central Europe.", "Different regions have different ways of treating the hide.", "The simplest methods involve just the use of salt, while more complex treatments involve milk, flour, and the removal of fur.", "The hide is normally turned inside out so that the fur is on the inside of the bag, as this helps to reduce the effect of moisture buildup within the bag.=== Chanter ===A Great Highland bagpipe practice chanterThe chanter is the melody pipe, played with two hands.", "All bagpipes have at least one chanter; some pipes have two chanters, particularly those in North Africa, in the Balkans, and in Southwest Asia.", "A chanter can be bored internally so that the inside walls are parallel (or \"cylindrical\") for its full length, or it can be bored in a conical shape.", "Popular woods include boxwood, cornel, plum or other fruit wood.The chanter is usually open-ended, so there is no easy way for the player to stop the pipe from sounding.", "Thus most bagpipes share a constant legato sound with no rests in the music.", "Primarily because of this inability to stop playing, technical movements are made to break up notes and to create the illusion of articulation and accents.", "Because of their importance, these embellishments (or \"ornaments\") are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe, and take many years of study to master.", "A few bagpipes (such as the musette de cour, the uilleann pipes, the Northumbrian smallpipes, the piva and the left chanter of the surdelina) have closed ends or stop the end on the player's leg, so that when the player \"closes\" (covers all the holes), the chanter becomes silent.A practice chanter is a chanter without bag or drones and has a much quieter reed, allowing a player to practice the instrument quietly and with no variables other than playing the chanter.The term ''chanter'' is derived from the Latin ''cantare'', or \"to sing\", much like the modern French verb meaning \"to sing\", ''chanter''.A distinctive feature of the gaida's chanter (which it shares with a number of other Eastern European bagpipes) is the \"flea-hole\" (also known as a ''mumbler'' or ''voicer'', ''marmorka'') which is covered by the index finger of the left hand.", "The flea-hole is smaller than the rest and usually consists of a small tube that is made out of metal or a chicken or duck feather.", "Uncovering the flea-hole raises any note played by a half step, and it is used in creating the musical ornamentation that gives Balkan music its unique character.Some types of gaida can have a double bored chanter, such as the Serbian three-voiced gajde.", "It has eight fingerholes: the top four are covered by the thumb and the first three fingers of the left hand, then the four fingers of the right hand cover the remaining four holes.==== Chanter reed ====The note from the chanter is produced by a reed installed at its top.", "The reed may be a single (a reed with one vibrating tongue) or double reed (of two pieces that vibrate against each other).", "Double reeds are used with both conical- and parallel-bored chanters while single reeds are generally (although not exclusively) limited to parallel-bored chanters.", "In general, double-reed chanters are found in pipes of Western Europe while single-reed chanters appear in most other regions.They are made from reed (''arundo donax'' or Phragmites), bamboo, or elder.", "A more modern variant for the reed is a combination of a cotton phenolic (Hgw2082) material from which the body of the reed is made and a clarinet reed cut to size in order to fit the body.", "These type of reeds produce a louder sound and are not so sensitive to humidity and temperature changes.=== Drone ===Most bagpipes have at least one drone, a pipe that generally is not fingered but rather produces a constant harmonizing note throughout play (usually the tonic note of the chanter).", "Exceptions are generally those pipes that have a double-chanter instead.", "A drone is most commonly a cylindrically bored tube with a single reed, although drones with double reeds exist.", "The drone is generally designed in two or more parts with a sliding joint so that the pitch of the drone can be adjusted.Depending on the type of pipes, the drones may lie over the shoulder, across the arm opposite the bag, or may run parallel to the chanter.", "Some drones have a tuning screw, which effectively alters the length of the drone by opening a hole, allowing the drone to be tuned to two or more distinct pitches.", "The tuning screw may also shut off the drone altogether.", "In most types of pipes with one drone, it is pitched two octaves below the tonic of the chanter.", "Additional drones often add the octave below and then a drone consonant with the fifth of the chanter." ], [ "History", "=== Possible ancient origins ===The evidence for bagpipes prior to the 13th century AD is still uncertain, but several textual and visual clues have been suggested.", "The ''Oxford History of Music'' posits that a sculpture of bagpipes has been found on a Hittite slab at Euyuk in Anatolia, dated to 1000 BC.", "Another interpretation of this sculpture suggests that it instead depicts a pan flute played along with a friction drum.Several authors identify the ancient Greek (ἀσκός ''askos'' – wine-skin, αὐλός ''aulos'' – reed pipe) with the bagpipe.", "In the 2nd century AD, Suetonius described the Roman emperor Nero as a player of the ''tibia utricularis''.", "Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign (possibly Nero) who could play a pipe (tibia, Roman reedpipes similar to Greek and Etruscan instruments) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit.", "Vereno suggests that such instruments, rather than being seen as an independent class, were understood as variants on mouth-blown instruments that used a bag as an alternative blowing aid and that it was not until drones were added in the European Medieval era that bagpipes were seen as a distinct class.=== Spread and development in Europe ===Medieval bagpiper at the Cistercian monastery of Santes Creus, Catalonia, Spain''Image of Irelande'', Military use of the bagpipe dated 1581In the early part of the second millennium, representation of bagpipes began to appear with frequency in Western European art and iconography.", "The Cantigas de Santa Maria, written in Galician-Portuguese and compiled in Castile in the mid-13th century, depicts several types of bagpipes.", "Several illustrations of bagpipes also appear in the ''Chronique dite de Baudoin d’Avesnes'', a 13th-century manuscript of northern French origin.", "Although evidence of bagpipes in the British Isles prior to the 14th century is contested, they are explicitly mentioned in ''The Canterbury Tales'' (written around 1380):Bagpipes were also frequent subjects for carvers of wooden choir stalls in the late 15th and early 16th century throughout Europe, sometimes with animal musicians.Actual specimens of bagpipes from before the 18th century are extremely rare; however, a substantial number of paintings, carvings, engravings, and manuscript illuminations survive.", "These artefacts are clear evidence that bagpipes varied widely throughout Europe, and even within individual regions.", "Many examples of early folk bagpipes in continental Europe can be found in the paintings of Brueghel, Teniers, Jordaens, and Durer.The earliest known artefact identified as a part of a bagpipe is a chanter found in 1985 at Rostock, Germany, that has been dated to the late 14th century or the first quarter of the 15th century.", "''De doedelzakspeler'' (\"Bagpipe Player\"), Hendrick ter Brugghen, 1624The first clear reference to the use of the Scottish Highland bagpipes is from a French history that mentions their use at the Battle of Pinkie in 1547.George Buchanan (1506–82) claimed that bagpipes had replaced the trumpet on the battlefield.", "This period saw the creation of the ''ceòl mór'' (great music) of the bagpipe, which reflected its martial origins, with battle tunes, marches, gatherings, salutes and laments.", "The Highlands of the early 17th century saw the development of piping families including the MacCrimmonds, MacArthurs, MacGregors, and the Mackays of Gairloch.The earliest Irish mention of the bagpipe is in 1206, approximately thirty years after the Anglo-Norman invasion; another mention attributes their use to Irish troops in Henry VIII's siege of Boulogne.", "Illustrations in the 1581 book ''The Image of Irelande'' by John Derricke clearly depict a bagpiper.", "Derricke's illustrations are considered to be reasonably faithful depictions of the attire and equipment of the English and Irish population of the 16th century.The \"Battell\" sequence from ''My Ladye Nevells Booke'' (1591) by William Byrd, which probably alludes to the Irish wars of 1578, contains a piece entitled ''The bagpipe: & the drone''.", "In 1760, the first serious study of the Scottish Highland bagpipe and its music was attempted in Joseph MacDonald's ''Compleat Theory''.", "A manuscript from the 1730s by a William Dixon of Northumberland contains music that fits the border pipes, a nine-note bellows-blown bagpipe with a chanter similar to that of the modern Great Highland bagpipe.", "However, the music in Dixon's manuscript varied greatly from modern Highland bagpipe tunes, consisting mostly of extended variation sets of common dance tunes.", "Some of the tunes in the Dixon manuscript correspond to those found in the early 19th century manuscript sources of Northumbrian smallpipe tunes, notably the rare book of 50 tunes, many with variations, by John Peacock.", "''Happy Brothers'' by Uroš Predić (1887)As Western classical music developed, both in terms of musical sophistication and instrumental technology, bagpipes in many regions fell out of favour because of their limited range and function.", "This triggered a long, slow decline that continued, in most cases, into the 20th century.Extensive and documented collections of traditional bagpipes may be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, the International Bagpipe Museum in Gijón, Spain, the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, England and the Morpeth Chantry Bagpipe Museum in Northumberland, and the Musical Instrument Museum in Phoenix, Arizona.International Bagpipe Festival, Strakonice, 2018The is held every two years in Strakonice, Czech Republic.=== Recent history === A Canadian soldier plays the bagpipes during the war in Afghanistan.", "Bagpipes are frequently used during funerals and memorials, especially among fire department, military and police forces in the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Commonwealth realms, and the U.S.During the expansion of the British Empire, spearheaded by British military forces that included Highland regiments, the Scottish Great Highland bagpipe became well known worldwide.", "This surge in popularity was boosted by large numbers of pipers trained for military service in World War I and World War II.", "This coincided with a decline in the popularity of many traditional forms of bagpipe throughout Europe, which began to be displaced by instruments from the classical tradition and later by gramophone and radio.As pipers were easily identifiable, combat losses were high, estimated at one thousand in World War I.", "A front line role was prohibited following high losses in the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1943, though a few later instances occurred.In the United Kingdom and Commonwealth Nations such as Canada, New Zealand and Australia, the Great Highland bagpipe is commonly used in the military and is often played during formal ceremonies.", "Foreign militaries patterned after the British army have also adopted the Highland bagpipe, including those of Uganda, Sudan, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Jordan, and Oman.", "Many police and fire services in Scotland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, and the United States have also adopted the tradition of fielding pipe bands.A bagpiper busking with the Great Highland bagpipe on the street in Edinburgh, ScotlandIn recent years, often driven by revivals of native folk music and dance, many types of bagpipes have enjoyed a resurgence in popularity and, in many cases, instruments that had fallen into obscurity have become extremely popular.", "In Brittany, the Great Highland bagpipe and concept of the pipe band were appropriated to create a Breton interpretation known as the bagad.", "The pipe-band idiom has also been adopted and applied to the Galician gaita as well.", "Bagpipes have often been used in various films depicting moments from Scottish and Irish history; the film ''Braveheart'' and the theatrical show ''Riverdance'' have served to make the uilleann pipes more commonly known.Bagpipes are sometimes played at formal events at Commonwealth universities, particularly in Canada.", "Because of Scottish influences on the sport of curling, bagpipes are also the official instrument of the World Curling Federation and are commonly played during a ceremonial procession of teams before major curling championships.Bagpipe making was once a craft that produced instruments in many distinctive, local and traditional styles.", "Today, the world's largest producer of the instrument is Pakistan, where the industry was worth $6.8 million in 2010.In the late 20th century, various models of electronic bagpipes were invented.", "The first custom-built MIDI bagpipes were developed by the Asturian piper known as Hevia (José Ángel Hevia Velasco).Bagpipes players from ''The City Of Auckland Pipe Band''.Astronaut Kjell N. Lindgren is thought to be the first person to play the bagpipes in outer space, having played \"Amazing Grace\" in tribute to late research scientist Victor Hurst aboard the International Space Station in November 2015.Traditionally, one of the purposes of the bagpipe was to provide music for dancing.", "This has declined with the growth of dance bands, recordings, and the decline of traditional dance.", "In turn, this has led to many types of pipes developing a performance-led tradition, and indeed much modern music based on the dance music tradition played on bagpipes is suitable for use as dance music." ], [ "Modern usage", "=== Types of bagpipes ===Numerous types of bagpipes today are widely spread across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa as well as through much of the former British Empire.", "The name bagpipe has almost become synonymous with its best-known form, the Great Highland bagpipe, overshadowing the great number and variety of traditional forms of bagpipe.", "Despite the decline of these other types of pipes over the last few centuries, in recent years many of these pipes have seen a resurgence or revival as musicians have sought them out; for example, the Irish piping tradition, which by the mid 20th century had declined to a handful of master players is today alive, well, and flourishing, a situation similar to that of the Asturian gaita, the Galician gaita, the Portuguese gaita transmontana, the Aragonese gaita de boto, Northumbrian smallpipes, the Breton biniou, the Balkan gaida, the Romanian cimpoi, the Black Sea tulum, the Scottish smallpipes and pastoral pipes, as well as other varieties.", "Bulgaria has the Kaba gaida, a large bagpipe of the Rhodope mountains with a hexagonal and rounded drone, often described as a deep-sounding gaida and the Dzhura gaida with a straight conical drone and of a higher pitch.", "The Macedonian gaida is structurally between a kaba and dzhura gaida and described as a medium pitched gaida.In Southeastern Europe and Eastern Europe bagpipes known as '''''gaida''''' include: the , , (), () () or (), (''''), , also and .In Tunisia, it is known by the name \"mezwed\".", "It is used in the Tunisian pop music genre, also called mezwed, that is named after the instrument.", "==== Image gallery ====Tunisian MezwedFile:Mmexport1647183006419.jpg|Piper in Petrash, JordanFile:BulgarianKabaGaidaPlayer.jpg|Bulgarian Kaba gaida player.File:Bag piper, Padre, Currie Hall, Royal Military College of Canada, fall 2011.jpg|The Scottish Great Highland bagpipe played at a Canadian military function.File:Baghet suonatore.jpg|A musician with a Northern Italian Baghèt wearing traditional dress.File:A modern model of Baghèt.png|Modern Baghèt (made 2000 by Valter Biella) in G.File:Zampogna.jpg|Central and southern Italian zampogna.File:Tulumcu.jpg|Laz man from Turkey playing a tulum.File:Cillian Vallely on Uilleann Pipes.jpg|Cillian Vallely playing Irish Uilleann pipes.File:Tickell 2004.jpg|Kathryn Tickell playing Northumbrian smallpipes.File:Gaida.jpg|Man from Skopje, North Macedonia playing the Gaida.File:Seivane1.jpg|Galician gaita.File:Sruti upanga.jpg|Sruti upanga, a Southern Indian bagpipe.File:Duda Bagpipe 001.jpg|Hungarian duda.File:Serbian bagpiper.jpg|Serbian piper.File:DudyWielkopolskie.jpg|Polish pipers.File:Bagad.JPG|Bagad of Lann Bihoué from the French Navy.File:Ollegallmo.jpg|Swedish säckpipa.File:Pastoral pipes removable foot joint.JPG|Pastoral pipes with removable footjoint and bellows.File:Street-piper.jpg|Street piper from Sofia, Bulgaria.File:Torupillimängija.jpg|Estonian torupill player.File:Lithuanian bagpipes.png|Lithuanian piper.File:Modern huemmelchen.jpg|Modern German huemmelchen.File:Baltarusių dūdmaišis Lietuvos nacionaliniame muziejuje (LNM).jpg|Lithuanian bagpipes.File:Bagad Brest.jpg|A bagad in Brest, FranceFile:Al son de la gaita.jpg|Gaita asturiana.File:Pibecwd.jpg|Welsh bagpipes (double-reed type).File:Gaiteroscantabria.jpg|Cantabrian pipe band.File:Bagpipe player damascus.jpg|Syrian piper in Damascus, Syria.File:Tsambouna.jpg|Various forms of the Tsampouna, found in the Greek islands.File:Селянін грае на дудзе.jpg|Belarusian piper.File:A żaqq (bagpipe), made from calf pelt, cane, and animal horn.jpg|Maltese Żaqq.File:Bagpipe player Dam.jpg|Piper playing by the Royal Palace of Amsterdam.File:Cimpoi.png|Romanian cimpoi player.File:Ľubomír Párička gra na dudach.webm|Ľubomír Párička playing bagpipes, Slovak Republic.File:Associação Gaita-de-Fole.jpg|Portuguese pipersFile:نی انبان ساخته شده در آبپخش.jpg|Bagpipes made in Ab Pakhsh, Iran.File:شکل قرار گرغتن نی های نی انبان ساخته شده در آبپخش.jpg|Chanter of bagpipes from Ab PakhshFile:Sac_de_gemecs.png|Sac de gemecs, from CataloniaFile:Xeremies_de_Mallorca.jpg|Xeremies, from MajorcaFile:Greek Gaida Player.jpg|Greek shepherd playing gaidaFile:BASA-2072K-1-361-19-Gaida, Bulgaria.JPG|Bulgarian gaida player, a pre-1945 photo.", "Central State Archive, Sofia=== Usage in non-traditional music ===Celtic rock band Enter the Haggis featuring Highland bagpipesSince the 1960s, bagpipes have also made appearances in other forms of music, including rock, metal, jazz, hip-hop, punk, and classical music, for example with Paul McCartney's \"Mull of Kintyre\", AC/DC's \"It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)\", and Peter Maxwell Davies's composition ''An Orkney Wedding, with Sunrise''.", "Bagpiper from German band Saltatio Mortis." ], [ "Publications", "=== Periodicals ===''Periodicals covering specific types of bagpipes are addressed in the article for that bagpipe''* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .=== Books ===* .", "* , 147 pp.", "with plates.", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "See also", "* List of bagpipes* List of bagpipers* List of pipe makers* List of pipe bands* Glossary of bagpipe terms* Practice chanter" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "***Lommel, Arle.", "\"The Hungarian Duda and Contra-Chanter Bagpipes of the Carpathian Basin.\"", "''The Galpin Society Journal'' (2008): 305-321.", "******" ], [ "External links", "* Bagpipe iconography – Paintings and images of the pipes.", "* Musiconis Database of Medieval Musical Iconography: Bagpipe.", "* A demonstration of rare instruments including bagpipes (archived 12 November 2009)* ''The Concise History of the Bagpipe'' by Frank J. Timoney* The Bagpipe Society, dedicated to promoting the study, playing, and making of bagpipes and pipes from around the world* Bagpipes from polish collections (''Polish folk musical instruments'')* Bagpipes (local polish name \"Koza\") played by Jan Karpiel-Bułecka (English subtitles)* Official site of Baghet (bagpipe from North Italy) players.", "(archived 9 July 2017)* Celtic Music : Scottish Military Bagpipes.", "* The presence of the gaida in Greece" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bedrock Records" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bedrock Records''' is an English record label for trance, progressive house and techno started by John Digweed.", "Its name comes from a long running and successful club night held in Hastings and also at Heaven nightclub, London - both also called Bedrock.", "Bedrock Records has released many singles from artists such as Astro & Glyde, Brancaccio & Aisher, Steve Lawler, Shmuel Flash, Steve Porter, Sahar Z, Guy J, Henry Saiz, Stelios Vassiloudis, Electric Rescue, The Japanese Popstars and Jerry Bonham.", "Bedrock is also the name that Digweed and Muir use as their production moniker.Bedrock has had different imprints: Bedrock Breaks, B_Rock and Black (Bedrock).", "Currently it has Bedrock Digital and one called Lost & Found belonging to Guy J.The first Bedrock album compiled and mixed by John Digweed was released in 1999, containing several tracks signed to the Bedrock label.", "In 2018, Digweed marked the 20th anniversary of the label with the release of ''Bedrock XX''." ], [ "See also", "* List of electronic music record labels" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Biochemistry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Biochemistry''' or '''biological chemistry''' is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.", "A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism.", "Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines.", "Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research.", "Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis which allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function.", "Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena.Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, bonding, functions, and interactions of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.", "They provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life.", "The chemistry of the cell also depends upon the reactions of small molecules and ions.", "These can be inorganic (for example, water and metal ions) or organic (for example, the amino acids, which are used to synthesize proteins).", "The mechanisms used by cells to harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism.", "The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition and agriculture.", "In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases.", "Nutrition studies how to maintain health and wellness and also the effects of nutritional deficiencies.", "In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers with the goal of improving crop cultivation, crop storage, and pest control.", "In recent decades, biochemical principles and methods have been combined with problem-solving approaches from engineering to manipulate living systems in order to produce useful tools for research, industrial processes, and diagnosis and control of diseasethe discipline of biotechnology." ], [ "History", "Gerty Cori and Carl Cori jointly won the Nobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of the Cori cycle at RPMI.At its most comprehensive definition, biochemistry can be seen as a study of the components and composition of living things and how they come together to become life.", "In this sense, the history of biochemistry may therefore go back as far as the ancient Greeks.", "However, biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline began sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier, depending on which aspect of biochemistry is being focused on.", "Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (now called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen, while others considered Eduard Buchner's first demonstration of a complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation in cell-free extracts in 1897 to be the birth of biochemistry.", "Some might also point as its beginning to the influential 1842 work by Justus von Liebig, ''Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology'', which presented a chemical theory of metabolism, or even earlier to the 18th century studies on fermentation and respiration by Antoine Lavoisier.", "Many other pioneers in the field who helped to uncover the layers of complexity of biochemistry have been proclaimed founders of modern biochemistry.", "Emil Fischer, who studied the chemistry of proteins, and F. Gowland Hopkins, who studied enzymes and the dynamic nature of biochemistry, represent two examples of early biochemists.The term \"biochemistry\" was first used when Vinzenz Kletzinsky (1826–1882) had his \"Compendium der Biochemie\" printed in Vienna in 1858; it derived from a combination of biology and chemistry.", "In 1877, Felix Hoppe-Seyler used the term ( in German) as a synonym for physiological chemistry in the foreword to the first issue of ''Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie'' (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) where he argued for the setting up of institutes dedicated to this field of study.", "The German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister.Edwards (1992), pp.", "1161–1173.It was once generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the \"vital principle\") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life.", "In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on his serendipitous urea synthesis from potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate; some regarded that as a direct overthrow of vitalism and the establishment of organic chemistry.", "However, the Wöhler synthesis has sparked controversy as some reject the death of vitalism at his hands.", "Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations.", "These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), and led to an understanding of biochemistry on a molecular level.Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene, and its role in the transfer of information in the cell.", "In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with the genetic transfer of information.", "In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme.", "In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to the growth of forensic science.", "More recently, Andrew Z.", "Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi) in the silencing of gene expression." ], [ "Starting materials: the chemical elements of life", "The main elements that compose the human body shown from most abundant (by mass) to least abundantAround two dozen chemical elements are essential to various kinds of biological life.", "Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life (exceptions being selenium and iodine), while a few common ones (aluminum and titanium) are not used.", "Most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals.", "For example, ocean algae use bromine, but land plants and animals do not seem to need any.", "All animals require sodium, but is not an essential element for plants.", "Plants need boron and silicon, but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).Just six elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium and phosphorus—make up almost 99% of the mass of living cells, including those in the human body (see composition of the human body for a complete list).", "In addition to the six major elements that compose most of the human body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more." ], [ "Biomolecules", "The 4 main classes of molecules in biochemistry (often called biomolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.", "Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small macromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules known as polymers.", "When monomers are linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis.", "Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for biological activity.===Carbohydrates===Two of the main functions of carbohydrates are energy storage and providing structure.", "One of the common sugars known as glucose is a carbohydrate, but not all carbohydrates are sugars.", "There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula C''n''H2''n''O''n'', where ''n'' is at least 3).", "Glucose (C6H12O6) is one of the most important carbohydrates; others include fructose (C6H12O6), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits, and deoxyribose (C5H10O4), a component of DNA.", "A monosaccharide can switch between acyclic (open-chain) form and a cyclic form.", "The open-chain form can be turned into a ring of carbon atoms bridged by an oxygen atom created from the carbonyl group of one end and the hydroxyl group of another.", "The cyclic molecule has a hemiacetal or hemiketal group, depending on whether the linear form was an aldose or a ketose.In these cyclic forms, the ring usually has '''5''' or '''6''' atoms.", "These forms are called furanoses and pyranoses, respectively—by analogy with furan and pyran, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the carbon-carbon double bonds of these two molecules).", "For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose.", "The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called glucopyranose.", "Cyclic forms with a 7-atom ring called heptoses are rare.Two monosaccharides can be joined by a glycosidic or ester bond into a ''disaccharide'' through a dehydration reaction during which a molecule of water is released.", "The reverse reaction in which the glycosidic bond of a disaccharide is broken into two monosaccharides is termed ''hydrolysis''.", "The best-known disaccharide is sucrose or ordinary sugar, which consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined.", "Another important disaccharide is lactose found in milk, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule.", "Lactose may be hydrolysed by lactase, and deficiency in this enzyme results in lactose intolerance.When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an ''oligosaccharide'' (''oligo-'' meaning \"few\").", "These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.", "Many monosaccharides joined form a polysaccharide.", "They can be joined in one long linear chain, or they may be branched.", "Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of repeating glucose monomers.", "''Cellulose'' is an important structural component of plant's cell walls and ''glycogen'' is used as a form of energy storage in animals.Sugar can be characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends.", "A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde (aldose) or keto form (ketose).", "If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal.", "This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing.", "Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety forms a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose.", "Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).===Lipids===Structures of some common lipids.", "At the top are cholesterol and oleic acid.", "The middle structure is a triglyceride composed of oleoyl, stearoyl, and palmitoyl chains attached to a glycerol backbone.", "At the bottom is the common phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine.", "'''Lipids''' comprise a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids (e.g., retinoids and steroids).", "Some lipids are linear, open-chain aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures.", "Some are aromatic (with a cyclic ring and planar flat structure) while others are not.", "Some are flexible, while others are rigid.Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules.", "In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids.", "Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar.", "In general, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic (\"water-fearing\"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water.", "Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic (\"water-loving\") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water.", "This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions).", "In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere –OH (hydroxyl or alcohol).", "In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet.", "Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc.", "are composed of fats.", "Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).", "Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids.", "Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g.", "in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g.", "in a liposome or transfersome).===Proteins===amino group on the left and the carboxyl group on the rightProteins are very large molecules—macro-biopolymers—made from monomers called amino acids.", "An amino acid consists of an alpha carbon atom attached to an amino group, –NH2, a carboxylic acid group, –COOH (although these exist as –NH3+ and –COO− under physiologic conditions), a simple hydrogen atom, and a side chain commonly denoted as \"–R\".", "The side chain \"R\" is different for each amino acid of which there are 20 standard ones.", "It is this \"R\" group that made each amino acid different, and the properties of the side-chains greatly influence the overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein.", "Some amino acids have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter.", "Amino acids can be joined via a peptide bond.", "In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group.", "The resulting molecule is called a ''dipeptide'', and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) are called ''peptides'' or polypeptides.", "Longer stretches merit the title ''proteins''.", "As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues.Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined as a dipeptideA schematic of hemoglobin.", "The red and blue ribbons represent the protein globin; the green structures are the heme groups.Proteins can have structural and/or functional roles.", "For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle.", "One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be ''extremely'' selective in what they bind.", "Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule.", "Antibodies are composed of heavy and light chains.", "Two heavy chains would be linked to two light chains through disulfide linkages between their amino acids.", "Antibodies are specific through variation based on differences in the N-terminal domain.The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules.", "Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes.", "Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the activation energy of the reaction.", "These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called ''substrates''; they then catalyze the reaction between them.", "By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 1011 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme.", "The enzyme itself is not used up in the process and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates.", "Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels.", "The primary structure of a protein consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, \"alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-...\".", "Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study of structure).", "Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an α-helix or into a sheet called a β-sheet; some α-helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above.", "Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein.", "This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids.", "In fact, a single change can change the entire structure.", "The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the glutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in sickle-cell disease.", "Finally, quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits.", "Not all proteins have more than one subunit.Examples of protein structures from the Protein Data BankMembers of a protein family, as represented by the structures of the isomerase domainsIngested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine and then absorbed.", "They can then be joined to form new proteins.", "Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to form all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them.", "Humans and other mammals, however, can synthesize only half of them.", "They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.", "Because they must be ingested, these are the essential amino acids.", "Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids.", "While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid.", "Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid).", "This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination.", "The amino acids may then be linked together to form a protein.A similar process is used to break down proteins.", "It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids.", "Free ammonia (NH3), existing as the ammonium ion (NH4+) in blood, is toxic to life forms.", "A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist.", "Different tactics have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs.", "Unicellular organisms release the ammonia into the environment.", "Likewise, bony fish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted.", "In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via the urea cycle.In order to determine whether two proteins are related, or in other words to decide whether they are homologous or not, scientists use sequence-comparison methods.", "Methods like sequence alignments and structural alignments are powerful tools that help scientists identify homologies between related molecules.", "The relevance of finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming an evolutionary pattern of protein families.", "By finding how similar two protein sequences are, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.===Nucleic acids===The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); the picture shows the monomers being put together.Nucleic acids, so-called because of their prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers.", "They are complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecules that can convey genetic information in all living cells and viruses.", "The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.Structural elements of common nucleic acid constituents.", "Because they contain at least one phosphate group, the compounds marked ''nucleoside monophosphate'', ''nucleoside diphosphate'' and ''nucleoside triphosphate'' are all nucleotides (not phosphate-lacking nucleosides).The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).", "The phosphate group and the sugar of each nucleotide bond with each other to form the backbone of the nucleic acid, while the sequence of nitrogenous bases stores the information.", "The most common nitrogenous bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil.", "The nitrogenous bases of each strand of a nucleic acid will form hydrogen bonds with certain other nitrogenous bases in a complementary strand of nucleic acid (similar to a zipper).", "Adenine binds with thymine and uracil, thymine binds only with adenine, and cytosine and guanine can bind only with one another.", "Adenine and Thymine & Adenine and Uracil contains two hydrogen Bonds, while Hydrogen Bonds formed between cytosine and guanine are three in number.Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms.", "Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA." ], [ "Metabolism", "===Carbohydrates as energy source===Glucose is an energy source in most life forms.", "For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers by enzymes (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen, a polysaccharide).", "Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.", "====Glycolysis (anaerobic)====Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate.", "This also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents of converting NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: oxidized form) to NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: reduced form).", "This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e.g.", "in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e.g.", "in yeast).", "Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.====Aerobic====In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized.", "It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH.", "The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH2 as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide.", "The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes).", "Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD+ and quinone are regenerated.", "This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.", "The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase.", "This generates an additional ''28'' molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle).", "It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.====Gluconeogenesis====In vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate.The combination of glucose from noncarbohydrates origin, such as fat and proteins.", "This only happens when glycogen supplies in the liver are worn out.", "The pathway is a crucial reversal of glycolysis from pyruvate to glucose and can use many sources like amino acids, glycerol and Krebs Cycle.", "Large scale protein and fat catabolism usually occur when those suffer from starvation or certain endocrine disorders.", "The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis.", "This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis).", "Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides.", "The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the Cori cycle." ], [ "Relationship to other \"molecular-scale\" biological sciences", "Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biologyResearchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields of genetics, molecular biology, and biophysics.", "There is not a defined line between these disciplines.", "Biochemistry studies the chemistry required for biological activity of molecules, molecular biology studies their biological activity, genetics studies their heredity, which happens to be carried by their genome.", "This is shown in the following schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationships between the fields:* '''''Biochemistry''''' is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in live organisms.", "Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules.", "The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are applications of biochemistry.", "Biochemistry studies life at the atomic and molecular level.", "* '''''Genetics''''' is the study of the effect of genetic differences in organisms.", "This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g.", "one gene).", "The study of \"mutants\" – organisms that lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called \"wild type\" or normal phenotype.", "Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such \"knockout\" studies.", "* '''''Molecular biology''''' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the biological phenomena, focusing on molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms and interactions.", "The central dogma of molecular biology, where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being oversimplified, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field.", "This concept has been revised in light of emerging novel roles for RNA.", "* '''''Chemical biology''''' seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function.", "Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules)." ], [ "See also", "=== Lists ===* Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry)* List of biochemistry topics* List of biochemists* List of biomolecules=== See also ===* Astrobiology* Biochemistry (journal)* Biological Chemistry (journal)* Biophysics* Chemical ecology* Computational biomodeling* Dedicated bio-based chemical* EC number* Hypothetical types of biochemistry* International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology* Metabolome* Metabolomics* Molecular biology* Molecular medicine* Plant biochemistry* Proteolysis* Small molecule* Structural biology* TCA cycle" ], [ "Notes", "'''a.'''", "Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits.", "Glucose and sucrose are also found in varying quantities in various fruits, and sometimes exceed the fructose present.", "For example, 32% of the edible portion of a date is glucose, compared with 24% fructose and 8% sucrose.", "However, peaches contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) or glucose (1.47%)." ], [ "References", "=== Cited literature ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fruton, Joseph S. ''Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology''.", "Yale University Press: New Haven, 1999.", "* Keith Roberts, Martin Raff, Bruce Alberts, Peter Walter, Julian Lewis and Alexander Johnson, ''Molecular Biology of the Cell''** 4th Edition, Routledge, March, 2002, hardcover, 1616 pp.", "** 3rd Edition, Garland, 1994, ** 2nd Edition, Garland, 1989, * Kohler, Robert.", "''From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical Discipline''.", "Cambridge University Press, 1982.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology* Biochemistry, 5th ed.", "Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI.", "* SystemsX.ch – The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology* Full text of Biochemistry by Kevin and Indira, an introductory biochemistry textbook." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Badminton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Badminton''' is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across a net.", "Although it may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of the game are \"singles\" (with one player per side) and \"doubles\" (with two players per side).", "Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court.", "Points are scored by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the other team's half of the court.Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net.", "Play ends once the shuttlecock has struck the floor or ground, or if a fault has been called by the umpire, service judge, or (in their absence) the opposing side.The shuttlecock is a feathered or (in informal matches) plastic projectile that flies differently from the balls used in many other sports.", "In particular, the feathers create much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly.", "Shuttlecocks also have a high top speed compared to the balls in other racquet sports.", "The flight of the shuttlecock gives the sport its distinctive nature.The game developed in British India from the earlier game of battledore and shuttlecock.", "European play came to be dominated by Denmark but the game has become very popular in Asia, with recent competitions dominated by China.", "In 1992, badminton debuted as a Summer Olympic sport with four events: men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles, and women's doubles; mixed doubles was added four years later.", "At high levels of play, the sport demands excellent fitness: players require aerobic stamina, agility, strength, speed, and precision.", "It is also a technical sport, requiring good motor coordination and the development of sophisticated racquet movements." ], [ "History", "An 1804 depiction of battledore and shuttlecock.An 1854 depiction of battledore and shuttlecock by John Leech.Games employing shuttlecocks have been played for centuries across Eurasia, but the modern game of badminton developed in the mid-19th century among the expatriate officers of British India as a variant of the earlier game of battledore and shuttlecock.", "(\"Battledore\" was an older term for \"racquet\".)", "Its exact origin remains obscure.", "The name derives from the Duke of Beaufort's Badminton House in Gloucestershire, but why or when remains unclear.", "As early as 1860, a London toy dealer named Isaac Spratt published a booklet entitled ''Badminton Battledore – A New Game'', but no copy is known to have survived.", "An 1863 article in ''The Cornhill Magazine'' describes badminton as \"battledore and shuttlecock played with sides, across a string suspended some five feet from the ground\".The game originally developed in India among the British expatriates, where it was very popular by the 1870s.", "Ball badminton, a form of the game played with a wool ball instead of a shuttlecock, was being played in Thanjavur as early as the 1850s and was at first played interchangeably with badminton by the British, the woollen ball being preferred in windy or wet weather.Early on, the game was also known as '''Poona''' or '''Poonah''' after the garrison town of Poona (Pune), where it was particularly popular and where the first rules for the game were drawn up in 1873.By 1875, officers returning home had started a badminton club in Folkestone.", "Initially, the sport was played with sides ranging from 1 to 4 players, but it was quickly established that games between two or four competitors worked the best.", "The shuttlecocks were coated with India rubber and, in outdoor play, sometimes weighted with lead.", "Although the depth of the net was of no consequence, it was preferred that it should reach the ground.Charles Gleyre, ''Odysseus and Nausicaa'' (with badminton rackets).The sport was played under the Pune rules until 1887, when J. H. E. Hart of the Bath Badminton Club drew up revised regulations.", "In 1890, Hart and Bagnel Wild again revised the rules.", "The Badminton Association of England (BAE) published these rules in 1893 and officially launched the sport at a house called \"Dunbar\" in Portsmouth on 13 September.", "The BAE started the first badminton competition, the All England Open Badminton Championships for gentlemen's doubles, ladies' doubles, and mixed doubles, in 1899.Singles competitions were added in 1900 and an England–Ireland championship match appeared in 1904.England, Scotland, Wales, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand were the founding members of the International Badminton Federation in 1934, now known as the Badminton World Federation.", "India joined as an affiliate in 1936.The BWF now governs international badminton.", "Although initiated in England, competitive men's badminton has traditionally been dominated in Europe by Denmark.", "Worldwide, Asian nations have become dominant in international competition.", "China, Denmark, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, South Korea, Taiwan (playing as 'Chinese Taipei') and Japan are the nations which have consistently produced world-class players in the past few decades, with China being the greatest force in men's and women's competition recently.", "Great Britain, where the rules of the modern game were codified, is not among the top powers in the sport, but has had significant Olympic and World success in doubles play, especially mixed doubles.The game has also become a popular backyard sport in the United States." ], [ "Rules", "The following information is a simplified summary of badminton rules based on the BWF Statutes publication, ''Laws of Badminton''.===Court===isometric viewThe court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net.", "Courts are usually marked for both singles and doubles play, although badminton rules permit a court to be marked for singles only.", "The doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are of the same length.", "The exception, which often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length dimension.The full width of the court is , and in singles this width is reduced to .", "The full length of the court is .", "The service courts are marked by a centre line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries.", "In doubles, the service court is also marked by a long service line, which is from the back boundary.The net is high at the edges and high in the centre.", "The net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played.The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton.", "Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve.===Serving===The legal bounds of a badminton court during various stages of a rally for singles and doubles games.When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on the opponents' court or it will count as a fault.", "The server and receiver must remain within their service courts, without touching the boundary lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock.", "The other two players may stand wherever they wish, so long as they do not block the vision of the server or receiver.At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally opposite ''service courts'' (see court dimensions).", "The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's service court.", "This is similar to tennis, except that in a badminton serve the whole shuttle must be below 1.15 metres from the surface of the court at the instant of being hit by the server's racket, the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce and in badminton, the players stand inside their service courts, unlike tennis.When the serving side loses a rally, the server immediately passes to their opponent(s) (this differs from the old system where sometimes the serve passes to the doubles partner for what is known as a \"second serve\").In singles, the server stands in their right service court when their score is even, and in their left service court when their score is odd.In doubles, if the serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve, but he/she changes service courts so that she/he serves to a different opponent each time.", "If the opponents win the rally and their new score is even, the player in the right service court serves; if odd, the player in the left service court serves.", "The players' service courts are determined by their positions at the start of the previous rally, not by where they were standing at the end of the rally.", "A consequence of this system is that each time a side regains the service, the server will be the player who did ''not'' serve last time.===Scoring===Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally regardless of whether they served (this differs from the old system where players could only win a point on their serve and each game was played to 15 points).", "A match is the best of three games.If the score ties at 20–20, then the game continues until one side gains a two-point lead (such as 24–22), except when there is a tie at 29–29, in which the game goes to a golden point of 30.Whoever scores this point wins the game.At the start of a match, the shuttlecock is cast and the side towards which the shuttlecock is pointing serves first.", "Alternatively, a coin may be tossed, with the winners choosing whether to serve or receive first, or choosing which end of the court to occupy first, and their opponents making the leftover the remaining choice.In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first.", "Matches are best out of three: a player or pair must win two games (of 21 points each) to win the match.", "For the first rally of any doubles game, the serving pair may decide who serves and the receiving pair may decide who receives.", "The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the match reaches a third game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the leading player's or pair's score reaches 11 points.===Lets===If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score.", "Lets may occur because of some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock landing on a court (having been hit there by players playing in adjacent court) or in small halls the shuttle may touch an overhead rail which can be classed as a let.If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called; yet, if the receiver attempts to return the shuttlecock, the receiver shall be judged to have been ready." ], [ "Equipment", "Badminton racquetsBadminton rules restrict the design and size of racquets and shuttlecocks.===Racquets===Badminton racquets are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between not including grip or strings.", "They are composed of many different materials ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may be augmented by a variety of materials.", "Carbon fibre has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer.", "Before the adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium.", "Earlier still, racquets were made of wood.", "Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market, because of their excessive mass and cost.", "Nowadays, nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and fullerene are added to racquets giving them greater durability.There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the laws limit the racquet size and shape.", "Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players.", "The traditional oval head shape is still available, but an isometric head shape is increasingly common in new racquets.===Strings===Badminton strings for racquets are thin, high-performing strings with thicknesses ranging from about 0.62 to 0.73 mm.", "Thicker strings are more durable, but many players prefer the feel of thinner strings.", "String tension is normally in the range of 80 to 160 N (18 to 36 lbf).", "Recreational players generally string at lower tensions than professionals, typically between 80 and 110 N (18 and 25 lbf).", "Professionals string between about 110 and 160 N (25 and 36 lbf).", "Some string manufacturers measure the thickness of their strings under tension so they are actually thicker than specified when slack.", "Ashaway Micropower is actually 0.7mm but Yonex BG-66 is about 0.72mm.It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string tensions increase power.", "The arguments for this generally rely on crude mechanical reasoning, such as claiming that a lower tension string bed is more bouncy and therefore provides more power.", "This is, in fact, incorrect, for a higher string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off the racquet and hence make it harder to hit a shot accurately.", "An alternative view suggests that the optimum tension for power depends on the player: the faster and more accurately a player can swing their racquet, the higher the tension for maximum power.", "Neither view has been subjected to a rigorous mechanical analysis, nor is there clear evidence in favour of one or the other.", "The most effective way for a player to find a good string tension is to experiment.Badminton Undergrip Flat===Grip===The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of their racquet handle and choose a comfortable surface to hold.", "A player may build up the handle with one or several grips before applying the final layer.Players may choose between a variety of grip materials.", "The most common choices are PU synthetic grips or towelling grips.", "Grip choice is a matter of personal preference.", "Players often find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a drying agent may be applied to the grip or hands, sweatbands may be used, the player may choose another grip material or change their grip more frequently.There are two main types of grip: ''replacement'' grips and ''overgrips''.", "Replacement grips are thicker and are often used to increase the size of the handle.", "Overgrips are thinner (less than 1 mm), and are often used as the final layer.", "Many players, however, prefer to use replacement grips as the final layer.", "Towelling grips are always replacement grips.", "Replacement grips have an adhesive backing, whereas overgrips have only a small patch of adhesive at the start of the tape and must be applied under tension; overgrips are more convenient for players who change grips frequently, because they may be removed more rapidly without damaging the underlying material.===Shuttlecock===A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to ''shuttle''; also called a ''birdie'') is a high-drag projectile, with an open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen overlapping feathers embedded into a rounded cork base.", "The cork is covered with thin leather or synthetic material.", "Synthetic shuttles are often used by recreational players to reduce their costs as feathered shuttles break easily.", "These nylon shuttles may be constructed with either natural cork or synthetic foam base and a plastic skirt.According to ''Kathmandu Post'' the feathers used to make shuttlecocks are plucked from living birds, which causes pain to the birds.Badminton rules also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed:===Shoes===Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-marking materials.Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have little lateral support.", "High levels of lateral support are useful for activities where lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected.", "Badminton, however, requires powerful lateral movements.", "A highly built-up lateral support will not be able to protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic collapse at the point where the shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for the sudden loading, which can cause sprains.", "For this reason, players should choose badminton shoes rather than general trainers or running shoes, because proper badminton shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a person's centre of gravity, and therefore result in fewer injuries.", "Players should also ensure that they learn safe and proper footwork, with the knee and foot in alignment on all lunges.", "This is more than just a safety concern; proper footwork is also critical in order to move effectively around the court." ], [ "Technique", "Malaysian player alt====Strokes===Badminton offers a wide variety of basic strokes, and players require a high level of skill to perform all of them effectively.", "All strokes can be played either ''forehand'' or ''backhand''.", "A player's forehand side is the same side as their playing hand: for a right-handed player, the forehand side is their right side and the backhand side is their left side.", "Forehand strokes are hit with the front of the hand leading (like hitting with the palm), whereas backhand strokes are hit with the back of the hand leading (like hitting with the knuckles).", "Players frequently play certain strokes on the forehand side with a backhand hitting action, and vice versa.In the forecourt and midcourt, most strokes can be played equally effectively on either the forehand or backhand side; but in the rear court, players will attempt to play as many strokes as possible on their forehands, often preferring to play a ''round-the-head'' forehand overhead (a forehand \"on the backhand side\") rather than attempt a backhand overhead.", "Playing a backhand overhead has two main disadvantages.", "First, the player must turn their back to their opponents, restricting their view of them and the court.", "Second, backhand overheads cannot be hit with as much power as forehands: the hitting action is limited by the shoulder joint, which permits a much greater range of movement for a forehand overhead than for a backhand.", "The ''backhand clear'' is considered by most players and coaches to be the most difficult basic stroke in the game, since the precise technique is needed in order to muster enough power for the shuttlecock to travel the full length of the court.", "For the same reason, ''backhand smashes'' tend to be weak.===Position of the shuttlecock and receiving player===Japanese player alt=The choice of stroke depends on how near the shuttlecock is to the net, whether it is above net height, and where an opponent is currently positioned: players have much better attacking options if they can reach the shuttlecock well above net height, especially if it is also close to the net.", "'''In the forecourt''', a high shuttlecock will be met with a ''net kill'', hitting it steeply downwards and attempting to win the rally immediately.", "This is why it is best to drop the shuttlecock just over the net in this situation.", "'''In the midcourt''', a high shuttlecock will usually be met with a powerful ''smash'', also hitting downwards and hoping for an outright winner or a weak reply.", "Athletic ''jump smashes'', where players jump upwards for a steeper smash angle, are a common and spectacular element of elite men's doubles play.", "'''In the rearcourt''', players strive to hit the shuttlecock while it is still above them, rather than allowing it to drop lower.", "This ''overhead'' hitting allows them to play smashes, ''clears'' (hitting the shuttlecock high and to the back of the opponents' court), and ''drop shots'' (hitting the shuttlecock softly so that it falls sharply downwards into the opponents' forecourt).", "If the shuttlecock has dropped lower, then a smash is impossible and a full-length, high clear is difficult.===Vertical position of the shuttlecock==='''When the shuttlecock is well below net height''', players have no choice but to hit upwards.", "''Lifts'', where the shuttlecock is hit upwards to the back of the opponents' court, can be played from all parts of the court.", "If a player does not lift, their only remaining option is to push the shuttlecock softly back to the net: in the forecourt, this is called a ''net shot''; in the midcourt or rear court, it is often called a ''push'' or ''block''.", "'''When the shuttlecock is near to net height''', players can hit ''drives'', which travel flat and rapidly over the net into the opponents' rear midcourt and rear court.", "Pushes may also be hit flatter, placing the shuttlecock into the front midcourt.", "Drives and pushes may be played from the midcourt or forecourt, and are most often used in doubles: they are an attempt to regain the attack, rather than choosing to lift the shuttlecock and defend against smashes.", "After a successful drive or push, the opponents will often be forced to lift the shuttlecock.===Spin===Balls may be spun to alter their bounce (for example, topspin and backspin in tennis) or trajectory, and players may slice the ball (strike it with an angled racquet face) to produce such spin.", "The shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce, but slicing the shuttlecock does have applications in badminton.", "(See Basic strokes for an explanation of technical terms.", ")* Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to travel in a different direction from the direction suggested by the player's racquet or body movement.", "This is used to deceive opponents.", "* Slicing the shuttlecock from the side may cause it to follow a slightly curved path (as seen from above), and the deceleration imparted by the spin causes sliced strokes to slow down more suddenly towards the end of their flight path.", "This can be used to create drop shots and smashes that dip more steeply after they pass the net.", "* When playing a net shot, slicing underneath the shuttlecock may cause it to turn over itself (tumble) several times as it passes the net.", "This is called a ''spinning net shot'' or ''tumbling net shot''.", "The opponent will be unwilling to address the shuttlecock until it has corrected its orientation.Due to the way that its feathers overlap, a shuttlecock also has a slight natural spin about its axis of rotational symmetry.", "The spin is in a counter-clockwise direction as seen from above when dropping a shuttlecock.", "This natural spin affects certain strokes: a tumbling net shot is more effective if the slicing action is from right to left, rather than from left to right.===Biomechanics===Badminton biomechanics have not been the subject of extensive scientific study, but some studies confirm the minor role of the wrist in power generation and indicate that the major contributions to power come from internal and external rotations of the upper and lower arm.", "Recent guides to the sport thus emphasize forearm rotation rather than wrist movements.The feathers impart substantial drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate greatly over distance.", "The shuttlecock is also extremely aerodynamically stable: regardless of initial orientation, it will turn to fly cork-first and remain in the cork-first orientation.One consequence of the shuttlecock's drag is that it requires considerable power to hit it the full length of the court, which is not the case for most racquet sports.", "The drag also influences the flight path of a lifted (''lobbed'') shuttlecock: the parabola of its flight is heavily skewed so that it falls at a steeper angle than it rises.", "With very high serves, the shuttlecock may even fall vertically.===Other factors===Korean players Lee Yong-dae and Ko Sung-hyun defend against a smash.", "'''When defending against a smash''', players have three basic options: lift, block, or drive.", "In singles, a block to the net is the most common reply.", "In doubles, a lift is the safest option but it usually allows the opponents to continue smashing; blocks and drives are counter-attacking strokes but may be intercepted by the smasher's partner.", "Many players use a backhand hitting action for returning smashes on both the forehand and backhand sides because backhands are more effective than forehands at covering smashes directed to the body.", "Hard shots directed towards the body are difficult to defend.", "'''The service''' is restricted by the Laws and presents its own array of stroke choices.", "Unlike in tennis, the server's racquet must be pointing in a downward direction to deliver the serve so normally the shuttle must be hit upwards to pass over the net.", "The server can choose a ''low serve'' into the forecourt (like a push), or a lift to the back of the service court, or a flat ''drive serve''.", "Lifted serves may be either ''high serves'', where the shuttlecock is lifted so high that it falls almost vertically at the back of the court, or ''flick serves'', where the shuttlecock is lifted to a lesser height but falls sooner.===Deception===Indonesian player Praveen Jordan showing a loose grip before smashing.Once players have mastered these basic strokes, they can hit the shuttlecock from and to any part of the court, powerfully and softly as required.", "Beyond the basics, however, badminton offers rich potential for advanced stroke skills that provide a competitive advantage.", "Because badminton players have to cover a short distance as quickly as possible, the purpose of many advanced strokes is to deceive the opponent, so that either they are tricked into believing that a different stroke is being played, or they are forced to delay their movement until they actually sees the shuttle's direction.", "\"Deception\" in badminton is often used in both of these senses.", "When a player is genuinely deceived, they will often lose the point immediately because they cannot change their direction quickly enough to reach the shuttlecock.", "Experienced players will be aware of the trick and cautious not to move too early, but the attempted deception is still useful because it forces the opponent to delay their movement slightly.", "Against weaker players whose intended strokes are obvious, an experienced player may move before the shuttlecock has been hit, anticipating the stroke to gain an advantage.", "''Slicing'' and using a ''shortened hitting action'' are the two main technical devices that facilitate deception.", "Slicing involves hitting the shuttlecock with an angled racquet face, causing it to travel in a different direction than suggested by the body or arm movement.", "Slicing also causes the shuttlecock to travel more slowly than the arm movement suggests.", "For example, a good crosscourt ''sliced drop shot'' will use a hitting action that suggests a straight clear or a smash, deceiving the opponent about both the power and direction of the shuttlecock.", "A more sophisticated slicing action involves brushing the strings around the shuttlecock during the hit, in order to make the shuttlecock spin.", "This can be used to improve the shuttle's trajectory, by making it dip more rapidly as it passes the net; for example, a sliced low serve can travel slightly faster than a normal low serve, yet land on the same spot.", "Spinning the shuttlecock is also used to create ''spinning net shots'' (also called ''tumbling net shots''), in which the shuttlecock turns over itself several times (tumbles) before stabilizing; sometimes the shuttlecock remains inverted instead of tumbling.", "The main advantage of a spinning net shot is that the opponent will be unwilling to address the shuttlecock until it has stopped tumbling, since hitting the feathers will result in an unpredictable stroke.", "Spinning net shots are especially important for high-level singles players.The lightness of modern racquets allows players to use a very short hitting action for many strokes, thereby maintaining the option to hit a powerful or a soft stroke until the last possible moment.", "For example, a singles player may hold their racquet ready for a net shot, but then flick the shuttlecock to the back instead with a shallow lift when they notice the opponent has moved before the actual shot was played.", "A shallow lift takes less time to reach the ground and as mentioned above a rally is over when the shuttlecock touches the ground.", "This makes the opponent's task of covering the whole court much more difficult than if the lift was hit higher and with a bigger, obvious swing.", "A short hitting action is not only useful for deception: it also allows the player to hit powerful strokes when they have no time for a big arm swing.", "A big arm swing is also usually not advised in badminton because bigger swings make it more difficult to recover for the next shot in fast exchanges.", "The use of grip tightening is crucial to these techniques, and is often described as ''finger power''.", "Elite players develop finger power to the extent that they can hit some power strokes, such as net kills, with less than a racquet swing.It is also possible to reverse this style of deception, by suggesting a powerful stroke before slowing down the hitting action to play a soft stroke.", "In general, this latter style of deception is more common in the rear court (for example, drop shots disguised as smashes), whereas the former style is more common in the forecourt and midcourt (for example, lifts disguised as net shots).Deception is not limited to slicing and short hitting actions.", "Players may also use ''double motion'', where they make an initial racquet movement in one direction before withdrawing the racquet to hit in another direction.", "Players will often do this to send opponents in the wrong direction.", "The racquet movement is typically used to suggest a straight angle but then play the stroke crosscourt, or vice versa.", "''Triple motion'' is also possible, but this is very rare in actual play.", "An alternative to double motion is to use a ''racquet head fake'', where the initial motion is continued but the racquet is turned during the hit.", "This produces a smaller change in direction but does not require as much time." ], [ "Strategy", "To win in badminton, players need to employ a wide variety of strokes in the right situations.", "These range from powerful jumping smashes to delicate tumbling net returns.", "Often rallies finish with a smash, but setting up the smash requires subtler strokes.", "For example, a net shot can force the opponent to lift the shuttlecock, which gives an opportunity to smash.", "If the net shot is tight and tumbling, then the opponent's lift will not reach the back of the court, which makes the subsequent smash much harder to return.Deception is also important.", "Expert players prepare for many different strokes that look identical and use slicing to deceive their opponents about the speed or direction of the stroke.", "If an opponent tries to anticipate the stroke, they may move in the wrong direction and may be unable to change their body momentum in time to reach the shuttlecock.===Singles===Since one person needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent to move as much as possible; this means that singles strokes are normally directed to the corners of the court.", "Players exploit the length of the court by combining lifts and clears with drop shots and net shots.", "Smashing tends to be less prominent in singles than in doubles because the smasher has no partner to follow up their effort and is thus vulnerable to a skillfully placed return.", "Moreover, frequent smashing can be exhausting in singles where the conservation of a player's energy is at a premium.", "However, players with strong smashes will sometimes use the shot to create openings, and players commonly smash weak returns to try to end rallies.In singles, players will often start the rally with a forehand high serve or with a flick serve.", "Low serves are also used frequently, either forehand or backhand.", "Drive serves are rare.At high levels of play, singles demand extraordinary fitness.", "Singles is a game of patient positional manoeuvring, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles.===Doubles===Indian women players Ashwini Ponnappa and Jwala Gutta at 2010 BWF World Championships.Both pairs will try to gain and maintain the attack, smashing downwards when the opportunity arises.", "Whenever possible, a pair will adopt an ideal attacking formation with one player hitting down from the rear court, and their partner in the midcourt intercepting all smash returns except the lift.", "If the rear court attacker plays a drop shot, their partner will move into the forecourt to threaten the net reply.", "If a pair cannot hit downwards, they will use flat strokes in an attempt to gain the attack.", "If a pair is forced to lift or clear the shuttlecock, then they must defend: they will adopt a side-by-side position in the rear midcourt, to cover the full width of their court against the opponents' smashes.", "In doubles, players generally smash to the middle ground between two players in order to take advantage of confusion and clashes.At high levels of play, the backhand serve has become popular to the extent that forehand serves have become fairly rare at a high level of play.", "The straight low serve is used most frequently, in an attempt to prevent the opponents gaining the attack immediately.", "Flick serves are used to prevent the opponent from anticipating the low serve and attacking it decisively.At high levels of play, doubles rallies are extremely fast.", "Men's doubles are the most aggressive form of badminton, with a high proportion of powerful jump smashes and very quick reflex exchanges.", "Because of this, spectator interest is sometimes greater for men's doubles than for singles.===Mixed doubles===The 2012 Olympic mixed doubles final in London.In mixed doubles, both pairs typically try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman at the front and the man at the back.", "This is because the male players are usually substantially stronger, and can, therefore, produce smashes that are more powerful.", "As a result, mixed doubles require greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play.", "Clever opponents will try to reverse the ideal position, by forcing the woman towards the back or the man towards the front.", "In order to protect against this danger, mixed players must be careful and systematic in their shot selection.At high levels of play, the formations will generally be more flexible: the top women players are capable of playing powerfully from the back-court, and will happily do so if required.", "When the opportunity arises, however, the pair will switch back to the standard mixed attacking position, with the woman in front and men in the back." ], [ "Organization", "===Governing bodies===The Badminton World Federation (BWF) is the internationally recognized governing body of the sport responsible for the regulation of tournaments and approaching fair play.", "Five regional confederations are associated with the BWF:* Asia: Badminton Asia Confederation (BAC)* Africa: Badminton Confederation of Africa (BCA)* Americas: Badminton Pan Am (North America and South America belong to the same confederation; BPA)* Europe: Badminton Europe (BE)* Oceania: Badminton Oceania (BO)===Competitions===A men's doubles match.", "The blue lines are those for the badminton court.", "The other coloured lines denote uses for other sports – such complexity being common in multi-use sports halls.Spanish Beatriz Corrales at the 2015 Finnish Open Badminton Championships in Vantaa, Finland.The BWF organizes several international competitions, including the Thomas Cup, the premier men's international team event first held in 1948–1949, and the Uber Cup, the women's equivalent first held in 1956–1957.The competitions now take place once every two years.", "More than 50 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within continental confederations for a place in the finals.", "The final tournament involves 12 teams, following an increase from eight teams in 2004.It was further increased to 16 teams in 2012.The Sudirman Cup, a gender-mixed international team event held once every two years, began in 1989.Teams are divided into seven levels based on the performance of each country.", "To win the tournament, a country must perform well across all five disciplines (men's doubles and singles, women's doubles and singles, and mixed doubles).", "Like association football (soccer), it features a promotion and relegation system at every level.", "However, the system was last used in 2009 and teams competing will now be grouped by world rankings.Badminton was a demonstration event at the 1972 and 1988 Summer Olympics.", "It became an official Summer Olympic sport at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992 and its gold medals now generally rate as the sport's most coveted prizes for individual players.In the BWF World Championships, first held in 1977, currently only the highest-ranked 64 players in the world, and a maximum of four from each country can participate in any category.", "Therefore it's not an \"open\" format.", "In both the BWF World and the Olympic competitions restrictions on the number of participants from any one country have caused some controversy, because they result in excluding some world elite level players from the strongest badminton nations.", "The Thomas, Uber, and Sudirman Cups, the Olympics, and the BWF World (and World Junior Championships), are all categorized as level one tournaments.At the start of 2007, the BWF introduced a new tournament structure for the highest level tournaments aside from those in level one: the BWF Super Series.", "This \"level two\" tournament series is a circuit for the world's elite players, staging twelve open tournaments around the world with 32 players (half the previous limit).", "The players collect points that determine whether they can play in Super Series Finals held at the year-end.", "Among the tournaments in this series is the venerable All-England Championships, first held in 1900, which was once considered the unofficial world championships of the sport.Level three tournaments consist of Grand Prix Gold and Grand Prix event.", "Top players can collect the world ranking points and enable them to play in the BWF Super Series open tournaments.", "These include the regional competitions in Asia (Badminton Asia Championships) and Europe (European Badminton Championships), which produce the world's best players as well as the Pan America Badminton Championships.The level four tournaments, known as International Challenge, International Series, and Future Series, encourage participation by junior players." ], [ "Comparison with tennis", "Badminton is frequently compared to tennis due to several qualities.", "The following is a list of manifest differences:* Scoring: In badminton, a match is played best of 2 of 3 games, with each game played up to 21 points.", "In tennis a match is played best of 3 or 5 sets, each set consisting of 6 games and each game ends when one player wins 4 points or wins two consecutive points at deuce points.", "If both teams are tied at \"game point\", they must play until one team achieves a two-point advantage.", "However, at 29all, whoever scores the golden point will win.", "In tennis, if the score is tied 66 in a set, a tiebreaker will be played, which ends once a player reaches 7 points or when one player has a two-point advantage.", "* In tennis, the ball may bounce once before the point ends; in badminton, the rally ends once the shuttlecock touches the floor.", "* In tennis, the serve is dominant to the extent that the server is expected to win most of their service games (at advanced level & onwards); a ''break'' of service, where the server loses the game, is of major importance in a match.", "In badminton, a server has far less an advantage and is unlikely to score an ''ace'' (unreturnable serve).", "* In tennis, the server has two chances to hit a serve into the service box; in badminton, the server is allowed only one attempt.", "* A tennis court is approximately twice the length and width of a badminton court.", "* Tennis racquets are about four times as heavy as badminton racquets, versus .", "Tennis balls are more than eleven times heavier than shuttlecocks, versus .", "* The fastest recorded tennis stroke is Samuel Groth's serve, whereas the fastest badminton stroke during gameplay was Mads Pieler Kolding's recorded smash at a Badminton Premier League match.Statistics such as the smash speed, above, prompt badminton enthusiasts to make other comparisons that are more contentious.", "For example, it is often claimed that badminton is the fastest racquet sport.", "Although badminton holds the record for the fastest initial speed of a racquet sports projectile, the shuttlecock decelerates substantially faster than other projectiles such as tennis balls.", "In turn, this qualification must be qualified by consideration of the distance over which the shuttlecock travels: a smashed shuttlecock travels a shorter distance than a tennis ball during a serve.While fans of badminton and tennis often claim that their sport is the more physically demanding, such comparisons are difficult to make objectively because of the differing demands of the games.", "No formal study currently exists evaluating the physical condition of the players or demands during gameplay.Badminton and tennis techniques differ substantially.", "The lightness of the shuttlecock and of badminton racquets allows badminton players to make use of the wrist and fingers much more than tennis players; in tennis, the wrist is normally held stable, and playing with a mobile wrist may lead to injury.", "For the same reasons, badminton players can generate power from a short racquet swing: for some strokes such as net kills, an elite player's swing may be less than .", "For strokes that require more power, a longer swing will typically be used, but the badminton racquet swing will rarely be as long as a typical tennis swing." ], [ "See also", "* Ball badminton* Hanetsuki* List of racquet sports* Crossminton" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * .", "* .", "* * * * ." ], [ "External links", "* * Badminton World Federation** Laws of Badminton** Simplified Rules* Badminton Asia Confederation* Badminton Pan Am* Badminton Oceania* Badminton Europe* Badminton Confederation of Africa" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Baroque" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Baroque''' (, ; ) or '''Baroquism''' is a Western style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from the early 17th century until the 1750s.", "It followed Renaissance art and Mannerism and preceded the Rococo (in the past often referred to as \"late Baroque\") and Neoclassical styles.", "It was encouraged by the Catholic Church as a means to counter the simplicity and austerity of Protestant architecture, art, and music, though Lutheran Baroque art developed in parts of Europe as well.The Baroque style used contrast, movement, exuberant detail, deep color, grandeur, and surprise to achieve a sense of awe.", "The style began at the start of the 17th century in Rome, then spread rapidly to the rest of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, then to Austria, southern Germany, and Poland.", "By the 1730s, it had evolved into an even more flamboyant style, called ''rocaille'' or ''Rococo'', which appeared in France and Central Europe until the mid to late 18th century.", "In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires including the Iberian Peninsula it continued, together with new styles, until the first decade of the 19th century.In the decorative arts, the style employs plentiful and intricate ornamentation.", "The departure from Renaissance classicism has its own ways in each country.", "But a general feature is that everywhere the starting point is the ornamental elements introduced by the Renaissance.", "The classical repertoire is crowded, dense, overlapping, loaded, in order to provoke shock effects.", "New motifs introduced by Baroque are: the cartouche, trophies and weapons, baskets of fruit or flowers, and others, made in marquetry, stucco, or carved." ], [ "Origin of the word", "siren, made of a baroque pearl (the torso) with enameled gold mounts set with rubies, probably circa 1860, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City, New York).The English word ''baroque'' comes directly from the French.", "Some scholars state that the French word originated from the Portuguese term 'a flawed pearl', pointing to the Latin 'wart', or to a word with the Romance suffix (common in pre-Roman Iberia).", "Other sources suggest a Medieval Latin term used in logic, , as the most likely source.In the 16th century, the Medieval Latin word moved beyond scholastic logic and came into use to characterise anything that seemed absurdly complex.", "The French philosopher (1533–1592) helped to give the term (spelled by him) the meaning 'bizarre, uselessly complicated'.", "Other early sources associate with magic, complexity, confusion, and excess.The word ''baroque'' was also associated with irregular pearls before the 18th century.", "The French and Portuguese were terms often associated with jewelry.", "An example from 1531 uses the term to describe pearls in an inventory of Charles V of France's treasures.", "Later, the word appears in a 1694 edition of , which describes ''baroque'' as \"only used for pearls that are imperfectly round.\"", "A 1728 Portuguese dictionary similarly describes as relating to a \"coarse and uneven pearl\".An alternative derivation of the word ''baroque'' points to the name of the Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612).In the 18th century, the term began to be used to describe music, and not in a flattering way.", "In an anonymous satirical review of the première of 's in October 1733, which was printed in the in May 1734, the critic wrote that the novelty in this opera was \"\", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.In 1762, recorded that the term could figuratively describe something \"irregular, bizarre or unequal\".Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as well as a philosopher, wrote in the in 1768: \"Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances.", "The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited.", "It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians.", "\"In 1788, defined the term in the as \"an architectural style that is highly adorned and tormented\".The French terms and appeared in in 1835.By the mid-19th century, art critics and historians had adopted the term ''baroque'' as a way to ridicule post-Renaissance art.", "This was the sense of the word as used in 1855 by the leading art historian Jacob Burckhardt, who wrote that baroque artists \"despised and abused detail\" because they lacked \"respect for tradition\".In 1888, the art historian Heinrich Wölfflin published the first serious academic work on the style, ''Renaissance und Barock'', which described the differences between the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance and the Baroque." ], [ "Architecture: origins and characteristics", "''Quadratura'' or trompe-l'œil ceiling of the Church of the Gesù, Rome, by Giovanni Battista Gaulli, 1673-1678The Baroque style of architecture was a result of doctrines adopted by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent in 1545–1563, in response to the Protestant Reformation.", "The first phase of the Counter-Reformation had imposed a severe, academic style on religious architecture, which had appealed to intellectuals but not the mass of churchgoers.", "The Council of Trent decided instead to appeal to a more popular audience, and declared that the arts should communicate religious themes with direct and emotional involvement.", "Similarly, Lutheran Baroque art developed as a confessional marker of identity, in response to the Great Iconoclasm of Calvinists.Baroque churches were designed with a large central space, where the worshippers could be close to the altar, with a dome or cupola high overhead, allowing light to illuminate the church below.", "The dome was one of the central symbolic features of Baroque architecture illustrating the union between the heavens and the earth.", "The inside of the cupola was lavishly decorated with paintings of angels and saints, and with stucco statuettes of angels, giving the impression to those below of looking up at heaven.", "Another feature of Baroque churches are the ''quadratura''; trompe-l'œil paintings on the ceiling in stucco frames, either real or painted, crowded with paintings of saints and angels and connected by architectural details with the balustrades and consoles.", "''Quadratura'' paintings of Atlantes below the cornices appear to be supporting the ceiling of the church.", "Unlike the painted ceilings of Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel, which combined different scenes, each with its own perspective, to be looked at one at a time, the Baroque ceiling paintings were carefully created so the viewer on the floor of the church would see the entire ceiling in correct perspective, as if the figures were real.The interiors of Baroque churches became more and more ornate in the High Baroque, and focused around the altar, usually placed under the dome.", "The most celebrated baroque decorative works of the High Baroque are the Chair of Saint Peter (1647–1653) and the Baldachino of St. Peter (1623–1634), both by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.", "The Baldequin of St. Peter is an example of the balance of opposites in Baroque art; the gigantic proportions of the piece, with the apparent lightness of the canopy; and the contrast between the solid twisted columns, bronze, gold and marble of the piece with the flowing draperies of the angels on the canopy.", "The Dresden Frauenkirche serves as a prominent example of Lutheran Baroque art, which was completed in 1743 after being commissioned by the Lutheran city council of Dresden and was \"compared by eighteenth-century observers to St Peter's in Rome\".The twisted column in the interior of churches is one of the signature features of the Baroque.", "It gives both a sense of motion and also a dramatic new way of reflecting light.The cartouche was another characteristic feature of Baroque decoration.", "These were large plaques carved of marble or stone, usually oval and with a rounded surface, which carried images or text in gilded letters, and were placed as interior decoration or above the doorways of buildings, delivering messages to those below.", "They showed a wide variety of invention, and were found in all types of buildings, from cathedrals and palaces to small chapels.Baroque architects sometimes used forced perspective to create illusions.", "For the Palazzo Spada in Rome, Borromini used columns of diminishing size, a narrowing floor and a miniature statue in the garden beyond to create the illusion that a passageway was thirty meters long, when it was actually only seven meters long.", "A statue at the end of the passage appears to be life-size, though it is only sixty centimeters high.", "Borromini designed the illusion with the assistance of a mathematician.===Italian Baroque===Basilique Saint Pierre - Vatican (VA) - 2021-08-25 - 4.jpg|St.", "Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615File:Santa Maria della Salute from Hotel Monaco.jpg|Santa Maria della Salute, Venice, by Baldassare Longhena, 1631–1687San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - Front.jpg|San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, by Francesco Borromini, 1638–1677File:Obelisco Fontana dei Fiumi Piazza Navona Roma.jpg|Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, Rome, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1648–1651File:St Peter's Square, Vatican City - April 2007.jpg|St.", "Peter's Square, Rome, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1656–1667File:Église Santa Maria Pace - Rome (IT62) - 2021-08-28 - 3.jpg|Santa Maria della Pace, Rome, by Pietro da Cortona, 1656–1667The first building in Rome to have a Baroque facade was the Church of the Gesù in 1584; it was plain by later Baroque standards, but marked a break with the traditional Renaissance facades that preceded it.", "The interior of this church remained very austere until the high Baroque, when it was lavishly ornamented.In Rome in 1605, Paul V became the first of series of popes who commissioned basilicas and church buildings designed to inspire emotion and awe through a proliferation of forms, and a richness of colours and dramatic effects.", "Among the most influential monuments of the Early Baroque were the facade of St. Peter's Basilica (1606–1619), and the new nave and loggia which connected the facade to Michelangelo's dome in the earlier church.", "The new design created a dramatic contrast between the soaring dome and the disproportionately wide facade, and the contrast on the facade itself between the Doric columns and the great mass of the portico.In the mid to late 17th century the style reached its peak, later termed the High Baroque.", "Many monumental works were commissioned by Popes Urban VIII and Alexander VII.", "The sculptor and architect Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed a new quadruple colonnade around St. Peter's Square (1656 to 1667).", "The three galleries of columns in a giant ellipse balance the oversize dome and give the Church and square a unity and the feeling of a giant theatre.Another major innovator of the Italian High Baroque was Francesco Borromini, whose major work was the Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane or Saint Charles of the Four Fountains (1634–1646).", "The sense of movement is given not by the decoration, but by the walls themselves, which undulate and by concave and convex elements, including an oval tower and balcony inserted into a concave traverse.", "The interior was equally revolutionary; the main space of the church was oval, beneath an oval dome.Painted ceilings, crowded with angels and saints and trompe-l'œil architectural effects, were an important feature of the Italian High Baroque.", "Major works included ''The Entry of Saint Ignatius into Paradise'' by Andrea Pozzo (1685–1695) in the Church of Saint Ignatius in Rome, and ''The Triumph of the Name of Jesus'' by Giovanni Battista Gaulli in the Church of the Gesù in Rome (1669–1683), which featured figures spilling out of the picture frame and dramatic oblique lighting and light-dark contrasts.The style spread quickly from Rome to other regions of Italy: It appeared in Venice in the church of Santa Maria della Salute (1631–1687) by Baldassare Longhena, a highly original octagonal form crowned with an enormous cupola.", "It appeared also in Turin, notably in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud (1668–1694) by Guarino Guarini.", "The style also began to be used in palaces; Guarini designed the Palazzo Carignano in Turin, while Longhena designed the Ca' Rezzonico on the Grand Canal, (1657), finished by Giorgio Massari with decorated with paintings by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.", "A series of massive earthquakes in Sicily required the rebuilding of most of them and several were built in the exuberant late Baroque or Rococo style.===Spanish Baroque===File:Palacio San Telmo facade Seville Spain.jpg|Palacio de San Telmo, Seville, Andalusia, by Leonardo de Figueroa, 1682–1754File:Palacio de La Merced (52004775643).jpg|Palacio de la Merced, Córdoba, Andalusia, 1245–1760Palacio Real de Madrid - 13.jpg|Royal Palace of Madrid in Madrid, by Jean Bautista Sachetti, 1735–1764File:Catedral de Santiago de Compostela agosto 2018 (cropped).jpg|Façade of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, by Fernando de Casas Novoa, 1738File:Barcelona - Palau de la Virreina - façana.jpg|Palau de la Virreina in Barcelona, Catalonia, built between 1772 and 1778 by Josep AusichFile:Basílica Mercè BCN.jpg|Basílica de la Mercè in Barcelona, Catalonia, built between 1765 and 1775 by José Mas DordalFile:Salamanca - Clerecia 13.jpg|La Clerecía church in Salamanca, Castile and León, built between 1617 and 1754.Iglesia-convento de Santa Teresa - Ávila 001.jpg|Iglesia-convento de Santa Teresa, in Ávila, Castile and León, built in the early 17th centuryAyuntamiento de Cuenca.JPG|Casa consistorial de Cuenca, in Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha, built between 1760 and 1788 by Lorenzo de Santa María and Mateo López File:Iglesia de los Juanes, Valencia, España, 2014-06-29, DD 19.JPG|Iglesia de los Santos Juanes in Valencia, built between 1240 and 1702The Catholic Church in Spain, and particularly the Jesuits, were the driving force of Spanish Baroque architecture.", "The first major work in this style was the San Isidro Chapel in Madrid, begun in 1643 by Pedro de la Torre.", "It contrasted an extreme richness of ornament on the exterior with simplicity in the interior, divided into multiple spaces and using effects of light to create a sense of mystery.", "The Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela was modernized with a series of Baroque additions beginning at the end of the 17th century, starting with a highly ornate bell tower (1680), then flanked by two even taller and more ornate towers, called the ''Obradorio'', added between 1738 and 1750 by Fernando de Casas Novoa.", "Another landmark of the Spanish Baroque is the chapel tower of the Palace of San Telmo in Seville by Leonardo de Figueroa.Granada had only been conquered from the Moors in the 15th century, and had its own distinct variety of Baroque.", "The painter, sculptor and architect Alonso Cano designed the Baroque interior of Granada Cathedral between 1652 and his death in 1657.It features dramatic contrasts of the massive white columns and gold decor.The most ornamental and lavishly decorated architecture of the Spanish Baroque is called Churrigueresque style, named after the brothers Churriguera, who worked primarily in Salamanca and Madrid.", "Their works include the buildings on the city's main square, the Plaza Mayor of Salamanca (1729).", "This highly ornamental Baroque style was influential in many churches and cathedrals built by the Spanish in the Americas.Other notable Spanish baroque architects of the late Baroque include Pedro de Ribera, a pupil of Churriguera, who designed the Royal Hospice of San Fernando in Madrid, and Narciso Tomé, who designed the celebrated El Transparente altarpiece at Toledo Cathedral (1729–1732) which gives the illusion, in certain light, of floating upwards.The architects of the Spanish Baroque had an effect far beyond Spain; their work was highly influential in the churches built in the Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines.", "The Church built by the Jesuits for a college in Tepotzotlán, with its ornate Baroque facade and tower, is a good example.===Central Europe===File:Iglesia colegial de Poznan, Poznan, Polonia, 2014-09-18, DD 19-21 HDR.jpg|Poznań Fara, Poznań, Poland, by Bartłomiej Nataniel Wąsowski, Giovanni Catenazzi and Pompeo Ferrari, 1651–1732281012 Detail of the Wilanów Palace - 19.jpg|Wilanów Palace, Warsaw, Poland, unknown architect, 1677–1679File:Wien Graben Pestsäule Ostseite.jpg|Plague Column, Vienna, Austria, by Matthias Rauchmiller and Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1682 and 1694File:St. Nikolaus auf der Kleinseite Innenraum 1.jpg|Church of Saint Nicholas, Prague, Czech Republic, by Christoph Dientzenhofer, 1703–1711Karlskirche Wien September 2016.jpg|Exterior of the Karlskirche, Vienna, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715–1737Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo, Viena, Austria, 2020-01-31, DD 49-51 HDR.jpg|Interior of the Karlskirche, by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, 1715–1737File:Palacio Belvedere, Viena, Austria, 2020-02-01, DD 87-89 HDR.jpg|Upper Belvedere, Vienna, by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, 1717–1723File:Pałac w Rogalinie od strony ogrodu 02.jpg|Rogalin Palace, Rogalin, Poland, unknown architect, 1768–1774From 1680 to 1750, many highly ornate cathedrals, abbeys, and pilgrimage churches were built in Central Europe, in Bavaria, Austria, Bohemia and southwestern Poland.", "Some were in Rococo style, a distinct, more flamboyant and asymmetric style which emerged from the Baroque, then replaced it in Central Europe in the first half of the 18th century, until it was replaced in turn by classicism.The princes of the multitude of states in that region also chose Baroque or Rococo for their palaces and residences, and often used Italian-trained architects to construct them.", "Notable architects included Johann Fischer von Erlach, Lukas von Hildebrandt and Dominikus Zimmermann in Bavaria, Balthasar Neumann in Bruhl, and Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann in Dresden.", "In Prussia, Frederick II of Prussia was inspired by the Grand Trianon of the Palace of Versailles, and used it as the model for his summer residence, Sanssouci, in Potsdam, designed for him by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff (1745–1747).", "Another work of Baroque palace architecture is the Zwinger in Dresden, the former orangerie of the palace of the Dukes of Saxony in the 18th century.One of the best examples of a rococo church is the Basilika Vierzehnheiligen, or Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a pilgrimage church located near the town of Bad Staffelstein near Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany.", "The Basilica was designed by Balthasar Neumann and was constructed between 1743 and 1772, its plan a series of interlocking circles around a central oval with the altar placed in the exact centre of the church.", "The interior of this church illustrates the summit of Rococo decoration.Another notable example of the style is the Pilgrimage Church of Wies ().", "It was designed by the brothers J.", "B. and Dominikus Zimmermann.", "It is located in the foothills of the Alps, in the municipality of Steingaden in the Weilheim-Schongau district, Bavaria, Germany.", "Construction took place between 1745 and 1754, and the interior was decorated with frescoes and with stuccowork in the tradition of the Wessobrunner School.", "It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Another notable example is the St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana) in Prague (1704–1755), built by Christoph Dientzenhofer and his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer.", "Decoration covers all of walls of interior of the church.", "The altar is placed in the nave beneath the central dome, and surrounded by chapels, light comes down from the dome above and from the surrounding chapels.", "The altar is entirely surrounded by arches, columns, curved balustrades and pilasters of coloured stone, which are richly decorated with statuary, creating a deliberate confusion between the real architecture and the decoration.", "The architecture is transformed into a theatre of light, colour and movement.In Poland, the Italian-inspired Polish Baroque lasted from the early 17th to the mid-18th century and emphasised richness of detail and colour.", "The first Baroque building in present-day Poland and probably one of the most recognizable is the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Kraków, designed by Giovanni Battista Trevano.", "Sigismund's Column in Warsaw, erected in 1644, was the world's first secular Baroque monument built in the form of a column.", "The palatial residence style was exemplified by the Wilanów Palace, constructed between 1677 and 1696.The most renowned Baroque architect active in Poland was Dutchman Tylman van Gameren and his notable works include Warsaw's St. Kazimierz Church and Krasiński Palace, St. Anne's in Kraków and Branicki Palace in Bialystok.", "However, the most celebrated work of Polish Baroque is the Fara Church in Poznań, with details by Pompeo Ferrari.", "After Thirty Years' War under the agreements of the Peace of Westphalia two unique baroque wattle and daub structures was built: Church of Peace in Jawor, Holy Trinity Church of Peace in Świdnica the largest wooden Baroque temple in Europe.===French Baroque===File:Château de Maisons-Laffitte 001.jpg|Château de Maisons, France, by François Mansart, 1630–1651Galerie d'Apollon du Louvre déserte 1.jpg|Galerie d'Apollon, Louvre Palace, Paris, by Louis Le Vau and Charles Le Brun, after 1661File:Louvre-facade-est.jpg|East front of the Louvre Palace, Paris, by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau, 1665–1680Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg|Chapel of the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, 1696–1710File:Porte Saint-Denis 01.jpg|Porte Saint-Denis, Paris, by François Blondel, 1672File:Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg|Dôme des Invalides, Paris, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1677–1706File:Chateau Versailles Galerie des Glaces.jpg|Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, 1678–1684File:Palace of Versailles June 2010.jpg|Garden façade of the Palace of Versailles, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678–1688File:Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg|The Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles, 1680File:Place Vendome, Paris 20 April 2011.jpg|Place Vendôme, Paris, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1699–1706File:Hôtel de Rothelin - façade cour.jpg|Hôtel de Rothelin-Charolais, Paris, by Pierre Cailleteau, 1700–1704Baroque in France developed quite differently from the ornate and dramatic local versions of Baroque from Italy, Spain and the rest of Europe.", "It appears severe, more detached and restrained by comparison, preempting Neoclassicism and the architecture of the Enlightenment.", "Unlike Italian buildings, French Baroque buildings have no broken pediments or curvilinear façades.", "Even religious buildings avoided the intense spatial drama one finds in the work of Borromini.", "The style is closely associated with the works built for Louis XIV (reign 1643–1715), and because of this, it is also known as the Louis XIV style.", "Louis XIV invited the master of Baroque, Bernini, to submit a design for the new wing of the Louvre, but rejected it in favor of a more classical design by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau.The main architects of the style included François Mansart (1598–1666), Pierre Le Muet (Church of Val-de-Grace, 1645–1665) and Louis Le Vau (Vaux-le-Vicomte, 1657–1661).", "Mansart was the first architect to introduce Baroque styling, principally the frequent use of an applied order and heavy rustication, into the French architectural vocabulary.", "The mansard roof was not invented by Mansart, but it has become associated with him, as he used it frequently.The major royal project of the period was the expansion of Palace of Versailles, begun in 1661 by Le Vau with decoration by the painter Charles Le Brun.", "The gardens were designed by André Le Nôtre specifically to complement and amplify the architecture.", "The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), the centerpiece of the château, with paintings by Le Brun, was constructed between 1678 and 1686.Mansart completed the Grand Trianon in 1687.The chapel, designed by de Cotte, was finished in 1710.Following the death of Louis XIV, Louis XV added the more intimate Petit Trianon and the highly ornate theatre.", "The fountains in the gardens were designed to be seen from the interior, and to add to the dramatic effect.", "The palace was admired and copied by other monarchs of Europe, particularly Peter the Great of Russia, who visited Versailles early in the reign of Louis XV, and built his own version at Peterhof Palace near Saint Petersburg, between 1705 and 1725.===Portuguese Baroque===File:Biblioteca Joanina Universidade de Coimbra IMG 0664.JPG|University Library, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, by Gaspar Ferreira, 1716–1728File:Mafra (27595630149) (cropped).jpg|Palace of Mafra, Mafra, Portugal, by João Frederico Ludovice, 1717–1755Patriarcato di Lisbona (3093346552).jpg|Azulejo in the cloisters of the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora, Lisboa, Portugal, with a scene based on a print by Jean Le Pautre, unknown architect or craftsman, 1730–1735File:Bom Jesus 2017 (10).jpg|Grand Staircase of the Pilgrimage Church of Bom Jesus do Monte, Braga, Portugal, by Carlos Luís Ferreira Amarante and others, 1784Baroque architecture in Portugal lasted about two centuries (the late seventeenth century and eighteenth century).", "The reigns of John V and Joseph I had increased imports of gold and diamonds, in a period called Royal Absolutism, which allowed the Portuguese Baroque to flourish.Baroque architecture in Portugal enjoys a special situation and different timeline from the rest of Europe.It is conditioned by several political, artistic, and economic factors, that originate several phases, and different kinds of outside influences, resulting in a unique blend, often misunderstood by those looking for Italian art, find instead specific forms and character which give it a uniquely Portuguese variety.", "Another key factor is the existence of the Jesuitical architecture, also called \"plain style\" (Estilo Chão or Estilo Plano) which like the name evokes, is plainer and appears somewhat austere.The buildings are single-room basilicas, deep main chapel, lateral chapels (with small doors for communication), without interior and exterior decoration, simple portal and windows.", "It is a practical building, allowing it to be built throughout the empire with minor adjustments, and prepared to be decorated later or when economic resources are available.In fact, the first Portuguese Baroque does not lack in building because \"plain style\" is easy to be transformed, by means of decoration (painting, tiling, etc.", "), turning empty areas into pompous, elaborate baroque scenarios.", "The same could be applied to the exterior.", "Subsequently, it is easy to adapt the building to the taste of the time and place, and add on new features and details.", "Practical and economical.With more inhabitants and better economic resources, the north, particularly the areas of Porto and Braga, witnessed an architectural renewal, visible in the large list of churches, convents and palaces built by the aristocracy.Porto is the city of Baroque in Portugal.", "Its historical centre is part of UNESCO World Heritage List.Many of the Baroque works in the historical area of the city and beyond, belong to Nicolau Nasoni an Italian architect living in Portugal, drawing original buildings with scenographic emplacement such as the church and tower of Clérigos, the logia of the Porto Cathedral, the church of Misericórdia, the Palace of São João Novo, the Palace of Freixo, the Episcopal Palace (Portuguese: ''Paço Episcopal do Porto'') along with many others.===Russian Baroque===File:2019-08-02-3847-Saint Petersburg.jpg|Peterhof Gardens, Saint Petersburg, Russia, unknown architect, 1746–1758File:Smolny Cathedral SPB 02.jpg|Smolny Convent, Saint Petersburg, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1748File:Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo.jpg|Tsarskoe Selo, Pushkin, Russia, by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, 1749–1756The debut of Russian Baroque, or Petrine Baroque, followed a long visit of Peter the Great to western Europe in 1697–1698, where he visited the Chateaux of Fontainebleau and Versailles as well as other architectural monuments.", "He decided, on his return to Russia, to construct similar monuments in St. Petersburg, which became the new capital of Russia in 1712.Early major monuments in the Petrine Baroque include the Peter and Paul Cathedral and Menshikov Palace.During the reign of Empress Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna, Russian architecture was dominated by the luxurious Baroque style of Italian-born Bartolomeo Rastrelli, which developed into Elizabethan Baroque.", "Rastrelli's signature buildings include the Winter Palace, the Catherine Palace and the Smolny Cathedral.", "Other distinctive monuments of the Elizabethan Baroque are the bell tower of the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra and the Red Gate.In Moscow, Naryshkin Baroque became widespread, especially in the architecture of Eastern Orthodox churches in the late 17th century.", "It was a combination of western European Baroque with traditional Russian folk styles.===Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Americas===Igreja de São Francisco de Assis (Ouro Preto, MG) por Rodrigo Tetsuo Argenton.jpg|Church of São Francisco de Assis, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil, by Aleijadinho, 1765–1788File:Basilica Menor de San Francisco de Asis in Havana 2016.jpg|Basilica of San Francisco de Asís, Havana, Cuba, unknown architect, 1548–1738File:Vista de la Fachada del Templo de San Francisco Acatepec 9.jpg|Church of San Francisco Acatepec, San Andrés Cholula, Mexico, unknown architect, 17th–18th centuriesFile:Catedral metropolitana de Quito - panoramio - Quito magnífico (17).jpg|Quito Metropolitan Cathedral, Quito, Ecuador, by Antonio García and others, 1535-1799Church in Historic Center - Sucre - Bolivia.jpg|Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in Sucre, Bolivia, 1551-1712File:Iglesia de Santo Domingo, Santiago, 2017-09-24.jpg|Santo Domingo Church, Santiago, Chile, unknown architect, 1747–1808File:Taxco Santa Prisca.jpg|Church of Santa Prisca de Taxco, Taxco, Mexico, by Diego Durán and Cayetano Sigüenza, 1751–1758File:Iglesia de la Recoleccion - Leon - Nicaragua - 01 (31416391552).jpg|Church of la Recolección, León, Nicaragua, 1786–1788Due to the colonization of the Americas by European countries, the Baroque naturally moved to the New World, finding especially favorable ground in the regions dominated by Spain and Portugal, both countries being centralized and irreducibly Catholic monarchies, by extension subject to Rome and adherents of the Baroque Counter-reformist most typical.", "European artists migrated to America and made school, and along with the widespread penetration of Catholic missionaries, many of whom were skilled artists, created a multiform Baroque often influenced by popular taste.", "The Criollo and indigenous crafters did much to give this Baroque unique features.", "The main centres of American Baroque cultivation, that are still standing, are (in this order) Mexico, Peru, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico and Panama.Of particular note is the so-called \"Missionary Baroque\", developed in the framework of the Spanish reductions in areas extending from Mexico and southwestern portions of current-day United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile, indigenous settlements organized by Spanish Catholic missionaries in order to convert them to the Christian faith and acculturate them in the Western life, forming a hybrid Baroque influenced by Native culture, where flourished Criollos and many indigenous artisans and musicians, even literate, some of great ability and talent of their own.", "Missionaries' accounts often repeat that Western art, especially music, had a hypnotic impact on foresters, and the images of saints were viewed as having great powers.", "Many natives were converted, and a new form of devotion was created, of passionate intensity, laden with mysticism, superstition, and theatricality, which delighted in festive masses, sacred concerts, and mysteries.The Colonial Baroque architecture in the Spanish America is characterized by a profuse decoration (portal of La Profesa Church, Mexico City; facades covered with Puebla-style azulejos, as in the Church of San Francisco Acatepec in San Andrés Cholula and Convent Church of San Francisco of Puebla), which will be exacerbated in the so-called Churrigueresque style (Facade of the Tabernacle of the Mexico City Cathedral, by Lorenzo Rodríguez; Church of San Francisco Javier, Tepotzotlán; Church of Santa Prisca of Taxco).", "In Peru, the constructions mostly developed in the cities of Lima, Cusco, Arequipa and Trujillo, since 1650 show original characteristics that are advanced even to the European Baroque, as in the use of cushioned walls and solomonic columns (Church of la Compañía de Jesús, Cusco; Basilica and Convent of San Francisco, Lima).", "Other countries include: the Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in Bolivia; Cathedral Basilica of Esquipulas in Guatemala; Tegucigalpa Cathedral in Honduras; León Cathedral in Nicaragua; the Church of la Compañía de Jesús in Quito, Ecuador; the Church of San Ignacio in Bogotá, Colombia; the Caracas Cathedral in Venezuela; the Cabildo of Buenos Aires in Argentina; the Church of Santo Domingo in Santiago, Chile; and Havana Cathedral in Cuba.", "It is also worth remembering the quality of the churches of the Spanish Jesuit Missions in Bolivia, Spanish Jesuit missions in Paraguay, the Spanish missions in Mexico and the Spanish Franciscan missions in California.In Brazil, as in the metropolis, Portugal, the architecture has a certain Italian influence, usually of a Borrominesque type, as can be seen in the Co-Cathedral of Recife (1784) and Church of Nossa Senhora da Glória do Outeiro in Rio de Janeiro (1739).", "In the region of Minas Gerais, highlighted the work of Aleijadinho, author of a group of churches that stand out for their curved planimetry, facades with concave-convex dynamic effects and a plastic treatment of all architectural elements (Church of São Francisco de Assis in Ouro Preto, 1765–1788).===Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Asia===File:Restos de la Catedral de San Pablo, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 05.jpg|São Paulo in Macau, China, unknown architect, 1601File:Eglise St Paul.jpg|São Paulo in Diu, India, unknown architect, 1601File:Manila Cathedral (1792) by Brambila.jpg|The Manila Cathedral in a painting of 1792, in Intramuros, Manila, PhilippinesFile:Old Goa Church 01.jpg|Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, India, 1594-1605In the Portuguese colonies of India (Goa, Daman and Diu) an architectural style of Baroque forms mixed with Hindu elements flourished, such as the Goa Cathedral and the Basilica of Bom Jesus of Goa, which houses the tomb of St. Francis Xavier.", "The set of churches and convents of Goa was declared a World Heritage Site in 1986.In the Philippines, which was a Spanish colony for over three centuries, a large number of Baroque constructions are preserved.", "Four of these as well as the Baroque and Neoclassical city of Vigan are both UNESCO World Heritage Sites; and although they lack formal classification, The Walled City of Manila along with the city of Tayabas both contain a significant extent of Spanish-Baroque-era architecture.===Echoes in Wallachia and Moldavia===File:Biserica „Înălțarea Domnului” (1).jpg|Golia Monastery Church, Iași, Romania, unknown architect, 1650-1660Hurezi (14572944446).jpg|Horezu Monastery, Horezu, Romania, with a Solomonic column, unknown architect, 17th-18th centuriesFile:Horezu bis man portal.jpg|Door and ''pisanie'' of the Saints Constantine and Helena Church, Horezu Monastery, unknown architect or sculptor, 1692-1694File:Palatul Brâncovenesc, Potlogi, DB, 4.JPG|Maximalist railing of the Potlogi Palace, Potlogi, unknown architect, 1698File:Mogosoaia Museum (128813769).jpeg|Twisting columns and railings of the Mogoșoaia Palace, Mogoșoaia, unknown architect, early 18th centuryStone in the courtyard of the Antim Monastery 19.jpg|Cartouche on a damaged stone in the courtyard of Antim Monastery, Bucharest, unknown sculptor, late 17th-early 18th centuryAs we saw, the Baroque is a Western style, born in Italy.", "Through the commercial and cultural relationships of Italians with countries of the Balkan Peninsula, including Moldavia and Wallachia, Baroque influences arrive to Eastern Europe.", "These influences were not very strong, since they usually take place in architecture and stone-sculpted ornaments, and are also mixed intensely with details taken from Byzantine and Islamic art.Before and after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, all the art of Wallachia and Moldavia was primarily influenced by the one of Constantinople.", "Until the end of the 16th century, with little modifications, the plans of churches and monasteries, the murals, and the ornaments carved in stone remain the same as before.", "From a period starting with the reigns of Matei Basarab (1632-1654) and Vasile Lupu (1634-1653), which coincides with the popularization of Italian Baroque, new ornaments are added, and the style of religious furniture changes.", "This is not random at all.", "Decorative elements and principles are brought from Italy, through Venice, or through the Dalmatian regions, and they are adopted by architects and craftsmen from the east.", "The window and door frames, the ''pisanie'' with dedication, the tombstones, the columns and railings, and a part of the bronze, silver or wooden furniture, receive a more important role than the one they had before.", "They existed before too, inspired by the Byzantine tradition, but they have a more realist look, showing delicate floral motifs.", "The relief that existed before too, becomes more accentuated, having volume and consistency now.", "Before this period, reliefs from Wallachia and Moldavia, like the ones from the East, had only two levels, at a small distance one from the other, one at the surface and the other in depth.", "Big flowers, maybe roses, peonies or thistles, thick leaves, of acanthus or another similar plant, are twisting on columns, or surround door and windows.", "A place where the Baroque had a strong influence are columns and the railings.", "Capitals are more decorated than before with foliage.", "Columns have often twisting shafts, a local reinterpretation of the Solomonic column.", "Maximalist railings are placed between these columns, decorated with rinceaux.", "Some of the ones from the Mogoșoaia Palace are also decorated with dolphins.", "Cartouches are also used sometimes, mostly on tombstones, like on the one of Constantin Brâncoveanu.", "This movement, is known as the '''Brâncovenesc style''', after Constantin Brâncoveanu, a ruler of Wallachia whose reign (1654-1714) is highly associated with this kind of architecture and design.", "The style is also present during the 18th century, and in a part of the 19th.", "Many of the churches and residences erected by boyards and voivodes of these periods are Brâncovenesc.", "Although Baroque influences can be clearly seen, the Brâncovenesc style takes much more inspiration from the local tradition.", "As the 18th century passes, with the Phanariot (members of prominent Greek families in Phanar, Istanbul) reigns in Wallachia and Moldavia, Baroque influences come from Istanbul too.", "They came before too, during the 17th century, but with the Phanariots, more Western Baroque motifs that arrived to the Ottoman Empire have their final destination in present-day Romania.", "In Moldavia, Baroque elements come from Russia too, where the influence of Italian art was strong." ], [ "Painting", "File:Annibale Carracci, Resurrezione, Louvre.jpg|Resurrection of Christ; by Annibale Carracci; 1593; oil on canvas; 217 x 160 cm; LouvreFile:The Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne - Annibale Carracci - 1597 - Farnese Gallery, Rome.jpg|''Triumph of Bacchus and Adriane'' (part of ''The Loves of the Gods''); by Annibale Carracci; 1597–1600; fresco; length (gallery): 20.2 m; Palazzo Farnese, RomeFile:The Calling of Saint Matthew-Caravaggo (1599-1600).jpg|The Calling of St Matthew; by Caravaggio; 1602–1604; oil on canvas; 3 x 2 m; San Luigi dei Francesi, RomeFile:Artemisia Gentileschi - Giuditta decapita Oloferne - Google Art Project-Adjust.jpg|Judith Slaying Holofernes; by Artemisia Gentileschi; 1611–1612; oil on canvas; 163 x 126 cm; Uffizi, Florence, ItalyFile:Peter Paul Rubens - The Four Continents.jpg|''The Four Continents''; by Peter Paul Rubens; 1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, AustriaFile:Nicolas Poussin - L'Enlèvement des Sabines (1634-5).jpg|''The Rape of the Sabine Women''; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityFile:La ronda de noche, por Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|''The Night Watch''; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the NetherlandsFile:Claude Lorrain 008.jpg|''The Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba''; by Claude Lorrain; 1648; oil on canvas; 149.1 × 196.7 cm; National Gallery, LondonFile:Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''Las Meninas''; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado, Madrid, SpainFile:Michaelina wautier-triunfo de baco.JPG|''The Triumph of Bacchus''; by Michaelina Wautier; before 1659; oil on canvas; 270 x 354 cm; Kunsthistorisches MuseumFile:Maria van Oosterwijck, , Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie - Vanitas-Stilleben - GG 5714 - Kunsthistorisches Museum.jpg|''Vanitas Still Life''; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches MuseumBaroque painters worked deliberately to set themselves apart from the painters of the Renaissance and the Mannerism period after it.", "In their palette, they used intense and warm colours, and particularly made use of the primary colours red, blue and yellow, frequently putting all three in close proximity.", "They avoided the even lighting of Renaissance painting and used strong contrasts of light and darkness on certain parts of the picture to direct attention to the central actions or figures.", "In their composition, they avoided the tranquil scenes of Renaissance paintings, and chose the moments of the greatest movement and drama.", "Unlike the tranquil faces of Renaissance paintings, the faces in Baroque paintings clearly expressed their emotions.", "They often used asymmetry, with action occurring away from the centre of the picture, and created axes that were neither vertical nor horizontal, but slanting to the left or right, giving a sense of instability and movement.", "They enhanced this impression of movement by having the costumes of the personages blown by the wind, or moved by their own gestures.", "The overall impressions were movement, emotion and drama.", "Another essential element of baroque painting was allegory; every painting told a story and had a message, often encrypted in symbols and allegorical characters, which an educated viewer was expected to know and read.Early evidence of Italian Baroque ideas in painting occurred in Bologna, where Annibale Carracci, Agostino Carracci and Ludovico Carracci sought to return the visual arts to the ordered Classicism of the Renaissance.", "Their art, however, also incorporated ideas central the Counter-Reformation; these included intense emotion and religious imagery that appealed more to the heart than to the intellect.Another influential painter of the Baroque era was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio.", "His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting.", "Other major painters associated closely with the Baroque style include Artemisia Gentileschi, Elisabetta Sirani, Giovanna Garzoni, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Andrea Pozzo, and Paolo de Matteis in Italy; Francisco de Zurbarán, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Diego Velázquez in Spain; Adam Elsheimer in Germany; and Nicolas Poussin and Georges de La Tour in France (though Poussin spent most of his working life in Italy).", "Poussin and La Tour adopted a \"classical\" Baroque style with less focus on emotion and greater attention to the line of the figures in the painting than to colour.Peter Paul Rubens was the most important painter of the Flemish Baroque style.", "Rubens' highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history.", "His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation.", "Rubens specialized in making altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.One important domain of Baroque painting was ''Quadratura'', or paintings in ''trompe-l'œil'', which literally \"fooled the eye\".", "These were usually painted on the stucco of ceilings or upper walls and balustrades, and gave the impression to those on the ground looking up were that they were seeing the heavens populated with crowds of angels, saints and other heavenly figures, set against painted skies and imaginary architecture.In Italy, artists often collaborated with architects on interior decoration; Pietro da Cortona was one of the painters of the 17th century who employed this illusionist way of painting.", "Among his most important commissions were the frescoes he painted for the Palace of the Barberini family (1633–39), to glorify the reign of Pope Urban VIII.", "Pietro da Cortona's compositions were the largest decorative frescoes executed in Rome since the work of Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel.François Boucher was an important figure in the more delicate French Rococo style, which appeared during the late Baroque period.", "He designed tapestries, carpets and theatre decoration as well as painting.", "His work was extremely popular with Madame Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV.", "His paintings featured mythological romantic, and mildly erotic themes.===Hispanic Americas===Example of Bolivian painting (part of the Cusco School): an Arquebusier Angel; by Master of Calamarca; 17th centuryIn the Hispanic Americas, the first influences were from Sevillan Tenebrism, mainly from Zurbarán —some of whose works are still preserved in Mexico and Peru— as can be seen in the work of the Mexicans José Juárez and Sebastián López de Arteaga, and the Bolivian Melchor Pérez de Holguín.", "The Cusco School of painting arose after the arrival of the Italian painter Bernardo Bitti in 1583, who introduced Mannerism in the Americas.", "It highlighted the work of Luis de Riaño, disciple of the Italian Angelino Medoro, author of the murals of the Church of San Pedro of Andahuaylillas.", "It also highlighted the Indian (Quechua) painters Diego Quispe Tito and Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, as well as Marcos Zapata, author of the fifty large canvases that cover the high arches of the Cathedral of Cusco.", "In Ecuador, the Quito School was formed, mainly represented by the mestizo Miguel de Santiago and the criollo Nicolás Javier de Goríbar.In the 18th century sculptural altarpieces began to be replaced by paintings, developing notably the Baroque painting in the Americas.", "Similarly, the demand for civil works, mainly portraits of the aristocratic classes and the ecclesiastical hierarchy, grew.", "The main influence was the Murillesque, and in some cases – as in the criollo Cristóbal de Villalpando – that of Valdés Leal.", "The painting of this era has a more sentimental tone, with sweet and softer shapes.", "It highlight Gregorio Vásquez de Arce in Colombia, and Juan Rodríguez Juárez and Miguel Cabrera in Mexico." ], [ "Sculpture", "File:Francesco mochi, santa veronica, 1632, 02,2.jpg|''Saint Veronica''; by Francesco Mochi; 1629–1639; Carrara marble; height: 5 m; St. Peter's Basilica, RomeFile:Ecstasy of Saint Teresa September 2015-2a.jpg|''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa''; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; Santa Maria della Vittoria, RomeFile:Fame riding Pegasus Coysevox Louvre MR1824.jpg|''The King's Fame Riding Pegasus''; by Antoine Coysevox; 1698–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m; LouvreFile:Venus Giving Arms to Aeneas MET DT215153.jpg|''Venus Giving Arms to Aeneas''; by Jean Cornu; 1704; terracotta and painted wood; height: 108 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York CityFile:Ermitáž (39).jpg|''The Death of Adonis''; by Giuseppe Mazzuoli; 1710s; marble; height: 193 cm; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, RussiaThe dominant figure in baroque sculpture was Gian Lorenzo Bernini.", "Under the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, he made a remarkable series of monumental statues of saints and figures whose faces and gestures vividly expressed their emotions, as well as portrait busts of exceptional realism, and highly decorative works for the Vatican such as the imposing Chair of St. Peter beneath the dome in St. Peter's Basilica.", "In addition, he designed fountains with monumental groups of sculpture to decorate the major squares of Rome.Baroque sculpture was inspired by ancient Roman statuary, particularly by the famous first century CE statue of Laocoön, which was unearthed in 1506 and put on display in the gallery of the Vatican.", "When he visited Paris in 1665, Bernini addressed the students at the academy of painting and sculpture.", "He advised the students to work from classical models, rather than from nature.", "He told the students, \"When I had trouble with my first statue, I consulted the ''Antinous'' like an oracle.\"", "That ''Antinous'' statue is known today as the Hermes of the Museo Pio-Clementino.Notable late French baroque sculptors included Étienne Maurice Falconet and Jean Baptiste Pigalle.", "Pigalle was commissioned by Frederick the Great to make statues for Frederick's own version of Versailles at Sanssouci in Potsdam, Germany.", "Falconet also received an important foreign commission, creating the famous statue of Peter the Great on horseback found in St. Petersburg.In Spain, the sculptor Francisco Salzillo worked exclusively on religious themes, using polychromed wood.", "Some of the finest baroque sculptural craftsmanship was found in the gilded stucco altars of churches of the Spanish colonies of the New World, made by local craftsmen; examples include the Rosary Chapel of the Church of Santo Domingo in Oaxaca (Mexico), 1724–1731." ], [ "Furniture", "File:Decorative arts in the Louvre - Room 32 D201903 (cropped).jpg|Four-poster bed from the Château d'Effiat; 1650; natural walnut, chiselled Genoa silk velvet and embroidered silks; 295 cm; LouvreAntichambre du prince-évêque (Palais Rohan, Strasbourg) cabinet.JPG|Baroque caryatids of a cabinet; 1675; ebony, kingwood, marquetry of hard stones, gilt bronze, pewter, glass, tinted mirror and horn; unknown dimensions; Museum of Decorative Art, Strasbourg, FranceFile:Francia, tavolo da parete, 1685-90 ca.jpg|Pier table; 1685–1690; carved, gessoed, and gilded wood, with a marble top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, USFile:Armoire aux perroquets du Louvre.jpg|Cupboard; by André Charles Boulle; 1700; ebony and amaranth veneering, polychrome woods, brass, tin, shell, and horn marquetry on an oak frame, gilt-bronze; 255.5 x 157.5 cm; LouvreFile:Andrea brustolon, sedie con etiopi, 1700-15 ca.", "09.jpg|Armchair; by Andrea Brustolon; 1700-1715; wood and upholstery; unknown dimsensions; Ca' Rezzonico, VeniceTrono di pio VI, usato il 10 marzo 1782, databile al 1700-20 ca.jpg|Throne; 1700-1720; gilded wood and upholstery; unknown dimsensions; Ca' RezzonicoFile:Commode MET DP108742.jpg|Commode; by André Charles Boulle; 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)File:Heinrich ludwig rohde o ferdinand plitzner (attr.", "), scrittoio a ribalta, magonza 1720 ca.jpg|German slant-front desk; by Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or Ferdinand Plitzner; 1715–1725; marquetry with maple, amaranth, mahogany, and walnut on spruce and oak; 90 × 84 × 44.5 cm; Art Institute of ChicagoThe main motifs used are: horns of plenty, festoons, baby angels, lion heads holding a metal ring in their mouths, female faces surrounded by garlands, oval cartouches, acanthus leaves, classical columns, caryatids, pediments, and other elements of Classical architecture sculpted on some parts of pieces of furniture, baskets with fruits or flowers, shells, armour and trophies, heads of Apollo or Bacchus, and C-shaped volutes.During the first period of the reign of Louis XIV, furniture followed the previous style of Louis XIII, and was massive, and profusely decorated with sculpture and gilding.", "After 1680, thanks in large part to the furniture designer André Charles Boulle, a more original and delicate style appeared, sometimes known as Boulle work.", "It was based on the inlay of ebony and other rare woods, a technique first used in Florence in the 15th century, which was refined and developed by Boulle and others working for Louis XIV.", "Furniture was inlaid with plaques of ebony, copper, and exotic woods of different colors.New and often enduring types of furniture appeared; the commode, with two to four drawers, replaced the old ''coffre'', or chest.", "The ''canapé'', or sofa, appeared, in the form of a combination of two or three armchairs.", "New kinds of armchairs appeared, including the ''fauteuil en confessionale'' or \"Confessional armchair\", which had padded cushions ions on either side of the back of the chair.", "The console table also made its first appearance; it was designed to be placed against a wall.", "Another new type of furniture was the ''table à gibier'', a marble-topped table for holding dishes.", "Early varieties of the desk appeared; the Mazarin desk had a central section set back, placed between two columns of drawers, with four feet on each column." ], [ "Music", "Antonio Vivaldi, (1678–1741)The term ''Baroque'' is also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art.", "The first uses of the term 'baroque' for music were criticisms.", "In an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 of Rameau's ''Hippolyte et Aricie,'' printed in the ''Mercure de France'' in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty of this opera was \"du barocque,\" complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and noted composer as well as philosopher, made a very similar observation in 1768 in the famous ''Encyclopédie'' of Denis Diderot: \"Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances.", "The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited.", "It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians.", "\"Common use of the term for the music of the period began only in 1919, by Curt Sachs, and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English in an article published by Manfred Bukofzer.The baroque was a period of musical experimentation and innovation which explains the amount of ornaments and improvisation performed by the musicians.", "New forms were invented, including the concerto and sinfonia.", "Opera was born in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's mostly lost ''Dafne'', produced in Florence in 1598) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Louis XIV created the first Royal Academy of Music, In 1669, the poet Pierre Perrin opened an academy of opera in Paris, the first opera theatre in France open to the public, and premiered ''Pomone'', the first grand opera in French, with music by Robert Cambert, with five acts, elaborate stage machinery, and a ballet.", "Heinrich Schütz in Germany, Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, and Henry Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century.Several new instruments, including the piano, were introduced during this period.", "The invention of the piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments.", "Cristofori named the instrument ''un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte'' (\"a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud\"), abbreviated over time as ''pianoforte'', ''fortepiano'', and later, simply, piano.===Composers and examples===* Giovanni Gabrieli (/1557–1612) ''Sonata pian' e forte'' (1597), ''In Ecclesiis'' (from ''Symphoniae sacrae'' book 2, 1615)* Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger (c. 1580–1651) ''Libro primo di villanelle, 20'' (1610)* Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), ''L'Orfeo, favola in musica'' (1610)* Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), ''Musikalische Exequien'' (1629, 1647, 1650)* Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676), ''L'Egisto'' (1643), ''Ercole amante'' (1662), ''Scipione affricano'' (1664)JS Bach (1685–1750)* Johann Jacob Froberger (1616–1667), Complete Music for Harpsichord and Organ, Simone Stella* Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), ''Armide'' (1686)* Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704), ''Te Deum'' (1688–1698)* Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704), ''Mystery Sonatas'' (1681)* John Blow (1649–1708), ''Venus and Adonis'' (1680–1687)* Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), ''Canon in D'' (1680)* Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), 12 concerti grossi, Op.", "6 (1714)* Marin Marais (1656–1728), ''Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris'' (1723)* Henry Purcell (1659–1695), ''Dido and Aeneas'' (1688)* Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), ''L'honestà negli amori'' (1680), ''Il Pompeo'' (1683), ''Mitridate Eupatore'' (1707)* François Couperin (1668–1733), ''Les barricades mystérieuses'' (1717)* Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751), ''Didone abbandonata'' (1724)* Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), ''The Four Seasons'' (1725)* Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745), ''Il Serpente di Bronzo'' (1730), ''Missa Sanctissimae Trinitatis'' (1736)* Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), ''Der Tag des Gerichts'' (1762)* Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729)* Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764), ''Dardanus'' (1739)* George Frideric Handel (1685–1759), ''Water Music'' (1717), ''Messiah'' (1741)* Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757), Sonatas for harpsichord* Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Toccata and Fugue in D minor (1703–1707), ''Brandenburg Concertos'' (1721), ''St Matthew Passion'' (1727)* Nicola Porpora (1686–1768), ''Semiramide riconosciuta'' (1729)* Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), ''Stabat Mater'' (1736)" ], [ "Dance", "The classical ballet also originated in the Baroque era.", "The style of court dance was brought to France by Marie de Medici, and in the beginning the members of the court themselves were the dancers.", "Louis XIV himself performed in public in several ballets.", "In March 1662, the Académie Royale de Danse, was founded by the King.", "It was the first professional dance school and company, and set the standards and vocabulary for ballet throughout Europe during the period." ], [ "Literary theory", "Heinrich Wölfflin was the first to transfer the term Baroque to literature.", "The key concepts of Baroque literary theory, such as \"conceit\" (''concetto''), \"wit\" (''acutezza'', ''ingegno''), and \"wonder\" (''meraviglia''), were not fully developed in literary theory until the publication of Emanuele Tesauro's ''Il Cannocchiale aristotelico'' (The Aristotelian Telescope) in 1654.This seminal treatise - inspired by Giambattista Marino's epic ''Adone'' and the work of the Spanish Jesuit philosopher Baltasar Gracián - developed a theory of metaphor as a universal language of images and as a supreme intellectual act, at once an artifice and an epistemologically privileged mode of access to truth." ], [ "Theatre", "Set design for ''Andromedé'' by Pierre Corneille, (1650)Design for a theater set created by Giacomo Torelli for the ballet ''Les Noces de Thétis'', from ''Décorations et machines aprestées aux nopces de Tétis, Ballet Royal''The Baroque period was a golden age for theatre in France and Spain; playwrights included Corneille, Racine and Molière in France; and Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca in Spain.During the Baroque period, the art and style of the theatre evolved rapidly, alongside the development of opera and of ballet.", "The design of newer and larger theatres, the invention the use of more elaborate machinery, the wider use of the proscenium arch, which framed the stage and hid the machinery from the audience, encouraged more scenic effects and spectacle.The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character in Spain, following an Italian literary model during the Renaissance.", "The Hispanic Baroque theatre aimed for a public content with an ideal reality that manifested fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchist and national pride and honour originating from the chivalric, knightly world.Two periods are known in the Baroque Spanish theatre, with the division occurring in 1630.The first period is represented chiefly by Lope de Vega, but also by Tirso de Molina, Gaspar Aguilar, Guillén de Castro, Antonio Mira de Amescua, Luis Vélez de Guevara, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Diego Jiménez de Enciso, Luis Belmonte Bermúdez, Felipe Godínez, Luis Quiñones de Benavente or Juan Pérez de Montalbán.", "The second period is represented by Pedro Calderón de la Barca and fellow dramatists Antonio Hurtado de Mendoza, Álvaro Cubillo de Aragón, Jerónimo de Cáncer, Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Juan de Matos Fragoso, Antonio Coello y Ochoa, Agustín Moreto, and Francisco Bances Candamo.", "These classifications are loose because each author had his own way and could occasionally adhere himself to the formula established by Lope.", "It may even be that Lope's \"manner\" was more liberal and structured than Calderón's.Lope de Vega introduced through his ''Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo'' (1609) the ''new comedy''.", "He established a new dramatic formula that broke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school of poetry (action, time, and place) and a fourth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic elements showing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is represented.", "Although Lope has a great knowledge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part of his career nor in theatre or scenography.", "The Lope's comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the theatrical representation.Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain.", "Their works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could be considered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the more elaborate comedy of Calderón.", "Tirso de Molina is best known for two works, ''The Convicted Suspicions'' and ''The Trickster of Seville'', one of the first versions of the Don Juan myth.Upon his arrival to Madrid, Cosimo Lotti brought to the Spanish court the most advanced theatrical techniques of Europe.", "His techniques and mechanic knowledge were applied in palace exhibitions called \"Fiestas\" and in lavish exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called \"Naumaquias\".", "He was in charge of styling the Gardens of Buen Retiro, of Zarzuela, and of Aranjuez and the construction of the theatrical building of Coliseo del Buen Retiro.", "Lope's formulas begin with a verse that it unbefitting of the palace theatre foundation and the birth of new concepts that begun the careers of some play writers like Calderón de la Barca.", "Marking the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Comedy, Calderón's style marked many differences, with a great deal of constructive care and attention to his internal structure.", "Calderón's work is in formal perfection and a very lyric and symbolic language.", "Liberty, vitality and openness of Lope gave a step to Calderón's intellectual reflection and formal precision.", "In his comedy it reflected his ideological and doctrine intentions in above the passion and the action, the work of Autos sacramentales achieved high ranks.", "The genre of Comedia is political, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid.", "The poetic text interweaved with Medias and resources originating from architecture, music and painting freeing the deception that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from the lack of scenery and engaging the dialogue of action.The best known German playwright was Andreas Gryphius, who used the Jesuit model of the Dutch Joost van den Vondel and Pierre Corneille.", "There was also Johannes Velten who combined the traditions of the English comedians and the commedia dell'arte with the classic theatre of Corneille and Molière.", "His touring company was perhaps the most significant and important of the 17th century.The foremost Italian baroque tragedian was Federico Della Valle.", "His literary activity is summed up by the four plays that he wrote for the courtly theater: the tragicomedy ''Adelonda di Frigia'' (1595) and especially his three tragedies, ''Judith'' (1627), ''Esther'' (1627) and ''La reina di Scotia'' (1628).", "Della Valle had many imitators and followers who combined in their works Baroque taste and the didactic aims of the Jesuits (Pallavicino, Graziani, etc.", ")===Spanish colonial Americas===Following the evolution marked from Spain, at the end of the 16th century, the companies of comedians, essentially transhumant, began to professionalize.", "With professionalization came regulation and censorship: as in Europe, the theatre oscillated between tolerance and even government protection and rejection (with exceptions) or persecution by the Church.", "The theatre was useful to the authorities as an instrument to disseminate the desired behavior and models, respect for the social order and the monarchy, school of religious dogma.The ''corrales'' were administered for the benefit of hospitals that shared the benefits of the representations.", "The itinerant companies (or \"of the league\"), who carried the theatre in improvised open-air stages by the regions that did not have fixed locals, required a viceregal license to work, whose price or ''pinción'' was destined to alms and works pious.", "For companies that worked stably in the capitals and major cities, one of their main sources of income was participation in the festivities of the Corpus Christi, which provided them with not only economic benefits, but also recognition and social prestige.", "The representations in the viceregal palace and the mansions of the aristocracy, where they represented both the comedies of their repertoire and special productions with great lighting effects, scenery, and stage, were also an important source of well-paid and prestigious work.Born in the Viceroyalty of New Spain but later settled in Spain, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón is the most prominent figure in the Baroque theatre of New Spain.", "Despite his accommodation to Lope de Vega's new comedy, his \"marked secularism\", his discretion and restraint, and a keen capacity for \"psychological penetration\" as distinctive features of Alarcón against his Spanish contemporaries have been noted.", "Noteworthy among his works ''La verdad sospechosa'', a comedy of characters that reflected his constant moralizing purpose.", "The dramatic production of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz places her as the second figure of the Spanish-American Baroque theatre.", "It is worth mentioning among her works the auto sacramental ''El divino Narciso'' and the comedy ''Los empeños de una casa''." ], [ "Gardens", "File:Kasteel van Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy 06.jpg|Gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, by André Le Nôtre, 1657–1661File:Vue aérienne du domaine de Versailles le 20 août 2014 par ToucanWings - Creative Commons By Sa 3.0 - 22.jpg|Gardens of Versailles, by André Le Nôtre, begun in 1661File:Het Loo Hauptachse.JPG|Gardens of the Het Loo Palace, Netherlands, unknown architect, 1689File:1 Tessinska palatset trädgård 2.jpg|Garden of the Tessin Palace, Stockholm, Sweden, by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, 1692–1700File:20200403 Schweriner Schloss.jpg|Garden of the Schwerin Castle, Schwerin, Germany, unknown architect, unknown dateThe Baroque garden, also known as the ''jardin à la française'' or French formal garden, first appeared in Rome in the 16th century, and then most famously in France in the 17th century in the gardens of Vaux le Vicomte and the Palace of Versailles.", "Baroque gardens were built by Kings and princes in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Spain, Poland, Italy and Russia until the mid-18th century, when they began to be remade into by the more natural English landscape garden.The purpose of the baroque garden was to illustrate the power of man over nature, and the glory of its builder, Baroque gardens were laid out in geometric patterns, like the rooms of a house.", "They were usually best seen from the outside and looking down, either from a chateau or terrace.", "The elements of a baroque garden included parterres of flower beds or low hedges trimmed into ornate Baroque designs, and straight lanes and alleys of gravel which divided and crisscrossed the garden.", "Terraces, ramps, staircases and cascades were placed where there were differences of elevation, and provided viewing points.", "Circular or rectangular ponds or basins of water were the settings for fountains and statues.", "Bosquets or carefully trimmed groves or lines of identical trees, gave the appearance of walls of greenery and were backdrops for statues.", "On the edges, the gardens usually had pavilions, orangeries and other structures where visitors could take shelter from the sun or rain.Baroque gardens required enormous numbers of gardeners, continual trimming, and abundant water.", "In the later part of the Baroque period, the formal elements began to be replaced with more natural features, including winding paths, groves of varied trees left to grow untrimmed; rustic architecture and picturesque structures, such as Roman temples or Chinese pagodas, as well as \"secret gardens\" on the edges of the main garden, filled with greenery, where visitors could read or have quiet conversations.", "By the mid-18th century most of the Baroque gardens were partially or entirely transformed into variations of the English landscape garden.Besides Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, celebrated baroque gardens still retaining much of their original appearance include the Royal Palace of Caserta near Naples; Nymphenburg Palace and Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl in Germany; Het Loo Palace, Netherlands; the Belvedere Palace in Vienna; Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso, Spain; and Peterhof Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia." ], [ "Urban planning and design", "16th through 19th century European cities witnessed a large change in urban design and planning principals that reshaped the landscapes and built environment.", "Rome, Paris, and other major cities were transformed to accommodate growing populations through improvements in housing, transportation, and public services.", "Throughout this time, the Baroque style was in full swing, and the influences of elaborate, dramatic, and artistic architectural styles extended into the urban fabric through what is known as Baroque urban planning.", "The experience of living and walking in the cities aims to compliment the emotions of the Baroque style.", "This style of planning often embraced displaying the wealth and strength of the ruling powers, and the important buildings served as the visual and symbolic center of the cities.St.", "Peter's Square is located directly in front of St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City.The replanning of the city of Rome under the rule of Pope Sixtus V revived and expanded the city in the 16th century.", "Many grand piazzas and squares were added as public spaces to contribute to the dramatic effect of the Baroque style.", "The piazzas featured fountains and other decorative features to embody the emotions of the time.", "An important factor in Baroque style planning was to connect churches, government structures, and piazzas together in a refined network of axis'.", "This allowed the important landmarks of the Catholic Church to become the focal points of the city.", "As another example of Baroque urban planning, Paris was in desperate need for an urban revival in the 19th century.", "The city underwent a dramatic change within its urban fabric through the help of Baron Haussmann.", "Under the rule of Napoleon III, Haussmann was appointed to reconstruct Paris by adding a new network of streets, parks, trains, and public services.", "Some of the characteristics of Haussmann's design include straight, wide boulevards lined with trees, and short access to parks and green spaces.", "The plan highlights some important buildings, such as the Paris Opera House.Aerial view of BarcelonaMore characteristics of Baroque urban planning are embodied in Barcelona.", "The Eixample district, designed by Ildefons Cerdà, showcases wide avenues in a grid system with a few diagonal boulevards.", "The intersections are very unique with octagonal blocks, which provide the streets with great visibility and light.", "Many works in this district come from architect Antoni Gaudí, who displays a unique style.", "Centered in the Eixample district design is the Sagrada Família by Gaudí, which poses great significance to the city." ], [ "Posterity", "===Transition to rococo===File:Meudon observatoire 2016 (15).jpg|Meudon Observatory, Château de Meudon, Meudon, France, an example of an early Rococo building from the last years of Louis XIV, unknown architect, 1706-1709File:Charles Cressent, Chest of drawers, c. 1730 at Waddesdon Manor.jpg|Chest of drawers; by Charles Cressent; 1730; various wood types; gilt-bronze mounts and a Brèche d'Aleps marble top; height: 91.1 cm; Waddesdon Manor, Waddesdon, UK20230209 Amalienburg Nymphenburg.jpg|Amalienburg, Nymphenburg Palace Park, Munich, Germany, by François de Cuvilliés, 1734-1739File:Salon ovale de la princesse in the Hôtel de Soubise (11).jpg|The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise, Paris, by Germain Boffrand, Charles-Joseph Natoire and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne, 1737-1739File:The Triumph of Venus, by François Boucher.jpg|''The Triumph of Venus''; by François Boucher; 1740; oil on canvas; 130 × 162 cm; Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, SwedenFile:Vienna (124619801).jpeg|Vieux-Laque Room, Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria, decorated with Chinese black lacquerware panels, by Nikolaus Pacassi, 1743-1763File:Gate - Residence Square Würzburg - DSC02894.JPG|Gate with two statues and elaborate wrought-iron grilles, Würzburg, Germany, grilles by Johann Georg Oegg, 1752Chinese House Potsdam-, Germany.jpg|Chinese House, Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, Germany, an example of Chinoiserie, by Johann Gottfried Büring, 1755–1764File:Coffeepot MET DP103144 (cropped),.jpg|Coffeepot, decorated with foliage; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe Music Lesson MET DP-14272-001 (cropped).jpg|''The Music Lesson''; by the Chelsea Porcelain Factory; 1765; soft-paste porcelain; 39.1 × 31.1 × 22.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtNodding pagod, Meissen, Germany, c. 1760, porcelain, 1892.60.325 - Metropolitan Museum of Art - New York City - DSC07727.jpg|Pagod, based on Asian figures of Budai, an example of Chinoiserie; by Johann Joachim Kändler; 1765; hard paste porcelain; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Cartouche bekroond met drietand Second livre de cartouches (serietitel op object), RP-P-2011-164-8.jpg|Cartouche from the ''Second '', an example of asymmetry; 1710-1772; engraving on paper; 23 x 19.8 cm; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands The Rococo is the final stage of the Baroque, and in many ways took the Baroque's fundamental qualities of illusion and drama to their logical extremes.", "Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of Louis XIV's court at the Palace of Versailles, the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerful (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king Louis XV (1710–1774).", "Because of this, the style was also known as ''Pompadour''.", "Although it's highly associated with the reign of Louis XV, it didn't appear in this period.", "Multiple works from the last years of Louis XIV's reign are examples of early Rococo.", "The name of the movement derives from the French , or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design.", "It began as a design and decorative arts style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes.", "Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture.", "The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated is Jean-Antoine Watteau, whose pastoral scenes, or , dominate the early part of the 18th century.There are multiple similarities between Rococo and Baroque.", "Both styles insist on monumental forms, and so use continuous spaces, double columns or pilasters, and luxurious materials (including gilded elements).", "There also noticeable differences.", "Rococo designed freed themselves from the adherence to symmetry that had dominated architecture and design since the Renaissance.", "Many small objects, like ink pots or porcelain figures, but also some ornaments, are often asymmetrical.", "This goes hand in hand with the fact that most ornamentation consisted of interpretation of foliage and sea shells, not as many Classical ornaments inherited from the Renaissance like in Baroque.", "Another key difference is the fact that since the Baroque is the main cultural manifestation of the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, it is most often associated with ecclesiastical architecture.", "In contrast, the Rococo is mainly associated with palaces and domestic architecture.", "In Paris, the popularity of the Rococo coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in this style.", "Rococo rooms were typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy.", "Colours also match this change, from the earthy tones of Caravaggio's paintings, and the interiors of red marble and gilded mounts of the reign of Louis XIV, to the pastel and relaxed pale blue, Pompadour pink, and white of the Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour's France.", "Similarly to colours, there was also a transition from serious, dramatic and moralistic subjects in painting and sculpture, to lighthearted and joyful themes.", "One last difference between Baroque and Rococo is the interest that 18th century aristocrats had for East Asia.", "Chinoiserie was a style in fine art, architecture and design, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese art, but also by Rococo at the same time.", "Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles.", "Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques.", "Aside from European recreations of objects in East Asian style, Chinese lacquerware was reused in multiple ways.", "European aristicrats fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces, with Chinese lacquer panels used as wall panels.", "Due to its aspect, black lacquer was popular for Western men's studies.", "Those panels used were usually glossy and black, made in the Henan province of China.", "They were made of multiple layers of lacquer, then incised with motifs in-filled with colour and gold.", "Chinese, but also Japanese lacquer panels were also used by some 18th century European carpenters for making furniture.", "In order to be produced, Asian screens were dismantled and used to veneer European-made furniture.===Complete abandonment with Neoclassicism===Pantheon 1, Paris May 11, 2013.jpg|Panthéon, Paris, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758–1790Osterley House The Dinning Room (22773780472).jpg|Eating Room, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1761West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|Facade of the Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764Jacques-Louis David, Le Serment des Horaces.jpg|''Oath of the Horatii''; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27 m; Louvre1793-1778-contrast-wholeplate-lowQ.jpg|This caricature contrasts Rococo 1778 (at right) and Neoclassical 1793 (at left) styles for both men and women, showing the large changes in just 15 years, and overall the contrast between the Baroque and Rococo fashion with a lot of lacework and wigs, and the simplicity and the same time elegance of Neoclassical outfitsP1240239 Paris VI rue Jacob n46 rwk 2.jpg|Rue Jacob no.", "46, an example of the Directoire style (a period in French Neoclassicism), very minimalist compared to Baroque or Rococo facades, Paris, unknown architect, unknown dateSalon de madame Récamier - Bergère (Louvre, OA 11385).jpg|Directoire style armchair of the salon of Madame Récamier, without any kind of gilding; attributed to Jacob Frères; 1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62 cm; LouvreFrançois Gérard - Madame Récamier - WGA08597.jpg|Empire style dress of ''Madame Récamier'', in very different to Baroque and Rococo fashion, painted by François Gérard, 1802Pair of green vases, painted by Jean Georget, mounts by Pierre-Philippe Thomire, 1 of 2, Sèvres porcelain, 1809, soft-paste porcelain - Wadsworth Atheneum - Hartford, CT - DSC05493.jpg|Empire style vase, very different from the blue-and-white ceramics of the 17th century; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9 cm, diameter: 35.6 cm; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, USIn 1750, Madame de Pompadour sent her nephew, Abel-François Poisson de Vandières, on a two-year mission to study artistic and archeological developments in Italy.", "He was accompanied by several artists, including the engraver Nicolas Cochin and the architect Soufflot.", "They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art.", "Vandiéres became the Marquis of Marigny, and was named Royal Director of buildings in 1754.He turned official French architecture toward Neoclassicism, a movement that heavily takes its inspiration from and tries to revive the art of Ancient Greece and Rome.", "Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced the ''petit style'' of François Boucher (one of the main Rococo painters), and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the academies of painting of architecture.The transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism wasn't very abrupt.", "Some of the biggest patrons of Rococo art also commissioned early Neoclassical works.", "Madame de Pompadour, one of the main figures of Rococo, commissioned the Petit Trianon, one of the most important examples of French Neoclassical architecture.", "Similarly, Louis XV, the king at whose court the Rococo flourished, founded the Panthéon, another iconic Neoclassical monument.", "Besides this, in France there was the Louis XVI style, which uses shapes and motifs taken from ancient Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquity, but still has the sweet, delicate and fancy vibe of the Rococo.", "In the UK, Robert Adam's Greco-Roman inspired interior of the Eating Room in the Osterley Park, near London, despite being Neoclassical, is painted mainly in white and pastel green and pink, reminiscent of Rococo.", "It must be mentioned that Neoclassicism wasn't about copying.", "Artists didn't try to become frozen in the past, but to use Antiquity and its ideals in a way that was relevant to contemporary society.===Condemnation and academic rediscovery===The pioneer German art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also condemned the baroque style, and praised the superior values of classical art and architecture.", "By the 19th century, Baroque was a target for ridicule and criticism.", "The neoclassical critic Francesco Milizia wrote: \"Borrominini in architecture, Bernini in sculpture, Pietro da Cortona in painting...are a plague on good taste, which infected a large number of artists.\"", "In the 19th century, criticism went even further; the British critic John Ruskin declared that baroque sculpture was not only bad, but also morally corrupt.The Swiss-born art historian Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque in his ''Renaissance und Barock'' (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as \"movement imported into mass\", an art antithetic to Renaissance art.", "He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century.", "Baroque art and architecture became fashionable in the interwar period, and has largely remained in critical favor.", "The term \"Baroque\" may still be used, often pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line.", "At the same time \"baroque\" has become an accepted terms for various trends in Roman art and Roman architecture in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, which display some of the same characteristics as the later Baroque.===Revivals and influence through eclecticism===File:Beauvais (Oise) - MUDO - \"Cabaret à la manière de Boulle\" (vers 1850-1870).jpg|Cabinet; 1850-1870; Boulle marquetry; unknown dimensions; Musée départemental de l'Oise, Beauvais, FranceFile:Decorative arts in the Louvre - Room 85 (01).jpg|Large console with central projection; by Benjamin Deguil and Benjamin-Paul Ramillon; 1850-1875; gilt wood and marble; 100 x 283 x 77 cm; Napoleon III Apartments, Louvre Palace, ParisNapoleon III Apartments (44883695984).jpg|The Grand Salon of the apartments of the minister of state, currently known as the Napoleon III Apartments, designed by Hector Lefuel and decorated with paintings by Charles Raphaël Maréchal, 1859-1860File:Château de Compiègne-Serre bijoux de l'Impèratrice Eugènie-20150303.jpg|Jewelry toilet of Empress Eugénie; by Jules Fossey; 1860; unknown materials; unknown dimensions; Château de Compiègne, Compiègne, FranceFile:Decorative_arts_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_83_(07).jpg|Candelabrum with eleven lights; by Ferdinand Barbedienne; 1861; gilt bronze; height: 83.7 cm, length: 49.4 cm; Napoleon III ApartmentsParis Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg|Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875File:Foyer (51865286672).jpg|Grand foyer of the Palais Garnier, inspired by the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, but with some ornaments taken from other historical styles, like the neo-Renaissance column lower parts, or the Greek Revival lyres at the tops of windows, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875File:Table, European workshop, second half of the 19th century.jpg|Table; 2nd half of the 19th century; Boulle marquetry; unknown dimensions; in a temporary exhibition called \"Dress Code Parfum de Secol XIX\" at the Suțu Palace, Bucharest, RomaniaPetit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg|Petit Palais, Paris, an example of Beaux Arts architecture, with Ionic columns very similar to those of the reign of Louis XIV, by Charles Giraud, 1900Highly criticized, the Baroque will later be a source of inspiration for artists, architects and designers during the 19th century through Romanticism, a movement that developed in the 18th century and that reached its peak in the 19th.", "It was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism, as well as glorification of the past and nature, preferring the medieval to the classical.", "A mix of literary, religious, and political factors prompted late-18th and 19th century British architects and designers to look back to the Middle Ages for inspiration.", "Romanticism is the reason the 19th century is best known as the century of revivals.", "In France, Romanticism was not the key factor that led to the revival of Gothic architecture and design.", "Vandalism of monuments and buildings associated with the Ancien Régime (Old Regime) happened during the French Revolution.", "Because of this an archaeologist, Alexandre Lenoir, was appointed curator of the Petits-Augustins depot, where sculptures, statues and tombs removed from churches, abbeys and convents had been transported.", "He organized the Museum of French Monuments (1795-1816), and was the first to bring back the taste for the art of the Middle Ages, which progressed slowly to flourish a quarter of a century later.This taste and revival of medieval art led to the revival of other periods, including the Baroque and Rococo.", "Revivalism started with themes first from the Middle Ages, then, towards the end of the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848), from the Renaissance.", "Baroque and Rococo inspiration was more popular during the reign of Napoleon III (1852-1870), and continued later, after the fall of the Second French Empire.Compared to how in England architects and designers saw the Gothic as a national style, Rococo was seen as one of the most representative movements for France.", "The French felt much more connected to the styles of the Ancien Régime and Napoleon's Empire, than to the medieval or Renaissance past, although Gothic architecture appeared in France, not in England.The revivalism of the 19th century led in time to eclecticism (mix of elements of different styles).", "Because architects often revived Classical styles, most Eclectic buildings and designs have a distinctive look.", "Besides pure revivals, the Baroque was also one of the main sources of inspiration for eclecticism.", "The coupled column and the giant order, two elements widely used in Baroque, are often present in this kind of 19th and early 20th century buildings.", "Eclecticism was not limited only to architecture.", "Many designs from the Second Empire style (1848-1870) have elements taken from different styles.", "Little furniture from the period escaped its three most prevalent historicist influences, which are sometimes kept distinct and sometimes combined: the Renaissance, Louis XV (Rococo), and Louis XVI styles.", "Revivals and inspiration also came sometimes from Baroque, like in the case of remakes and arabesques that imitate Boulle marquetry, and from other styles, like Gothic, Renaissance, or English Regency.The Belle Époque was a period that begun around 1871–1880 and that ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914.It was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, colonial expansion, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations.", "Eclecticism reached its peak in this period, with Beaux Arts architecture.", "The style takes its name from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied.", "Buildings in this style often feature Ionic columns with their volues on the corner (like those found in French Baroque), a rusticated basement level, overall simplicity but with some really detailed parts, arched doors, and an arch above the entrance like the one of the Petit Palais in Paris.", "The style aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles.", "When it comes to the design of the Belle Époque, all furniture from the past was admired, including, perhaps, contrary to expectations, the Second Empire style (the style of the proceeding period), which remained popular until 1900.In the years around 1900, there was a gigantic recapitulation of styles of all countries in all preceding periods.", "Everything from Chinese to Spanish models, from Boulle to Gothic, found its way into furniture production, but some styles were more appreciated than others.", "The High Middle Ages and the early Renaissance were especially prized.", "Exoticism of every stripe and exuberant Rococo designs were also favoured.Revivals and influence of the Baroque faded away and disappeared with Art Deco, a style created as a collective effort of multiple French designers to make a new modern style around 1910.It was obscure before WW1, but became very popular during the interwar period, being heavily associated with the 1920s and the 1930s.", "The movement was a blend of multiple characteristics taken from Modernist currents from the 1900s and the 1910s, like the Vienna Secession, Cubism, Fauvism, Primitivism, Suprematism, Constructivism, Futurism, De Stijl, and Expressionism.", "Besides Modernism, elements taken from styles popular during the Belle Époque, like Rococo Revival, Neoclassicism, or the neo-Louis XVI style, are also present in Art Deco.", "The proportions, volumes and structure of Beaux Arts architecture before WW1 is present in early Art Deco buildings of the 1910s and 1920s.", "Elements taken from Baroque are quite rare, architects and designers preferring the Louis XVI style.At the end of the interwar period, with the rise in popularity of the International Style, characterized by the complete lack of any ornamentation led to the complete abandonment of influence and revivals of the Baroque.", "Multiple International Style architects and designers, but also Modernist artists criticized Baroque for its extravagance and what they saw as \"excess\".", "Ironically this was just at the same time as the critical appreciation of the original Baroque was reviving strongly.===Postmodern appreciation and reinterpretations===File:Sony Building by David Shankbone crop.jpg|550 Madison Avenue, New York, with a top broken pediment, reminiscent of those found in Baroque and at highboys, by Philip Johnson, 1981-1984File:Chiesa San Marcello al Corso (cropped broken pediment).jpg|Broken pediment of San Marcello al Corso, Rome, by Carlo Fontana, 1682-1683File:Notre dame de la paix yamoussoukro by felix krohn.jpg|Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast, by Pierre Fakhoury, 1985-1990File:Via della Conciliazione at dawn.JPG|St.", "Peter's Basilica, Rome, by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and others, completed in 1615File:Downtown Disney 05.JPG|Dolphin Hotel, Orlando, Florida, US, with urn tops that are reminiscent of urns that decorate corners, tops and roof railings of buildings and furniture from the reign of Louis XIV, by Michael Graves, 1989File:Versailles roof details dormer windows.jpg|Urns that decorate the roof railing of the Marble Court of the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, -1715File:Zaanstad Inntel Hotel 15.jpg|Hotel Zaandam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, inspired by Dutch 16th and 17th century canal houses, by Wam Architecten, 2010File:WLM2011 - Amsterdam - Herengracht 120.JPG|Herengracht no.", "120, Amsterdam, unknown architect, 1625Appreciation for the Baroque reappeared with the rise of Postmodernism, a movement that questioned Modernism (the status quo after WW2), and which promoted the inclusion of elements of historic styles in new designs, and appreciation for the pre-Modernist past." ], [ "See also", "* List of Baroque architecture* Baroque in Brazil* Czech Baroque architecture* Dutch Baroque architecture* Earthquake Baroque* English Baroque* French Baroque architecture* Italian Baroque* Sicilian Baroque* New Spanish Baroque* Mexican Baroque* Neoclassicism (music)* Andean Baroque* Baroque in Poland* Baroque architecture in Portugal* Naryshkin Baroque* Siberian Baroque* Spanish Baroque literature* Ukrainian Baroque* Pasquale Bellonio*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * Causa, Raffaello, ''L'Art au XVIII siècle du rococo à Goya'' (1963), (in French) Hachcette, Paris * * * * Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya.", "2005.", "''Gardner's Art Through the Ages'', 12th edition.", "Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.", "(hardcover)* * * * * * * * * Prater, Andreas, and Bauer, Hermann, ''La Peinture du baroque'' (1997), (in French), Taschen, Paris * * Tazartes, Maurizia, ''Fontaines de Rome'', (2004), (in French) Citadelles, Paris" ], [ "Further reading", "* Andersen, Liselotte.", "1969.", "''Baroque and Rococo Art'', New York: H. N. Abrams.", "* Bailey, Gauvin Alexander.", "2012.", "''Baroque & Rococo'', London: Phaidon Press.", "* Bazin, Germain, 1964.", "''Baroque and Rococo''.", "Praeger World of Art Series.", "New York: Praeger.", "(Originally published in French, as ''Classique, baroque et rococo''.", "Paris: Larousse.", "English edition reprinted as ''Baroque and Rococo Art'', New York: Praeger, 1974)* Buci-Glucksmann, Christine.", "1994.", "''Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity''.", "Sage.", "* Bailey, Gauvin; Lanthier, Lillian, \"Baroque\" (2003), Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, Web.", "Retrieved 30 March 2021.", "* Hills, Helen (ed.).", "2011.", "''Rethinking the Baroque''.", "Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.", ".", "*Hofer, Philip.", "1951.", "''Baroque Book Illustration: A Short Survey.", "''Harvard University Press, Cambridge.", "* Hortolà, Policarp, 2013, ''The Aesthetics of Haemotaphonomy: Stylistic Parallels between a Science and Literature and the Visual Arts''.", "Sant Vicent del Raspeig: ECU.", ".", "* Kitson, Michael.", "1966.", "''The Age of Baroque''.", "Landmarks of the World's Art.", "London: Hamlyn; New York: McGraw-Hill.", "* Lambert, Gregg, 2004.", "''Return of the Baroque in Modern Culture''.", "Continuum.", ".", "* Martin, John Rupert.", "1977.''Baroque''.", "Icon Editions.", "New York: Harper and Rowe.", "(cloth); (pbk.", ")* * * * Vuillemin, Jean-Claude, 2013.", "''Episteme baroque: le mot et la chose''.", "Hermann.", ".", "* Wakefield, Steve.", "2004.", "''Carpentier's Baroque Fiction: Returning Medusa's Gaze''.", "Colección Támesis.", "Serie A, Monografías 208.Rochester, NY: Tamesis.", ".", "* Massimo Colella, ''Separatezza e conversazione.", "Sondaggi intertestuali attorno a Ciro di Pers'', in «Xenia.", "Trimestrale di Letteratura e Cultura» (Genova), IV, 1, 2019, pp.", "11-37.", "* Massimo Colella, ''Il Barocco sabaudo tra mecenatismo e retorica.", "Maria Giovanna Battista di Savoia Nemours e l’Accademia Reale Letteraria di Torino'', con Prefazione di Maria Luisa Doglio, Fondazione 1563 per l’Arte e la Cultura della Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino (“Alti Studi sull’Età e la Cultura del Barocco”, IV-1), 2019.", "* Massimo Colella, ''Seicento satirico: \"Il Viaggio\" di Antonio Abati (con edizione critica in appendice)'', in «La parola del testo», XXVI, 1-2, 2022, pp.", "77-100." ], [ "External links", "* The baroque and rococo culture* Webmuseum Paris* barocke in Val di Noto – Sizilien (archived 2 September 2018)* Baroque in the \"History of Art\" * The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence (archived 24 June 2007)* Melvyn Bragg's BBC Radio 4 program ''In Our Time'': The Baroque*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Boolean algebra (structure)" ], [ "Introduction", " In abstract algebra, a '''Boolean algebra''' or '''Boolean lattice''' is a complemented distributive lattice.", "This type of algebraic structure captures essential properties of both set operations and logic operations.", "A Boolean algebra can be seen as a generalization of a power set algebra or a field of sets, or its elements can be viewed as generalized truth values.", "It is also a special case of a De Morgan algebra and a Kleene algebra (with involution).Every Boolean algebra gives rise to a Boolean ring, and vice versa, with ring multiplication corresponding to conjunction or meet ∧, and ring addition to exclusive disjunction or symmetric difference (not disjunction ∨).", "However, the theory of Boolean rings has an inherent asymmetry between the two operators, while the axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra express the symmetry of the theory described by the duality principle.Boolean lattice of subsets__TOC__" ], [ "History", "The term \"Boolean algebra\" honors George Boole (1815–1864), a self-educated English mathematician.", "He introduced the algebraic system initially in a small pamphlet, ''The Mathematical Analysis of Logic'', published in 1847 in response to an ongoing public controversy between Augustus De Morgan and William Hamilton, and later as a more substantial book, ''The Laws of Thought'', published in 1854.Boole's formulation differs from that described above in some important respects.", "For example, conjunction and disjunction in Boole were not a dual pair of operations.", "Boolean algebra emerged in the 1860s, in papers written by William Jevons and Charles Sanders Peirce.", "The first systematic presentation of Boolean algebra and distributive lattices is owed to the 1890 ''Vorlesungen'' of Ernst Schröder.", "The first extensive treatment of Boolean algebra in English is A. N. Whitehead's 1898 ''Universal Algebra''.", "Boolean algebra as an axiomatic algebraic structure in the modern axiomatic sense begins with a 1904 paper by Edward V. Huntington.", "Boolean algebra came of age as serious mathematics with the work of Marshall Stone in the 1930s, and with Garrett Birkhoff's 1940 ''Lattice Theory''.", "In the 1960s, Paul Cohen, Dana Scott, and others found deep new results in mathematical logic and axiomatic set theory using offshoots of Boolean algebra, namely forcing and Boolean-valued models." ], [ "Definition", "A '''Boolean algebra''' is a set , equipped with two binary operations (called \"meet\" or \"and\"), (called \"join\" or \"or\"), a unary operation (called \"complement\" or \"not\") and two elements and in (called \"bottom\" and \"top\", or \"least\" and \"greatest\" element, also denoted by the symbols and , respectively), such that for all elements , and of , the following axioms hold::: associativity commutativity absorption identity distributivity complementsNote, however, that the absorption law and even the associativity law can be excluded from the set of axioms as they can be derived from the other axioms (see Proven properties).A Boolean algebra with only one element is called a '''trivial Boolean algebra''' or a '''degenerate Boolean algebra'''.", "(In older works, some authors required and to be ''distinct'' elements in order to exclude this case.", ")It follows from the last three pairs of axioms above (identity, distributivity and complements), or from the absorption axiom, that:     if and only if     .The relation defined by if these equivalent conditions hold, is a partial order with least element 0 and greatest element 1.The meet and the join of two elements coincide with their infimum and supremum, respectively, with respect to ≤.The first four pairs of axioms constitute a definition of a bounded lattice.It follows from the first five pairs of axioms that any complement is unique.The set of axioms is self-dual in the sense that if one exchanges with and with in an axiom, the result is again an axiom.", "Therefore, by applying this operation to a Boolean algebra (or Boolean lattice), one obtains another Boolean algebra with the same elements; it is called its '''dual'''." ], [ "Examples", "* The simplest non-trivial Boolean algebra, the two-element Boolean algebra, has only two elements, and , and is defined by the rules: :* It has applications in logic, interpreting as ''false'', as ''true'', as ''and'', as ''or'', and as ''not''.", "Expressions involving variables and the Boolean operations represent statement forms, and two such expressions can be shown to be equal using the above axioms if and only if the corresponding statement forms are logically equivalent.", ":* The two-element Boolean algebra is also used for circuit design in electrical engineering; here 0 and 1 represent the two different states of one bit in a digital circuit, typically high and low voltage.", "Circuits are described by expressions containing variables, and two such expressions are equal for all values of the variables if and only if the corresponding circuits have the same input–output behavior.", "Furthermore, every possible input–output behavior can be modeled by a suitable Boolean expression.", ":* The two-element Boolean algebra is also important in the general theory of Boolean algebras, because an equation involving several variables is generally true in all Boolean algebras if and only if it is true in the two-element Boolean algebra (which can be checked by a trivial brute force algorithm for small numbers of variables).", "This can for example be used to show that the following laws (''Consensus theorems'') are generally valid in all Boolean algebras::** :** * The power set (set of all subsets) of any given nonempty set forms a Boolean algebra, an algebra of sets, with the two operations (union) and (intersection).", "The smallest element 0 is the empty set and the largest element is the set itself.", ":* After the two-element Boolean algebra, the simplest Boolean algebra is that defined by the power set of two atoms: * The set of all subsets of that are either finite or cofinite is a Boolean algebra and an algebra of sets called the finite–cofinite algebra.", "If is infinite then the set of all cofinite subsets of , which is called the Fréchet filter, is a free ultrafilter on .", "However, the Fréchet filter is not an ultrafilter on the power set of .", "* Starting with the propositional calculus with sentence symbols, form the Lindenbaum algebra (that is, the set of sentences in the propositional calculus modulo logical equivalence).", "This construction yields a Boolean algebra.", "It is in fact the free Boolean algebra on generators.", "A truth assignment in propositional calculus is then a Boolean algebra homomorphism from this algebra to the two-element Boolean algebra.", "* Given any linearly ordered set with a least element, the interval algebra is the smallest Boolean algebra of subsets of containing all of the half-open intervals such that is in and is either in or equal to .", "Interval algebras are useful in the study of Lindenbaum–Tarski algebras; every countable Boolean algebra is isomorphic to an interval algebra.Hasse diagram of the Boolean algebra of divisors of 30.", "* For any natural number , the set of all positive divisors of , defining if divides , forms a distributive lattice.", "This lattice is a Boolean algebra if and only if is square-free.", "The bottom and the top elements of this Boolean algebra are the natural numbers and , respectively.", "The complement of is given by .", "The meet and the join of and are given by the greatest common divisor () and the least common multiple () of and , respectively.", "The ring addition is given by .", "The picture shows an example for .", "As a counter-example, considering the non-square-free , the greatest common divisor of 30 and its complement 2 would be 2, while it should be the bottom element 1.", "* Other examples of Boolean algebras arise from topological spaces: if is a topological space, then the collection of all subsets of that are both open and closed forms a Boolean algebra with the operations (union) and (intersection).", "* If is an arbitrary ring then its set of ''central idempotents'', which is the setbecomes a Boolean algebra when its operations are defined by and ." ], [ "Homomorphisms and isomorphisms", "A ''homomorphism'' between two Boolean algebras and is a function such that for all , in :: ,: ,: ,: .It then follows that for all in .", "The class of all Boolean algebras, together with this notion of morphism, forms a full subcategory of the category of lattices.An ''isomorphism'' between two Boolean algebras and is a homomorphism with an inverse homomorphism, that is, a homomorphism such that the composition is the identity function on , and the composition is the identity function on .", "A homomorphism of Boolean algebras is an isomorphism if and only if it is bijective." ], [ "Boolean rings", "Every Boolean algebra gives rise to a ring by defining (this operation is called symmetric difference in the case of sets and XOR in the case of logic) and .", "The zero element of this ring coincides with the 0 of the Boolean algebra; the multiplicative identity element of the ring is the of the Boolean algebra.", "This ring has the property that for all in ; rings with this property are called Boolean rings.Conversely, if a Boolean ring is given, we can turn it into a Boolean algebra by defining and .Since these two constructions are inverses of each other, we can say that every Boolean ring arises from a Boolean algebra, and vice versa.", "Furthermore, a map is a homomorphism of Boolean algebras if and only if it is a homomorphism of Boolean rings.", "The categories of Boolean rings and Boolean algebras are equivalent; in fact the categories are isomorphic.Hsiang (1985) gave a rule-based algorithm to check whether two arbitrary expressions denote the same value in every Boolean ring.More generally, Boudet, Jouannaud, and Schmidt-Schauß (1989) gave an algorithm to solve equations between arbitrary Boolean-ring expressions.Employing the similarity of Boolean rings and Boolean algebras, both algorithms have applications in automated theorem proving." ], [ "Ideals and filters", "An ''ideal'' of the Boolean algebra is a nonempty subset such that for all , in we have in and for all in we have in .", "This notion of ideal coincides with the notion of ring ideal in the Boolean ring .", "An ideal of is called ''prime'' if and if in always implies in or in .", "Furthermore, for every we have that , and then if is prime we have or for every .", "An ideal of is called ''maximal'' if and if the only ideal properly containing is itself.", "For an ideal , if and , then or is contained in another proper ideal .", "Hence, such an is not maximal, and therefore the notions of prime ideal and maximal ideal are equivalent in Boolean algebras.", "Moreover, these notions coincide with ring theoretic ones of prime ideal and maximal ideal in the Boolean ring .The dual of an ''ideal'' is a ''filter''.", "A ''filter'' of the Boolean algebra is a nonempty subset such that for all , in we have in and for all in we have in .", "The dual of a ''maximal'' (or ''prime'') ''ideal'' in a Boolean algebra is ''ultrafilter''.", "Ultrafilters can alternatively be described as 2-valued morphisms from to the two-element Boolean algebra.", "The statement ''every filter in a Boolean algebra can be extended to an ultrafilter'' is called the ''ultrafilter lemma'' and cannot be proven in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), if ZF is consistent.", "Within ZF, the ultrafilter lemma is strictly weaker than the axiom of choice.The ultrafilter lemma has many equivalent formulations: ''every Boolean algebra has an ultrafilter'', ''every ideal in a Boolean algebra can be extended to a prime ideal'', etc." ], [ "Representations", "It can be shown that every ''finite'' Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of all subsets of a finite set.", "Therefore, the number of elements of every finite Boolean algebra is a power of two.Stone's celebrated ''representation theorem for Boolean algebras'' states that ''every'' Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of all clopen sets in some (compact totally disconnected Hausdorff) topological space." ], [ "Axiomatics", " '''Proven properties''' '''UId1''' If ''x'' ∨ ''o'' = ''x'' for all ''x'', then ''o'' = 0 Proof: If ''x'' ∨ ''o'' = ''x'', then 0 = 0 ∨ ''o'' by assumption = ''o'' ∨ 0 by '''Cmm1''' = ''o'' by '''Idn1''' '''UId2'''   dual   If ''x'' ∧ ''i'' = ''x'' for all ''x'', then ''i'' = 1 '''Idm1''' ''x'' ∨ ''x'' = ''x'' Proof: ''x'' ∨ ''x'' = (''x'' ∨ ''x'') ∧ 1 by '''Idn2''' = (''x'' ∨ ''x'') ∧ (''x'' ∨ ¬''x'') by '''Cpl1''' = ''x'' ∨ (''x'' ∧ ¬''x'') by '''Dst1''' = ''x'' ∨ 0 by '''Cpl2''' = ''x'' by '''Idn1''' '''Idm2'''   dual   ''x'' ∧ ''x'' = ''x'' '''Bnd1''' ''x'' ∨ 1 = 1 Proof: ''x'' ∨ 1 = (''x'' ∨ 1) ∧ 1 by '''Idn2''' = 1 ∧ (''x'' ∨ 1) by '''Cmm2''' = (''x'' ∨ ¬''x'') ∧ (''x'' ∨ 1) by '''Cpl1''' = ''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ 1) by '''Dst1''' = ''x'' ∨ ¬''x'' by '''Idn2''' = 1 by '''Cpl1''' '''Bnd2'''   dual   ''x'' ∧ 0 = 0 '''Abs1''' ''x'' ∨ (''x'' ∧ ''y'') = ''x'' Proof: ''x'' ∨ (''x'' ∧ ''y'') = (''x'' ∧ 1) ∨ (''x'' ∧ ''y'') by '''Idn2''' = ''x'' ∧ (1 ∨ ''y'') by '''Dst2''' = ''x'' ∧ (''y'' ∨ 1) by '''Cmm1''' = ''x'' ∧ 1 by '''Bnd1''' = ''x'' by '''Idn2''' '''Abs2'''   dual   ''x'' ∧ (''x'' ∨ ''y'') = ''x'' '''UNg''' If ''x'' ∨ ''x''n = 1 and ''x'' ∧ ''x''n = 0, then ''x''n = ¬''x'' Proof: If ''x'' ∨ ''x''n = 1 and ''x'' ∧ ''x''n = 0, then ''x''n = ''x''n ∧ 1 by '''Idn2''' = ''x''n ∧ (''x'' ∨ ¬''x'') by '''Cpl1''' = (''x''n ∧ ''x'') ∨ (''x''n ∧ ¬''x'') by '''Dst2''' = (''x'' ∧ ''x''n) ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ''x''n) by '''Cmm2''' = 0 ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ''x''n) by assumption = (''x'' ∧ ¬''x'') ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ''x''n) by '''Cpl2''' = (¬''x'' ∧ ''x'') ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ''x''n) by '''Cmm2''' = ¬''x'' ∧ (''x'' ∨ ''x''n) by '''Dst2''' = ¬''x'' ∧ 1 by assumption = ¬''x'' by '''Idn2''' '''DNg''' ¬¬''x'' = ''x'' Proof: ¬''x'' ∨ ''x'' = ''x'' ∨ ¬''x'' = 1 by '''Cmm1''', '''Cpl1''' and ¬''x'' ∧ ''x'' = ''x'' ∧ ¬''x'' = 0 by '''Cmm2''', '''Cpl2''' hence ''x'' = ¬¬''x'' by '''UNg''' '''A1''' ''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∨ ''y'') = 1 Proof: ''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∨ ''y'') = (''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∨ ''y'')) ∧ 1 by '''Idn2''' = 1 ∧ (''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∨ ''y'')) by '''Cmm2''' = (''x'' ∨ ¬''x'') ∧ (''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∨ ''y'')) by '''Cpl1''' = ''x'' ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ (¬''x'' ∨ ''y'')) by '''Dst1''' = ''x'' ∨ ¬''x'' by '''Abs2''' = 1 by '''Cpl1''' '''A2'''   dual   ''x'' ∧ (¬''x'' ∧ ''y'') = 0 '''B1''' (''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') = 1 Proof: (''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') = ((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ¬''x'') ∧ ((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ¬''y'') by '''Dst1''' = (¬''x'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ ''y'')) ∧ (¬''y'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''x'')) by '''Cmm1''' = (¬''x'' ∨ (¬¬''x'' ∨ ''y'')) ∧ (¬''y'' ∨ (¬¬''y'' ∨ ''x'')) by '''DNg''' = 1 ∧ 1 by '''A1''' = 1 by '''Idn2''' '''B2'''   dual   (''x'' ∧ ''y'') ∧ (¬''x'' ∨ ¬''y'') = 0 '''C1''' (''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') = 0 Proof: (''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') = (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ (''x'' ∨ ''y'') by '''Cmm2''' = ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ''x'') ∨ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ''y'') by '''Dst2''' = (''x'' ∧ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'')) ∨ (''y'' ∧ (¬''y'' ∧ ¬''x'')) by '''Cmm2''' = 0 ∨ 0 by '''A2''' = 0 by '''Idn1''' '''C2'''   dual   (''x'' ∧ ''y'') ∨ (¬''x'' ∨ ¬''y'') = 1 '''DMg1''' ¬(''x'' ∨ ''y'') = ¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'' Proof: by '''B1''', '''C1''', and '''UNg''' '''DMg2'''   dual   ¬(''x'' ∧ ''y'') = ¬''x'' ∨ ¬''y'' '''D1''' (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''x'' = 1 Proof: (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) ∨ ¬''x'' = ¬''x'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) by '''Cmm1''' = ¬''x'' ∨ (¬¬''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) by '''DNg''' = 1 by '''A1''' '''D2'''   dual   (''x''∧(''y''∧''z'')) ∧ ¬''x'' = 0 '''E1''' ''y'' ∧ (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) = ''y'' Proof: ''y'' ∧ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) = (''y'' ∧ ''x'') ∨ (''y'' ∧ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) by '''Dst2''' = (''y'' ∧ ''x'') ∨ ''y'' by '''Abs2''' = ''y'' ∨ (''y'' ∧ ''x'') by '''Cmm1''' = ''y'' by '''Abs1''' '''E2'''   dual   ''y'' ∨ (''x''∧(''y''∧''z'')) = ''y'' '''F1''' (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''y'' = 1 Proof: (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) ∨ ¬''y'' = ¬''y'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) by '''Cmm1''' = (¬''y'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z''))) ∧ 1 by '''Idn2''' = 1 ∧ (¬''y'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z''))) by '''Cmm2''' = (''y'' ∨ ¬''y'') ∧ (¬''y'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z''))) by '''Cpl1''' = (¬''y'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ (¬''y'' ∨ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z''))) by '''Cmm1''' = ¬''y'' ∨ (''y'' ∧ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z''))) by '''Dst1''' = ¬''y'' ∨ ''y'' by '''E1''' = ''y'' ∨ ¬''y'' by '''Cmm1''' = 1 by '''Cpl1''' '''F2'''   dual   (''x''∧(''y''∧''z'')) ∧ ¬''y'' = 0 '''G1''' (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''z'' = 1 Proof: (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) ∨ ¬''z'' = (''x'' ∨ (''z'' ∨ ''y'')) ∨ ¬''z'' by '''Cmm1''' = 1 by '''F1''' '''G2'''   dual   (''x''∧(''y''∧''z'')) ∧ ¬''z'' = 0 '''H1''' ¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''x'' = 0 Proof: ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') ∧ ''x'' = (¬(''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') ∧ ''x'' by '''DMg1''' = ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') ∧ ''x'' by '''DMg1''' = ''x'' ∧ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') by '''Cmm2''' = (''x'' ∧ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'')) ∨ 0 by '''Idn1''' = 0 ∨ (''x'' ∧ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'')) by '''Cmm1''' = (''x'' ∧ ¬''x'') ∨ (''x'' ∧ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'')) by '''Cpl2''' = ''x'' ∧ (¬''x'' ∨ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'')) by '''Dst2''' = ''x'' ∧ (¬''x'' ∨ (¬''z'' ∧ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y''))) by '''Cmm2''' = ''x'' ∧ ¬''x'' by '''E2''' = 0 by '''Cpl2''' '''H2'''   dual   ¬((''x''∧''y'')∧''z'') ∨ ''x'' = 1 '''I1''' ¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''y'' = 0 Proof: ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') ∧ ''y'' = ¬((''y'' ∨ ''x'') ∨ ''z'') ∧ ''y'' by '''Cmm1''' = 0 by '''H1''' '''I2'''   dual   ¬((''x''∧''y'')∧''z'') ∨ ''y'' = 1 '''J1''' ¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''z'' = 0 Proof: ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') ∧ ''z'' = (¬(''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') ∧ ''z'' by '''DMg1''' = ''z'' ∧ (¬(''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') by '''Cmm2''' = ''z'' ∧ ( ¬''z'' ∧ ¬(''x'' ∨ ''y'')) by '''Cmm2''' = 0 by '''A2''' '''J2'''   dual   ¬((''x''∧''y'')∧''z'') ∨ ''z'' = 1 '''K1''' (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) ∨ ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') = 1 Proof: (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') = (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ (¬(''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') by '''DMg1''' = (''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ((¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'') ∧ ¬''z'') by '''DMg1''' = ((''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ (¬''x'' ∧ ¬''y'')) ∧ ((''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''z'') by '''Dst1''' = (((''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''x'') ∧ ((''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''y'')) ∧ ((''x''∨(''y''∨''z'')) ∨ ¬''z'') by '''Dst1''' = (1 ∧ 1) ∧ 1 by '''D1''','''F1''','''G1''' = 1 by '''Idn2''' '''K2'''   dual   (''x'' ∧ (''y'' ∧ ''z'')) ∧ ¬((''x'' ∧ ''y'') ∧ ''z'') = 0 '''L1''' (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) ∧ ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') = 0 Proof: (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) ∧ ¬((''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'') = ¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ (''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) by '''Cmm2''' = (¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''x'') ∨ (¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ (''y'' ∨ ''z'')) by '''Dst2''' = (¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''x'') ∨ ((¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''y'') ∨ (¬((''x''∨''y'')∨''z'') ∧ ''z'')) by '''Dst2''' = 0 ∨ (0 ∨ 0) by '''H1''','''I1''','''J1''' = 0 by '''Idn1''' '''L2'''   dual   (''x'' ∧ (''y'' ∧ ''z'')) ∨ ¬((''x'' ∧ ''y'') ∧ ''z'') = 1 '''Ass1''' ''x'' ∨ (''y'' ∨ ''z'') = (''x'' ∨ ''y'') ∨ ''z'' Proof: by '''K1''', '''L1''', '''UNg''', '''DNg''' '''Ass2'''   dual   ''x'' ∧ (''y'' ∧ ''z'') = (''x'' ∧ ''y'') ∧ ''z'' Abbreviations '''UId''' Unique Identity '''Idm''' Idempotence '''Bnd''' Boundaries '''Abs''' Absorption law '''UNg''' Unique Negation '''DNg''' Double negation '''DMg''' De Morgan's Law '''Ass''' Associativity '''Huntington 1904 Boolean algebra axioms''' '''Idn1''' ''x'' ∨ 0 = ''x'' '''Idn2''' ''x'' ∧ 1 = ''x'' '''Cmm1''' ''x'' ∨ ''y'' = ''y'' ∨ ''x'' '''Cmm2''' ''x'' ∧ ''y'' = ''y'' ∧ ''x'' '''Dst1''' ''x'' ∨ (''y''∧''z'') = (''x''∨''y'') ∧ (''x''∨''z'') '''Dst2''' ''x'' ∧ (''y''∨''z'') = (''x''∧''y'') ∨ (''x''∧''z'') '''Cpl1''' ''x'' ∨ ¬''x'' = 1 '''Cpl2''' ''x'' ∧ ¬''x'' = 0 Abbreviations '''Idn''' Identity '''Cmm''' Commutativity '''Dst''' Distributivity '''Cpl''' ComplementsThe first axiomatization of Boolean lattices/algebras in general was given by the English philosopher and mathematician Alfred North Whitehead in 1898.It included the above axioms and additionally and .In 1904, the American mathematician Edward V. Huntington (1874–1952) gave probably the most parsimonious axiomatization based on , , , even proving the associativity laws (see box).He also proved that these axioms are independent of each other.In 1933, Huntington set out the following elegant axiomatization for Boolean algebra.", "It requires just one binary operation and a unary functional symbol , to be read as 'complement', which satisfy the following laws:Herbert Robbins immediately asked: If the Huntington equation is replaced with its dual, to wit:do (1), (2), and (4) form a basis for Boolean algebra?", "Calling (1), (2), and (4) a ''Robbins algebra'', the question then becomes: Is every Robbins algebra a Boolean algebra?", "This question (which came to be known as the Robbins conjecture) remained open for decades, and became a favorite question of Alfred Tarski and his students.", "In 1996, William McCune at Argonne National Laboratory, building on earlier work by Larry Wos, Steve Winker, and Bob Veroff, answered Robbins's question in the affirmative: Every Robbins algebra is a Boolean algebra.", "Crucial to McCune's proof was the computer program EQP he designed.", "For a simplification of McCune's proof, see Dahn (1998).Further work has been done for reducing the number of axioms; see Minimal axioms for Boolean algebra." ], [ "Generalizations", "Removing the requirement of existence of a unit from the axioms of Boolean algebra yields \"generalized Boolean algebras\".", "Formally, a distributive lattice is a generalized Boolean lattice, if it has a smallest element and for any elements and in such that , there exists an element such that and .", "Defining as the unique such that and , we say that the structure is a ''generalized Boolean algebra'', while is a ''generalized Boolean semilattice''.", "Generalized Boolean lattices are exactly the ideals of Boolean lattices.A structure that satisfies all axioms for Boolean algebras except the two distributivity axioms is called an orthocomplemented lattice.", "Orthocomplemented lattices arise naturally in quantum logic as lattices of closed linear subspaces for separable Hilbert spaces." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===***.****.", "**=== General references ===*.", "See Section 2.5.**.", "See Chapter 2.*.*.*.*.***.", "In 3 volumes.", "(Vol.1:, Vol.2:, Vol.3:)*.*.", "Reprinted by Dover Publications, 1979." ], [ "External links", "* * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: \" The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra\", by J. Donald Monk.", "* McCune W., 1997.''", "Robbins Algebras Are Boolean'' JAR 19(3), 263—276* \"Boolean Algebra\" by Eric W. Weisstein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.", "* Burris, Stanley N.; Sankappanavar, H. P., 1981.''", "A Course in Universal Algebra.''", "Springer-Verlag.", ".", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bank of Italy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bank of Italy''' (Italian: ''Banca d'Italia'', , informally referred to as ''Bankitalia'') is the Italian member of the Eurosystem and has been the monetary authority for Italy from 1893 to 1998, issuing the Italian lira.", "Since 2014, it has also been Italy's national competent authority within European Banking Supervision.", "It is located in Palazzo Koch, via Nazionale, Rome." ], [ "History", "The institution was established in 1893 from the combination of three major banks in Italy (after the Banca Romana scandal).", "The new central bank first issued banknotes during 1926.Until 1928, it was directed by a general manager, after this time instead by a governor elected by an internal commission of managers, with a decree from the President of the Italian Republic, for a term of seven years.In 1863 the crisis of the world money market created panic and the rush to the counters to collect the metallic currency in exchange for the banknotes.", "The Italian government responded in 1866 by introducing the fiat and legal tender of paper money.", "The government was accused in this way of favouring the issuing banks, and a long debate called the \"banking question\" arose about the advisability of having one or more issuers.The Minghetti-Finali law of 1873 established the mandatory consortium of issuing institutions among the six existing issuing institutions, the , , , , Banco di Napoli, and Banco di Sicilia; but the measure proved insufficient.Following the Banca Romana scandal, the reorganization of the issuing institutions became necessary.=== Establishment ===Palazzo Koch in Rome, headquarters of the Bank of Italy, at the end of the 19th centuryLaw no.", "449 of 10 August 1893 of the Giolitti I government established the Bank of Italy through the merger of four banks: the National Bank in the Kingdom of Italy (formerly Banca Nazionale in the Sardinian States), the Banca Nazionale Toscana, the Banca Toscana di Credito for the Industries and Commerce of Italy and with the liquidation management of Banca Romana.", "With a complex series of mergers between these banks, the current Bank of Italy was formed.", "Some families of bankers, historical partners: Bombrini, Bastogi, Balduino, were the supporters of the operation.", "The institute enjoyed (together with the Banks of Naples and Sicily) the issuing privilege, it also acted as a \"bank of banks\" through the rediscount of bills, but did not have supervisory powers over other banks.", "The bank remains a private limited company and was headed by a director.From 1900 to 1928 Bonaldo Stringher was the director, who gave the Bank the role of manager of Italian monetary policy and lender of last resort, bringing it closer to a modern central bank.", "In particular, he understood that a central bank cannot aim at maximizing profit (which is achieved by printing as much paper money) but must instead aim at price stability.In 1907, the Bank of Italy coordinated the rescue of the Italian Banking Company, a major lender of FIAT, an operation that ended with the absorption of the bank in crisis into the Italian Discount Bank.", "In 1911 the central bank organized a consortium to rescue the steel companies (Acciaierie di Terni, Ilva and others) of which the Bank of Italy was directly creditor, financing the operation also through the issue of banknotes.In 1912 the credit institute for cooperation, with social purposes, was established, led by the Bank of Italy and also participated by public bodies, savings banks, Monte dei Paschi di Siena, the Cassa di Previdenza, and the Credit Institution for the Cooperatives of Milan.", "The institute in 1929 was transformed by its director Arturo Osio into the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro.In 1913 the Subsidy Consortium was established, led by the Bank of Italy and also participated by the Banks of Naples and Sicily, some savings banks, Monte dei Paschi di Siena and by the San Paolo Bank of Turin.", "In 1922 the Consortium saved Ansaldo and took control of it, and in 1923 it did the same with Banco di Roma.In the same 1913 Francesco Saverio Nitti drew up a bill that entrusted the Bank of Italy with the supervision of other banks, but the private banks managed to avoid its approval.In 1914 the Bank of Italy assisted the Banco di Roma, which had to devalue its capital due to losses reported in the activities in the eastern Mediterranean.After the First World War, in 1921, it was always the Bank of Italy that led the consortium that managed the liquidation of the Italian Discount Bank and saved the Banco di Roma once again from crisis.=== The Banking Law of 1926 ===Bank of Italy building in Florence, built when the city was the capital of Italy (1865–1871)Even with these strong regulatory and intervention powers, the fascist state allowed the crisis of the banks that were headed by the National Credit, the Popular Party bank, to worsen.In this way, fascism, which equally aimed at the political control of monetary issuance, intended to strike one of the electoral strengths and of the business system that orbited around the industrial policy of the Catholic world, supported by credit institutions.With R.D.L.", "812 of 6 May 1926, the Bank of Italy obtained the exclusive right to issue the currency (the royal decree of 28 April 1910, no.", "204 was thus repealed, which had confirmed the prerogative also to the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily).The subsequent R.D.L.", "November 6, 1926 n. 1830 entrusted the Bank of Italy with the task of supervising savings banks.", "In 1928 the Bank was reorganized.", "The general manager was joined by a governor with greater powers.Meanwhile, in 1926 the Subsidy Consortium had been transformed into a Liquidation Institute, still under the control of the central bank.", "In 1933 it was absorbed by the new Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, autonomous from the Bank of Italy.While all the banks were in very bad conditions, the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro of the self-styled socialist Arturo Osio, in 1929 confiscated eleven Catholic banks, and in 1932 the Banca Agricola Italiana which had financed SNIA Viscosa di Gualino.=== Banks and the economy of the 1930s ===Bank of Italy building in MilanItaly in the 1930s had an agricultural economy, a small number of industrial families who relied on the subcontracting of local suppliers, formed by a myriad of small family-run businesses, not international and whose survival depended on large groups of industrialists, in turn, linked to commercial banks.The savings from agriculture flowed into the rural coffers, the popular banks and the cooperative credit which financed the life of the provincial crafts, small businesses and construction.", "The job of the banks was to match the customers' short-term investment horizon with the long-term investments of large groups (Rediscount).", "National banks turned to local banks that had large deposits of deposits for smaller, low-risk loans.The Cassa Depositi e Prestiti channelled postal savings in favour of local authorities, public institutions and infrastructures, which were a way of absorbing mass unemployment, through a vast program of public works.The ideological basis of the law was that savings are a matter of national interest and must be protected by the State, a principle also enshrined in the Republican Constitution and concretized in the first place in the law establishing the interbank guarantee fund and in the policy of public bailouts.", "With other decrees of the same year, the supervisory task was extended to all Italian banks and the monopoly of issuing the currency was confirmed.", "The bank no longer had the right to give credit to individuals but only to other banks as a lender of last resort.", "public bailout policy.", "Finally, it had the power to require other banks to deposit a portion of the available funds with the same central bank; by varying the share, the Bank of Italy could operate credit tightening or enlargements.The law established certain minimum capital and management requirements necessary to guarantee risk management, stability and operational continuity: minimum capital, minimum ratio between loans and deposits, credit limits, provisions for compulsory reserve.=== IRI and the war ===Bank of Italy building in Reggio CalabriaAfter the \"defenestration\" of Bonaldo Stringher, Alberto Beneduce took over and was forced to retire in 1936 after a \"heart attack\" during a meeting at the Bank for International Settlements in Basel.", "They conceived the duty of the banks towards the public interest of the country, as the subject who had to collect savings to lend them to entrepreneurs, as a tool for development and growth.", "The process was to be led by a \"circulation bank\", which would increase the speed of circulation of money in the real economy.The Central Bank supported the fascist monetary policy of defending the stability of the Italian lira (known as the \"Quota 90\"), through the reduction of discounts and advances, and financing the enormous expenses of wars in the 1930s and 1940s through the unlimited issuing of money (and the \"inflation tax\", not progressive with income), as Hjalmar Schacht did in Germany under Hitler.Operationally, the government issued and sold debt securities to finance military spending, and the military industry reinvested its government profits in the purchase of such bonds as a de facto advance of future orders, fueling a closed financial circuit.", "In simple terms, this was something like the ECB issuing money and lending it to private banks who keep it in their current accounts with the ECB.This mechanism was called \"capital circuit.\"", "The printing of tickets and the scarcity of consumer goods created an overabundance of money that poured into bank deposits, allowing a new expansion of credit, which was directed in favour of the economic sectors themselves.", "given that the state paid the banks a higher interest on the BOTs than the savers.", "The absorption of savings into investments in fixed capital had already taken place in the First World War and industries were working with existing production capacities.", "Without consumption and investments, public spending by the state remained.Bank of Italy building in BariThe war could start with a modest tax levy and inflation within the normal limits in the first months, before the black market and ration cards.The situation followed the conflict of interest between the state entrepreneur and the state bank, albeit in the name of a higher ideological purpose.In 1938, the government decreed the power to directly appoint presidents and vice-presidents of the board of directors of banks.Beneduce planned to have a public bank take over the long-term credit of large companies, financed with bonds of equal duration for public works, energy, and industry.", "After them, the Central Bank maintained a low-profile monetary policy, consistent with the directives of fascism.IRI operated differently, in agreement with the Italian banks and industries that supported fascism.", "The banks renounced exercising an option by \"converting\" the debts into shares (or a law in this regard), preferring not to enter directly into the ownership of the industrial groups.The groups transferred the bank debts to IRI, which became the new owner in exchange for shares (at the book value, not always the same as the market value), until they held control of the property and therefore of management.The debt of the IRI rose to nine and a half billion lire at the time, two-thirds of which were paid within the war, because they were drastically diluted by inflation which has the effect of lowering the real weight of debts until the accounting entries are cancelled.", "of issuance, but also to halve the purchasing power of small savers.", "The remaining debt was paid by 1953.The IRI in turn had debts towards the Bank of Italy for five billion lire: the State issued bonds for IRI for one and a half billion, \"sterilizing\" the debt that should have been repaid with \"annuity\" interest.", "accrued until 1971.The change of constitutional order and currency (exchange rate for conversion), and inflation meant that IRI (and industries) paid the Bank of Italy less than a third of the sum.After the armistice of 8 September, the German authorities demanded the delivery of the gold reserve.", "173 tons of gold were first transferred to the Milan office, and then to Fortezza.", "Traces of it were subsequently lost.In the 1960s, the public debt increased and so did inflation.", "Governor Guido Carli made a policy of credit crunch to stop inflation, particularly in 1964.In general, the Bank of Italy played an important political role under this governorship.", "Other credit crunches were implemented between 1969 and 1970 due to the flight of capital abroad and in 1974 as a result of the oil crisis.In March 1979 the governor of the Bank of Italy Paolo Baffi and the deputy director in charge of supervision Mario Sarcinelli were accused by the Rome public prosecutor of private interest in official acts and personal aiding and abetting.", "Sarcinelli was arrested, and released from prison only after being suspended from duties relating to surveillance, while Baffi avoided prison due to his age.", "In 1981 the two will be completely acquitted.", "Subsequently, the suspicion will emerge that the indictment was wanted by P2 to prevent the Bank of Italy from supervising Roberto Cavali Banco Ambrosiano.=== The postwar period ===Bank of Italy building in TriesteThe post-war inflation, also due to the Am-lire, was fought with the credit crunch desired by the governor Luigi Einaudi, which was obtained through the compulsory reserve on deposits.", "In particular, the instrument of compulsory reserves of banks at the central bank was used, introduced in 1926 but never really applied.", "In 1948 the governor was given the task of regulating the money supply and deciding the discount rate.The universal banks were the ones that had gained the most from war and inflation (under the Authorization Regime of the Interministerial Credit Committee), with the greatest growth in deposits.Along with the recovery, speculative stocks and capital flight abroad appeared.", "Credit limits were no longer tied to equity, as equity figures were completely distorted by inflation.The squeeze on lending, the liquidity crisis and the Eenaudian deflation pushed operators to finance themselves by placing stocks on the market and returning capital, thus blocking the rise in prices; and by resorting to self-financing (even without distributing profits), aided by the fact that inflation had made it possible to quickly amortize fixed assets whose book value was now nominal.During the years of the Reconstruction, governor Donato Menichella governed the issue in a gradual and balanced way: he did not implement expansionary manoeuvres to encourage growth but was careful to avoid the creation of credit crunches.", "In this, he was helped by the low public debt.", "Its monetary policy program was stability for development.A part of the available bank savings was channelled annually to the Treasury to cover the budget deficit (in the current year), while during his tenure the public debt of the state never rose above 1% of GDP, until 1964.In July 1981, a \"divorce\" between the State (Ministry of the Treasury) and its central bank was initiated by the decision of the then Treasury Minister Beniamino Andreatta.", "From that moment on, the institute was no longer required to purchase the bonds that the government was unable to place on the market, thus ceasing the monetization of the Italian public debt that it had carried out since the Second World War up to that moment.", "This decision was opposed by the Minister of Finance Rino Formica, who would have liked the Bank of Italy to be required to repay at least a portion of these securities, and from the summer of 1982 a series of intra-government verbal clashes between the two ministers known as the wives' quarrel, which was followed by the fall of the second Spadolini government a few months later.The divorce between the Ministry of the Treasury and the Bank of Italy is still considered by economic doctrine as a factor of great stabilization of inflation (which went from over 20% in 1980 to less than 5% in the following years) and a central prerequisite for guarantee the full independence of the technical monetary policy body (central bank) from the choices related to fiscal policy (under the responsibility of the government), but also a factor of considerable incidence of growth of the Italian public debt.The law of 7 February 1992 n. 82, proposed by the then Minister of the Treasury Guido Carli, clarifies that the decision on the discount rate is the exclusive competence of the governor and must no longer be agreed in concert with the Minister of the Treasury (the previous decree of the President of the Republic is modified in relation to the new law with the Presidential Decree of 18 July).=== The euro and the 2006 reform ===Bank of Italy building in PalermoThe Legislative Decree 10 March 1998 n. 43 removes the Bank of Italy from management by the Italian government, sanctioning its belonging to the European system of central banks.", "From this date, therefore, the quantity of currency in circulation is decided autonomously by the Central Bank.", "With the introduction of the Euro on 1 January 1999, the Bank thus loses the function of presiding over national monetary policy.", "This function has since been exercised collectively by the Governing Council of the European Central Bank, which also includes the Governor of the Bank of Italy.On 13 June 1999 the Senate of the Republic, during the XIII Legislature, discussed bill no.", "4083 \"Rules on the ownership of the Bank of Italy and on the criteria for appointing the Board of Governors of the Bank of Italy\".", "This bill would like the state to acquire all the shares of the institute, but it is never approved.On January 4, 2004, the weekly \"Famiglia Cristiana\" reports, for the first time in history, the list of participants in the capital of the Bank of Italy with the relative shares.", "The source is a Mediobanca Research & Studies dossier, directed by the researcher Fulvio Coltorti, who, by investigating backwards on the balance sheets of banks, insurance companies and institutions, and gradually noting the shares that indicated a shareholding in the capital of the Bank of Italia managed to reconstruct a large part of the list of participants of the highest Italian financial institution.On September 20, 2005, the list of shareholders was officially made available by the Bank of Italy; until now it was considered confidential.", "On December 19, 2005, after intense press campaigns and criticism of his actions in the context of the Bancopoli scandal, Governor Antonio Fazio resigned.", "A few days later, Mario Draghi, who took office on January 16, 2006, was appointed in his place.The law of 28 December 2005, n. 262, as part of various measures to protect savings, introduces for the first time a term to the mandate of the governor and the members of the directorate.", "It also dealt with (article 19, paragraph 10) the issue of ownership of the capital of the Bank of Italy, providing for the redefinition of the Bank's shareholding structure by means of a government regulation to be issued within three years of the law's entry into force.", "This regulation should have governed the methods of transferring shares held by \"subjects other than the State or other public bodies\".", "The delegation made by law 262/2005, therefore, expired without the regulation being issued, but the right to ownership of the shares of the current participants is in any case safeguarded by a provision of the Bank's Statute.", "On the basis of law 262/2005, Mario Draghi becomes the first governor to have a term of six years, renewable once for a further six years." ], [ "Missions and organization", "===Missions===Bank of Italy building in BergamoAfter the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the European Central Bank, within the European institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues euro banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces.The main function has thus become banking and financial supervision.", "The objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance with rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities.Following a reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the credit sector, which is now shared with the Italian Competition Authority ().Other functions include market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, State treasury service, Central Credit Register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy.As of 2021, the Bank of Italy owned 2,451.8 tonnes of gold, the third-largest gold reserve in the world.===Governing bodies===The bank's governing bodies are the General Meeting of Shareholders, the board of directors, the governor, the director general and three deputy directors-general; the last five constitute the directorate.The general meeting takes place yearly and with the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the auditors.", "The board of directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor (or by the director-general in his absence).", "Following a reform in 2005, the governor lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions of external relevance (i.e.", "banking and financial supervision), which has been transferred to the directorate (by majority vote).", "The director-general is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the bank and acts as governor when absent.The board of auditors assesses the bank's administration and compliance with the law, regulations and statute.===Appointment===The directorate's term of office lasts six years and is renewable once.", "The appointment of the governor is the responsibility of the government, head of the board of directors, with the approval of the president (formally a decree of the president).", "The board of directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank statute.On 25 October 2011, Silvio Berlusconi nominated Ignazio Visco to be the bank's new governor to replace Mario Draghi when he left to become president of the European Central Bank in November." ], [ "Currency and coinage", "lire coin, 1914, with the personification of Italy standing on a quadriga depicted on the reverse100 lire coin, 1956, with goddess Minerva holding an olive tree and a long spear depicted on the reverseItaly has a long history of different coinage types, which spans thousands of years.", "Since Italy has been for centuries divided into many historic states, they all had different coinage systems, but when the country became unified in 1861, the Italian lira came into place, and was used until 2002.The term originates from ''libra'', the largest unit of the Carolingian monetary system used in Western Europe and elsewhere from the 8th to the 20th century.", "Italian lira was introduced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy in 1807 at par with the French franc, and was subsequently adopted by the different states that would eventually form the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.It was subdivided into 100 ''centesimi'' (singular: ''centesimo''), which means \"hundredths\" or \"cents\".", "The lira was also the currency of the Albanian Kingdom from 1941 to 1943.There was no standard sign or abbreviation for the Italian lira.", "The abbreviations ''Lit.''", "(standing for ''Lira italiana'') and L. (standing for ''Lira'') and the signs ₤ or £ were all accepted representations of the currency.", "Banks and financial institutions, including the Bank of Italy, often used ''Lit.''", "and this was regarded internationally as the abbreviation for the Italian lira.", "Handwritten documents and signs at market stalls would often use \"£\" or \"₤\", while coins used \"L.\" Italian postage stamps mostly used the word in full but some (such as the 1975 monuments series) used \"L.\" The name of the currency could also be written in full as a prefix or a suffix (e.g.", "Lire 100,000 or 100,000 lire).", "The ISO 4217 currency code for the lira was ''ITL''.The Italian lira was the official unit of currency in Italy until 1 January 1999, when it was replaced by the euro (euro coins and notes were not introduced until 2002).", "Old lira denominated currency ceased to be legal tender on 28 February 2002.The conversion rate is 1,936.27 lire to the euro.All lira banknotes in use immediately before the introduction of the euro, as all post WW2 coins, were still exchangeable for euros in all branches of the Bank of Italy until 29 February 2012." ], [ "Shareholders", "Banca d'Italia had 300,000 shares with a nominal value of €25,000.Originally scattered around the banks of Italy, the shares now accumulated due to the merger of the banks in the 1990s.", "The status of the bank states that a minimum of 54% of profits would go to the Italian government, and only a maximum of 6% of profits would be distributed as dividends according to share ratios.", "Number of shares Percentage Voting rights Percentage Intesa Sanpaolo 76,787 25.60% — Cassa di Risparmio in Bologna (subsidiary) 18,602 6.20% — Cassa di Risparmio di Firenze (subsidiary) 5,656 1.89% — Cassa di Risparmio del Veneto (subsidiary) 3,610 1.20% — Cassa di Risparmio del Friuli Venezia Giulia (subsidiary) 1,869 0.62% — Cassa di Risparmio di Pistoia e della Lucchesia (subsidiary) 1,126 0.38% — Casse di Risparmio dell'Umbria (subsidiary) 1,106 0.37% — Banca dell'Adriatico (subsidiary) 653 0.22% — Cassa dei Risparmi di Forlì e della Romagna (subsidiary) 605 0.20% UniCredit 56,049 18.68% 0 0.00% 0 0.00% — INPS 9,000 3.00% — Cassa Forense 9,000 3.00% — INARCASSA 9,000 3.00% — Fondazione ENPAM 9,000 3.00% — INAIL 8,000 2.67% — Fondazione ENPAIA 3,000 1.00% — CNPR 1,500 0.50% Generali Italia 16,425 5.48% Cassa di Risparmio di Genova e Imperia 12,093 4.03% — Banca del Monte di Lucca (subsidiary) 2 0.00% Cassa di Risparmio di Asti 2,800 0.93% — Cassa di Risparmio di Biella e Vercelli (subsidiary) 6,300 2.10% BNP Paribas 0 0.00% 0 0.00% — Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (subsidiary) 8,500 2.83% Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena 7,500 2.50% Crédit Agricole 0 0.00% 0 0.00% — Cassa di Risparmio di Parma e Piacenza (subsidiary) 6,094 2.03% — Cassa di Risparmio della Spezia (subsidiary) 266 0.09% UnipolSai Assicurazioni 6,000 2.00% Banco Popolare 3,668 1.22% Nuova Banca delle Marche 2,459 0.82% — Cassa di Risparmio di Loreto (subsidiary) 100 0.03% Unione di Banche Italiane 0 0.00% 0 0.00% — Banca Regionale Europea (subsidiary) 759 0.25% — Banca Carime (subsidiary) 500 0.17% Nuova Cassa di Risparmio di Ferrara 949 0.32% Banca Popolare di Milano 873 0.29% Cassa di Risparmio di Ravenna 769 0.26% Banca Popolare dell'Emilia Romagna 759 0.25% Cassa di Risparmio di Fossano 750 0.25% Banca Popolare di Vicenza 687 0.23% Cassa di Risparmio di Cesena 675 0.23% Cassa di Risparmio di San Miniato 652 0.22% Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Carpi 600 0.20% Reale Mutua di Assicurazioni 500 0.17% Veneto Banca 480 0.16% Eurovita Assicurazioni 400 0.13% Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Perugia 400 0.13% Cassa di Risparmio di Rimini 393 0.13% Südtiroler Sparkasse – Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano 377 0.13% Banca Popolare di Bari 0 0.00% 0 0.00% — Cassa di Risparmio di Orvieto (subsidiary) 237 0.08% — Cassa di Risparmio della Provincia di Teramo (subsidiary) 115 0.04% — Cassa di Risparmio di Pescara e di Loreto Aprutino (subsidiary) 8 0.00% Cassa di Risparmio di Cento 311 0.10% Fondazione Manodori 300 0.10% Banca Cassa di Risparmio di Savigliano 200 0.07% Allianz S.p.A. 200 0.07% BCC Roma 200 0.07% Banca Sistema 200 0.07% Banca del Piemonte 200 0.07% Cassa di Risparmio di Volterra 194 0.06% Nuova Cassa di Risparmio di Chieti 151 0.05% Cassa di Risparmio di Fermo 130 0.04% Banca Sella Holding 120 0.04% Credito Valtellinese 101 0.03% Cassa di Risparmio della Repubblica di San Marino 36 0.01% Cassa di Risparmio di Saluzzo 4 0.00%" ], [ "See also", "* Banking in Italy* Commissione Nazionale per le Società e la Borsa* Economy of Italy* Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato* Italian lira* Governor of the Bank of Italy* List of central banks" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "British" ], [ "Introduction", "'''British''' may refer to:" ], [ "Peoples, culture, and language", "* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.", "* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture* British English, the English language as spoken and written in the United Kingdom or, more broadly, throughout the British Isles* Celtic Britons, an ancient ethno-linguistic group* Brittonic languages, a branch of the Insular Celtic language family (formerly called British)** Common Brittonic, an ancient language" ], [ "Other uses", "*''Brit(ish)'', a 2018 memoir by Afua Hirsch*People or things associated with:** Great Britain, an island** United Kingdom, a sovereign state ** Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800)** United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922)" ], [ "See also", "* Terminology of the British Isles* Alternative names for the British* English (disambiguation)* Britannic (disambiguation)* British Isles* Brit (disambiguation)* Briton (disambiguation)* Britain (disambiguation)* Great Britain (disambiguation)* British Empire* United Kingdom (disambiguation)* * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Beachcomber (pen name)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Beachcomber''' is a ''nom de plume'' that has been used by several journalists writing a long-running humorous column in the ''Daily Express''.", "It was originated in 1917 by Major John Bernard Arbuthnot MVO as his signature on the column, titled 'By the Way'.", "The name Beachcomber was then passed to D. B. Wyndham Lewis in 1919 and, in turn, to J.", "B. Morton, who wrote the column till 1975.It was later revived by William Hartston, current author of the column." ], [ "\"By the Way\" column", "\"By the Way\" was originally a column in ''The Globe'', consisting of unsigned humorous pieces; P. G. Wodehouse was assistant editor of the column from August 1903 and editor from August 1904 to May 1909, during which time he was assisted by Herbert Westbrook.", "After the ''Globe'''s closure, it was re-established as a society news column in the ''Daily Express'' from 1917, initially written by social correspondent Major John Arbuthnot, who invented the name \"Beachcomber\".After Arbuthnot was promoted to deputy editor, it was taken over sometime in 1919 by Wyndham-Lewis, who reinvented it as an outlet for his wit and humour.", "It was then passed to Morton during 1924, though it is likely there was a period when they overlapped.", "Morton wrote the column until 1975; it was revived in January 1996 and continues today, written by William Hartston.", "The column is unsigned except by \"Beachcomber\" and it was not publicly known that Morton or Wyndham-Lewis wrote it until the 1930s.", "The name is mainly associated with Morton, who has been credited as an influence by Spike Milligan amongst others.", "Morton introduced the recurring characters and serial stories that were a major feature of the column during his 51-year run.The format of the column was a random assortment of small paragraphs which were otherwise unconnected.", "These could be anything, such as:* court reports, often involving Twelve Red-Bearded Dwarfs before Mr Justice Cocklecarrot.", "* angry exchanges of letters between characters such as Florence McGurgle and her dissatisfied boarders.", "* interruptions from \"Prodnose\", representing the public, who would then be roundly cursed by the author and kicked out.", "* instalments of serials that could stop, restart from earlier, be abandoned altogether or change direction abruptly without warning.", "* parodies of poetry or drama, particularly of the extremely \"literary\" type such as Ibsen.", "* unlikely headlines, such as \"SIXTY HORSES WEDGED IN A CHIMNEY\", for which the copy in its entirety was \"The story to fit this sensational headline has not turned up yet.", "\"* news reports from around the country.", "* or just anything that the author thought funny at the time.Morton's other interest, France, was occasionally represented by epic tales of his rambling walks through the French countryside.", "These were not intended as humour.", "\"By the Way\" was popular with the readership, and of course, this is one of the reasons it lasted so long.", "Its style and randomness could be off-putting and it is safe to say the humour could be something of an acquired taste.", "Oddly, one of the column's greatest opponents was the ''Express'' newspaper's owner, Lord Beaverbrook, who had to keep being assured the column was indeed funny.", "A prominent critic was George Orwell, who frequently referred to him in his essays and diaries as \"A Catholic Apologist\" and accused him of being \"silly-clever\", in line with his criticisms of G. K. Chesterton, Hilaire Belloc, Ronald Knox and Wyndham-Lewis.", "''By the Way'' was one of the few features kept continuously running in the often seriously reduced ''Daily Express'' throughout World War II, when Morton's lampooning of Hitler, including the British invention of bracerot to make the Nazi's trousers fall down at inopportune moments, was regarded as valuable for morale.", "The column appeared daily until 1965 when it was changed to weekly.", "It was cancelled in 1975 and revived as a daily piece in the early 1990s.", "It continues to the present day in much the same format but is now entitled \"Beachcomber\", not \"By the Way\"." ], [ "Recurrent characters", "*Mr. Justice Cocklecarrot: well-meaning but ineffectual High Court judge, plagued by litigation involving the twelve red-bearded dwarfs.", "Often appears in ''Private Eye''.*Mrs.", "Justice Cocklecarrot: Mr. Cocklecarrot's wife.", "Very silent, until she observes that \"Wivens has fallen down a manhole\".", "An enquiry from the judge as to which Wivens that would be elicits the response \"E. D. Wivens\".", "After a worrying interval she reveals that E. D. Wivens is a cat.", "His Lordship observes that cats do not have initials, to which she replies, \"This one does\".", "*Tinklebury Snapdriver and Honeygander Gooseboote: two counsel.", "The elbow of one has a mysterious tendency to become jammed in the jaws of the other.", "*Twelve red-bearded dwarfs, with a penchant for farcical litigation.", "Their names \"appear to be\" Scorpion de Rooftrouser, Cleveland Zackhouse, Frums Gillygottle, Edeledel Edel, Churm Rincewind, Sophus Barkayo-Tong, Amaninter Axling, Guttergorm Guttergormpton, Badly Oronparser, Listenis Youghaupt, Molonay Tubilderborst and Farjole Merrybody.", "They admit that these are not genuine names, one of them stating that his real name is \"Bogus\".", "(Further red-bearded dwarfs, to the number of forty-one, appear in other litigation.", ")*Captain Foulenough: archetypal cad and gatecrasher who impersonates the upper class in order to wreck their social events.", "Educated at '''Narkover''', a school specializing in card-playing, horse-racing and bribery.", "His title of \"Captain\" is probably spurious; but even if it had been a genuine military title, his use of it in civilian life, when at that time only officers who had achieved the rank of Major and above were allowed to do so, gives a subtle hint as to his nature.", "*Mountfalcon Foulenough: the Captain's priggish nephew, who brings havoc to Narkover and \"makes virtue seem even more horrifying than usual\".", "*Vita Brevis: debutante frequently plagued by, but with a certain reluctant admiration for, Captain Foulenough.*Dr.", "Smart-Allick: genteel, but ludicrous and criminal, headmaster of Narkover.", "*Miss Topsy Turvey: neighbouring headmistress, courted by Smart-Allick.*Dr.", "Strabismus (whom God preserve) of Utrecht: eccentric scientist and inventor.", "*The announcement of the annual list of Huntingdonshire Cabmen, with an enthusiastic endorsement of a arbitrary page.", "*Lord Shortcake: absent-minded peer obsessed by his enormous collection of goldfish.*Mrs.", "McGurgle: seaside landlady.", "Fearsomely British, until she decides to reinvent her house as \"Hôtel McGurgle et de l'Univers\" to attract the tourists.", "*Ministry of Bubbleblowing: possible ancestor of Monty Python's Ministry of Silly Walks.", "*Charlie Suet: disastrous civil servant.", "*Mimsie Slopcorner: Charlie's on-off girlfriend, an ill-informed and irritating social activist.", "*The Filthistan Trio: Ashura, Kazbulah and Rizamughan, three Persians from \"Thurralibad\", two of whom play seesaw on a plank laid across the third.", "They have a series of contretemps with British bureaucracy and the artistic establishment, in which the trio generally represents the voice of reason.", "*Dingi-Poos: the Tibetan Venus.", "She obtains desirable commercial contracts by using her charms to hoodwink visiting British envoys, principally Colonel Egham and Duncan Mince.", "*Big White Carstairs: Buchanesque empire builder, with a tendency to mislay his dress trousers.*O.", "Thake: naive, accident-prone Old Etonian and man-about-town.", "*Lady Cabstanleigh: Society hostess.", "*Stultitia: Cabstanleigh's niece, a playwright.", "*Boubou Flaring: glamorous but vacuous actress.", "*Emilia Rustiguzzi: voluminous (both in bulk and in decibels) opera singer.", "*Tumbelova, Serge Trouserin, Chuckusafiva: ballet dancers.", "*Colin Velvette: ballet impresario.", "*\"Thunderbolt\" Footle: handsome, socially celebrated boxer, who can do everything except actually fight.", "*The M'Babwa of M'Gonkawiwi: African chief, who occasions great administrative problems in connection with his invitation to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.", "*The Clam of Chowdah: oriental potentate*Mrs. Wretch: formerly the glamorous circus performer Miss Whackaway, now wife to Colonel Wretch and \"horrible welfare worker\".", "*Roland Milk: insipid poet (possible ancestor of ''Private Eye''s \"E. J.", "Thribb\").", "*Prodnose: humourless, reasonable oaf who interrupts Beachcomber's flights of fancy.", "(The name is journalistic slang for a sub-editor; the broadcaster Danny Baker has appropriated it as his Twitter name.)" ], [ "Other media", "The Will Hay film ''Boys Will Be Boys'' (1935) was set at Morton's Narkover school.According to Spike Milligan, the columns were an influence on the comedic style of his radio series, ''The Goon Show''.In 1969, Milligan based a BBC television series named ''The World of Beachcomber'' on the columns.", "A small selection was issued on a 1971 LP and a 2-cassette set of the series' soundtrack was made available in the late 1990s.In 1989, BBC Radio 4 broadcast the first of three series based on Morton's work.", "This featured Richard Ingrams as Beachcomber, John Wells as Prodnose, Patricia Routledge and John Sessions.", "The compilations prepared by Mike Barfield.", "Series 1 was also made available as a 2-cassette set." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books featuring Wyndham-Lewis' work===*''A London Farrago'' (1922)===Books featuring Morton's work=======Original collections====*''Mr Thake: his life and letters'' (1929)*''Mr Thake Again'' (1931)*''By the Way'' (1931)*''Morton's Folly'' (1933)*''The Adventures of Mr Thake'' (1934, republished 2008): identical to ''Mr Thake: his life and letters''*''Mr Thake and the Ladies'' (1935)*''Stuff and Nonsense'' (1935)*''Gallimaufry'' (1936)*''Sideways Through Borneo'' (1937)*''The Dancing Cabman and other verses'' (1938)*''A Diet of Thistles'' (1938)*''A Bonfire of Weeds'' (1939)*''I Do Not Think So'' (1940)*''Fool's Paradise'' (1941)*''Captain Foulenough and Company'' (1944)*''Here and Now'' (1947)*''The Misadventures of Dr Strabismus'' (1949)*''The Tibetan Venus'' (1951)*''Merry-Go-Round'' (1958)====Later omnibus editions====*''The Best of Beachcomber'' (ed.", "Michael Frayn, 1963)*''Beachcomber: the works of J.", "B. Morton'' (ed.", "Richard Ingrams, 1974, Muller, London)*''Cram Me With Eels: The Best of Beachcomber's Unpublished Humour'' (ed.", "Mike Barfield, 1995, Mandarin, London ())" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A fan site about J B Morton and The World of Beachcomber* \"Beachcomber's Stuff\": review by Clive James" ] ]
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[ [ "Bill Joy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Nelson Joy''' (born November 8, 1954) is an American computer engineer and venture capitalist.", "He co-founded Sun Microsystems in 1982 along with Scott McNealy, Vinod Khosla, and Andy Bechtolsheim, and served as Chief Scientist and CTO at the company until 2003.He played an integral role in the early development of BSD UNIX while being a graduate student at Berkeley, and he is the original author of the vi text editor.", "He also wrote the 2000 essay \"Why The Future Doesn't Need Us\", in which he expressed deep concerns over the development of modern technologies.Joy was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering (1999) for contributions to operating systems and networking software." ], [ "Early career", "Joy was born in the Detroit suburb of Farmington Hills, Michigan, to William Joy, a school vice-principal and counselor, and Ruth Joy.", "He earned a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan and a Master of Science in electrical engineering and computer science from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1979.While a graduate student at Berkeley, he worked for Fabry's Computer Systems Research Group CSRG on the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) version of the Unix operating system.", "He initially worked on a Pascal compiler left at Berkeley by Ken Thompson, who had been visiting the university when Joy had just started his graduate work.He later moved on to improving the Unix kernel, and also handled BSD distributions.", "Some of his most notable contributions were the ex and vi editors and the C shell.", "Joy's prowess as a computer programmer is legendary, with an oft-told anecdote that he wrote the vi editor in a weekend.", "Joy denies this assertion.", "A few of his other accomplishments have also been sometimes exaggerated; Eric Schmidt, CEO of Novell at the time, inaccurately reported during an interview in PBS's documentary ''Nerds 2.0.1'' that Joy had personally rewritten the BSD kernel in a weekend.", "In 1980, he also wrote cat -v which Rob Pike and Brian W. Kernighan wrote went against Unix philosophy.According to a ''Salon'' article, during the early 1980s, DARPA had contracted the company Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) to add TCP/IP to Berkeley UNIX.", "Joy had been instructed to plug BBN's stack into Berkeley Unix, but he refused to do so, as he had a low opinion of BBN's TCP/IP.", "So, Joy wrote his own high-performance TCP/IP stack.", "According to John Gage:Rob Gurwitz, who was working at BBN at the time, disputes this version of events." ], [ "Sun Microsystems", "In 1982, after the firm had been going for six months, Joy, Sun's sixteenth employee, was brought in with full co-founder status at Sun Microsystems.", "At Sun, Joy was an inspiration for the development of NFS, the SPARC microprocessors, the Java programming language, Jini/JavaSpaces, and JXTA.In 1986, Joy was awarded a Grace Murray Hopper Award by the ACM for his work on the Berkeley UNIX Operating System.On September 9, 2003, Sun announced Joy was leaving the company and that he \"is taking time to consider his next move and has no definite plans\"." ], [ "Post-Sun activities", "In 1999, Joy co-founded a venture capital firm, HighBAR Ventures, with two Sun colleagues, Andy Bechtolsheim and Roy Thiele-Sardiña.", "In January 2005 he was named a partner in venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins.", "There, Joy has made several investments in green energy industries, even though he does not have any credentials in the field.", "He once said, \"My method is to look at something that seems like a good idea and assume it's true\".In 2011, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum for his work on the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) Unix system and the co-founding of Sun Microsystems." ], [ "Technology concerns", "In 2000, Joy gained notoriety with the publication of his article in ''Wired'' magazine, \"Why The Future Doesn't Need Us\", in which he declared, in what some have described as a \"neo-Luddite\" position, that he was convinced that growing advances in genetic engineering and nanotechnology would bring risks to humanity.", "He argued that intelligent robots would replace humanity, at the very least in intellectual and social dominance, in the relatively near future.", "He supports and promotes the idea of abandonment of GNR (genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics) technologies, instead of going into an arms race between negative uses of the technology and defense against those negative uses (good nano-machines patrolling and defending against Grey goo \"bad\" nano-machines).", "This stance of broad relinquishment was criticized by technologists such as technological-singularity thinker Ray Kurzweil, who instead advocates fine-grained relinquishment and ethical guidelines.", "Joy was also criticized by ''The American Spectator'', which characterized Joy's essay as a (possibly unwitting) rationale for statism.A bar-room discussion of these technologies with Ray Kurzweil started to set Joy's thinking along this path.", "He states in his essay that during the conversation, he became surprised that other serious scientists were considering such possibilities likely, and even more astounded at what he felt was a lack of consideration of the contingencies.", "After bringing the subject up with a few more acquaintances, he states that he was further alarmed by what he felt was that although many people considered these futures possible or probable, that very few of them shared as serious a concern for the dangers as he seemed to.", "This concern led to his in-depth examination of the issue and the positions of others in the scientific community on it, and eventually, to his current activities regarding it.Despite this, he is a venture capitalist, investing in technology companies.", "He has also raised a specialty venture fund to address the dangers of pandemic diseases, such as the H5N1 avian influenza and biological weapons." ], [ "Joy's law", "===Of management===In his 2013 book ''Makers'', author Chris Anderson credited Joy with establishing \"Joy's law\" based on a quip: \"No matter who you are, most of the smartest people work for someone else other than you.\"", "His argument was that companies use an inefficient process by not hiring the best employees, only those they are able to hire.", "His \"law\" was a continuation of Friedrich Hayek's \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" and warned that the competition outside of a company would always have the potential to be greater than the company itself.===Of computing===Joy devised a formula in 1983, also called ''Joy's law'', stating that the peak computer speed doubles each year and thus is given by a simple function of time.", "Specifically,:in which is the peak computer speed attained during year , expressed in MIPS." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * An Introduction to Display Editing with Vi* Bill Joy, video clips at Big Picture TV* Excerpts from a 1999 Linux Magazine interview regarding the development of vi* NerdTV interview (video, audio, and transcript available) - 30 June 2005* The Six Webs, 10 Years On - speech at MIT Emerging Technologies conference, September 29, 2005* Bill Joy at Dropping Knowledge, his answers to the 100 questions at Dropping Knowledge's Table of Free Voices event in Berlin, 2006.", "* Computer History Museum, Sun Founders Panel, January 11, 2006" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bandwidth (signal processing)" ], [ "Introduction", "Amplitude (a) vs. frequency (f) graph illustrating baseband bandwidth.", "Here the bandwidth equals the upper frequency.", "'''Bandwidth''' is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous band of frequencies.", "It is typically measured in unit of hertz (symbol Hz).It may refer more specifically to two subcategories: ''Passband bandwidth'' is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a band-pass filter, a communication channel, or a signal spectrum.", "''Baseband bandwidth'' is equal to the upper cutoff frequency of a low-pass filter or baseband signal, which includes a zero frequency.Bandwidth in hertz is a central concept in many fields, including electronics, information theory, digital communications, radio communications, signal processing, and spectroscopy and is one of the determinants of the capacity of a given communication channel.A key characteristic of bandwidth is that any band of a given width can carry the same amount of information, regardless of where that band is located in the frequency spectrum.", "For example, a 3 kHz band can carry a telephone conversation whether that band is at baseband (as in a POTS telephone line) or modulated to some higher frequency.", "However, wide bandwidths are easier to obtain and process at higher frequencies because the is smaller." ], [ "Overview", "Bandwidth is a key concept in many telecommunications applications.", "In radio communications, for example, bandwidth is the frequency range occupied by a modulated carrier signal.", "An FM radio receiver's tuner spans a limited range of frequencies.", "A government agency (such as the Federal Communications Commission in the United States) may apportion the regionally available bandwidth to broadcast license holders so that their signals do not mutually interfere.", "In this context, bandwidth is also known as channel spacing.For other applications, there are other definitions.", "One definition of bandwidth, for a system, could be the range of frequencies over which the system produces a specified level of performance.", "A less strict and more practically useful definition will refer to the frequencies beyond which performance is degraded.", "In the case of frequency response, degradation could, for example, mean more than 3 dB below the maximum value or it could mean below a certain absolute value.", "As with any definition of the ''width'' of a function, many definitions are suitable for different purposes.In the context of, for example, the sampling theorem and Nyquist sampling rate, bandwidth typically refers to baseband bandwidth.", "In the context of Nyquist symbol rate or Shannon-Hartley channel capacity for communication systems it refers to passband bandwidth.The '''''' of a simple radar pulse is defined as the inverse of its duration.", "For example, a one-microsecond pulse has a Rayleigh bandwidth of one megahertz.The '''''' is defined as the portion of a signal spectrum in the frequency domain which contains most of the energy of the signal." ], [ "''x'' dB bandwidth", "The magnitude response of a band-pass filter illustrating the concept of −3 dB bandwidth at a gain of approximately 0.707In some contexts, the signal bandwidth in hertz refers to the frequency range in which the signal's spectral density (in W/Hz or V2/Hz) is nonzero or above a small threshold value.", "The threshold value is often defined relative to the maximum value, and is most commonly the , that is the point where the spectral density is half its maximum value (or the spectral amplitude, in or , is 70.7% of its maximum).", "This figure, with a lower threshold value, can be used in calculations of the lowest sampling rate that will satisfy the sampling theorem.", "The bandwidth is also used to denote '''system bandwidth''', for example in filter or communication channel systems.", "To say that a system has a certain bandwidth means that the system can process signals with that range of frequencies, or that the system reduces the bandwidth of a white noise input to that bandwidth.The 3 dB bandwidth of an electronic filter or communication channel is the part of the system's frequency response that lies within 3 dB of the response at its peak, which, in the passband filter case, is typically at or near its center frequency, and in the low-pass filter is at or near its cutoff frequency.", "If the maximum gain is 0 dB, the 3 dB bandwidth is the frequency range where attenuation is less than 3 dB.", "3 dB attenuation is also where power is half its maximum.", "This same ''half-power gain'' convention is also used in spectral width, and more generally for the extent of functions as full width at half maximum (FWHM).In electronic filter design, a filter specification may require that within the filter passband, the gain is nominally 0 dB with a small variation, for example within the ±1 dB interval.", "In the stopband(s), the required attenuation in decibels is above a certain level, for example >100 dB.", "In a transition band the gain is not specified.", "In this case, the filter bandwidth corresponds to the passband width, which in this example is the 1 dB-bandwidth.", "If the filter shows amplitude ripple within the passband, the ''x'' dB point refers to the point where the gain is ''x'' dB below the nominal passband gain rather than ''x'' dB below the maximum gain.In signal processing and control theory the bandwidth is the frequency at which the closed-loop system gain drops 3 dB below peak.In communication systems, in calculations of the Shannon–Hartley channel capacity, bandwidth refers to the 3 dB-bandwidth.", "In calculations of the maximum symbol rate, the Nyquist sampling rate, and maximum bit rate according to the Hartley's law, the bandwidth refers to the frequency range within which the gain is non-zero.The fact that in equivalent baseband models of communication systems, the signal spectrum consists of both negative and positive frequencies, can lead to confusion about bandwidth since they are sometimes referred to only by the positive half, and one will occasionally see expressions such as , where is the total bandwidth (i.e.", "the maximum passband bandwidth of the carrier-modulated RF signal and the minimum passband bandwidth of the physical passband channel), and is the positive bandwidth (the baseband bandwidth of the equivalent channel model).", "For instance, the baseband model of the signal would require a low-pass filter with cutoff frequency of at least to stay intact, and the physical passband channel would require a passband filter of at least to stay intact." ], [ "Relative bandwidth", "The absolute bandwidth is not always the most appropriate or useful measure of bandwidth.", "For instance, in the field of antennas the difficulty of constructing an antenna to meet a specified absolute bandwidth is easier at a higher frequency than at a lower frequency.", "For this reason, bandwidth is often quoted relative to the frequency of operation which gives a better indication of the structure and sophistication needed for the circuit or device under consideration.There are two different measures of relative bandwidth in common use: ''fractional bandwidth'' () and ''ratio bandwidth'' ().", "In the following, the absolute bandwidth is defined as follows, where and are the upper and lower frequency limits respectively of the band in question.=== Fractional bandwidth ===Fractional bandwidth is defined as the absolute bandwidth divided by the center frequency (),The center frequency is usually defined as the arithmetic mean of the upper and lower frequencies so that, andHowever, the center frequency is sometimes defined as the geometric mean of the upper and lower frequencies, andWhile the geometric mean is more rarely used than the arithmetic mean (and the latter can be assumed if not stated explicitly) the former is considered more mathematically rigorous.", "It more properly reflects the logarithmic relationship of fractional bandwidth with increasing frequency.", "For narrowband applications, there is only marginal difference between the two definitions.", "The geometric mean version is inconsequentially larger.", "For wideband applications they diverge substantially with the arithmetic mean version approaching 2 in the limit and the geometric mean version approaching infinity.Fractional bandwidth is sometimes expressed as a percentage of the center frequency ('''percent bandwidth''', ),=== Ratio bandwidth ===Ratio bandwidth is defined as the ratio of the upper and lower limits of the band,Ratio bandwidth may be notated as .", "The relationship between ratio bandwidth and fractional bandwidth is given by, andPercent bandwidth is a less meaningful measure in wideband applications.", "A percent bandwidth of 100% corresponds to a ratio bandwidth of 3:1.All higher ratios up to infinity are compressed into the range 100–200%.Ratio bandwidth is often expressed in octaves (i.e., as a frequency level) for wideband applications.", "An octave is a frequency ratio of 2:1 leading to this expression for the number of octaves," ], [ "Noise equivalent bandwidth", "Setup for the measurement of the noise equivalent bandwidth of the system with frequency response .", "The '''noise equivalent bandwidth''' (or '''equivalent noise bandwidth (enbw)''') of a system of frequency response is the bandwidth of an ideal filter with rectangular frequency response centered on the system's central frequency that produces the same average power outgoing when both systems are excited with a white noise source.The value of the noise equivalent bandwidth depends on the ideal filter reference gain used.", "Typically, this gain equals at its center frequency, but it can also equal the peak value of .", "The noise equivalent bandwidth can be calculated in the frequency domain using or in the time domain by exploiting the Parseval's theorem with the system impulse response .", "If is a lowpass system with zero central frequency and the filter reference gain is referred to this frequency, then: The same expression can be applied to bandpass systems by substituting the equivalent baseband frequency response for .", "The noise equivalent bandwidth is widely used to simplify the analysis of telecommunication systems in the presence of noise." ], [ "Photonics", "In photonics, the term ''bandwidth'' carries a variety of meanings:*the bandwidth of the output of some light source, e.g., an ASE source or a laser; the bandwidth of ultrashort optical pulses can be particularly large*the width of the frequency range that can be transmitted by some element, e.g.", "an optical fiber*the gain bandwidth of an optical amplifier*the width of the range of some other phenomenon, e.g., a reflection, the phase matching of a nonlinear process, or some resonance*the maximum modulation frequency (or range of modulation frequencies) of an optical modulator*the range of frequencies in which some measurement apparatus (e.g., a power meter) can operate*the data rate (e.g., in Gbit/s) achieved in an optical communication system; see bandwidth (computing).A related concept is the spectral linewidth of the radiation emitted by excited atoms." ], [ "See also", "*Bandwidth extension*Broadband*Noise bandwidth*Rise time*Spectral efficiency*Spectral width" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bodhisattva" ], [ "Introduction", "In Buddhism, a '''bodhisattva''' ( ; () or '''bodhisatva''' is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.In the Early Buddhist schools, as well as modern Theravāda Buddhism, bodhisattva (Pāli: ''bodhisatta'') refers to someone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so.In Mahāyāna Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated ''bodhicitta'', a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.", "Mahayana bodhisattvas are spiritually heroic persons that work to attain awakening and are driven by a great compassion (''mahākaruṇā'').", "These beings are exemplified by important spiritual qualities such as the \"four divine abodes\" (''brahmavihāras'') of loving-kindness (''maitrī''), compassion (''karuṇā''), empathetic joy (''muditā'') and equanimity (''upekṣā''), as well as the various bodhisattva \"perfections\" (''pāramitās'') which include ''prajñāpāramitā'' (\"transcendent knowledge\" or \"perfection of wisdom\") and skillful means (''upāya'').In Theravāda Buddhism, the bodhisattva is mainly seen as an exceptional and rare individual.", "Only a few select individuals are ultimately able to become bodhisattvas, such as Maitreya.", "Mahāyāna Buddhism generally understands the bodhisattva path as being open to everyone, and Mahāyāna Buddhists encourage all individuals to become bodhisattvas.", "Spiritually advanced bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, and Manjushri are also widely venerated across the Mahāyāna Buddhist world and are believed to possess great magical power which they employ to help all living beings." ], [ "In Early Buddhism", "Probable early image of a bodhisattva (Bimaran casket, 50 CE)Gandharan relief depicting the bodhisattva (future Gautama Buddha) taking a vow at the foot of Dipankara Buddha, Art Institute of ChicagoIn pre-sectarian Buddhism, the term ''bodhisatta'' is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives and as a young man in his last life, when he was working towards liberation.", "In the early Buddhist discourses, the Buddha regularly uses the phrase \"when I was an unawakened Bodhisatta\" to describe his experiences before his attainment of awakening.", "The early texts which discuss the period before the Buddha's awakening mainly focus on his spiritual development.", "According to Bhikkhu Analayo, most of these passages focus on three main themes: \"the bodhisattva's overcoming of unwholesome states of mind, his development of mental tranquillity, and the growth of his insight.\"", "Other early sources like the ''Acchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta'' (MN 123, and its Chinese parallel in Madhyama-āgama 32) discuss the marvelous qualities of the bodhisattva Gautama in his previous life in Tuṣita heaven.", "The Pali text focuses on how the bodhisattva was endowed with mindfulness and clear comprehension while living in Tuṣita, while the Chinese source states that his lifespan, appearance, and glory was greater than all the devas (gods).", "These sources also discuss various miracles which accompanied the bodhisattva's conception and birth, most famously, his taking seven steps and proclaiming that this was his last life.", "The Chinese source (titled ''Discourse on Marvellous Qualities'') also states that while living as a monk under the Buddha Kāśyapa he \"made his initial vow to realize Buddhahood while practicing the holy life.", "\"Another early source that discusses the qualities of bodhisattvas is the ''Mahāpadāna sutta.''", "This text discusses bodhisattva qualities in the context of six previous Buddhas who lived long ago, such as Buddha Vipaśyī.", "Yet another important element of the bodhisattva doctrine, the idea of a prediction of someone's future Buddhahood, is found in another Chinese early Buddhist text, the ''Discourse on an Explanation about the Past'' (MĀ 66).", "In this discourse, a monk named Maitreya aspires to become a Buddha in the future and the Buddha then predicts that Maitreya will become a Buddha in the future.", "Other discourses found in the '' Ekottarika-āgama'' present the \"bodhisattva Maitreya\" as an example figure (EĀ 20.6 and EĀ 42.6) and one sutra in this collection also discuss how the Buddha taught the bodhisattva path of the six perfections to Maitreya (EĀ 27.5).", "'Bodhisatta' may also connote a being who is \"bound for enlightenment\", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened.", "In the Pāli canon, the Bodhisatta (bodhisattva) is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion.", "According to the Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, while all the Buddhist traditions agree that to attain Buddhahood, one must \"make a deliberate resolution\" and fulfill the spiritual perfections (pāramīs or pāramitās) as a bodhisattva, the actual bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas (and their counterparts such as the Chinese Āgamas) which instead focus on the ideal of the arahant.The oldest known story about how Gautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha, Dīpankara.", "During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously named Sumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha.", "Dīpankara then confirms that they will attain Buddhahood.", "Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that the making of a resolution (''abhinīhāra'') in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation (''vyākaraṇa'') of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva.", "According to Drewes, \"all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding.", "\"Stories and teachings on the bodhisattva ideal are found in the various Jataka tale sources, which mainly focus on stories of the past lives of the Sakyamuni.", "Among the non-Mahayana Nikaya schools, the Jataka literature was likely the main genre that contained bodhisattva teachings.", "These stories had certainly become an important part of popular Buddhism by the time of the carving of the Bharhut Stupa railings (c. 125–100 BCE), which contain depictions of around thirty Jataka tales.", "Thus, it is possible that the bodhisattva ideal was popularized through the telling of Jatakas.", "Jataka tales contain numerous stories which focus on the past life deeds of Sakyamuni when he was a bodhisattva.", "These deeds generally express bodhisattva qualities and practices (such as compassion, the six perfections, and supernatural power) in dramatic ways, and include numerous acts of self-sacrifice.", "Apart from Jataka stories related to Sakyamuni, the idea that Metteya (Maitreya), who currently resides in Tuṣita, would become the future Buddha and that this had been predicted by the Buddha Sakyamuni was also an early doctrine related to the bodhisattva ideal.", "It first appears in the ''Cakkavattisihanadasutta''.", "According to A.L.", "Basham, it is also possible that some of the Ashokan edicts reveal knowledge of the bodhisattva ideal.", "Basham even argues that Ashoka may have considered himself a bodhisattva, as one edict states that he \"set out for sambodhi.\"" ], [ "In the Nikāya schools", "6th century painting of Maitreya, Kizil Caves, Cave 224By the time that the Buddhist tradition had developed into various competing sects, the idea of the bodhisattva vehicle (Sanskrit: ''bodhisattvayana'') as a distinct (and superior) path from that of the arhat and solitary buddha was widespread among all the major non-Mahayana Buddhist traditions or Nikaya schools, including Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda and Mahāsāṃghika.", "The doctrine is found, for example, in 2nd century CE sources like the ''Avadānaśataka'' and the ''Divyāvadāna.''", "The bodhisattvayana was referred by other names such as \"vehicle of the perfections\" (''pāramitāyāna''), \"bodhisatva dharma\", \"bodhisatva training\", and \"vehicle of perfect Buddhahood\".According to various sources, some of the Nikaya schools (such as the Dharmaguptaka and some of the Mahasamghika sects) transmitted a collection of texts on bodhisattvas alongside the Tripitaka, which they termed \"Bodhisattva Piṭaka\" or \"Vaipulya (Extensive) Piṭaka\".", "None of these have survived.", "Dar Hayal attributes the historical development of the bodhisattva ideal to \"the growth of bhakti (devotion, faith, love) and the idealisation and spiritualisation of the Buddha.", "\"The North Indian Sarvāstivāda school held it took Gautama three \"incalculable aeons\" (''asaṃkhyeyas'') and ninety one aeons (''kalpas'') to become a Buddha after his resolution (''praṇidhāna'') in front of a past Buddha.", "During the first incalculable aeon he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction (''vyākaraṇa'') of future Buddhahood from Dīpankara, meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood.", "For Sarvāstivāda, the first two incalculable aeons is a period of time in which a bodhisattva may still fall away and regress from the path.", "At the end of the second incalculable aeon, they encounter a buddha and receive their prediction, at which point they are certain to achieve Buddhahood.Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary for Sarvāstivāda.", "The ''Mahāvibhāṣā'' explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant \"to stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to the self-conceit that they are.\"", "However, for Sarvāstivāda, one is not technically a bodhisattva until the end of the third incalculable aeon, after which one begins to perform the actions which lead to the manifestation of the marks of a great person.The ''Mahāvastu'' of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins presents various ideas regarding the school's conception of the bodhisattva ideal.", "According to this text, bodhisattva Gautama had already reached a level of dispassion at the time of Buddha Dīpaṃkara many aeons ago and he is also said to have attained the perfection of wisdom countless aeons ago.", "The ''Mahāvastu'' also presents four stages or courses (''caryās)'' of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though it's said to take various incalculable aeons).", "This set of four phases of the path is also found in other sources, including the Gandhari “''Many-Buddhas Sūtra''” (*''Bahubudha gasutra'') and the Chinese ''Fó běnxíng jí jīng'' (佛本行 集經, Taisho vol.", "3, no.", "190, pp.", "669a1–672a11).", "The four ''caryās'' (Gandhari: ''caria'') are the following: # Natural (Sanskrit: ''prakṛti''-''caryā,'' Gandhari: ''pragidi'', Chinese: 自性行 zì xìng xíng), one first plants the roots of merit in front of a Buddha to attain Buddhahood.# Resolution (''praṇidhāna-caryā,'' G'': praṇisi'', C: 願性行 yuàn xìng xíng), one makes their first resolution to attain Buddhahood in the presence of a Buddha.# Continuing (''anuloma-caryā'', C: 順性行 shùn xìng xíng) or \"development\" (''vivartana'', G: ''vivaṭaṇa''), in which one continues to practice until one meets a Buddha who confirms one's future Buddhahood.# Irreversible (''anivartana-caryā'', C: 轉性行 zhuǎn xìng xíng) or “course of purity” (G: śukracaria), this is the stage at which one cannot fall back and is assured of future Buddhahood." ], [ "In Theravāda", "Sinhalese statue of Avalokiteśvara (also known as Natha, Lokeshvara Natha, Natha Deviyo) in Dambulla cave templeTara, Sri Lanka, 8th century CEBronze statue of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara.", "Sri Lanka, c. 750 CE The bodhisattva ideal is also found in southern Buddhist sources, like the Theravāda school's ''Buddhavaṃsa'' (1st-2nd century BCE), which explains how Gautama, after making a resolution (''abhinīhāra'') and receiving his prediction (''vyākaraṇa'') of future Buddhahood from past Buddha Dīpaṃkara, he became certain (''dhuva'') to attain Buddhahood.", "Gautama then took four incalculable aeons and a hundred thousand, shorter ''kalpas'' (aeons) to reach Buddhahood.", "Several sources in the Pali Canon depict the idea that there are multiple Buddhas and that there will be many future Buddhas, all of which must train as bodhisattas.", "Non-canonical Theravada Jataka literature also teaches about bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva path.", "The worship of bodhisattvas like Metteya, Saman and Natha (Avalokiteśvara) can also be found in Theravada Buddhism.By the time of the great scholar Buddhaghosa (5th-century CE), orthodox Theravāda held the standard Indian Buddhist view that there were three main spiritual paths within Buddhism: the way of the Buddhas (''buddhayāna'') i.e.", "the bodhisatta path; the way of the individual Buddhas (''paccekabuddhayāna''); and the way of the disciples (''sāvakayāna'').An altar depicting Burmese Buddhist weizzas.", "In this esoteric tradition, weizzas consider themselves to be bodhisattvasThe Sri Lankan commentator Dhammapāla (6th century CE) wrote a commentary on the ''Cariyāpiṭaka'', a text which focuses on the bodhisattva path and on the ten perfections of a bodhisatta.", "Dhammapāla's commentary notes that to become a bodhisattva one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha.", "The Buddha then must provide a prediction (''vyākaraṇa'') which confirms that one is irreversible (''anivattana'') from the attainment of Buddhahood.", "The ''Nidānakathā'', as well as the ''Buddhavaṃsa'' and ''Cariyāpiṭaka'' commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as a Bodhi tree, Buddha statue or Stupa) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction.", "This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodox Theravada today.According to Theravāda commentators like Dhammapāla as well as the ''Suttanipāta'' commentary, there are three types of bodhisattvas:* Bodhisattvas \"preponderant in wisdom\" (''paññādhika''), like Gautama, reach Buddhahood in four incalculable aeons (asaṃkheyyas) and a hundred thousand kalpas.", "* Bodhisattvas \"preponderant in faith\" (''saddhādhika'') take twice as long as ''paññādhika'' bodhisattvas* Bodhisattvas \"preponderant in vigor\" (''vīriyādhika'') take four times as long as ''paññādhika'' bodhisattvasAccording to modern Theravada authors, meeting a Buddha is needed to truly make someone a bodhisattva because any other resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead.", "The Burmese monk Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world.", "One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisattva until one receives recognition from a living Buddha.Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet the future Buddha Maitreya and thus receive a prediction from him.", "Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose.", "Modern figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), and U Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattvas in the future.Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence of Mahayana.", "The Theravada Abhayagiri tradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century.", "Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as a mahāsatta (Sanskrit: ''mahāsattva''), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana Buddhism.", "Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the ten pāramitās.", "In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.Popular Buddhist figures have also been seen as bodhisattvas in Theravada Buddhist lands.", "Shanta Ratnayaka notes that Anagarika Dharmapala, Asarapasarana Saranarikara Sangharaja, and Hikkaduwe Sri Sumamgala \"are often called bodhisattvas\".", "Buddhaghosa was also traditionally considered to be a reincarnation of Maitreya.", "Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.", "Various modern figures of esoteric Theravada traditions (such as the weizzās of Burma) have also claimed to be bodhisattvas.Theravada bhikkhu and scholar Walpola Rahula writes that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than the state of a ''śrāvaka'' not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada.", "Rahula writes \"the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical.\"", "He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV (956–972 CE), who had the words inscribed \"none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka,\" among other examples.Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is \"reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people.\"" ], [ "In Mahāyāna", "===Early Mahāyāna===Greco-Buddhist standing Maitreya (3rd century), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkVajrapāni (the protector of the Buddha) resembling Heracles, second-centuryMahāyāna Buddhism (often also called ''Bodhisattvayāna'', \"Bodhisattva Vehicle\") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.", "This path was seen as higher and nobler than becoming an arhat or a solitary Buddha.", "Hayal notes that Sanskrit sources generally depict the bodhisattva path as reaching a higher goal (i.e.", "''anuttara-samyak-sambodhi'') than the goal of the path of the \"disciples\" (śrāvakas), which is the nirvana attained by arhats.", "For example, the ''Lotus Sutra'' states:\"To the sravakas, he preached the doctrine which is associated with the four Noble Truths and leads to Dependent Origination.", "It aims at transcending birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress of mind and weariness; and it ends in nirvana.", "But, to the great being, the bodhisattva, he preached the doctrine, which is associated with the six perfections and which ends in the Knowledge of the Omniscient One after the attainment of the supreme and perfect bodhi.", "\"According to Peter Skilling, the Mahayana movement began when \"at an uncertain point, let us say in the first century BCE, groups of monks, nuns, and lay-followers began to devote themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle.\"", "These Mahayanists universalized the bodhisattvayana as a path which was open to everyone and which was taught for all beings to follow.", "This was in contrast to the Nikaya schools, which held that the bodhisattva path was only for a rare set of individuals.", "Indian Mahayanists preserved and promoted a set of texts called Vaipulya (\"Extensive\") sutras (later called Mahayana sutras).Mahayana sources like the ''Lotus Sutra'' also claim that arhats that have reached nirvana have not truly finished their spiritual quest, for they still have not attained the superior goal of sambodhi (Buddhahood) and thus must continue to strive until they reach this goal.The '''', one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term ''bodhisattva'', which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition.", "This definition is given as the following: \"Because he has bodhi as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called.", "\"Mahayana sutras also depict the bodhisattva as a being which, because they want to reach Buddhahood for the sake of all beings, is more loving and compassionate than the sravaka (who only wishes to end their own suffering).", "Thus, another major difference between the bodhisattva and the arhat is that the bodhisattva practices the path for the good of others (''par-ārtha''), due to their bodhicitta, while the sravakas do so for their own good (''sv-ārtha'') and thus, do not have bodhicitta (which is compassionately focused on others).Mahayana bodhisattvas were not just abstract models for Buddhist practice, but also developed as distinct figures which were venerated by Indian Buddhists.", "These included figures like Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara, which are personifications of the basic virtues of wisdom and compassion respectively and are the two most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana.", "The development of bodhisattva devotion parallels the development of the Hindu bhakti movement.", "Indeed, Dayal sees the development of Indian bodhisattva cults as a Buddhist reaction to the growth of bhakti centered religion in India which helped to popularize and reinvigorate Indian Buddhism.Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of the ''Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna'' and the ''Bodhisattvayāna'' were really just one vehicle (''ekayana'').", "This is most famously promoted in the ''Lotus Sūtra'' which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an ''upaya'', a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path.", "But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, the ''ekayana'', which ends in Buddhahood.=== Mature scholastic Mahāyāna ===Bengali Sculpture of Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom, 11th centuryWood carving of Avalokiteśvara.", "Liao China, 907–1125''Twenty-five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven''.", "Japanese painting, 1300Classical Indian mahayanists held that the only sutras which teach the bodhisattva vehicle are the Mahayana sutras.", "Thus, Nagarjuna writes \"the subjects based on the deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentioned in non-Mahāyāna sūtras.\"", "They also held that the bodhisattva path was superior to the śrāvaka vehicle and so the bodhisattva vehicle is the \"great vehicle\" (mahayana) due to its greater aspiration to save others, while the śrāvaka vehicle is the \"small\" or \"inferior\" vehicle (hinayana).", "Thus, Asanga argues in his ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra'' that the two vehicles differ in numerous ways, such as intention, teaching, employment (i.e., means), support, and the time that it takes to reach the goal.Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva.", "The authors of the various Madhyamaka treatises often presented the view of the ''ekayana'', and thus held that all beings can become bodhisattvas.", "The texts and sutras associated with the Yogacara school developed a different theory of three separate ''gotras'' (families, lineages), that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the ''arhat'', ''pratyekabuddha'' or ''samyak-saṃbuddha'' (fully self-awakened one).", "For the yogacarins then, only some beings (those who have the \"bodhisattva lineage\") can enter the bodhisattva path.", "In East Asian Buddhism, the view of the one vehicle (''ekayana'') which holds that all Buddhist teachings are really part of a single path, is the standard view.The term bodhisattva was also used in a broader sense by later authors.", "According to the eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra, the term \"bodhisattva\" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards ''bodhi''.", "Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a ''mahāsattva'' (great being) ''bodhisattva''.", "According to Atiśa's 11th century ''Bodhipathapradīpa,'' the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termed ''bodhicitta'' (the mind set on awakening).The bodhisattva doctrine went through a significant transformation during the development of Buddhist tantra, also known as Vajrayana.", "This movement developed new ideas and texts which introduced new bodhisattvas and re-interpreted old ones in new forms, developed in elaborate mandalas for them and introduced new practices which made use of mantras, mudras and other tantric elements.=== Entering the bodhisattva path ===Bodhisattva Prajñaparamita, a female personification of the perfection of wisdom, Singhasari period, East Java, Indonesia, 13th centuryMural of bodhisattva Padmapani in Ajanta Caves.", "India, 5th centuryGreen Tara attended by White Tara and Bhrikuti, India, Madhya Pradesh, Sirpur, c. 8th centuryAccording to David Drewes, \"Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (''prathamacittotpāda''), or the initial arising of ''bodhicitta'', typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha's prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point.\"", "The ''Ten Stages Sutra'', for example, explains that the arising of bodhicitta is the first step in the bodhisattva's career.", "Thus, the arising of bodhicitta, the compassionate mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings, is a central defining element of the bodhisattva path.Another key element of the bodhisattva path is the concept of a bodhisattva's ''praṇidhāna'' - which can mean a resolution, resolve, vow, prayer, wish, aspiration and determination.", "This more general idea of an earnest wish or solemn resolve which is closely connected with bodhicitta (and is the cause and result of bodhicitta) eventually developed into the idea that bodhisattvas take certain formulaic \"bodhisattva vows.\"", "One of the earliest of these formulas is found in the '''' and states:We having crossed (the stream of samsara), may we help living beings to cross!", "We being liberated, may we liberate others!", "We being comforted, may we comfort others!", "We being finally released, may we release others!", "Other sutras contain longer and more complex formulas, such as the ten vows found in the ''Ten Stages Sutra.", "''Mahayana sources also discuss the importance of a Buddha's prediction (''vyākaraṇa'') of a bodhisattva's future Buddhahood.", "This is seen as an important step along the bodhisattva path.Later Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for which helped to develop various preliminary qualities, such as faith, worship, prayer, and confession, that lead to the arising of ''bodhicitta.''", "These elements, which constitute a kind of preliminary preparation for bodhicitta, are found in the \"seven part worship\" (''saptāṇgapūjā'' or ''saptavidhā anuttarapūjā'').", "This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century) and includes:* ''Vandana'' (obeisance, bowing down)* ''Puja'' (worship of the Buddhas)* ''Sarana-gamana'' (going for refuge)* ''Papadesana'' (confession of bad deeds)* ''Punyanumodana'' (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others) * ''Adhyesana'' (prayer, entreaty) and ''yacana'' (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma* ''Atmabhavadi-parityagah'' (surrender) and ''pariṇāmanā'' (the transfer of one's Merit to the welfare of others)After these preliminaries have been accomplished, then the aspirant is seen as being ready to give rise to bodhicitta, often through the recitation of a bodhisattva vow.", "Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows.", "With these vows and precepts, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues or paramitas.In Mahāyāna, bodhisattvas are often not Buddhist monks and are former lay practitioners.=== The practice of the bodhisattva ===After a being has entered the path by giving rise to bodhicitta, they must make effort in the practice or conduct (''caryā'') of the bodhisattvas, which includes all the duties, virtues and practices that bodhisattvas must accomplish to attain Buddhahood.", "An important early Mahayana source for the practice of the bodhisattva is the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka sūtra,'' a major sutra found in the ''Mahāratnakūṭa'' collection which was widely cited by various sources.", "According to Ulrich Pagel, this text is \"one of the longest works on the bodhisattva in Mahayana literature\" and thus provides extensive information on the topic bodhisattva training, especially the perfections (''pāramitā'').", "Pagel also argues that this text was quite influential on later Mahayana writings which discuss the bodhisattva and thus was \"of fundamental importance to the evolution of the bodhisattva doctrine.\"", "Other sutras in the ''Mahāratnakūṭa'' collection are also important sources for the bodhisattva path.According to Pagel, the basic outline of the bodhisattva practice in the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'' is outlined in a passage which states \"the path to enlightenment comprises benevolence towards all sentient beings, striving after the perfections and compliance with the means of conversion.\"", "This path begins with contemplating the failures of samsara, developing faith in the Buddha, giving rise to bodhicitta and practicing the four immesurables.", "It then proceeds through all six perfections and finally discusses the four means of converting sentient beings (''saṃgrahavastu'').", "The path is presented through prose exposition, mnemonic lists (''matrka'') and also through Jataka narratives.", "Using this general framework, the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'' incorporates discussions related to other practices including super knowledge (''abhijñā''), learning, 'skill' (''kauśalya''), accumulation of merit (''puṇyasaṃbhāra''), the thirty-seven factors of awakening (''bodhipakṣadharmas''), perfect mental quietude (''śamatha'') and insight (''vipaśyanā'').Later Mahayana treatises (''śāstras'') like the ''Bodhisattvabhumi'' and the ''Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra'' provide the following schema of bodhisattva practices:* ''Bodhipakṣa-caryā'', the practice of the 37 ''bodhipakṣadharmas'' (the principles conducive to bodhi) which are: the four applications of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five spiritual faculties, the five strengths, the seven factors of awakening and the noble eightfold path.", "* ''Abhijñā-caryā'', the practice of the super-knowledges (which are mainly developed in order to convert, help and guide others).", "* ''Pāramitā-caryā,'' the practice of the perfections, which are: Dāna (generosity), Śīla (virtue, ethics), Kṣānti (patient endurance), Vīrya (heroic energy), Dhyāna (meditation), Prajñā (wisdom), Upāya (skillful means), Praṇidhāna (vow, resolve), Bala (spiritual power), and Jñāna (knowledge).", "* ''Sattvaparipāka-caryā'', the practice of maturing the living beings, i.e.", "preaching and teaching others.The first six perfections (''pāramitās'') are the most significant and popular set of bodhisattva virtues and thus they serve as a central framework for bodhisattva practice.", "They are the most widely taught and commented upon virtues throughout the history of Mahayana Buddhist literature and feature prominently in major Sanskrit sources such as the ''Bodhisattvabhumi'', the ''Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra,'' the ''King of Samadhis Sutra'' and the ''Ten Stages Sutra''.", "They are extolled and praised by these sources as \"the great oceans of all the bright virtues and auspicious principles\" (''Bodhisattvabhumi'') and \"the Teacher, the Way and the Light...the Refuge and the Shelter, the Support and the Sanctuary\" (''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'').While many Mahayana sources discuss the bodhisattva's training in ethical discipline (''śīla'') in classic Buddhist terms, over time, there also developed specific sets of ethical precepts for bodhisattvas (Skt.", "''bodhisattva-śīla'').", "These various sets of precepts are usually taken by bodhisattva aspirants (lay and ordained monastics) along with classic Buddhist pratimoksha precepts.", "However, in some Japanese Buddhist traditions, monastics rely solely on the bodhisattva precepts.The perfection of wisdom (''prajñāpāramitā'') is generally seen as the most important and primary of the perfections, without which all the others fall short.", "Thus, the ''Madhyamakavatara'' (6:2) states that wisdom leads the other perfections as a man with eyes leads the blind.", "This perfect or transcendent wisdom has various qualities, such as being non-attached (''asakti''), non-conceptual and non-dual (''advaya'') and signless (''animitta'').", "It is generally understood as a kind of insight into the true nature of all phenomena (''dharmas'') which in Mahayana sutras is widely described as emptiness (''shunyatā'').Another key virtue which the bodhisattva must develop is great compassion (''mahā-karuṇā''), a vast sense of care aimed at ending the suffering of all sentient beings.", "This great compassion is the ethical foundation of the bodhisattva, and it is also an applied aspect of their bodhicitta.", "Great compassion must also be closely joined with the perfection of wisdom, which reveals that all the beings that the bodhisattva strives to save are ultimately empty of self (''anātman'') and lack inherent existence (''niḥsvabhāva'').", "Due to the bodhisattva's compassionate wish to save all beings, they develop innumerable skillful means or strategies (''upaya'') with which to teach and guide different kinds of beings with all sorts of different inclinations and tendencies.Another key virtue for the bodhisattva is mindfulness (''smṛti''), which Dayal calls \"the sine qua non of moral progress for a bodhisattva.\"", "Mindfulness is widely emphasized by Buddhist authors and Sanskrit sources and it appears four times in the list of 37 ''bodhipakṣadharmas''.", "According to the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'', a bodhisattva must never lose mindfulness so as not to be confused or distracted.", "The ''Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra'' states that mindfulness is the principal asset of a bodhisattva, while both Asvaghosa and Shantideva state that without mindfulness, a bodhisattva will be helpless and uncontrolled (like a mad elephant) and will not succeed in conquering the mental afflictions.=== The length and nature of the path ===Tibetan painting of Vajrapani, 19th-centuryJust as with non-Mahayana sources, Mahayana sutras generally depict the bodhisattva path as a long path that takes many lifetimes across many aeons.", "Some sutras state that a beginner bodhisattva could take anywhere from 3 to 22 countless eons (''mahāsaṃkhyeya kalpas'') to become a Buddha.", "The ''Mahāyānasaṃgraha'' of Asanga states that the bodhisattva must cultivate the six paramitas for three incalculable aeons (''kalpāsaṃkhyeya'').", "Shantideva meanwhile states that bodhisattvas must practice each perfection for sixty aeons or kalpas and also declares that a bodhisattva must practice the path for an \"inconceivable\" (''acintya'') number of kalpas.", "Thus, the bodhisattva path could take many billions upon billions of years to complete.Later developments in Indian and Asian Mahayana Buddhism (especially in Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism) lead to the idea that certain methods and practices could substantially shorten the path (and even lead to Buddhahood in a single lifetime).", "In Pure Land Buddhism, an aspirant might go to a Buddha's pure land or buddha-field (''buddhakṣetra''), like Sukhavati, where they can study the path directly with a Buddha.", "This could significantly shorten the length of the path, or at least make it more bearable.", "East Asian Pure Land Buddhist traditions, such as Jōdo-shū and Jōdo Shinshū, hold the view that realizing Buddhahood through the long bodhisattva path of the perfections is no longer practical in the current age (which is understood as a degenerate age called ''mappo'').", "Thus, they rely on the salvific power of Amitabha to bring Buddhist practitioners to the pure land of Sukhavati, where they will better be able to practice the path.This view is rejected by other schools such as Tendai, Shingon and Zen.", "The founders of Tendai and Shingon, Saicho and Kukai, held that anyone who practiced the path properly could reach awakening in this very lifetime.", "Buddhist schools like Tiantai, Huayan, Chan and the various Vajrayāna traditions maintain that they teach ways to attain Buddhahood within one lifetime.Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as the ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' describe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take.", "Three kinds of bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery bodhisattvas—with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as the ''Ugraparipṛcchā'' and the ''Samadhiraja'' sutras.", "The early ''Rastrapalapariprccha sutra'' also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life.", "The ''Rastrapala'' is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality.The ''Ratnagunasamcayagatha'' also says the bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices (''dhūtaguṇa''), \"wander freely without a home\", practice the paramitas and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization of ''prajñaparamita''.", "The twelve ''dhūtaguṇas'' are also promoted by the ''King of Samadhis Sutra'', the ''Ten Stages Sutra'' and Shantideva.", "Some scholars have used these texts to argue for \"the forest hypothesis\", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest asceticism.", "But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, and instead teach \"easy\" practices like memorizing, reciting, teaching and copying Mahayana sutras, as well as meditating on Buddhas and bodhisattvas (and reciting or chanting their names).", "Ulrich Pagel also notes that in numerous sutras found in the ''Mahāratnakūṭa'' collection, the bodhisattva ideal is placed \"firmly within the reach of non-celibate layfolk.", "\"=== Bodhisattvas and Nirvana ===Kannon (Guanyin, a popular female form of Avalokiteshvara in East Asia)Mural painting of Manjushri in tantric union with his consort, the bodhisattva Sarasvati (also considered to be a form of Tara)Related to the different views on the different types of ''yanas'' or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship to nirvāṇa.", "In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned.", "One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view of nirvāṇa).", "This view is promoted in some sutras like the ''Pañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.''", "The idea is also found in the ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'', which mentions that bodhisattvas take the following vow: \"I shall not enter into final nirvana before all beings have been liberated.\"", "Likewise, the ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' states \"I must lead all beings to Liberation.", "I will stay here till the end, even for the sake of one living soul.", "\"The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called ''apratiṣṭhita (''non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the samsaric realms without being affected by them.", "This attainment was understood as a kind of non-dual state in which one is neither limited to samsara nor nirvana.", "A being who has reached this kind of nirvana is not restricted from manifesting in the samsaric realms, and yet they remain fully detached from the defilements found in these realms (and thus they can help others).This doctrine of non-abiding nirvana developed in the Yogacara school.", "As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of ''apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa'' may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of \"postponement\", later texts saw no need to postpone the \"superior\" ''apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa''.In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of the ''śravaka'' and ''pratyekabuddha'', described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or \"''hina''\" (as in Asaṅga's fourth century ''Yogācārabhūmi'') or as ultimately false or illusory (as in the ''Lotus Sūtra'').", "That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva.", "The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha.Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation.", "This can be seen in the Tibetan Buddhist teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta.", "According to Patrul Rinpoche's 19th century ''Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung''), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways.", "They are:# King-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings.# Boatman-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings.# Shepherd-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so.These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation.", "According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself.===Bodhisattva stages===METAccording to James B. Apple, if one studies the earliest textual materials which discuss the bodhisattva path (which includes the translations of Lokakshema and the Gandharan manuscripts), \"one finds four key stages that are demarcated throughout this early textual material that constitute the most basic elements in the path of a bodhisattva\".", "These main elements are:# \"The arising of the thought of awakening (''bodhicittotpāda''), when a person first aspires to attain the state of Buddhahood and thereby becomes a bodhisattva\"# \"Endurance towards the fact that things are not produced\" (''anutpattikadharma-kṣānti'')# \"The attainment of the status of irreversibility\" or non-retrogression (''avaivartika'') from Buddhahood, which means one is close to Buddhahood and that one can no longer turn back or regress from that attainment.", "They are exemplary monks, with cognitive powers equal to arhats.", "They practice the four dhyanas, have a deep knowledge of perfect wisdom and teach it to others.", "In the Lokakshema's Chinese translation of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā,'' the ''Daoxing Banruo Jing,'' this stage is closely related to a concentration (''samadhi'') that \"does not grasp at anything at all\" (''sarvadharmāparigṛhīta'').# The prediction (''vyākaraṇa''), \"the event when a Buddha predicts the time and place of a bodhisattva's subsequent awakening.\"", "The prediction is directly associated with the status of irreversibility.", "The ''Daoxing Banruo Jing'' states: \"all the bodhisattvas who have realized the irreversible stage have obtained their prediction to Buddhahood from the Buddhas in the past.", "\"According to Drewes, the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' divides the bodhisattva path into three main stages.", "The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who \"first set out in the vehicle\" (''prathamayānasaṃprasthita''), then there is the \"irreversible\" (''avinivartanīya'') stage, and finally the third \"bound by one more birth\" (''ekajātipratibaddha''), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life.", "Lamotte also mentions four similar stages of the bodhiattva career which are found in the ''Dazhidulun'' translated by Kumarajiva: (1) ''Prathamacittotpādika'' (\"who produces the mind of Bodhi for the first time\"), (2) ''Ṣaṭpāramitācaryāpratipanna'' (\"devoted to the practice of the six perfections\"), (3) ''Avinivartanīya'' (non-regression), (4) ''Ekajātipratibaddha'' (\"separated by only one lifetime from buddhahood\").Drewes notes that Mahāyāna sūtras mainly depict a bodhisattvas' first arising of bodhicitta as occurring in the presence of a Buddha.", "Furthermore, according to Drewes, most Mahāyāna sūtras \"never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so.\"", "In a similar manner to the nikāya sources, Mahāyāna sūtras also see new bodhisattvas as likely to regress, while seeing irreversible bodhisattvas are quite rare.", "Thus, according to Drewes, \"the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'', for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible.", "\"Drewes also adds that early texts like the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (''ādikarmika'') or \"not long set out in the great vehicle\" with scorn, describing them as \"blind\", \"unintelligent\", \"lazy\" and \"weak\".", "Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to become ''śrāvakas'' (those on the ''arhat'' path).", "Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like the ''Aṣṭa'' do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point.The ''Aṣṭa'' provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual or divination, methods dealing with dreams and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' itself.", "The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not \"shrink back, cower or despair\" from the text, but \"firmly believes it\", one is either irreversible or is close to this stage.", "Many other Mahayana sutras such as the ''Akṣobhyavyūha'', ''Vimalakīrtinirdeśa'', ''Sukhāvatīvyūha'', and the ''Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra'' present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva.", "These mainly depend on a person's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra as well as practicing the sutra's teachings.According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas.", "It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status.", "Some Mahayana texts are more open with their bodhisattva doctrine.", "The ''Lotus Sutra'' famously assures large numbers people that they will certainly achieve Buddhahood, with few requirements (other than hearing and accepting the ''Lotus Sutra'' itself).==== The bodhisattva grounds (''bhūmis'') ====Maitreya, 13th century, Kamakura period, Tokyo National Museum, Important Cultural Property of JapanAccording to various Mahāyāna sources, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through various stages (''bhūmis'') of spiritual progress''.''", "The term ''bhūmi'' means \"earth\" or \"place\" and figurately can mean \"ground, plane, stage, level; state of consciousness\".", "There are various lists of bhumis, the most common is a list of ten found in the ''Daśabhūmikasūtra'' (but there are also lists of seven stages as well as lists which have more than 10 stages).The ''Daśabhūmikasūtra'' lists the following ten stages:# '''Great Joy:''' It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all sentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name.", "In this ''bhūmi'' the bodhisattvas practice all perfections (''pāramitās''), but especially emphasizing generosity (''dāna'').# '''Stainless:''' In accomplishing the second ''bhūmi'', the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this ''bhūmi'' is named \"stainless\".", "The emphasized perfection is moral discipline (''śīla'').# '''Luminous:''' The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the third ''bhūmi''.", "The emphasized perfection is patience ('''').# '''Radiant:''' This ''bhūmi'' it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment.", "The emphasized perfection is vigor (''vīrya'').# '''Very difficult to train:''' Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do.", "The emphasized perfection is meditative concentration (''dhyāna'').# '''Obviously Transcendent:''' By depending on the perfection of wisdom, the bodhisattva does not abide in either '''' or '''', so this state is \"obviously transcendent\".", "The emphasized perfection is wisdom (''prajñā'').# '''Gone afar:''' Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means (''upāya''), to help others.# '''Immovable:''' The emphasized virtue is aspiration.", "This \"immovable\" ''bhūmi'' is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth.# '''Good Discriminating Wisdom:''' The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self.# '''Cloud of Dharma:''' The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom.", "After this ''bhūmi'', one attains full Buddhahood.In some sources, these ten stages are correlated with a different schema of the buddhist path called the five paths which is derived from Vaibhasika Abhidharma sources.The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' recognizes 57 stages.", "Various Vajrayāna schools recognize additional grounds (varying from 3 to 10 further stages), mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions.", "A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called a ''mahāsattva''.", "Some bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra are also said to have already attained Buddhahood.===Sōtō Zen===As part of the Sōtō Zen school of Mahāyanā, Dōgen Zenji described Four Exemplary Acts of a Bodhisattva:* Offering Alms: Not being covetous or greedy;* Kind Speech: Feeling genuine affection for other sentient beings and offering words that are neither harsh nor rude.", "* Benevolence: Working out skillful methods to benefit sentient beings, be they of low or high station.", "* Manifesting Sympathy: Not making differences, not treating yourself as different and not treating others as different." ], [ "Important Bodhisattvas", "Ksitigarbha, the background art depicts his pure land and attendant bodhisattvas.", "From a Buddhist temple in Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamBuddhists (especially Mahayanists) venerate several bodhisattvas (such as Maitreya, Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara) which are seen as highly spiritually advanced (having attained the tenth bhumi) and thus possessing immense magical power.", "According to Lewis Lancaster, these \"celestial\" or \"heavenly\" bodhisattvas are seen as \"either the manifestations of a Buddha or they are beings who possess the power of producing many bodies through great feats of magical transformation.", "\"The religious devotion to these bodhisattvas probably first developed in north India, and they are widely depicted in Gandharan and Kashmiri art.", "In Asian art, they are typically depicted as princes and princesses, with royal robes and jewellery (since they are the princes of the Dharma).", "In Buddhist art, a bodhisattva is often described as a beautiful figure with a serene expression and graceful manner.", "This is probably in accordance to the description of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama as a bodhisattva.", "The depiction of bodhisattva in Buddhist art around the world aspires to express the bodhisattva's qualities such as loving-kindness (''metta''), compassion (''karuna''), empathetic joy (''mudita'') and equanimity (''upekkha'').Literature which glorifies such bodhisattvas and recounts their various miracles remains very popular in Asia.", "One example of such a work of literature is ''More Records of Kuan-shih-yin's Responsive Manifestations'' by Lu Kao (459-532) which was very influential in China.", "In Tibetan Buddhism, the ''Maṇi Kambum'' is a similarly influential text (a revealed text, or terma) which focuses on Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara, who is seen as the country's patron bodhisattva) and his miraculous activities in Tibet.", "Statue of Upulvan-Vishnu, Seema Malaka, Sri LankaThese celestial bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin) are also seen as compassionate savior figures, constantly working for the good of all beings.", "The Avalokiteshvara chapter of the ''Lotus Sutra'' even states that calling Avalokiteshvara to mind can help save someone from natural disasters, demons, and other calamities.", "It is also supposed to protect one from the afflictions (lust, anger and ignorance).", "Bodhisattvas can also transform themselves into whatever physical form is useful for helping sentient beings (a god, a bird, a male or female, even a Buddha).", "Because of this, bodhisattvas are seen as beings that one can pray to for aid and consolation from the sufferings of everyday life as well as for guidance in the path to enlightenment.", "Thus, the great translator Xuanzang is said to have constantly prayed to Avalokiteshvara for protection on his long journey to India.=== Eight Main Bodhisattvas ===In the Tibetan tradition, there are eight bodhisattvas known as the \"Eight Great Bodhisattvas\", or \"Eight Close Sons\" (Skt.", "''aṣṭa utaputra''; Tib.", "''nyewé sé gyé'') and are seen as the main bodhisattvas of Shakyamuni Buddha.", "These same \"Eight Great Bodhisattvas\" (Chn.", "''Bādà Púsà'', Jp.", "''Hachi Daibosatsu'') also appear in East Asian Esoteric Buddhist sources, such as ''The Sutra on the Maṇḍalas of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas'' (八大菩薩曼荼羅經), translated by Amoghavajra in the 8th century and Faxian (10th century).", "The Eight Great Bodhisattvas are the following:* Mañjuśrī (\"Gentle Glory\") Kumarabhuta (\"Young Prince\"), the main bodhisattva of wisdom* Avalokiteśvara (\"Lord who gazes down at the world\"), the savior bodhisattva of great compassion* Vajrapāṇi (\"Vajra in hand\"), the bodhisattva of protection, the protector of the Buddha (in East Asian sources, this figure appears as Mahāsthāmaprāpta)* Maitreya (\"Friendly One\"), will become the Buddha of our world in the future* Kṣitigarbha (\"Earth Source\")* Ākāśagarbha (\"Space Source\") also known as Gaganagañja* Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin (\"He who blocks the hindrances\")* Samantabhadra (\"Universal Worthy\", or \"All Good\")=== In Theravada ===While the veneration of bodhisattvas is much more widespread and popular in the Mahayana Buddhist world, it is also found in Theravada Buddhist regions.", "Bodhisattvas which are venerated in Theravada lands include Natha Deviyo (Avalokiteshvara), Metteya (Maitreya), Upulvan (i.e.", "Vishnu), Saman (Samantabhadra) and Pattini.", "The veneration of some of these figures may have been influenced by Mahayana Buddhism.", "These figures are also understood as devas that have converted to Buddhism and have sworn to protect it.The recounting of Jataka tales, which discuss the bodhisattva deeds of Gautama before his awakening, also remains a popular practice.=== Female Bodhisattvas ===A 12th century Japanese illustration of the nāga princess offering the jewel to the Buddha, from the ''Lotus Sutra''Japanese illustration of Benzaiten, seated on a white dragon.", "Some Japanese sources associate this figure with the naga princess in the Lotus sutraThe bodhisattva Prajñāpāramitā-devi is a female personification of the perfection of wisdom and the ''Prajñāpāramitā sutras''.", "She became an important figure, widely depicted in Indian Buddhist art.Guanyin (Jp: Kannon), a female form of Avalokiteshvara, is the most widely revered bodhisattva in East Asian Buddhism, generally depicted as a motherly figure.", "Guanyin is venerated in various other forms and manifestations, including Cundī, Cintāmaṇicakra, Hayagriva, Eleven-Headed Thousand-Armed Guanyin and Guanyin Of The Southern Seas among others.Gender variant representations of some bodhisattvas, most notably Avalokiteśvara, has prompted conversation regarding the nature of a bodhisattva's appearance.", "Chan master Sheng Yen has stated that Mahāsattvas such as Avalokiteśvara (known as Guanyin in Chinese) are androgynous (Ch.", "中性; pinyin: \"zhōngxìng\"), which accounts for their ability to manifest in masculine and feminine forms of various degrees.In Tibetan Buddhism, Tara or Jetsun Dölma (''rje btsun sgrol ma'') is the most important female bodhisattva.", "Numerous Mahayana sutras feature female bodhisattvas as main characters and discuss their life, teachings and future Buddhahood.", "These include ''The Questions of the Girl Vimalaśraddhā'' (Tohoku Kangyur - Toh number 84), ''The Questions of Vimaladattā'' (Toh 77), ''The Lion's Roar of Śrīmālādevī'' (Toh 92), ''The Inquiry of Lokadhara'' (Toh 174), ''The Sūtra of Aśokadattā's Prophecy'' (Toh 76), ''The Questions of Vimalaprabhā'' (Toh 168), ''The Sūtra of Kṣemavatī's Prophecy'' (Toh 192), ''The Questions of the Girl Sumati'' (Toh 74), ''The Questions of Gaṅgottara'' (Toh 75), ''The Questions of an Old Lady'' (Toh 171), ''The Miraculous Play of Mañjuśrī'' (Toh 96), and ''The Sūtra of the Girl Candrottarā's Prophecy'' (Toh 191).", "=== Popular Figures ===Hindu gods for the benefit of sentient beings.Over time, numerous historical Buddhist figures also came to be seen as bodhisattvas in their own right, deserving of devotion.", "For example, an extensive hagiography developed around Nagarjuna, the Indian founder of the madhyamaka school of philosophy.", "Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be an emanation of Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.", "Various Japanese Buddhist schools consider their founding figures like Kukai and Nichiren to be bodhisattvas.", "In Chinese Buddhism, various historical figures have been called bodhisattvas.Furthermore, various Hindu deities are considered to be bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhist sources.", "For example, in the ''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'', Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and Saraswati are said to be bodhisattvas, all emanations of Avalokiteshvara.", "Deities like Saraswati (Chinese: ''Biàncáitiān'', 辯才天, Japanese: Benzaiten) and Shiva (C: ''Dàzìzàitiān'', 大自在天; J: Daikokuten) are still venerated as bodhisattva devas and dharmapalas (guardian deities) in East Asian Buddhism.", "Both figures are closely connected with Avalokiteshvara.", "In a similar manner, the Hindu deity Harihara is called a bodhisattva in the famed ''Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī,'' which states: \"O Effulgence, World-Transcendent, come, oh Hari, the great bodhisattva.", "\"The empress Wu Zetian of the Tang dynasty, was the only female ruler of China.", "She used the growing popularity of Esoteric Buddhism in China for her own needs.", "Though she was not the only ruler to have made such a claim, the political utility of her claims, coupled with sincerity make her a great example.", "She built several temples and contributed to the finishing of the Longmen Caves and even went on to patronise Buddhism over Confucianism or Daoism.", "She ruled by the title of \"Holy Emperor\", and claimed to be a Bodhisattva too.", "She became one of China's most influential rulers.=== Others ===Fierce bodhisattva Vajrapani from Inner Mongolia, Östasiatiska museet, Stockholm, SwedenOther important bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism include:* Vajrasattva, an important figure in Vajrayana Buddhism* Vimalakirti the famous lay bodhisattva of the ''Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa''* Akṣayamati, the main character in the influential ''Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra'' * Sadāprarudita, a major bodhisattva in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras* Sudhana, the main character of the ''Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra''* The Four Bodhisattvas of the Earth from the ''Lotus Sutra''* Bhaiṣajyarāja or \"Medicine King\"* Candraprabha (\"Moon Light\")* Sūryaprabha (\"Solar Light\")* Jambhala, a bodhisattva of wealth* Mahāsthāmaprāpta, the second attendant bodhisattva to Amitabha (after Avalokiteshvara)=== Fierce bodhisattvas ===Thangka Depicting Yamantaka, a wrathful manifestation of Manjushri in Tibetan BuddhismWhile bodhisattvas tend to be depicted as conventionally beautiful, there are instances of their manifestation as fierceful and monstrous looking beings.", "A notable example is Guanyin's manifestation as a preta named \"Flaming Face\" (面燃大士).", "This trope is commonly employed among the Wisdom Kings, among whom Mahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī stands out with a feminine title and benevolent expression.", "In some depictions, her mount takes on a wrathful appearance.", "This variation is also found among images of Vajrapani.In Tibetan Buddhism, fierce manifestations (Tibetan: ''trowo)'' of the major bodhisattvas are quite common and they often act as protector deities.=== Sacred places ===Statue of Samantabhadra bodhisattva at Mount EmeiThe place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of enlightenment or the acts of Dharma, is known as a ''bodhimaṇḍa'' (place of awakening), and may be a site of pilgrimage.", "Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimaṇḍas.", "Perhaps the most famous bodhimaṇḍa of all is the Bodhi Tree under which Śākyamuṇi achieved Buddhahood.", "There are also sacred places of awakening for bodhisattvas located throughout the Buddhist world.", "Mount Potalaka, a sacred mountain in India, is traditionally held to be Avalokiteshvara's bodhimaṇḍa.In Chinese Buddhism, there are four mountains that are regarded as bodhimaṇḍas for bodhisattvas, with each site having major monasteries and being popular for pilgrimages by both monastics and laypeople.", "These four sacred places are:* Mount Putuo for Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara), the bodhisattva of Compassion ()* Mount Emei for Samantabhadra, the bodhisattva of practice ()* Mount Wutai for Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva of wisdom ()* Mount Jiuhua for Kṣitigarbha, the bodhisattva of the great vow ()" ], [ "Etymology", "The etymology of the Indic terms bodhisattva and bodhisatta is not fully understood.", "The term bodhi is uncontroversial and means \"awakening\" or \"enlightenment\" (from the root ''budh-'').", "The second part of the compound has many possible meanings or derivations, including:* Sattva and satta commonly means \"living being\", \"sentient being\" or \"person\" and many modern scholars adopt an interpretation based on this etymology.", "Examples include: \"a sentient or reasonable being, possessing bodhi\" (H. Kern), \"a bodhi-being, i.e.", "a being destined to attain fullest Enlightenment\" (T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede), \"A being seeking for bodhi\" (M. Anesaki), \"Erleuchtungswesen\" (Enlightenment Being) (M. Winternitz), \"Weisheitswesen\" (\"Wisdom Being\") (M. Walleser).", "This etymology is also supported by the Mahayana ''Samādhirāja Sūtra'', which, however, explains the meaning of the term bodhisattva as \"one who admonishes or exhorts all beings.", "\"* According to Har Dayal, the term ''bodhi-satta'' may correspond with the Sanskrit ''bodhi-sakta'' which means \"one who is devoted to bodhi\" or \"attached to bodhi\".", "Later, the term may have been wrongly sanskritized to ''bodhi-satva''.", "Hayal notes that the Sanskrit term ''sakta'' (from ''sañj'') means \"clung, stuck or attached to, joined or connected with, addicted or devoted to, fond of, intent on\".", "This etymology for ''satta'' is supported by some passages in the Early Buddhist Texts (such as at SN 23.2, parallel at SĀ 122).", "The etymology is also supported by the Pāli commentaries, Jain sources and other modern scholars like Tillman Vetter and Neumann.", "Another related possibility pointed out by K.R.", "Norman and others is that satta carries the meaning of ''śakta'', and so bodhisatta means \"capable of enlightenment.", "\"* The Sanskrit term sattva may mean \"strength, energy, vigour, power, courage\" and therefore, bodhisattva could also mean \"one whose energy and power is directed towards bodhi\".", "This reading of sattva is found in Ksemendra's ''AvadanakalpaIata.''", "Har Dayal supports this reading, noting that the term sattva is \"almost certainly related to the Vedic word ''satvan'', which means 'a strong or valiant man, hero, warrior and thus, the term bodhisatta should be interpreted as \"heroic being, spiritual warrior.", "\"* Sattva may also mean spirit, mind, sense, consciousness, or geist.", "Various Indian commentators like Prajñakaramati interpret the term as a synonym for citta (mind, thought) or vyavasāya (decision, determination).", "Thus, the term bodhisattva could also mean: \"one whose mind, intentions, thoughts or wishes are fixed on bodhi\".", "In this sense, this meaning of ''sattva'' is similar to the meaning it has in the ''Yoga-sutras'', where it means mind.", "* Tibetan lexicographers translate bodhisattva as ''byang chub'' (bodhi) ''sems dpa'' (sattva).", "In this compound, ''sems'' means mind, while ''dpa'' means \"hero, strong man\" (Skt.", "''vīra'').", "Thus, this translation combines two possible etymologies of sattva explained above: as \"mind\" and as \"courageous, hero\".", "* Chinese Buddhists generally use the term ''pusa'' (菩薩), a phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit term.", "However, early Chinese translators sometimes used a meaning translation of the term bodhisattva, which they rendered as ''mingshi'' (明士)'','' which means \"a person who understands\", reading ''sattva'' as \"man\" or \"person\" (''shi'', 士).", "* In Sanskrit, ''sattva'' can mean \"essence, nature, true essence\", and the Pali ''satta'' can mean \"substance\".", "Some modern scholars interpret bodhisattva in this light, such as Monier-Williams, who translates the term as \"one who has bodhi or perfect wisdom as his essence.\"" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Bodhisattva Maitreya (musée Guimet) (5424601351).jpg|Standing bodhisattva.", "Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd centuryFile:Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 006.jpg|Standing bodhisattva.", "Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd centuryFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhistisch beeld van mogelijk acoliet in de tempel Tjandi Mendoet rechts.", "TMnr 60004721.jpg|Bodhisattva Vajrapani.", "Mendut near Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia.", "Sailendran art c. 8th centuryFile:Avalokiteçvara, Malayu Srivijaya style.jpg|The golden Srivijayan Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia c. 11th centuryFile:Sanjusangendo Thousand-armed Kannon.JPG|Thousand-armed Bodhisattva, Sanjūsangen-dō, Japan.", "13th centuryFile:Avalokiteshvara, Weligama 0699.jpg|A rock carving of Avalokiteshvara, Weligama, Sri LankaFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Zilveren Manjusri beeld afkomstig uit Ngemplak Semongan TMnr 10016132.jpg|Silver Manjushri, Sailendra, early 9th century Central Java, National MuseumFile:Bodhisattva Manjushri as Tikshna-Manjushri (Minjie Wenshu) MET DP164061.jpg|Bodhisattva Manjushri as Tikshna-Manjushri (Minjie Wenshu), ChinaFile:Wood Bodhisattva.jpg|Wooden gilded statue of Avalokiteśvara, Song Dynasty (960-1279)File:地蔵菩薩像-Jizō Bosatsu MET DT289459.jpg|Jizō Bosatsu, JapanFile:Detail, Anonymous-Bodhisattva Leading the Way (cropped).jpg|Bodhisattva painting at Dun Huang in the \"1000 Buddha cave\" (cave 17)File:MET DT258174.jpg|Manjushri, 17th–18th century ChinaFile:MET DT5228.jpg|Padmapani Lokeshvara, Nepal, 11th centuryFile:MET DP123371.jpg|Standing Bodhisattva, probably Maitreya, GandharaFile:Yulin Cave 3 w wall Samantabhadra (Western Xia).jpg|Samantabhadra, Yulin Cave 3, Western XiaFile:如意輪観音坐像-Nyoirin Kannon MET DP338626.jpg|Nyoirin Kannon, Japan, 1693File:Bodhisattva White Avalokiteshvara (Amoghapasha Lokeshvara), early Malla period, 14th century, Nepal, polychromed wood - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC05217.JPG|White Avalokiteshvara (Amoghapasha Lokeshvara), 14th century, NepalFile:Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Future Buddha - Google Art Project.jpg|Maitreya, Himalayan, 15th centuryFile:Bodhisattva Padmapani, India, Gandharan period, 200s AD, schist - Dallas Museum of Art - DSC05034.jpg|Padmapani, India, Gandharan period, 200s CE, schistFile:Gandharan sculpture - head of a bodhisattva.jpg|Gandharan sculpture, head of a bodhisattvaFile:Bodhisattva Vajrapani (14131432038).jpg|Vajrapani, Cambodia, 10th centuryFile:Bodhisattva Musée Guimet 27972B.jpg|Lokesvara, Cambodia, 10th–11th centuryFile:Bodhisattva Lokeshvara Museum Rietberg RVI 106.jpg|Lokeshvara, Bihar, Teladha ViharaFile:Avalokiteshvara, One of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas - Google Art Project.jpg|Avalokiteshvara, 18th centuryFile:Bodhisattva Guanyin Statue, Nanshan Guanyin Park (10098551095).jpg|Guanyin Statue, Nanshan Guanyin ParkFile:The Bodhisattva Maitreya LACMA M.69.13.7 (3 of 7).jpg|Maitreya, Bihar, Gaya District, 11th centuryFile:Nepal, bodhisattva della sapienza manjushri, bronzo dorato, xv secolo.jpg|Manjusri, Nepal, 15th century" ], [ "See also", "* Bodhicharyavatara ''(A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life)''* Bodhisattvas of the Earth* Bodhisattva vows* Buddhist holidays* Junzi* Karuna (''compassion'' in Sanskrit)* List of bodhisattvas* Vegetarianism in Buddhism" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* Analayo, ''The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal'', Hamburg Buddhist Studies 1, Hamburg University Press 2010* Dayal, Har (1970).", "''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature'', Motilal Banarsidass Publ.", "* Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; * Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, ''The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others'', Tharpa Publications (2nd.", "ed., 1995) * Kawamura, Leslie S. (ed) (1981) ''The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism,'' Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario.", "Canada.", "* Lampert, K.; Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism.", "Palgrave-Macmillan; * Pagel, Ulrich (1992).", "''The Bodhisattvapiṭaka: Its Doctrines, Practices and Their Position in Mahāyāna Literature.''", "Institute of Buddhist Studies.", "* Shantideva: ''Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life'': How to Enjoy a Life of Great Meaning and Altruism, a translation of Shantideva's ''Bodhisattvacharyavatara'' with Neil Elliott, Tharpa Publications (2002) * Werner, Karel; Samuels, Jeffrey; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Skilling, Peter; Bhikkhu Anālayo, McMahan, David (2013) '' The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.''", "Buddhist Publication Society.", "ISBN 978-955-24-0396-5* White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; * Williams, Paul (2008).", "''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'', Routledge.", "* ;" ], [ "External links", "* The Ethical Discipline of Bodhisattvas, by Geshe Sonam Rinchen (Tibetan Gelug Tradition)* Bodhisattva, probably Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), Northern Qi dynasty, c. 550--60, video, Smarthistory.", "Archived at ghostarchive.org on 24 May 2022.", "* The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas online with commentaries.", "* The Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattvas, all-in-one page with memory aids & collection of different versions.", "* Audio recitation of 'The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas' in MP3 format (Paul & Lee voices).", "* What A Bodhisattva Does: Thirty-Seven Practices by Ngulchu Thogme with slide show format.", "* Access to Insight Library: Bodhi's Wheel409* Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas by Bhikkhu Bodhi* The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice by Jeffrey Samuels* Online exhibition analyzing a Korean Bodhisattva sculpture* Buddhanet.net Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva* ''Sacred visions : early paintings from central Tibet'', fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Buckingham Palace" ], [ "Introduction", "Aerial view of Buckingham Palace during Queen Elizabeth II's official 90th birthday celebrations in 2016'''Buckingham Palace''' () is a royal residence in London and the administrative headquarters of the monarch of the United Kingdom.", "Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is often at the centre of state occasions and royal hospitality.", "It has been a focal point for the British people at times of national rejoicing and mourning.Originally known as Buckingham House, the building at the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 on a site that had been in private ownership for at least 150 years.", "It was acquired by King George III in 1761 as a private residence for Queen Charlotte and became known as The Queen's House.", "During the 19th century it was enlarged by architects John Nash and Edward Blore, who constructed three wings around a central courtyard.", "Buckingham Palace became the London residence of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837.The last major structural additions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the East Front, which contains the well-known balcony on which the royal family traditionally appears to greet crowds.", "A German bomb destroyed the palace chapel during the Second World War; the Queen's Gallery was built on the site and opened to the public in 1962 to exhibit works of art from the Royal Collection.The original early-19th-century interior designs, many of which survive, include widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Charles Long.", "King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme.", "Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the Chinese regency style with furniture and fittings brought from the Royal Pavilion at Brighton and from Carlton House.", "The palace has 775 rooms, and the garden is the largest private garden in London.", "The state rooms, used for official and state entertaining, are open to the public each year for most of August and September and on some days in winter and spring." ], [ "History", "===Pre-1624===In the Middle Ages, the site of the future palace formed part of the Manor of Ebury (also called Eia).", "The marshy ground was watered by the river Tyburn, which still flows below the courtyard and south wing of the palace.", "Where the river was fordable (at Cow Ford), the village of Eye Cross grew.", "Ownership of the site changed hands many times; owners included Edward the Confessor and Edith of Wessex in late Saxon times, and, after the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror.", "William gave the site to Geoffrey de Mandeville, who bequeathed it to the monks of Westminster Abbey.In 1531, Henry VIII acquired the Hospital of St James, which became St James's Palace, from Eton College, and in 1536 he took the Manor of Ebury from Westminster Abbey.", "These transfers brought the site of Buckingham Palace back into royal hands for the first time since William the Conqueror had given it away almost 500 years earlier.", "Various owners leased it from royal landlords, and the freehold was the subject of frenzied speculation during the 17th century.", "By then, the old village of Eye Cross had long since fallen into decay, and the area was mostly wasteland.", "Needing money, James VI and I sold off part of the Crown freehold but retained part of the site on which he established a mulberry garden for the production of silk.", "(This is at the north-west corner of today's palace.)", "Clement Walker in ''Anarchia Anglicana'' (1649) refers to \"new-erected sodoms and spintries at the Mulberry Garden at S. James's\"; this suggests it may have been a place of debauchery.", "Eventually, in the late 17th century, the freehold was inherited from the property tycoon Hugh Audley by the great heiress Mary Davies.===First houses on the site (1624–1761)===Engraving of Buckingham House, Possibly the first house erected within the site was that of William Blake, around 1624.The next owner was George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich, who from 1633 extended Blake's house, which came to be known as Goring House, and developed much of today's garden, then known as Goring Great Garden.", "He did not, however, obtain the freehold interest in the mulberry garden.", "Unbeknown to Goring, in 1640 the document \"failed to pass the Great Seal before Charles I fled London, which it needed to do for legal execution\".", "It was this critical omission that would help the British royal family regain the freehold under George III.", "When the improvident Goring defaulted on his rents, Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington was able to purchase the lease of Goring House and he was occupying it when it burned down in 1674, following which he constructed Arlington House on the site – the location of the southern wing of today's palace – the next year.", "In 1698, John Sheffield acquired the lease.", "He later became the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby.", "'''Buckingham House''' was built for Sheffield in 1703 to the design of William Winde.", "The style chosen was of a large, three-floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings.", "It was eventually sold by Buckingham's illegitimate son, Charles Sheffield, in 1761 to George III for £21,000.Sheffield's leasehold on the mulberry garden site, the freehold of which was still owned by the royal family, was due to expire in 1774.===From Queen's House to palace (1761–1837)===The house in 1819, by William WestallUnder the new royal ownership, the building was originally intended as a private retreat for Queen Charlotte, and was accordingly known as '''The Queen's House'''.", "Remodelling of the structure began in 1762.In 1775, an Act of Parliament settled the property on Queen Charlotte, in exchange for her rights to nearby Somerset House, and 14 of her 15 children were born there.", "Some furnishings were transferred from Carlton House and others had been bought in France after the French Revolution of 1789.While St James's Palace remained the official and ceremonial royal residence, the name \"Buckingham Palace\" was used from at least 1791.After his accession to the throne in 1820, George IV continued the renovation intending to create a small, comfortable home.", "However, in 1826, while the work was in progress, the King decided to modify the house into a palace with the help of his architect John Nash.", "The external façade was designed, keeping in mind the French neoclassical influence preferred by George IV.", "The cost of the renovations grew dramatically, and by 1829 the extravagance of Nash's designs resulted in his removal as the architect.", "On the death of George IV in 1830, his younger brother William IV hired Edward Blore to finish the work.", "William never moved into the palace.", "After the Palace of Westminster was destroyed by fire in 1834, he offered to convert Buckingham Palace into a new Houses of Parliament, but his offer was declined.===Queen Victoria (1837–1901)===Buckingham Palace c. 1837, showing Marble Arch at left, a ceremonial entrance.", "It was moved next to Hyde Park to make way for the new east wing in 1847.Buckingham Palace became the principal royal residence in 1837, on the accession of Queen Victoria, who was the first monarch to reside there; her predecessor William IV had died before its completion.", "While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour, the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious.", "It was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die down, and consequently the palace was often cold.", "Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled, and when it was decided to install gas lamps, there was a serious worry about the build-up of gas on the lower floors.", "It was also said that the staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty.", "Following the Queen's marriage in 1840, her husband, Prince Albert, concerned himself with a reorganisation of the household offices and staff, and with addressing the design faults of the palace.", "By the end of 1840, all the problems had been rectified.", "However, the builders were to return within a decade.By 1847, the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family and a new wing, designed by Edward Blore, was built by Thomas Cubitt, enclosing the central quadrangle.", "The large East Front, facing The Mall, is today the \"public face\" of Buckingham Palace and contains the balcony from which the royal family acknowledge the crowds on momentous occasions and after the annual Trooping the Colour.", "The ballroom wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period, designed by Nash's student James Pennethorne.", "Before Prince Albert's death, the palace was frequently the scene of musical entertainments, and the most celebrated contemporary musicians entertained at Buckingham Palace.", "The composer Felix Mendelssohn is known to have played there on three occasions.", "Johann Strauss II and his orchestra played there when in England.", "Under Victoria, Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls, in addition to the usual royal ceremonies, investitures and presentations.Widowed in 1861, the grief-stricken Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at Windsor Castle, Balmoral Castle and Osborne House.", "For many years the palace was seldom used, even neglected.", "In 1864, a note was found pinned to the fence of Buckingham Palace, saying: \"These commanding premises to be let or sold, in consequence of the late occupant's declining business.\"", "Eventually, public opinion persuaded the Queen to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible.", "Court functions were still held at Windsor Castle, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black, while Buckingham Palace remained shuttered for most of the year.===Early 20th century (1901–1945)===In 1901, the new king, Edward VII, began redecorating the palace.", "The King and his wife, Queen Alexandra, had always been at the forefront of London high society, and their friends, known as \"the Marlborough House Set\", were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age.", "Buckingham Palace—the Ballroom, Grand Entrance, Marble Hall, Grand Staircase, vestibules and galleries were redecorated in the Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme they retain today—once again became a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale but leaving some to feel Edward's heavy redecorations were at odds with Nash's original work.The last major building work took place during the reign of George V when, in 1913, Aston Webb redesigned Blore's 1850 East Front to resemble in part Giacomo Leoni's Lyme Park in Cheshire.", "This new refaced principal façade (of Portland stone) was designed to be the backdrop to the Victoria Memorial, a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria created by sculptor Thomas Brock, erected outside the main gates on a surround constructed by architect Aston Webb.", "George V, who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910, had a more serious personality than his father; greater emphasis was now placed on official entertainment and royal duties than on lavish parties.", "He arranged a series of command performances featuring jazz musicians such as the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (1919; the first jazz performance for a head of state), Sidney Bechet and Louis Armstrong (1932), which earned the palace a nomination in 2009 for a (Kind of) Blue Plaque by the Brecon Jazz Festival as one of the venues making the greatest contribution to jazz music in the United Kingdom.During the First World War, which lasted from 1914 until 1918, the palace escaped unscathed.", "Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor, but the royal family remained in residence.", "The King imposed rationing at the palace, much to the dismay of his guests and household.", "To the King's later regret, David Lloyd George persuaded him to go further and ostentatiously lock the wine cellars and refrain from alcohol, to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated working class.", "The workers continued to imbibe, and the King was left unhappy at his enforced abstinence.George V's wife, Queen Mary, was a connoisseur of the arts and took a keen interest in the Royal Collection of furniture and art, both restoring and adding to it.", "Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed, such as the pair of marble Empire-style chimneypieces by Benjamin Vulliamy, dating from 1810, which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room, the huge low room at the centre of the garden façade.", "Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room.", "This room, long, previously known as the South Drawing Room, has a ceiling designed by Nash, coffered with huge gilt console brackets.", "In 1938, the northwest pavilion, designed by Nash as a conservatory, was converted into a swimming pool.====Second World War====During the Second World War, which broke out in 1939, the palace was bombed nine times.", "The most serious and publicised incident destroyed the palace chapel in 1940.This event was shown in cinemas throughout the United Kingdom to show the common suffering of the rich and poor.", "One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while George VI and Queen Elizabeth (the future Queen Mother) were in the palace, and many windows were blown in and the chapel destroyed.", "Wartime coverage of such incidents was severely restricted, however.", "The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home; it was at this time the Queen famously declared: \"I'm glad we have been bombed.", "Now I can look the East End in the face\".", "The royal family were seen as sharing their subjects' hardship, as ''The Sunday Graphic'' reported:On 15 September 1940, known as Battle of Britain Day, an RAF pilot, Ray Holmes of No.", "504 Squadron RAF rammed a German Dornier Do 17 bomber he believed was going to bomb the palace.", "Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the quick decision to ram it.", "Holmes bailed out and the aircraft crashed into the forecourt of London Victoria station.", "The bomber's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London.", "The British pilot became a King's Messenger after the war and died at the age of 90 in 2005.On VE Day—8 May 1945—the palace was the centre of British celebrations.", "The King, the Queen, Princess Elizabeth (the future queen) and Princess Margaret appeared on the balcony, with the palace's blacked-out windows behind them, to cheers from a vast crowd in The Mall.", "The damaged palace was carefully restored after the war by John Mowlem & Co.===Mid 20th century to present day===Victoria Memorial during a dress rehearsal for Trooping the Colour in 2015, seen from within the PalaceMany of the palace's contents are part of the Royal Collection; they can, on occasion, be viewed by the public at the Queen's Gallery, near the Royal Mews.", "The purpose-built gallery opened in 1962 and displays a changing selection of items from the collection.", "It occupies the site of the chapel that was destroyed in the Second World War.", "The palace was designated a Grade I listed building in 1970.Its state rooms have been open to the public during August and September and on some dates throughout the year since 1993.The money raised in entry fees was originally put towards the rebuilding of Windsor Castle after the 1992 fire devastated many of its staterooms.", "In the year to 31 March 2017, 580,000 people visited the palace, and 154,000 visited the gallery.", "In 2004, the palace attempted to claim money from the community energy fund to heat Buckingham Palace, but the claim was rejected due to fear of public backlash.The palace used to racially segregate staff.", "In 1968, Charles Tryon, 2nd Baron Tryon, acting as treasurer to Queen Elizabeth II, sought to exempt Buckingham Palace from full application of the Race Relations Act 1968.He stated that the palace did not hire people of colour for clerical jobs, only as domestic servants.", "He arranged with civil servants for an exemption that meant that complaints of racism against the royal household would be sent directly to the Home Secretary and kept out of the legal system.The palace, like Windsor Castle, is owned by the reigning monarch in right of the Crown.", "Occupied royal palaces are not part of the Crown Estate, nor are they the monarch's personal property, unlike Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle.", "The Government of the United Kingdom is responsible for maintaining the palace in exchange for the profits made by the Crown Estate.", "In 2015, the State Dining Room was closed for a year and a half because its ceiling had become potentially dangerous.", "A 10-year schedule of maintenance work, including new plumbing, wiring, boilers and radiators, and the installation of solar panels on the roof, has been estimated to cost £369 million and was approved by the prime minister in November 2016.It will be funded by a temporary increase in the Sovereign Grant paid from the income of the Crown Estate and is intended to extend the building's working life by at least 50 years.", "In 2017, the House of Commons backed funding for the project by 464 votes to 56.Buckingham Palace is a symbol and home of the British monarchy, an art gallery and a tourist attraction.", "Behind the gilded railings and gates that were completed by the Bromsgrove Guild in 1911, lies Webb's famous façade, which was described in a book published by the Royal Collection Trust as looking \"like everybody's idea of a palace\".", "It has not only been a weekday home of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip but is also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh.", "The palace also houses their offices, as well as those of the Princess Royal and Princess Alexandra, and is the workplace of more than 800 people.", "Charles III lives at Clarence House while restoration work continues, although he conducts official business at Buckingham Palace, including weekly meetings with the Prime Minister.", "Every year, some 50,000 invited guests are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences and banquets.", "Three garden parties are held in the summer, usually in July.", "The forecourt of Buckingham Palace is used for the Changing of the Guard, a major ceremony and tourist attraction (daily from April to July; every other day in other months)." ], [ "Interior", "''Piano nobile'' of Buckingham Palace.", "The areas defined by shaded walls represent lower minor wings.", "'''Note''': this is an unscaled sketch plan for reference only.", "Proportions of some rooms may slightly differ in reality.The front of the palace measures across, by deep, by high and contains over of floorspace.", "There are 775 rooms, including 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices, 78 bathrooms, 52 principal bedrooms and 19 state rooms.", "It also has a post office, cinema, swimming pool, doctor's surgery, and jeweller's workshop.", "The royal family occupy a small suite of private rooms in the north wing.=== Principal rooms ===The principal rooms are contained on the first-floor ''piano nobile'' behind the west-facing garden façade at the rear of the palace.", "The centre of this ornate suite of state rooms is the Music Room, its large bow the dominant feature of the façade.", "Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White Drawing Rooms.", "At the centre of the suite, serving as a corridor to link the state rooms, is the Picture Gallery, which is top-lit and long.", "The Gallery is hung with numerous works including some by Rembrandt, van Dyck, Rubens and Vermeer; other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the Throne Room and the Green Drawing Room.", "The Green Drawing Room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room, and is part of the ceremonial route to the throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand Staircase.", "The Guard Room contains white marble statues of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, in Roman costume, set in a tribune lined with tapestries.", "These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining but are open to the public every summer.=== Semi-state apartments ===Prince William and his wife Catherine greeting Barack and Michelle Obama in the 1844 roomDirectly underneath the state apartments are the less grand semi-state apartments.", "Opening from the Marble Hall, these rooms are used for less formal entertaining, such as luncheon parties and private audiences.", "At the centre of this floor is the Bow Room, through which thousands of guests pass annually to the monarch's garden parties.", "When paying a state visit to Britain, foreign heads of state are usually entertained by the monarch at Buckingham Palace.", "They are allocated an extensive suite of rooms known as the Belgian Suite, situated at the foot of the Minister's Staircase, on the ground floor of the west-facing Garden Wing.", "Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors, such as the 1844 Room, decorated in that year for the state visit of Nicholas I of Russia, and the 1855 Room, in honour of the visit of Napoleon III of France.", "The former is a sitting room that also serves as an audience room and is often used for personal investitures.", "Narrow corridors link the rooms of the suite; one of them is given extra height and perspective by saucer domes designed by Nash in the style of Soane.", "A second corridor in the suite has Gothic-influenced cross-over vaulting.", "The suite was named after Leopold I of Belgium, uncle of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.", "In 1936, the suite briefly became the private apartments of the palace when Edward VIII occupied them.", "The original early-19th-century interior designs, many of which still survive, included widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Charles Long.", "Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme.=== East wing ===Platinum Jubilee celebrations in 2022Between 1847 and 1850, when Blore was building the new east wing, the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings.", "As a result, many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere.", "The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up of parts of the Brighton Banqueting and Music Rooms with a large oriental chimneypiece designed by Robert Jones and sculpted by Richard Westmacott.", "It was formerly in the Music Room at the Brighton Pavilion.", "The ornate clock, known as the Kylin Clock, was made in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, China, in the second half of the 18th century; it has a later movement by Benjamin Vulliamy circa 1820.The Yellow Drawing Room has wallpaper supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon, and a chimneypiece which is a European vision of how the Chinese chimney piece may appear.", "It has nodding mandarins in niches and fearsome winged dragons, designed by Robert Jones.At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony with the Centre Room behind its glass doors.", "This is a Chinese-style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary, who, working with the designer Charles Allom, created a more \"binding\" Chinese theme in the late 1920s, although the lacquer doors were brought from Brighton in 1873.Running the length of the ''piano nobile'' of the east wing is the Great Gallery, modestly known as the Principal Corridor, which runs the length of the eastern side of the quadrangle.", "It has mirrored doors and mirrored cross walls reflecting porcelain pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton.", "The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery, with the Centre Room in between." ], [ "Court ceremonies", "The Princess Royal conducting an Investiture in the Throne Room in 2023.Investitures for the awarding of honours (which include the conferring of knighthoods by dubbing with a sword) usually take place in the palace's Throne Room.", "Investitures are conducted by the King or another senior member of the royal family: a military band plays in the musicians' gallery, as recipients receive their honours, watched by their families and friends.A state banquet held in the Ballroom in 2011State banquets take place in the Ballroom, built in 1854.At long, wide and high, it is the largest room in the palace; at one end of the room is a throne dais (beneath a giant, domed velvet canopy, known as a ''shamiana'' or baldachin, that was used at the Delhi Durbar in 1911).", "State Banquets are formal dinners held on the first evening of a state visit by a foreign head of state.", "On these occasions, for up to 170 guests in formal \"white tie and decorations\", including tiaras, the dining table is laid with the Grand Service, a collection of silver-gilt plate made in 1811 for the Prince of Wales, later George IV.", "The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November when the King entertains members of the diplomatic corps.", "On this grand occasion, all the state rooms are in use, as the royal family proceed through them, beginning at the great north doors of the Picture Gallery.", "As Nash had envisaged, all the large, double-mirrored doors stand open, reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces, creating a deliberate optical illusion of space and light.Smaller ceremonies such as the reception of new ambassadors take place in the \"1844 Room\".", "Here too, the King holds small lunch parties, and often meetings of the Privy Council.", "Larger lunch parties often take place in the curved and domed Music Room or the State Dining Room.", "Since the bombing of the palace chapel in World War II, royal christenings have sometimes taken place in the Music Room.", "Queen Elizabeth II's first three children were all baptised there.", "On all formal occasions, the ceremonies are attended by the Yeomen of the Guard, in their historic uniforms, and other officers of the court such as the Lord Chamberlain.===Former ceremonial=======Court dress====Nixon with members of the royal family in the ground-floor Marble HallFormerly, men not wearing military uniform wore knee breeches of 18th-century design.", "Women's evening dress included trains and tiaras or feathers in their hair (often both).", "The dress code governing formal court uniform and dress has progressively relaxed.", "After the First World War, when Queen Mary wished to follow fashion by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground, she requested a lady-in-waiting to shorten her own skirt first to gauge the King's reaction.", "King George V disapproved, so the Queen kept her hemline unfashionably low.", "Following his accession in 1936, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth allowed the hemline of daytime skirts to rise.", "Today, there is no official dress code.", "Most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or lounge suits; a minority wear morning coats, and in the evening, depending on the formality of the occasion, black tie or white tie.====Court presentation of débutantes====Débutantes were aristocratic young ladies making their first entrée into society through a presentation to the monarch at court.", "These occasions, known as \"coming out\", took place at the palace from the reign of Edward VII.", "The débutantes entered—wearing full court dress, with three ostrich feathers in their hair—curtsied, performed a backwards walk and a further curtsey, while manoeuvring a dress train of prescribed length.", "The ceremony, known as an evening court, corresponded to the \"court drawing rooms\" of Victoria's reign.", "After World War II, the ceremony was replaced by less formal afternoon receptions, omitting the requirement of court evening dress.", "In 1958, Queen Elizabeth II abolished the presentation parties for débutantes, replacing them with Garden Parties, for up to 8,000 invitees in the Garden.", "They are the largest functions of the year." ], [ "Garden and surroundings", "At the rear of the palace is the large and park-like garden, which together with its lake is the largest private garden in London.", "There, Queen Elizabeth II hosted her annual garden parties each summer and also held large functions to celebrate royal milestones, such as jubilees.", "It covers and includes a helicopter landing area, a lake and a tennis court.Adjacent to the palace is the Royal Mews, also designed by Nash, where the royal carriages, including the Gold State Coach, are housed.", "This rococo gilt coach, designed by William Chambers in 1760, has painted panels by G. B. Cipriani.", "It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and has been used by the monarch for every coronation since William IV.", "It was last used for the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla.", "Also housed in the mews are the coach horses used at royal ceremonial processions as well as many of the cars used by the royal family.The Mall, a ceremonial approach route to the palace, was designed by Aston Webb and completed in 1911 as part of a grand memorial to Queen Victoria.", "It extends from Admiralty Arch, across St James's Park to the Victoria Memorial, concluding at the entrance gates into the palace forecourt.", "This route is used by the cavalcades and motorcades of visiting heads of state, and by the royal family on state occasions—such as the annual Trooping the Colour." ], [ "Security breaches", "The boy Jones was an intruder who gained entry to the palace on three occasions between 1838 and 1841.At least 12 people have managed to gain unauthorised entry into the palace or its grounds since 1914, including Michael Fagan, who broke into the palace twice in 1982 and entered Queen Elizabeth II's bedroom on the second occasion.", "At the time, news media reported that he had a long conversation with her while she waited for security officers to arrive, but in a 2012 interview with ''The Independent'', Fagan said she ran out of the room, and no conversation took place.", "It was only in 2007 that trespassing on the palace grounds became a specific criminal offence." ], [ "See also", "* Flags at Buckingham Palace* List of British royal residences* King's Guard" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Allison, Ronald; Riddell, Sarah (1991).", "''The Royal Encyclopedia''.", "London: Macmillan.", "* Blaikie, Thomas (2002).", "''You Look Awfully Like the Queen: Wit and Wisdom from the House of Windsor''.", "London: HarperCollins.", ".", "* Goring, O. G. (1937).", "''From Goring House to Buckingham Palace''.", "London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson.", "* Harris, John; de Bellaigue, Geoffrey; & Miller, Oliver (1968).", "''Buckingham Palace''.", "London: Nelson.", ".", "* Healey, Edma (1997).", "''The Queen's House: A Social History of Buckingham Palace''.", "London: Penguin Group.", ".", "* Hedley, Olwen (1971) ''The Pictorial History of Buckingham Palace''.", "Pitkin, .", "* * * Mackenzie, Compton (1953).", "''The Queen's House''.", "London: Hutchinson.", "* Nash, Roy (1980).", "''Buckingham Palace: The Place and the People''.", "London: Macdonald Futura.", ".", "* * * Robinson, John Martin (1999).", "''Buckingham Palace''.", "Published by The Royal Collection, St James's Palace, London .", "* Williams, Neville (1971).", "''Royal Homes''.", "The Lutterworth Press.", ".", "* Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1973).", "''Queen Victoria'' ''(vol 1)'' Hamish Hamilton Ltd.* Wright, Patricia (1999; first published 1996).", "''The Strange History of Buckingham Palace''.", "Stroud, Gloucs.", ": Sutton Publishing Ltd. ." ], [ "External links", "* Buckingham Palace at the Royal Family website* Account of Buckingham Palace, with prints of Arlington House and Buckingham House from ''Old and New London'' (1878)* Account of the acquisition of the Manor of Ebury from ''Survey of London'' (1977)* The State Rooms, Buckingham Palace at the Royal Collection Trust*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "British Airways" ], [ "Introduction", "'''British Airways plc''' ('''BA''') is the flag carrier airline of the United Kingdom.", "It is headquartered in London, England, near its main hub at Heathrow Airport.The airline is the second largest UK-based carrier, based on fleet size and passengers carried, behind easyJet.", "In January 2011 BA merged with Iberia, creating the International Airlines Group (IAG), a holding company registered in Madrid, Spain.", "IAG is the world's third-largest airline group in terms of annual revenue and the second-largest in Europe.", "It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE 100 Index.", "British Airways is the first passenger airline to have generated more than US$1 billion on a single air route in a year (from 1 April 2017, to 31 March 2018, on the New York-JFK – London-Heathrow route).BA was created in 1974 after a British Airways Board was established by the British government to manage the two nationalised airline corporations, British Overseas Airways Corporation and British European Airways, and two regional airlines, Cambrian Airways and Northeast Airlines.", "On 31 March 1974, all four companies were merged to form British Airways.", "However, it marked 2019 as its centenary based on predecessor companies.", "After almost 13 years as a state company, BA was privatised in February 1987 as part of a wider privatisation plan by the Conservative government.", "The carrier expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1987, Dan-Air in 1992, and British Midland International in 2012.It is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance, along with American Airlines, the now-defunct Canadian Airlines, Cathay Pacific, and Qantas.", "The alliance has since grown to become the third-largest, after SkyTeam and Star Alliance." ], [ "History", "A Boeing 747-100 in BOAC-British Airways transition livery (1976)Proposals to establish a joint British airline, combining the assets of the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and British European Airways (BEA), were first raised in 1953 as a result of difficulties in attempts by BOAC and BEA to negotiate air rights through the British colony of Cyprus.", "Increasingly BOAC was protesting that BEA was using its subsidiary Cyprus Airways to circumvent an agreement that BEA would not fly routes further east than Cyprus, particularly to the increasingly important oil regions in the Middle East.", "The chairman of BOAC, Miles Thomas, was in favour of a merger as a potential solution to this disagreement and had backing for the idea from the Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time, Rab Butler.", "However, opposition from the Treasury blocked the proposal.Consequently, it was only following the recommendations of the 1969 Edwards Report that a new British Airways Board, managing both BEA and BOAC, and the two regional British airlines Cambrian Airways based at Cardiff, and Northeast Airlines based at Newcastle upon Tyne, was constituted on 1 April 1972.Although each airline's branding was maintained initially, two years later the British Airways Board unified its branding, effectively establishing British Airways as an airline on 31 March 1974.Following two years of fierce competition with British Caledonian, the second-largest airline in the United Kingdom at the time, the Government changed its aviation policy in 1976 so that the two carriers would no longer compete on long-haul routes.British Airways and Air France operated the supersonic Concorde airliner, and the world's first supersonic passenger service flew on 21 January 1976 from Heathrow Airport to Bahrain International Airport.", "Services to the U.S. began on 24 May 1976 with a flight to Washington Dulles airport, and flights to New York JFK airport followed on 22 September 1977.Service to Singapore was established in co-operation with Singapore Airlines as a continuation of the flight to Bahrain.", "Following the Air France Concorde crash in Paris and a slump in air travel following the 11 September attacks in New York in 2001, it was decided to cease Concorde operations in 2003 after 27 years of service.", "The final commercial Concorde flight was BA002 from New York-JFK to London-Heathrow on 24 October 2003.A British Airways Hawker Siddeley Trident in its transitional scheme with BEA livery but with British Airways titles.In 1981 the airline was instructed to prepare for privatisation by the Conservative Thatcher government.", "Sir John King, later Lord King, was appointed chairman, charged with bringing the airline back into profitability.", "While many other large airlines struggled, King was credited with transforming British Airways into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world.", "The flag carrier was privatised and was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987.British Airways effected the takeover of the UK's \"second\" airline, British Caledonian, in July of that same year.The formation of Richard Branson's Virgin Atlantic in 1984 created a competitor for BA.", "The intense rivalry between British Airways and Virgin Atlantic culminated in the former being sued for libel in 1993, arising from claims and counterclaims over a \"dirty tricks\" campaign against Virgin.", "This campaign included allegations of poaching Virgin Atlantic customers, tampering with private files belonging to Virgin, and undermining Virgin's reputation in the city.", "As a result of the case BA management apologised \"unreservedly\", and the company agreed to pay £110,000 in damages to Virgin, £500,000 to Branson personally and £3 million legal costs.", "Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by his deputy, Colin Marshall, while Bob Ayling took over as CEO.", "Virgin filed a separate action in the U.S. that same year regarding BA's domination of the trans-Atlantic routes, but it was thrown out in 1999.British Airways' first Concorde at Heathrow Airport, on 15 January 1976.In 1992 British Airways expanded through the acquisition of the financially troubled Dan-Air, giving BA a much larger presence at Gatwick Airport.", "British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in Taiwan, was formed in March 1993 to operate between London and Taipei.", "That same month BA purchased a 25% stake in the Australian airline Qantas and, with the acquisition of Brymon Airways in May, formed British Airways Citiexpress (later BA Connect).", "In September 1998, British Airways, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and Canadian Airlines, formed the Oneworld airline alliance.", "Oneworld began operations on 1 February 1999, and is the third-largest airline alliance in the world, behind SkyTeam and Star Alliance.A British Airways Lockheed TriStar in Landor liveryBob Ayling's leadership led to a cost savings of £750m and the establishment of a budget airline, Go, in 1998.The next year, however, British Airways reported an 84% drop in profits in its first quarter alone, its worst in seven years.", "In March 2000, Ayling was removed from his position and British Airways announced Rod Eddington as his successor.", "That year, British Airways and KLM conducted talks on a potential merger, reaching a decision in July to file an official merger plan with the European Commission.", "The plan fell through in September 2000.British Asia Airways ceased operations in 2001 after BA suspended flights to Taipei.", "Go was sold to its management and the private equity firm 3i in June 2001.Eddington would make further workforce cuts due to reduced demand following 11 September attacks in 2001, and BA sold its stake in Qantas in September 2004.In 2005 Willie Walsh, managing director of Aer Lingus and a former pilot, became the chief executive officer of British Airways.", "BA unveiled its new subsidiary OpenSkies in January 2008, taking advantage of the liberalisation of transatlantic traffic rights between Europe and the United States.", "OpenSkies flies non-stop from Paris to New York's JFK and Newark airports.In July 2008, British Airways announced a merger plan with Iberia, another flag carrier airline in the Oneworld alliance, wherein each airline would retain its original brand.", "The agreement was confirmed in April 2010, and in July the European Commission and US Department of Transport permitted the merger and began to co-ordinate transatlantic routes with American Airlines.", "On 6 October 2010 the alliance between British Airways, American Airlines and Iberia formally began operations.", "The alliance generates an estimated £230 million in annual cost-saving for BA, in addition to the £330 million which would be saved by the merger with Iberia.", "This merger was finalised on 21 January 2011, resulting in the International Airlines Group (IAG), the world's third-largest airline in terms of annual revenue and the second-largest airline group in Europe.", "Prior to merging, British Airways owned a 13.5% stake in Iberia, and thus received ownership of 55% of the combined International Airlines Group; Iberia's other shareholders received the remaining 45%.", "As a part of the merger, British Airways ceased trading independently on the London Stock Exchange after 23 years as a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.In September 2010 Willie Walsh, now CEO of IAG, announced that the group was considering acquiring other airlines and had drawn up a shortlist of twelve possible acquisitions.", "In November 2011 IAG announced an agreement in principle to purchase British Midland International from Lufthansa.", "A contract to purchase the airline was agreed the next month, and the sale was completed for £172.5 million on 30 March 2012.The airline established a new subsidiary based at London City Airport operating Airbus A318s.British Airways and Iberia merged in January 2011, forming International Airlines Group, one of the world's largest airlines.British Airways was the official airline partner of the London 2012 Olympic Games.", "On 18 May 2012 it flew the Olympic flame from Athens International Airport to RNAS Culdrose while carrying various dignitaries, including Lord Sebastian Coe, Princess Anne, the Olympics minister Hugh Robertson and the London Mayor Boris Johnson, along with the footballer David Beckham.On 27 May 2017, British Airways suffered a computer power failure.", "All flights were cancelled and thousands of passengers were affected.", "By the following day, the company had not succeeded in reestablishing the normal function of its computer systems.", "When asked by reporters for more information on the ongoing problems, British Airways stated \"The root cause was a power supply issue which our affected our IT systems - we continue to investigate this\" and declined to comment further.", "Willie Walsh later attributed the crash to an electrical engineer disconnecting the UPS and said there would be an independent investigation.Amidst the decline in the value of Iranian currency due to the reintroduction of U.S. sanctions on Iran, BA announced that the Iranian route is \"not commercially viable\".", "As a result, BA decided to stop its services in Iran, effective 22 September 2018.In 2018, British Airways partnered with British tailor and designer Ozwald Boateng to redesign the company's historic uniforms, in honour of its approaching centenary, creating a new look for BA, while adhering to its traditional style.", "The new collection \"A British Original\" was launched in 2023.This design initiative also included English bone china manufactured by William Edwards and cutlery by Studio William for the company's first class service.In 2019, as part of the celebrations of a centenary of airline operations in the United Kingdom, British Airways announced that four aircraft would receive retro liveries.", "The first of these is a Boeing 747-400 (G-BYGC), which was repainted into the former BOAC livery, which it retained until its retirement.", "Two more Boeing 747-400s were repainted with former British Airways liveries.", "One wore the \"Landor\" livery until its retirement in 2020 (G-BNLY), the other (G-CIVB), wore the original \"Union Jack\" livery until its retirement in 2020 also.", "An Airbus A319 was repainted into British European Airways livery, which is still flying as G-EUPJ.On 28 April 2020, the company set out plans to make up to 12,000 staff redundant because of the global collapse of air traffic due to the COVID-19 pandemic and that it may not reopen its operations at Gatwick airport.", "They reopened at Gatwick in March 2022.In July 2020, British Airways announced the immediate retirement of its entire 747-400 fleet, having originally intended to phase out the remaining 747s in 2024.The airline stated that its decision to bring forward the date was in part due to the downturn in air travel following the COVID-19 pandemic and to focus on incorporating more modern and fuel-efficient aircraft such as the Airbus A350 and Boeing 787.At the same time, British Airways also announced its intention to eliminate carbon emissions by 2050.On 28 July 2020, the company's cabin crew union issued an \"industrial action\" warning in order to prevent the 12,000 job cuts and pay cuts.On 12 October 2020, it was announced that Sean Doyle, CEO of Aer Lingus (also part of the IAG airline group) would succeed Álex Cruz as CEO." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "===Operations===British Airways is the largest airline based in the United Kingdom in terms of fleet size, international flights, and international destinations and was, until 2008, the largest airline by passenger numbers.", "The airline carried 34.6 million passengers in 2008, but, rival carrier easyJet transported 44.5 million passengers that year, passing British Airways for the first time.", "British Airways holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence, it is permitted to carry passengers, cargo, and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats.Waterside, the head office building of British Airways.The airlines' head office, Waterside, stands in Harmondsworth, a village that is near Heathrow Airport.", "Waterside was completed in June 1998 to replace British Airways' previous head office, Speedbird House, located in Technical Block C on the grounds of Heathrow.British Airways' main base is at Heathrow Airport, but it also has a major presence at Gatwick Airport.", "It also has a base at London City Airport, where its subsidiary BA Cityflyer is the largest operator.", "BA had previously operated a significant hub at Manchester Airport.", "Manchester to New York (JFK) services were withdrawn; later all international services outside London ceased when the subsidiary BA Connect was sold.", "Passengers wishing to travel internationally with BA either to or from regional UK destinations must now transfer in London.", "Heathrow Airport is dominated by British Airways, which owns 50% of the slots available at the airport as of 2019, growing from 40% in 2004.The majority of BA services operate from Terminal 5, with the exception of some flights at Terminal 3 owing to insufficient capacity at Terminal 5.At London City Airport, the company owns 52% of the slots as of 2019.In August 2014, Willie Walsh advised the airline would continue to use flight paths over Iraq despite the hostilities there.", "A few days earlier Qantas announced it would avoid Iraqi airspace, while other airlines did likewise.", "The issue arose following the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 over Ukraine, and a temporary suspension of flights to and from Ben Gurion Airport during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.===Subsidiaries===Over its history, BA has had many subsidiaries.", "In addition to the below, British Airways also owned Airways Aero Association, the operator of the British Airways flying club based at Wycombe Air Park in High Wycombe, until it was sold to Surinder Arora in 2007.An OpenSkies Boeing 757-200 landing at Frankfurt Airport.", "Airline Still Owned by BA Current Status Details BA Cityflyer Yes Active Founded 25 March 2007 as a reforming of the former subsidiary CityFlyer Express with assets of BA Connect not sold to Flybe British Airways Engineering Yes Active Responsible for the maintenance, repair, and overhaul of British Airways' aircraft.", "BAE was formed from the merger of the engineering divisions of BOAC and BEA's when the two airlines merged in 1974 to form British Airways.", "British Airways World Cargo No Merged with fellow Cargo subsidiaries of IAG to form IAG Cargo British Airways first opened a World Cargo centre at Heathrow in 1999.The company ended operations on 30 April 2014, having been fully merged into IAG Cargo British Airways Helicopters No Sold Sold in 1986 - Now trades as British International Helicopters BA Connect No Closed Formerly known as BA CitiExpress.", "Sold in 2007 to Flybe, closed down in 2020 OpenSkies Yes Reorganised Founded in 2008.OpenSkies ceased to operate under its own brand after summer 2018 to operate for IAG's new low-cost subsidiary brand Level.", "British Airways Limited No Closed Established in 2012 to take over the operation of the premium service between London City Airport and New York-JFK.", "The flights returned to be directly operated by British Airways plc in 2015.The service was suspended in March 2020 amidst COVID-19, before being officially cancelled in August 2020.CityFlyer Express No Closed Formerly a short-haul regional airline founded in 1991 (as Euroworld Airways).", "In 1993 it became the first British Airways (BA) franchisee operating as ''British Airways Express''.", "CityFlyer's ownership passed to BA in 1999 when that company bought out the original promoters as well as 3i, the airline's main shareholder at the time.", "Initially, CityFlyer continued to operate as a separate unit, but it was eventually absorbed into British Airways' mainline short haul operation at Gatwick in 2001.British Regional Airlines No Closed Founded in March 1991 when Manx Airlines created Manx Airlines Europe in order to expand and fly routes within the United Kingdom.", "In 1994 Manx Airlines Europe became a franchise carrier for British Airways.", "In March 2001 British Airways purchased the British Regional Airlines Group (holding company of British Regional Airlines and Manx Airlines) for £78m and merged it with Brymon Airways to create British Airways CitiExpress.", "Deutsche BA No Closed Sold in 2008 to Air Berlin where it traded as dba by Air Berlin, before closing down in 2008 Air Liberté No Closed Purchased Air Liberté together with TAT and inaugurated them under one management.", "On 5 May 2000, BA sold Air Liberté to a partnership between Taitbout Antibes and Swissair.BA EuroflyerYesActiveCreated in 2022, was established to compete with easyJet at Gatwick by providing a lower cost option to the primary airline.===Franchises===Comair at O. R. Tambo International Airport Airline Still Operating Still a BA Franchisee Details Sun-Air Yes Active Founded in 1978.Became a franchisee in 1996 Comair No Closed Founded in 1943.Became a franchisee in 1996 The company entered into voluntary business rescue proceedings on 5 May 2020, due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic.", "Operations were suspended on 31 May 2022.Loganair No Active Founded in February 1962.In 1993, the airline became a franchisee of British Airways, operating its Islanders in the British Airways livery.", "This would stand until July 2008, when it became the new franchisee of Flybe.", "Maersk Air UK No Closed Founded in May 1993 as part of the demerger of BEA.", "It flew out of Birmingham Airport to domestic and European destinations under a British Airways franchise agreement.", "By early 2003 the Maersk Group had given up on operating an airline in the UK and put Maersk Air UK up for sale.", "However, there were not interested buyers and the company was therefore sold in a management buyout in 2003, with the airline becoming Duo Airways before ceasing operations in May 2004, when an investor withdrew support at short notice.===Shareholdings===British Airways obtained a 15% stake in UK regional airline Flybe from the sale of BA Connect in March 2007.It sold the stake in 2014.BA also owned a 10% stake in InterCapital and Regional Rail (ICRR), the company that managed the operations of Eurostar (UK) Ltd from 1998 to 2010, when the management of Eurostar was restructured.===Business trends===The key trends for the British Airways PLC Group are shown below.On the merger with Iberia, the accounting reference date was changed from 31 March to 31 December; figures below are therefore for the years to 31 March up to 2010, for the nine months to 31 December 2010, and for the years to 31 December thereafter:+Key indicators from 2015 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 20212022 Turnover (£m)11,33311,44312,22613,02113,2904,0013,693'''11,030''' Profit (profit/loss after tax) (£m)9751,3451,4472,0911,109'''61''' Number of employees (average FTE)39,30939,02438,34738,20238,23033,89826,890'''33,644''' Number of passengers (m)43.344.545.246.847.712.210.3'''33.0''' Passenger load factor (%)81.581.281.882.583.661.458.3'''79.9''' Number of aircraft at year end284293293294305277276'''276''' ''Notes/sources''+Key indicators 2008-2014 2008Mar 2009Mar 2010Mar 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Turnover (£m)8,7588,9927,9946,6839,98710,82711,42111,719 Profit (profit/loss after tax) (£m)69417067284281702 Number of employees (average FTE)41,74541,47337,59535,77836,16438,76138,59239,710 Number of passengers (m)34.633.131.824.134.237.639.941.5 Passenger load factor (%)79.177.078.578.578.279.981.381.0 Number of aircraft at year end245245238240245273278279 ''Notes/sources'' In 2020, due to the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, British Airways had to reduce its 42,000-strong workforce by 12,000 jobs.", "According to the estimate by IAG, a parent company, it will take the air travel industry several years to return to previous performance and profitability levels.However, 2022 saw a dramatic increase in travel, and the company now faced a worker shortage, forcing it to cancel more than 1,500 flights.", "During February 2023, The international airlines group, the owners of British Airways announced that the group has returned to making an annual profit of €1.3 billion for the first time since the pandemic, following a €2.8 billion loss in 2021.The company warned that due to the surge in demand for flying this could lead to more disruption.===Industrial relations===Staff working for British Airways are represented by a number of trade unions, pilots are represented by British Air Line Pilots' Association, cabin crew by British Airlines Stewards and Stewardesses Association (a branch of Unite the Union), while other branches of Unite the Union and the GMB Union represent other employees.", "Bob Ayling's management faced strike action by cabin crew over a £1 billion cost-cutting drive to return BA to profitability in 1997; this was the last time BA cabin crew would strike until 2009, although staff morale has reportedly been unstable since that incident.", "In an effort to increase interaction between management, employees, and the unions, various conferences and workshops have taken place, often with thousands in attendance.In 2005, wildcat action was taken by union members over a decision by Gate Gourmet not to renew the contracts of 670 workers and replace them with agency staff; it is estimated that the strike cost British Airways £30 million and caused disruption to 100,000 passengers.", "In October 2006, BA became involved in a civil rights dispute when a Christian employee was forbidden to wear a necklace bearing the cross, a religious symbol.", "BA's practice of forbidding such symbols has been publicly questioned by British politicians such as the former Home Secretary John Reid and the former Foreign Secretary Jack Straw.Relations have been turbulent between BA and Unite.", "In 2007, cabin crew threatened strike action over salary changes to be imposed by BA management.", "The strike was called off at the last minute, British Airways losing £80 million.", "In December 2009, a ballot for strike action over Christmas received a high level of support, action was blocked by a court injunction that deemed the ballot illegal.", "Negotiations failed to stop strike action in March, BA withdrew perks for strike participants.", "Allegations were made by ''The Guardian'' newspaper that BA had consulted outside firms methods to undermine the unions: the story was later withdrawn.", "A strike was announced for May 2010, British Airways again sought an injunction.", "Members of the Socialist Workers Party disrupted negotiations between BA management and Unite to prevent industrial action.", "Further disruption struck when Derek Simpson, a Unite co-leader, was discovered to have leaked details of confidential negotiations online via Twitter.", "Industrial action re-emerged in 2017, this time by BA's Mixed Fleet flight attendants, whom were employed on much less favorable pay and terms and conditions compared to previous cabin staff who joined prior to 2010.A ballot for industrial action was distributed to Mixed Fleet crew in November 2016 and resulted in an overwhelming yes majority for industrial action.", "Unite described Mixed Fleet crew as on \"poverty pay\", with many Mixed Fleet flight attendants sleeping in their cars in between shifts because they cannot afford the fuel to drive home, or operating while sick as they cannot afford to call in sick and lose their pay for the shift.", "Unite also blasted BA of removing staff travel concessions, bonus payments and other benefits to all cabin crew who undertook industrial action, as well as strike-breaking tactics such as wet-leasing aircraft from other airlines and offering financial incentives for cabin crew not to strike.", "The first dates of strikes during Christmas 2016 were cancelled due to pay negotiations.", "Industrial action by Mixed Fleet commenced in January 2017 after rejecting a pay offer.", "Strike action continued throughout 2017 in numerous discontinuous periods, resulting in one of the longest running disputes in aviation history.", "On 31 October 2017, after 85 days of discontinuous industrial action, Mixed Fleet accepted a new pay deal from BA which ended the dispute.=== Senior Leadership ===* ''Chairman:'' Sean Doyle (since April 2021)*''Chief Executive:'' Sean Doyle (since October 2020)==== List of Former Chairmen ====# Sir David Nicolson (1972–1975)# The Lord McFadzean (1976–1979)# Sir Ross Stainton (1979–1980)# The Lord King (1981–1993)# The Lord Marshall (1993–2004)# Sir Martin Broughton (2004–2013)# Keith Williams (2013–2016)#Álex Cruz (2016–2021)==== List of Former Chief Executives ====''The position was formed in 1977.", "''# Sir Ross Stainton (1977–1979)# Sir Roy Watts (1979–1983)# The Lord Marshall (1983–1995)# Bob Ayling (1996–2000)# Sir Rod Eddington (2000–2005)# Willie Walsh (2005–2010)# Keith Williams (2011–2016)# Álex Cruz (2016–2020)" ], [ "Destinations", "Airbus A318-100 parked alongside two Boeing 747-400s at John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City.", "This aircraft operated a special route between London and New York and was equipped with an all-business class configuration (named \"Club World London City\").British Airways serves over 170 destinations in 70 countries, including eight domestic and 27 in the United States.=== Alliances ===British Airways co-founded the airline alliance Oneworld in 1999 with airlines American Airlines, Cathay Pacific and Qantas.", "British Airways is still currently a member of Oneworld.===Codeshare agreements===British Airways codeshares with the following airlines:* Aer Lingus* airBaltic* Alaska Airlines* American Airlines* Bangkok Airways* Cathay Pacific* China Eastern Airlines* China Southern Airlines* Finnair* Iberia* Japan Airlines* Kenya Airways* LATAM Brasil* LATAM Chile* Loganair* Malaysia Airlines* Qantas* Qatar Airways* Royal Jordanian* S7 Airlines* TAAG Angola Airlines* Vueling" ], [ "Fleet", ", the British Airways operates a fleet of 253 aircraft with 47 orders.", "BA operates a mix of Airbus narrow and wide-body aircraft, and Boeing wide-body aircraft, specifically the 777 and 787.In October 2020, British Airways retired its fleet of 747-400 aircraft.", "It was one of the largest operators of the 747, having previously operated the -100, -200, and -400 aircraft from 1974 (1969 with BOAC).===British Airways Engineering===The airline has its own engineering branch to maintain its aircraft fleet, this includes line maintenance at over 70 airports around the world.", "As well as hangar facilities at Heathrow and Gatwick airport it has two major maintenance centres at Glasgow and Cardiff Airports." ], [ "Marketing", "===Branding===Terminal 5.Mylius Modern, a custom-made typeface used by British Airways.The musical theme predominantly used on British Airways advertising has been ''\"The Flower Duet\"'' by Léo Delibes.", "This was first used in a 1984 advertisement directed by Tony Scott, in an arrangement by Howard Blake.", "It was reworked by Malcolm McLaren and Yanni for 1989's iconic \"Face\" advertisement, and subsequently appeared in many different arrangements between 1990 and 2010.The slogan 'the world's favourite airline', first used in 1983, was dropped in 2001 after Lufthansa overtook BA in terms of passenger numbers.", "Other advertising slogans have included \"The World's Best Airline\", \"We'll Take More Care of You\", \"Fly the Flag\", and \"To Fly, To Serve\".BA had an account for 23 years with Saatchi & Saatchi, an agency that created many of their most famous advertisements, including \"The World's Biggest Offer\" and the influential \"Face\" campaign.", "Saatchi & Saatchi later imitated this advert for Silverjet, a rival of BA, after BA discontinued their business activities.", "Since 2007, BA used Bartle Bogle Hegarty as its advertising agency.In October 2022, BA launched a brand new ad campaign, titled \"A British Original\" produced by London-based Uncommon Creative Studio.", "This was to be another record-breaking campaign for its use of 500 unique executions along with a series of 32 short films, coinciding with the launch of Ozwald Boateng's new collection of uniform.British Airways purchased the internet domain ba.com in 2002 from previous owner Bell Atlantic, 'BA' being the company's initialism and its IATA Airline code.British Airways is the official airline of the Wimbledon Championship tennis tournament, and was the official airline and tier one partner of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics.", "BA was also the official airline of England's bid to host the 2018 Football World Cup.", "''High Life'', founded in 1973, is the official in-flight magazine of the airline.===Safety video===The airline used a cartoon safety video from circa 2005 until 2017.Beginning on 1 September 2017 the airline introduced the new Comic Relief live action safety video hosted by Chabuddy G, with appearances by British celebrities Gillian Anderson, Rowan Atkinson, Jim Broadbent, Rob Brydon, Warwick Davis, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Ian McKellen, Thandie Newton, and Gordon Ramsay.", "A \"sequel\" video, also hosted by Chabuddy G, was released in 2018, with Michael Caine, Olivia Colman, Jourdan Dunn, Naomie Harris, Joanna Lumley, and David Walliams.", "The two videos are part of Comic Relief's charity programme.", "On 17 April 2023, the airline launched a new safety video as a part of “A British Original” campaign, with Emma Raducanu, Robert Peston, Little Simz, and Steven Bartlett.===Liveries, logos, and tail fins===One of the four retro liveries to celebrate the 100th anniversary of British Airways and its predecessors.", "This Boeing 747-400 aircraft (registered as G-BNLY) is painted in the Landor Associates design.The aeroplanes that British Airways inherited from the four-way merger between BOAC, BEA, Cambrian, and Northeast were temporarily given the text logo \"British airways\" but retained the original airline's livery.", "With its formation in 1974, British Airways' aeroplanes were given a new white, blue, and red colour scheme with a cropped Union Jack painted on their tail fins, designed by Negus & Negus.", "In 1984, a new livery designed by Landor Associates updated the airline's look as it prepared for privatization.", "For celebrating centenary, BA announced four retro liveries: three on Boeing 747-400 aircraft (one in each of BOAC, Negus & Negus, and Landor Associates liveries), and one A319 in BEA livery.Current BA aircraft bear ''Chatham Dockyard Union Flag'' tail art.In 1997, there was a controversial change to a new Project Utopia livery; all aircraft used the corporate colours consistently on the fuselage, but tailfins bore one of multiple designs.", "Several people spoke out against the change, including the former prime minister Margaret Thatcher, who famously covered the tail of a model 747 at an event with a handkerchief, to show her displeasure.", "BA's traditional rival, Virgin Atlantic, took advantage of the negative press coverage by applying the Union flag to the winglets of their aircraft along with the slogan \"Britain's national flagcarrier\".In 1999, the CEO of British Airways, Bob Ayling, announced that all BA planes would adopt the tailfin design ''Chatham Dockyard Union Flag'' originally intended to be used only on the Concorde, based on the Union Flag.", "All BA aircraft have since borne the ''Chatham Dockyard Union flag'' variant of the Project Utopia livery, except for the four retro aircraft.===Arms===In 2011, British Airways made a brand relaunch project, in which BA introduced a stylized, metallic version of the arms by For People Design to be used along with its ''Speedmarque'' logo.", "This is used exclusively on aircraft, First Wing Lounge and advertisements.===Loyalty programmes===British Airways' tiered loyalty programme, called the Executive Club, includes access to special lounges and dedicated \"fast\" queues.", "Its program consists of six tiers: Blue, Bronze, Silver, Gold, Gold guest list and Premier.", "BA invites its top corporate accounts to join the \"Premier\" incentive programme.The programme incentivises its members to fly with BA by awarding them Avios and Tier Points.", "Avios is the spending currency, which can be redeemed.", "Tier Points are a score used to determine the member's tier, and cannot be redeemed.", "Tier Points are reset at the end of each membership year, and Avios are retained for three years.British Airways operates airside lounges for passengers travelling in premium cabins, and these are available to certain tiers of Executive Club members.", "First class passengers, as well as Gold Executive Club members, are entitled to use First Class Lounges.", "Business class passengers (called Club World or Club Europe in BA terms) as well as Silver Executive Club members may use Business lounges.", "At airports in which BA does not operate a departure lounge, a third party lounge is often provided for premium or status passengers.Members of the programme were also granted status within the Oneworld alliance, which permitted similar benefits when flying with Oneworld member airlines.", "The level of benefits were determined by the member's tier." ], [ "Cabins and services", "===Short haul=======Economy class====''Euro Traveller'' is British Airways' economy class cabin on all short-haul flights within Europe, including domestic flights within the UK.Heathrow and Gatwick-based flights are operated by Airbus A320 series aircraft.", "Standard seat pitch varies from 29\" to 34\" depending on aircraft type and location of the seat.All flights from Heathrow and Gatwick have a buy on board system with a range of food designed by Tom Kerridge.Food can be pre-ordered through the British Airways mobile application.", "Alternatively, a limited selection can be purchased on-board using credit and debit card or by using Frequent Flyer Avios points.", "British Airways is rolling out Wi-Fi across its fleet of aircraft with 90% expected to be Wi-Fi enabled by 2020.====Business class====''Club Europe'' is the short-haul business class available on all short-haul flights.", "This class allows for access to business lounges at most airports and complimentary onboard catering.", "The middle seat of the standard Airbus configured cabin is left free.", "Instead, a cocktail table folds up from under the middle seat on refurbished aircraft.", "Pillows and blankets are available on longer flights.In-flight===Mid-haul and long haul=======First class====''First'' is offered on all Airbus A380s, Boeing 777-300ERs, Boeing 787-9/10s and on some Boeing 777-200ERs.", "There are between eight and fourteen private suites depending on the aircraft type.", "Each First suite comes with a bed, a wide entertainment screen, in-seat power and complimentary Wi-Fi access on select aircraft.The exclusive Concorde Room lounge at Heathrow Terminal 5 offers pre-flight dining with waiter service and more intimate space.", "Dedicated British Airways 'Galleries First' lounges are available at some airports, and Business lounges are used where these are not available.", "Some feature a 'First Dining' section where passengers holding a first class ticket can access a pre-flight dining service.====Club World====Club Suite seat unveiled in March 2019.It is featured in the Club World cabin on some of the aircraft.", "''Club World'' is the long-haul business class cabin.", "It is offered on all long-haul aircraft.", "The cabin features fully convertible flat bed seats.", "In March 2019, BA unveiled its new business-class seats on the new A350 aircraft, which feature a suite with a door.", "Since the unveiling, ''Club Suite'' has been installed on the Boeing 787-10 and retrofitted on some Boeing 777 cabins.", "The remaining aircraft are due to have their seats re-fitted over the coming years and they currently feature an older seat type, initially released in 2006.====World Traveller Plus====''World Traveller Plus'' is the premium economy class cabin provided on all BA long haul aircraft.", "This cabin offers wider seats, extended leg-room, additional seat comforts such as larger IFE screen, a foot rest and power sockets.", "A complimentary 'World Traveller' bar is offered along with an upgraded main meal.====World Traveller====Upper deck of a British Airways Airbus A380, World Traveller cabin''World Traveller'' is the mid-haul and long-haul economy class cabin.", "It offers seat-back entertainment, complimentary food and drink, pillows, and blankets.", "While the in-flight entertainment screens are available on all long-haul aircraft, international power outlets are available on the aircraft based at Heathrow.", "Wifi is also available on selected aircraft at an extra fee." ], [ "Incidents and accidents", "British Airways is known to have a strong reputation for safety and has been consistently ranked within the top 20 safest airlines globally according to ''Business Insider'' and ''AirlineRatings.com.", "''Since BA's inception in 1974, it has been involved in three hull-loss incidents (British Airways Flight 149 was destroyed on the ground at Kuwait International Airport as a result of military action during the First Gulf War with no one on board) and two hijacking attempts.", "To date, the only fatal accident experienced by a BA aircraft occurred in 1976 with British Airways Flight 476 which was involved in a midair collision later attributed to an error made by air traffic control.", "* On 22 November 1974, British Airways Flight 870 was hijacked shortly after take-off from Dubai International Airport for London-Heathrow.", "The Vickers VC10 landed at Tripoli for refuelling before flying on to Tunis.", "The captain, Jim Futcher, returned to the aircraft to fly it knowing the hijackers were on board.", "A hostage, 43-year-old German banker Werner Gustav Kehl, was shot in the back.", "The hijackers eventually surrendered after 84 hours.", "Futcher was awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal, the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators Founders Medal, the British Air Line Pilots Association Gold Medal and a Certificate of Commendation from British Airways for his actions during the hijacking.", "* On 10 September 1976, a Trident 3B on British Airways Flight 476 departed from London-Heathrow to Istanbul.", "It collided in mid-air with an Inex Adria DC9-31 near Zagreb.", "All 54 passengers and 9 crew members on the BA aircraft died.", "This is the only fatal accident to a British Airways aircraft since the company's formation in 1974.", "* On 24 June 1982, British Airways Flight 9, a Boeing 747-200 registration ''G-BDXH'', flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of Mount Galunggung.", "The ash and dust caused extensive damage to the aircraft, including the failure of all four engines.", "The crew managed to glide the plane out of the dust cloud and restart all four of its engines, although one later had to be shut down again.", "The volcanic ash caused the cockpit window to be scratched to such an extent that it was difficult for the pilots to see out of the plane.", "However, the aircraft made a successful emergency landing at Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport just outside Jakarta.", "There were no fatalities or injuries.", "* On 10 June 1990, British Airways Flight 5390, a BAC One-Eleven flight between Birmingham and Málaga, suffered a windscreen blowout due to the fitting of incorrect bolts the previous day.", "The captain sustained major injuries after being partially blown out of the aircraft, but the co-pilot landed the plane safely at Southampton Airport.", "* On 2 August 1990, British Airways Flight 149 landed at Kuwait International Airport four hours after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.", "The aircraft, a Boeing 747-100 ''G-AWND'', was destroyed, and all passengers and crew were captured.", "Two of the landing gears were salvaged, and are on display in Waterside, BA Headquarters in London.", "* On 29 December 2000, British Airways Flight 2069 was en route from London to Nairobi when a mentally ill passenger entered the cockpit and grabbed the controls.", "As the pilots struggled to remove the intruder, the Boeing 747-400 stalled twice and banked to 94 degrees.", "Several people on board were injured by the violent manoeuvres, which briefly caused the aircraft to descend at 30,000 ft per minute.", "The man was finally restrained with the help of several passengers, and the co-pilot regained control of the aircraft.", "The flight landed safely in Nairobi.The damaged British Airways Flight 38, photographed on 17 January 2008.", "* On 17 January 2008, British Airways Flight 38, a Boeing 777-200ER ''G-YMMM'', from Beijing to London crash-landed approximately short of Heathrow Airport's runway 27L, and slid onto the runway's displaced threshold.", "The aircraft sustained damage to its landing gear, wing roots, and engines, resulting in the first hull loss of a Boeing 777.There were no fatalities, but there was one serious injury and 12 minor injuries.", "The accident was caused by icing in the fuel system, resulting in a loss of power.", "* On 24 May 2013, British Airways Flight 762, using an Airbus A319-131 and registered as G-EUOE, returned to Heathrow Airport after fan cowl doors detached from both engines shortly after takeoff.", "During the approach, a fire broke out in the right engine and persisted after the engine was shut down.", "The aircraft landed safely with no injuries to the 80 people on board.", "The accident report revealed that the cowlings had been left unlatched following overnight maintenance.", "The separation of the doors caused airframe damage and the right-hand engine fire resulted from a ruptured fuel pipe.", "* On 22 December 2013, British Airways Flight 34, a Boeing 747-436 ''G-BNLL'', hit a building at O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg after missing a turning on a taxiway.", "The starboard wing was severely damaged but there were no injuries amongst the crew or 189 passengers, however, four members of ground staff were injured when the wing smashed into the building.", "The aircraft was officially withdrawn from service in February 2014.", "* On 8 September 2015, British Airways Flight 2276, a Boeing 777-236ER ''G-VIIO'', aborted its takeoff at Las Vegas' McCarran International Airport due to an uncontained engine failure of its left (#1) General Electric GE90 engine, which led to a substantial fire.", "The aircraft was evacuated on the main runway.", "All 157 passengers and 13 crew escaped the aircraft, at least 14 people sustaining minor injuries.", "* Between 21 August 2018 and 5 September 2018, hackers carried out a \"sophisticated, malicious criminal attack\" on the website of the airline.", "Around 380,000 transactions were affected by this web skimming attack.", "The company was subsequently fined £183 million (1.5% of turnover) in July 2019, by the Information Commissioner's Office, the highest ever fine handed by the ICO at the time of issuing.", "* On 18 June 2021, a British Airways Boeing 787-8 ''G-ZBJB'', had a nose landing gear collapse while on the tarmac at Heathrow Airport.", "A British Airways spokesperson confirmed that no passengers were on board the plane when the incident occurred.", "* On 6 July 2022, British Airways Flight 820, an Airbus A320-232, caught fire as it was landing at Copenhagen Airport.", "Airport firefighters put out the fire.", "They had to use foam as well.", "People in the terminal buildings were able to record the footage.", "The plane was ferried back to London-Heathrow Airport on 9 July." ], [ "See also", "* Air transport in the United Kingdom* Plane Saver Credit Union* Transport in the United Kingdom* List of airlines of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * Wood, Alan.", "\"Airline at War: British Airways Goes to War\".", "''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "55, Autumn 1994, pp.", "62–74." ], [ "External links", "* * British Airways Heritage Collection" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bicycle" ], [ "Introduction", "Classic bell of a bicycleA '''bicycle''', also called a '''pedal cycle''', '''bike''', '''push-bike''' or '''cycle''', is a human-powered or motor-assisted, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other.", "A is called a cyclist, or bicyclist.Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe.", "By the early 21st century there were more than 1 billion bicycles.", "There are many more bicycles than cars.", "Bicycles are the principal means of transport in many regions.", "They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as children's toys.", "Bicycles are used for fitness, military and police applications, courier services, bicycle racing, and artistic cycling.The basic shape and configuration of a typical upright or \"safety\" bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885.However, many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design.", "These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling.", "In the 21st century, electric bicycles have become popular.The bicycle's invention has had an enormous effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods.", "Several components that played a key role in the development of the automobile were initially invented for use in the bicycle, including ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, and tension-spoked wheels." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''bicycle'' first appeared in English print in ''The Daily News'' in 1868, to describe \"Bysicles and trysicles\" on the \"Champs Elysées and Bois de Boulogne\".", "The word was first used in 1847 in a French publication to describe an unidentified two-wheeled vehicle, possibly a carriage.", "The design of the bicycle was an advance on the velocipede, although the words were used with some degree of overlap for a time.Other words for bicycle include \"bike\", \"pushbike\", \"pedal cycle\", or \"cycle\".", "In Unicode, the code point for \"bicycle\" is 0x1F6B2.The entity &#x1F6B2; in HTML produces 🚲.Although bike and cycle are used interchangeably to refer mostly to two types of two-wheelers, the terms still vary across the world.", "In India, for example, a cycle refers only to a two-wheeler using pedal power whereas the term bike is used to describe a two-wheeler using internal combustion engine or electric motors as a source of motive power instead of motorcycle/motorbike." ], [ "History", "The \"dandy horse\", also called ''Draisienne'' or ''Laufmaschine'' (\"running machine\"), was the first human means of transport to use only two wheels in tandem and was invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais.", "It is regarded as the first bicycle and von Drais is seen as the \"father of the bicycle\", but it did not have pedals.", "Von Drais introduced it to the public in Mannheim in 1817 and in Paris in 1818.Its rider sat astride a wooden frame supported by two in-line wheels and pushed the vehicle along with his or her feet while steering the front wheel.The first mechanically propelled, two-wheeled vehicle may have been built by Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839, although the claim is often disputed.", "He is also associated with the first recorded instance of a cycling traffic offense, when a Glasgow newspaper in 1842 reported an accident in which an anonymous \"gentleman from Dumfries-shire... bestride a velocipede... of ingenious design\" knocked over a little girl in Glasgow and was fined five shillings ().In the early 1860s, Frenchmen Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a new direction by adding a mechanical crank drive with pedals on an enlarged front wheel (the velocipede).", "This was the first in mass production.", "Another French inventor named Douglas Grasso had a failed prototype of Pierre Lallement's bicycle several years earlier.", "Several inventions followed using rear-wheel drive, the best known being the rod-driven velocipede by Scotsman Thomas McCall in 1869.In that same year, bicycle wheels with wire spokes were patented by Eugène Meyer of Paris.", "The French ''vélocipède'', made of iron and wood, developed into the \"penny-farthing\" (historically known as an \"ordinary bicycle\", a retronym, since there was then no other kind).", "It featured a tubular steel frame on which were mounted wire-spoked wheels with solid rubber tires.", "These bicycles were difficult to ride due to their high seat and poor weight distribution.", "In 1868 Rowley Turner, a sales agent of the Coventry Sewing Machine Company (which soon became the Coventry Machinists Company), brought a Michaux cycle to Coventry, England.", "His uncle, Josiah Turner, and business partner James Starley, used this as a basis for the 'Coventry Model' in what became Britain's first cycle factory.The ''dwarf ordinary'' addressed some of these faults by reducing the front wheel diameter and setting the seat further back.", "This, in turn, required gearing—effected in a variety of ways—to efficiently use pedal power.", "Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem.", "Englishman J.K. Starley (nephew of James Starley), J.H.", "Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the chain drive (originated by the unsuccessful \"bicyclette\" of Englishman Henry Lawson), connecting the frame-mounted cranks to the rear wheel.", "These models were known as safety bicycles, dwarf safeties, or upright bicycles for their lower seat height and better weight distribution, although without pneumatic tires the ride of the smaller-wheeled bicycle would be much rougher than that of the larger-wheeled variety.", "Starley's 1885 Rover, manufactured in Coventry is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle.", "Soon the ''seat tube'' was added which created the modern bike's double-triangle ''diamond frame''.Further innovations increased comfort and ushered in a second bicycle craze, the 1890s ''Golden Age of Bicycles''.", "In 1888, Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the first practical pneumatic tire, which soon became universal.", "Willie Hume demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's tyres in 1889, winning the tyre's first-ever races in Ireland and then England.", "Soon after, the rear freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast.", "This refinement led to the 1890s invention of coaster brakes.", "Dérailleur gears and hand-operated Bowden cable-pull brakes were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders.The Svea Velocipede with vertical pedal arrangement and locking hubs was introduced in 1892 by the Swedish engineers Fredrik Ljungström and Birger Ljungström.", "It attracted attention at the World Fair and was produced in a few thousand units.In the 1870s many cycling clubs flourished.", "They were popular in a time when there were no cars on the market and the principal mode of transportation was horse-drawn vehicles, such the horse and buggy or the horsecar.", "Among the earliest clubs was The Bicycle Touring Club, which has operated since 1878.By the turn of the century, cycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing became widely popular.", "The Raleigh Bicycle Company was founded in Nottingham, England in 1888.It became the biggest bicycle manufacturing company in the world, making over two million bikes per year.Bicycles and horse buggies were the two mainstays of private transportation just prior to the automobile, and the grading of smooth roads in the late 19th century was stimulated by the widespread advertising, production, and use of these devices.", "More than 1 billion bicycles have been manufactured worldwide as of the early 21st century.", "Bicycles are the most common vehicle of any kind in the world, and the most numerous model of any kind of vehicle, whether human-powered or motor vehicle, is the Chinese Flying Pigeon, with numbers exceeding 500 million.", "The next most numerous vehicle, the Honda Super Cub motorcycle, has more than 100 million units made, while most produced car, the Toyota Corolla, has reached 44 million and counting.File:Women on bicycles, late 19th Century USA.jpg|Women on bicycles on unpaved road, US, late 19th centuryFile:Ordinary bicycle01.jpg|A ''penny-farthing'' or ''ordinary bicycle'' photographed in the Škoda Auto museum in the Czech RepublicFile:Svea Velocipede.jpg|The Svea Velocipede by Fredrik Ljungström and Birger Ljungström, exhibited at the Swedish National Museum of Science and TechnologyFile:BicyclePlymouth.jpg|Bicycle in Plymouth, England, at the start of the 20th centuryFile:Antônio, Luís and Pedro.jpg|Brazilian princes (from left) Antônio, Luís, and Pedro on a triple tandem bicycle during their exile, 1891File:Man with bicycle (I0002502).tiff|Man with a bicycle in Glengarry County, Ontario between 1895 and 1910File:The first bicycle.png|The first bicycle by Baron Karl von DraisFile:The London Hansom Cycle 1896.png|Drawing from an 1896 newspaper of The London Hansom CycleFile:Draisine or Laufmaschine, around 1820.Archetype of the Bicycle.", "Pic 01.jpg|Wooden ''draisine'' (around 1820), the first two-wheeler and as such the archetype of the bicycleFile:Michauxjun.jpg|upright=0.9|left|Michaux's son on a velocipede 1868File:Old CTC sign.jpg|Cyclists' Touring Club sign on display at the National Museum of ScotlandFile:John Boyd Dunlop (c1915).jpg|upright|left|John Boyd Dunlop on a bicycle File:1886 Starley 'Rover' Safety Cycle British Motor Museum 09-2016 (29928044262).jpg|1886 Rover safety bicycle at the British Motor Museum.", "The first modern bicycle, it featured a rear-wheel-drive, chain-driven cycle with two similar-sized wheels.", "Dunlop's pneumatic tire was added to the bicycle in 1888." ], [ "Uses", "Bicycles are used for transportation, bicycle commuting, and utility cycling.", "They are also used professionally by mail carriers, paramedics, police, messengers, and general delivery services.", "Military uses of bicycles include communications, reconnaissance, troop movement, supply of provisions, and patrol, such as in bicycle infantries.They are also used for recreational purposes, including bicycle touring, mountain biking, physical fitness, and play.", "Bicycle sports include racing, BMX racing, track racing, criterium, roller racing, sportives and time trials.", "Major multi-stage professional events are the Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France, the Vuelta a España, the Tour de Pologne, and the Volta a Portugal.", "They are also used for entertainment and pleasure in other ways, such as in organised mass rides, artistic cycling and freestyle BMX." ], [ "Technical aspects", " Firefighter bicycleThe bicycle has undergone continual adaptation and improvement since its inception.", "These innovations have continued with the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design, allowing for a proliferation of specialized bicycle types, improved bicycle safety, and riding comfort.===Types===A man riding an electric bicycleBicycles can be categorized in many different ways: by function, by number of riders, by general construction, by gearing or by means of propulsion.", "The more common types include utility bicycles, mountain bicycles, racing bicycles, touring bicycles, hybrid bicycles, cruiser bicycles, and BMX bikes.", "Less common are tandems, low riders, tall bikes, fixed gear, folding models, amphibious bicycles, cargo bikes, recumbents and electric bicycles.Unicycles, tricycles and quadracycles are not strictly bicycles, as they have respectively one, three and four wheels, but are often referred to informally as \"bikes\" or \"cycles\".===Dynamics===A cyclist leaning in a turnA bicycle stays upright while moving forward by being steered so as to keep its center of mass over the wheels.", "This steering is usually provided by the rider, but under certain conditions may be provided by the bicycle itself.The combined center of mass of a bicycle and its rider must lean into a turn to successfully navigate it.", "This lean is induced by a method known as countersteering, which can be performed by the rider turning the handlebars directly with the hands or indirectly by leaning the bicycle.Short-wheelbase or tall bicycles, when braking, can generate enough stopping force at the front wheel to flip longitudinally.", "The act of purposefully using this force to lift the rear wheel and balance on the front without tipping over is a trick known as a stoppie, endo, or front wheelie.===Performance===The bicycle is extraordinarily efficient in both biological and mechanical terms.", "The bicycle is the most efficient human-powered means of transportation in terms of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance.", "From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10–15%.", "In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also an efficient means of cargo transportation.A human traveling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around uses only the power required to walk.", "Air drag, which is proportional to the square of speed, requires dramatically higher power outputs as speeds increase.", "If the rider is sitting upright, the rider's body creates about 75% of the total drag of the bicycle/rider combination.", "Drag can be reduced by seating the rider in a more aerodynamically streamlined position.", "Drag can also be reduced by covering the bicycle with an aerodynamic fairing.", "The fastest recorded unpaced speed on a flat surface is .In addition, the carbon dioxide generated in the production and transportation of the food required by the bicyclist, per mile traveled, is less than that generated by energy efficient motorcars.Image:Corsa bacchetta.jpg|A recumbent bicycle File:Wooden bicycle for young child.jpg|Balance bicycle for young children" ], [ "Parts", "===Frame===The great majority of modern bicycles have a frame with upright seating that looks much like the first chain-driven bike.", "These upright bicycles almost always feature the ''diamond frame'', a truss consisting of two triangles: the front triangle and the rear triangle.", "The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube, and seat tube.", "The head tube contains the headset, the set of bearings that allows the fork to turn smoothly for steering and balance.", "The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the bottom bracket.", "The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays.", "The chain stays run parallel to the chain, connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropout, where the axle for the rear wheel is held.", "The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear fork ends.Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height at the expense of compromised structural integrity, since this places a strong bending load in the seat tube, and bicycle frame members are typically weak in bending.", "This design, referred to as a ''step-through frame'' or as an ''open frame'', allows the rider to mount and dismount in a dignified way while wearing a skirt or dress.", "While some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a variation, the ''mixte'', which splits the top tube laterally into two thinner top tubes that bypass the seat tube on each side and connect to the rear fork ends.", "The ease of stepping through is also appreciated by those with limited flexibility or other joint problems.", "Because of its persistent image as a \"women's\" bicycle, step-through frames are not common for larger frames.Step-throughs were popular partly for practical reasons and partly for social mores of the day.", "For most of the history of bicycles' popularity women have worn long skirts, and the lower frame accommodated these better than the top-tube.", "Furthermore, it was considered \"unladylike\" for women to open their legs to mount and dismount—in more conservative times women who rode bicycles at all were vilified as immoral or immodest.", "These practices were akin to the older practice of riding horse sidesaddle.Another style is the recumbent bicycle.", "These are inherently more aerodynamic than upright versions, as the rider may lean back onto a support and operate pedals that are on about the same level as the seat.", "The world's fastest bicycle is a recumbent bicycle but this type was banned from competition in 1934 by the Union Cycliste Internationale.Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being high strength and low weight.", "Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines.", "By the 1980s aluminum welding techniques had improved to the point that aluminum tube could safely be used in place of steel.", "Since then aluminum alloy frames and other components have become popular due to their light weight, and most mid-range bikes are now principally aluminum alloy of some kind.", "More expensive bikes use carbon fibre due to its significantly lighter weight and profiling ability, allowing designers to make a bike both stiff and compliant by manipulating the lay-up.", "Virtually all professional racing bicycles now use carbon fibre frames, as they have the best strength to weight ratio.", "A typical modern carbon fiber frame can weighs less than .Other exotic frame materials include titanium and advanced alloys.", "Bamboo, a natural composite material with high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness has been used for bicycles since 1894.Recent versions use bamboo for the primary frame with glued metal connections and parts, priced as exotic models.File:Bicycle diagram-en.svg|Diagram of a bicycleFile:Triumph Bicycle.JPG|A Triumph with a step-through frameFile:Trek Y Foil.jpg|A carbon fiber Trek Y-Foil from the late 1990s===Drivetrain and gearing===The ''drivetrain'' begins with pedals which rotate the cranks, which are held in axis by the bottom bracket.", "Most bicycles use a chain to transmit power to the rear wheel.", "A very small number of bicycles use a shaft drive to transmit power, or special belts.", "Hydraulic bicycle transmissions have been built, but they are currently inefficient and complex.Since cyclists' legs are most efficient over a narrow range of pedaling speeds, or cadence, a variable gear ratio helps a cyclist to maintain an optimum pedalling speed while covering varied terrain.", "Some, mainly utility, bicycles use hub gears with between 3 and 14 ratios, but most use the generally more efficient dérailleur system, by which the chain is moved between different cogs called chainrings and sprockets to select a ratio.", "A dérailleur system normally has two dérailleurs, or mechs, one at the front to select the chainring and another at the back to select the sprocket.", "Most bikes have two or three chainrings, and from 5 to 11 sprockets on the back, with the number of theoretical gears calculated by multiplying front by back.", "In reality, many gears overlap or require the chain to run diagonally, so the number of usable gears is fewer.An alternative to chaindrive is to use a synchronous belt.", "These are toothed and work much the same as a chain—popular with commuters and long distance cyclists they require little maintenance.", "They cannot be shifted across a cassette of sprockets, and are used either as single speed or with a hub gear.Different gears and ranges of gears are appropriate for different people and styles of cycling.", "Multi-speed bicycles allow gear selection to suit the circumstances: a cyclist could use a high gear when cycling downhill, a medium gear when cycling on a flat road, and a low gear when cycling uphill.", "In a lower gear every turn of the pedals leads to fewer rotations of the rear wheel.", "This allows the energy required to move the same distance to be distributed over more pedal turns, reducing fatigue when riding uphill, with a heavy load, or against strong winds.", "A higher gear allows a cyclist to make fewer pedal turns to maintain a given speed, but with more effort per turn of the pedals.With a ''chain drive'' transmission, a ''chainring'' attached to a crank drives the chain, which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear sprocket(s) (cassette or freewheel).", "There are four gearing options: two-speed hub gear integrated with chain ring, up to 3 chain rings, up to 11 sprockets, hub gear built into rear wheel (3-speed to 14-speed).", "The most common options are either a rear hub or multiple chain rings combined with multiple sprockets (other combinations of options are possible but less common).File:Dsb-1.jpg|A bicycle with shaft drive instead of a chainFile:Shimano xt rear derailleur.jpg|A set of rear sprockets (also known as a cassette) and a derailleurFile:Hub gear.jpg|upright|Hub gear===Steering===palm area to prevent cyclist's palsy (ulnar syndrome).The handlebars connect to the stem that connects to the fork that connects to the front wheel, and the whole assembly connects to the bike and rotates about the steering axis via the headset bearings.", "Three styles of handlebar are common.", "''Upright handlebars'', the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position.", "''Drop handlebars'' \"drop\" as they curve forward and down, offering the cyclist best braking power from a more aerodynamic \"crouched\" position, as well as more upright positions in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts, the forward curves, or the upper flat sections for increasingly upright postures.", "Mountain bikes generally feature a 'straight handlebar' or 'riser bar' with varying degrees of sweep backward and centimeters rise upwards, as well as wider widths which can provide better handling due to increased leverage against the wheel.===Seating===A Selle San Marco saddle designed for womenSaddles also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favored by short-distance riders to narrower saddles which allow more room for leg swings.", "Comfort depends on riding position.", "With comfort bikes and hybrids, cyclists sit high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable.", "For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient.", "Differing saddle designs exist for male and female cyclists, accommodating the genders' differing anatomies and sit bone width measurements, although bikes typically are sold with saddles most appropriate for men.", "Suspension seat posts and seat springs provide comfort by absorbing shock but can add to the overall weight of the bicycle.A recumbent bicycle has a reclined chair-like seat that some riders find more comfortable than a saddle, especially riders who suffer from certain types of seat, back, neck, shoulder, or wrist pain.", "Recumbent bicycles may have either under-seat or over-seat steering.===Brakes===Linear-pull brake, also known by the Shimano trademark: V-Brake, on rear wheel of a mountain bikeBicycle brakes may be rim brakes, in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims; hub brakes, where the mechanism is contained within the wheel hub, or disc brakes, where pads act on a rotor attached to the hub.", "Most road bicycles use rim brakes, but some use disk brakes.", "Disc brakes are more common for mountain bikes, tandems and recumbent bicycles than on other types of bicycles, due to their increased power, coupled with an increased weight and complexity.fork and hubWith hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake levers mounted on the handlebars and transmitted via Bowden cables or hydraulic lines to the friction pads, which apply pressure to the braking surface, causing friction which slows the bicycle down.", "A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal ''coaster brakes'' which were popular in North America until the 1960s.Track bicycles do not have brakes, because all riders ride in the same direction around a track which does not necessitate sharp deceleration.", "Track riders are still able to slow down because all track bicycles are fixed-gear, meaning that there is no freewheel.", "Without a freewheel, coasting is impossible, so when the rear wheel is moving, the cranks are moving.", "To slow down, the rider applies resistance to the pedals, acting as a braking system which can be as effective as a conventional rear wheel brake, but not as effective as a front wheel brake.===Suspension===Bicycle suspension refers to the system or systems used to ''suspend'' the rider and all or part of the bicycle.", "This serves two purposes: to keep the wheels in continuous contact with the ground, improving control, and to isolate the rider and luggage from jarring due to rough surfaces, improving comfort.Bicycle suspensions are used primarily on mountain bicycles, but are also common on hybrid bicycles, as they can help deal with problematic vibration from poor surfaces.", "Suspension is especially important on recumbent bicycles, since while an upright bicycle rider can stand on the pedals to achieve some of the benefits of suspension, a recumbent rider cannot.Basic mountain bicycles and hybrids usually have front suspension only, whilst more sophisticated ones also have rear suspension.", "Road bicycles tend to have no suspension.===Wheels and tires===The wheel axle fits into fork ends in the frame and fork.", "A pair of wheels may be called a wheelset, especially in the context of ready-built \"off the shelf\", performance-oriented wheels.Tires vary enormously depending on their intended purpose.", "Road bicycles use tires 18 to 25 millimeters wide, most often completely smooth, or slick, and inflated to high pressure to roll fast on smooth surfaces.", "Off-road tires are usually between wide, and have treads for gripping in muddy conditions or metal studs for ice.===Groupset===Groupset generally refers to all of the components that make up a bicycle excluding the bicycle frame, fork, stem, wheels, tires, and rider contact points, such as the saddle and handlebars.===Accessories===racks, fenders (called mud-guards), water bottles in cages, four panniers and a handlebar bagSome components, which are often optional accessories on sports bicycles, are standard features on utility bicycles to enhance their usefulness, comfort, safety and visibility.", "Fenders with spoilers (mudflaps) protect the cyclist and moving parts from spray when riding through wet areas.", "In some countries (e.g.", "Germany, UK), fenders are called mudguards.", "The chainguards protect clothes from oil on the chain while preventing clothing from being caught between the chain and crankset teeth.", "Kick stands keep bicycles upright when parked, and bike locks deter theft.", "Front-mounted baskets, front or rear luggage carriers or racks, and panniers mounted above either or both wheels can be used to carry equipment or cargo.", "Pegs can be fastened to one, or both of the wheel hubs to either help the rider perform certain tricks, or allow a place for extra riders to stand, or rest.", "Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats, an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar, or both to transport children.", "Bicycles can also be fitted with a hitch to tow a trailer for carrying cargo, a child, or both.Toe-clips and toestraps and clipless pedals help keep the foot locked in the proper pedal position and enable cyclists to pull and push the pedals.", "Technical accessories include cyclocomputers for measuring speed, distance, heart rate, GPS data etc.", "Other accessories include lights, reflectors, mirrors, racks, trailers, bags, water bottles and cages, and bell.", "Bicycle lights, reflectors, and helmets are required by law in some geographic regions depending on the legal code.", "It is more common to see bicycles with bottle generators, dynamos, lights, fenders, racks and bells in Europe.", "Bicyclists also have specialized form fitting and high visibility clothing.Children's bicycles may be outfitted with cosmetic enhancements such as bike horns, streamers, and spoke beads.", "Training wheels are sometimes used when learning to ride, but a dedicated balance bike teaches independent riding more effectively.Bicycle helmets can reduce injury in the event of a collision or accident, and a suitable helmet is legally required of riders in many jurisdictions.", "Helmets may be classified as an accessory or as an item of clothing.Bike trainers are used to enable cyclists to cycle while the bike remains stationary.", "They are frequently used to warm up before races or indoors when riding conditions are unfavorable.=== Standards ===A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components to help make spare parts exchangeable and to maintain a minimum product safety.The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has a special technical committee for cycles, TC149, that has the scope of \"Standardization in the field of cycles, their components and accessories with particular reference to terminology, testing methods and requirements for performance and safety, and interchangeability\".The European Committee for Standardization (CEN) also has a specific Technical Committee, TC333, that defines European standards for cycles.", "Their mandate states that EN cycle standards shall harmonize with ISO standards.", "Some CEN cycle standards were developed before ISO published their standards, leading to strong European influences in this area.", "European cycle standards tend to describe minimum safety requirements, while ISO standards have historically harmonized parts geometry." ], [ "Maintenance and repair", "Like all devices with mechanical moving parts, bicycles require a certain amount of regular maintenance and replacement of worn parts.", "A bicycle is relatively simple compared with a car, so some cyclists choose to do at least part of the maintenance themselves.", "Some components are easy to handle using relatively simple tools, while other components may require specialist manufacturer-dependent tools.Many bicycle components are available at several different price/quality points; manufacturers generally try to keep all components on any particular bike at about the same quality level, though at the very cheap end of the market there may be some skimping on less obvious components (e.g.", "bottom bracket).", "* There are several hundred assisted-service Community Bicycle Organizations worldwide.", "At a Community Bicycle Organization, laypeople bring in bicycles needing repair or maintenance; volunteers teach them how to do the required steps.", "* Full service is available from bicycle mechanics at a local bike shop.", "* In areas where it is available, some cyclists purchase roadside assistance from companies such as the Better World Club or the American Automobile Association.===Maintenance===The most basic maintenance item is keeping the tires correctly inflated; this can make a noticeable difference as to how the bike feels to ride.", "Bicycle tires usually have a marking on the sidewall indicating the pressure appropriate for that tire.", "Bicycles use much higher pressures than cars: car tires are normally in the range of , whereas bicycle tires are normally in the range of .Another basic maintenance item is regular lubrication of the chain and pivot points for derailleurs and brake components.", "Most of the bearings on a modern bike are sealed and grease-filled and require little or no attention; such bearings will usually last for or more.", "The crank bearings require periodic maintenance, which involves removing, cleaning and repacking with the correct grease.The chain and the brake blocks are the components which wear out most quickly, so these need to be checked from time to time, typically every or so.", "Most local bike shops will do such checks for free.", "Note that when a chain becomes badly worn it will also wear out the rear cogs/cassette and eventually the chain ring(s), so replacing a chain when only moderately worn will prolong the life of other components.Over the longer term, tires do wear out, after ; a rash of punctures is often the most visible sign of a worn tire.===Repair===Very few bicycle components can actually be repaired; replacement of the failing component is the normal practice.The most common roadside problem is a puncture.", "After removing the offending nail/tack/thorn/glass shard/etc., there are two approaches: either mend the puncture by the roadside, or replace the inner tube and then mend the puncture in the comfort of home.", "Some brands of tires are much more puncture-resistant than others, often incorporating one or more layers of Kevlar; the downside of such tires is that they may be heavier and/or more difficult to fit and remove.===Tools===Puncture repair kit with tire levers, sandpaper to clean off an area of the inner tube around the puncture, a tube of rubber solution (vulcanizing fluid), round and oval patches, a metal grater and piece of chalk to make chalk powder (to dust over excess rubber solution).", "Kits often also include a wax crayon to mark the puncture location.There are specialized bicycle tools for use both in the shop and at the roadside.", "Many cyclists carry tool kits.", "These may include a tire patch kit (which, in turn, may contain any combination of a hand pump or CO2 pump, tire levers, spare tubes, self-adhesive patches, or tube-patching material, an adhesive, a piece of sandpaper or a metal grater (for roughening the tube surface to be patched) and sometimes even a block of French chalk), wrenches, hex keys, screwdrivers, and a chain tool.", "Special, thin wrenches are often required for maintaining various screw-fastened parts, specifically, the frequently lubricated ball-bearing \"cones\".", "There are also cycling-specific multi-tools that combine many of these implements into a single compact device.", "More specialized bicycle components may require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer." ], [ "Social and historical aspects", "The bicycle has had a considerable effect on human society, in both the cultural and industrial realms.===In daily life===Cyclists in Greymouth, New Zealand (c.1898-1905)Around the turn of the 20th century, bicycles reduced crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from more spacious dwellings in the suburbs.", "They also reduced dependence on horses.", "Bicycles allowed people to travel for leisure into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking and three to four times as fast.Bikeway in New York City, USA (2008)In built-up cities around the world, urban planning uses cycling infrastructure like bikeways to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution.", "A number of cities around the world have implemented schemes known as bicycle sharing systems or community bicycle programs.", "The first of these was the White Bicycle plan in Amsterdam in 1965.It was followed by yellow bicycles in La Rochelle and green bicycles in Cambridge.", "These initiatives complement public transport systems and offer an alternative to motorized traffic to help reduce congestion and pollution.", "In Europe, especially in the Netherlands and parts of Germany and Denmark, bicycle commuting is common.", "In Copenhagen, a cyclists' organization runs a Cycling Embassy that promotes biking for commuting and sightseeing.", "The United Kingdom has a tax break scheme (IR 176) that allows employees to buy a new bicycle tax free to use for commuting.In the Netherlands all train stations offer free bicycle parking, or a more secure parking place for a small fee, with the larger stations also offering bicycle repair shops.", "Cycling is so popular that the parking capacity may be exceeded, while in some places such as Delft the capacity is usually exceeded.", "In Trondheim in Norway, the Trampe bicycle lift has been developed to encourage cyclists by giving assistance on a steep hill.", "Buses in many cities have bicycle carriers mounted on the front.There are towns in some countries where bicycle culture has been an integral part of the landscape for generations, even without much official support.", "That is the case of Ílhavo, in Portugal.In cities where bicycles are not integrated into the public transportation system, commuters often use bicycles as elements of a mixed-mode commute, where the bike is used to travel to and from train stations or other forms of rapid transit.", "Some students who commute several miles drive a car from home to a campus parking lot, then ride a bicycle to class.", "Folding bicycles are useful in these scenarios, as they are less cumbersome when carried aboard.", "Los Angeles removed a small amount of seating on some trains to make more room for bicycles and wheel chairs.Urban cyclists in Copenhagen, Denmark, at a traffic lightSome US companies, notably in the tech sector, are developing both innovative cycle designs and cycle-friendliness in the workplace.", "Foursquare, whose CEO Dennis Crowley \"pedaled to pitch meetings ... when he was raising money from venture capitalists\" on a two-wheeler, chose a new location for its New York headquarters \"based on where biking would be easy\".", "Parking in the office was also integral to HQ planning.", "Mitchell Moss, who runs the Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management at New York University, said in 2012: \"Biking has become the mode of choice for the educated high tech worker\".Bicycles offer an important mode of transport in many developing countries.", "Until recently, bicycles have been a staple of everyday life throughout Asian countries.", "They are the most frequently used method of transport for commuting to work, school, shopping, and life in general.", "In Europe, bicycles are commonly used.", "They also offer a degree of exercise to keep individuals healthy.Bicycles are also celebrated in the visual arts.", "An example of this is the Bicycle Film Festival, a film festival hosted all around the world.===Poverty alleviation===Men in Uganda using a bicycle to transport bananas===Female emancipation===Frances Willard learning to ride a bicycleThe safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their emancipation in Western nations.", "As bicycles became safer and cheaper, more women had access to the personal freedom that bicycles embodied, and so the bicycle came to symbolize the New Woman of the late 19th century, especially in Britain and the United States.", "The bicycle craze in the 1890s also led to a movement for so-called rational dress, which helped liberate women from corsets and ankle-length skirts and other restrictive garments, substituting the then-shocking bloomers.The bicycle was recognized by 19th-century feminists and suffragists as a \"freedom machine\" for women.", "American Susan B. Anthony said in a ''New York World'' interview on 2 February 1896: \"I think it has done more to emancipate woman than any one thing in the world.", "I rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel.", "It gives her a feeling of self-reliance and independence the moment she takes her seat; and away she goes, the picture of untrammelled womanhood.\"", "In 1895 Frances Willard, the tightly laced president of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, wrote ''A Wheel Within a Wheel: How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle, with Some Reflections by the Way'', a 75-page illustrated memoir praising \"Gladys\", her bicycle, for its \"gladdening effect\" on her health and political optimism.", "Willard used a cycling metaphor to urge other suffragists to action.In 1985, Georgena Terry started the first women-specific bicycle company.", "Her designs featured frame geometry and wheel sizes chosen to better fit women, with shorter top tubes and more suitable reach.===Economic implications===Columbia Bicycles advertisement from 1886Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries and led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as ball bearings, washers, and sprockets.", "These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early automobiles and aircraft.Wilbur and Orville Wright, a pair of businessmen, ran the Wright Cycle Company which designed, manufactured and sold their bicycles during the bike boom of the 1890s.They also served to teach the industrial models later adopted, including mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by Ford and General Motors), vertical integration (also later copied and adopted by Ford), aggressive advertising (as much as 10% of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers), lobbying for better roads (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride), all first practiced by Pope.", "In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model change (later derided as planned obsolescence, and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.Early bicycles were an example of conspicuous consumption, being adopted by the fashionable elites.", "In addition, by serving as a platform for accessories, which could ultimately cost more than the bicycle itself, it paved the way for the likes of the Barbie doll.Bicycles helped create, or enhance, new kinds of businesses, such as bicycle messengers, traveling seamstresses, riding academies, and racing rinks.", "Their board tracks were later adapted to early motorcycle and automobile racing.", "There were a variety of new inventions, such as spoke tighteners, and specialized lights, socks and shoes, and even cameras, such as the Eastman Company's Poco.", "Probably the best known and most widely used of these inventions, adopted well beyond cycling, is Charles Bennett's Bike Web, which came to be called the jock strap.A man uses a bicycle to carry goods in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.They also presaged a move away from public transit that would explode with the introduction of the automobile.J.", "K. Starley's company became the Rover Cycle Company Ltd. in the late 1890s, and then renamed the Rover Company when it started making cars.", "Morris Motors Limited (in Oxford) and Škoda also began in the bicycle business, as did the Wright brothers.", "Alistair Craig, whose company eventually emerged to become the engine manufacturers Ailsa Craig, also started from manufacturing bicycles, in Glasgow in March 1885.In general, U.S. and European cycle manufacturers used to assemble cycles from their own frames and components made by other companies, although very large companies (such as Raleigh) used to make almost every part of a bicycle (including bottom brackets, axles, etc.)", "In recent years, those bicycle makers have greatly changed their methods of production.", "Now, almost none of them produce their own frames.Many newer or smaller companies only design and market their products; the actual production is done by Asian companies.", "For example, some 60% of the world's bicycles are now being made in China.", "Despite this shift in production, as nations such as China and India become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined due to the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles.", "One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the lower cost of labor in China.In line with the European financial crisis, in Italy in 2011 the number of bicycle sales (1.75 million) just passed the number of new car sales.===Environmental impact===Bicycles in Utrecht, NetherlandsOne of the profound economic implications of bicycle use is that it liberates the user from motor fuel consumption.", "(Ballantine, 1972) The bicycle is an inexpensive, fast, healthy and environmentally friendly mode of transport.", "Ivan Illich stated that bicycle use extended the usable physical environment for people, while alternatives such as cars and motorways degraded and confined people's environment and mobility.", "Currently, two billion bicycles are in use around the world.", "Children, students, professionals, laborers, civil servants and seniors are pedaling around their communities.", "They all experience the freedom and the natural opportunity for exercise that the bicycle easily provides.", "Bicycle also has lowest carbon intensity of travel.===Manufacturing===J W Waldron’s Smith & Bicycle Works in Brighton, England, ca.1900The global bicycle market is $61 billion in 2011., 130 million bicycles were sold every year globally and 66% of them were made in China.+ EU28 Bicycle market 2000–2014 Year production (M) sales (M) 2000 14.531 18.945 2001 13.009 17.745 2002 12.272 17.840 2003 12.828 20.206 2004 13.232 20.322 2005 13.218 20.912 2006 13.320 21.033 2007 13.086 21.344 2008 13.246 20.206 2009 12.178 19.582 2010 12.241 20.461 2011 11.758 20.039 2012 11.537 19.719 2013 11.360 19.780 2014 11.939 20.234+ EU28 Bicycle market 2014 Country Production (M) Parts (M€) Sales (M) Avg Sales (M€) Italy 2.729 491 1.696 288 Germany 2.139 286 4.100 528 Poland .991 58 1.094 380 Bulgaria .950 9 .082 119 The Netherlands .850 85 1.051 844 Romania .820 220 .370 125 Portugal .720 120 .340 160 France .630 170 2.978 307 Hungary .370 10 .044 190 Spain .356 10 1.089 451 Czech Republic .333 85 .333 150 Lithuania .323 0 .050 110 Slovakia .210 9 .038 196 Austria .138 0 .401 450 Greece .108 0 .199 233 Belgium .099 35 .567 420 Sweden .083 0 .584 458 Great Britain .052 34 3.630 345 Finland .034 32 .300 320 Slovenia .005 9 .240 110 Croatia 0 0 .333 110 Cyprus 0 0 .033 110 Denmark 0 0 .470 450 Estonia 0 0 .062 190 Ireland 0 0 .091 190 Latvia 0 0 .040 110 Luxembourg 0 0 .010 450 Malta 0 0 .011 110 EU 28 11.939 1662 20.234 7941.2===Legal requirements===Early in its development, as with automobiles, there were restrictions on the operation of bicycles.", "Along with advertising, and to gain free publicity, Albert A. Pope litigated on behalf of cyclists.The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of the United Nations considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle (whether actually riding or not) is considered an operator.", "The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements before it can be used on public roads.", "In many jurisdictions, it is an offense to use a bicycle that is not in a roadworthy condition.In some countries, bicycles must have functioning front and rear lights when ridden after dark.Some countries require child and/or adult cyclists to wear helmets, as this may protect riders from head trauma.", "Countries which require adult cyclists to wear helmets include Spain, New Zealand and Australia.", "Mandatory helmet wearing is one of the most controversial topics in the cycling world, with proponents arguing that it reduces head injuries and thus is an acceptable requirement, while opponents argue that by making cycling seem more dangerous and cumbersome, it reduces cyclist numbers on the streets, creating an overall negative health effect (fewer people cycling for their own health, and the remaining cyclists being more exposed through a reversed safety in numbers effect).===Theft===A bicycle wheel remains chained in a bike rack after the rest of the bicycle has been stolen at east campus of Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.Bicycles are popular targets for theft, due to their value and ease of resale.", "The number of bicycles stolen annually is difficult to quantify as a large number of crimes are not reported.", "Around 50% of the participants in the Montreal International Journal of Sustainable Transportation survey were subjected to a bicycle theft in their lifetime as active cyclists.", "Most bicycles have serial numbers that can be recorded to verify identity in case of theft." ], [ "See also", "* Bicycle and motorcycle geometry* Bicycle drum brake* Bicycle fender* Bicycle parking station* Bicycle-sharing system* Cyclability* Danish bicycle VIN-system* List of bicycle types* List of films about bicycles and cycling* Outline of bicycles* Outline of cycling* rattleCAD (software for bicycle design)* Twike* Velomobile* World Bicycle Day" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===; General * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* A History of Bicycles and Other Cycles at the Canada Science and Technology Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Biopolymer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Biopolymers''' are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms.", "Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules.", "There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides.", "The Polynucleotides, RNA and DNA, are long polymers of nucleotides.", "Polypeptides include proteins and shorter polymers of amino acids; some major examples include collagen, actin, and fibrin.", "Polysaccharides are linear or branched chains of sugar carbohydrates; examples include starch, cellulose, and alginate.", "Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers (polymers of isoprene), suberin and lignin (complex polyphenolic polymers), cutin and cutan (complex polymers of long-chain fatty acids), melanin, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs).In addition to their many essential roles in living organisms, biopolymers have applications in many fields including the food industry, manufacturing, packaging, and biomedical engineering.In the structure of DNA is a pair of '''biopolymers''', polynucleotides, forming the double helix structure IUPAC definition for biopolymers" ], [ "Biopolymers versus synthetic polymers", "A major defining difference between '''biopolymers''' and '''synthetic''' polymers can be found in their structures.", "All polymers are made of repetitive units called monomers.", "Biopolymers often have a well-defined structure, though this is not a defining characteristic (example: lignocellulose): The exact chemical composition and the sequence in which these units are arranged is called the primary structure, in the case of proteins.", "Many biopolymers spontaneously fold into characteristic compact shapes (see also \"protein folding\" as well as secondary structure and tertiary structure), which determine their biological functions and depend in a complicated way on their primary structures.", "Structural biology is the study of the structural properties of biopolymers.", "In contrast, most synthetic polymers have much simpler and more random (or stochastic) structures.", "This fact leads to a molecular mass distribution that is missing in biopolymers.", "In fact, as their synthesis is controlled by a template-directed process in most ''in vivo'' systems, all biopolymers of a type (say one specific protein) are all alike: they all contain similar sequences and numbers of monomers and thus all have the same mass.", "This phenomenon is called monodispersity in contrast to the polydispersity encountered in synthetic polymers.", "As a result, biopolymers have a dispersity of 1." ], [ "Conventions and nomenclature", "=== Polypeptides ===The convention for a polypeptide is to list its constituent amino acid residues as they occur from the amino terminus to the carboxylic acid terminus.", "The amino acid residues are always joined by peptide bonds.", "Protein, though used colloquially to refer to any polypeptide, refers to larger or fully functional forms and can consist of several polypeptide chains as well as single chains.", "Proteins can also be modified to include non-peptide components, such as saccharide chains and lipids.=== Nucleic acids ===The convention for a nucleic acid sequence is to list the nucleotides as they occur from the 5' end to the 3' end of the polymer chain, where 5' and 3' refer to the numbering of carbons around the ribose ring which participate in forming the phosphate diester linkages of the chain.", "Such a sequence is called the primary structure of the biopolymer.=== Polysaccharides ===Polysaccharides (sugar polymers) can be linear or branched and are typically joined with glycosidic bonds.", "The exact placement of the linkage can vary, and the orientation of the linking functional groups is also important, resulting in α- and β-glycosidic bonds with numbering definitive of the linking carbons' location in the ring.", "In addition, many saccharide units can undergo various chemical modifications, such as amination, and can even form parts of other molecules, such as glycoproteins." ], [ "Structural characterization", "There are a number of biophysical techniques for determining sequence information.", "Protein sequence can be determined by Edman degradation, in which the N-terminal residues are hydrolyzed from the chain one at a time, derivatized, and then identified.", "Mass spectrometer techniques can also be used.", "Nucleic acid sequence can be determined using gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis.", "Lastly, mechanical properties of these biopolymers can often be measured using optical tweezers or atomic force microscopy.", "Dual-polarization interferometry can be used to measure the conformational changes or self-assembly of these materials when stimulated by pH, temperature, ionic strength or other binding partners." ], [ "Common biopolymers", "'''Collagen''': Collagen is the primary structure of vertebrates and is the most abundant protein in mammals.", "Because of this, collagen is one of the most easily attainable biopolymers, and used for many research purposes.", "Because of its mechanical structure, collagen has high tensile strength and is a non-toxic, easily absorbable, biodegradable, and biocompatible material.", "Therefore, it has been used for many medical applications such as in treatment for tissue infection, drug delivery systems, and gene therapy.", "'''Silk fibroin''': Silk Fibroin (SF) is another protein rich biopolymer that can be obtained from different silkworm species, such as the mulberry worm Bombyx mori.", "In contrast to collagen, SF has a lower tensile strength but has strong adhesive properties due to its insoluble and fibrous protein composition.", "In recent studies, silk fibroin has been found to possess anticoagulation properties and platelet adhesion.", "Silk fibroin has been additionally found to support stem cell proliferation in vitro.", "'''Gelatin''': Gelatin is obtained from type I collagen consisting of cysteine, and produced by the partial hydrolysis of collagen from bones, tissues and skin of animals.", "There are two types of gelatin, Type A and Type B.", "Type A collagen is derived by acid hydrolysis of collagen and has 18.5% nitrogen.", "Type B is derived by alkaline hydrolysis containing 18% nitrogen and no amide groups.", "Elevated temperatures cause the gelatin to melts and exists as coils, whereas lower temperatures result in coil to helix transformation.", "Gelatin contains many functional groups like NH2, SH, and COOH which allow for gelatin to be modified using nanoparticles and biomolecules.", "Gelatin is an Extracellular Matrix protein which allows it to be applied for applications such as wound dressings, drug delivery and gene transfection.", "'''Starch:''' Starch is an inexpensive biodegradable biopolymer and copious in supply.", "Nanofibers and microfibers can be added to the polymer matrix to increase the mechanical properties of starch improving elasticity and strength.", "Without the fibers, starch has poor mechanical properties due to its sensitivity to moisture.", "Starch being biodegradable and renewable is used for many applications including plastics and pharmaceutical tablets.", "'''Cellulose:''' Cellulose is very structured with stacked chains that result in stability and strength.", "The strength and stability comes from the straighter shape of cellulose caused by glucose monomers joined together by glycogen bonds.", "The straight shape allows the molecules to pack closely.", "Cellulose is very common in application due to its abundant supply, its biocompatibility, and is environmentally friendly.", "Cellulose is used vastly in the form of nano-fibrils called nano-cellulose.", "Nano-cellulose presented at low concentrations produces a transparent gel material.", "This material can be used for biodegradable, homogeneous, dense films that are very useful in the biomedical field.", "'''Alginate:''' Alginate is the most copious marine natural polymer derived from brown seaweed.", "Alginate biopolymer applications range from packaging, textile and food industry to biomedical and chemical engineering.", "The first ever application of alginate was in the form of wound dressing, where its gel-like and absorbent properties were discovered.", "When applied to wounds, alginate produces a protective gel layer that is optimal for healing and tissue regeneration, and keeps a stable temperature environment.", "Additionally, there have been developments with alginate as a drug delivery medium, as drug release rate can easily be manipulated due to a variety of alginate densities and fibrous composition." ], [ "Biopolymer applications", "The applications of biopolymers can be categorized under two main fields, which differ due to their biomedical and industrial use.=== Biomedical ===Because one of the main purposes for biomedical engineering is to mimic body parts to sustain normal body functions, due to their biocompatible properties, biopolymers are used vastly for tissue engineering, medical devices and the pharmaceutical industry.", "Many biopolymers can be used for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and overall medical applications due to their mechanical properties.", "They provide characteristics like wound healing, and catalysis of bioactivity, and non-toxicity.", "Compared to synthetic polymers, which can present various disadvantages like immunogenic rejection and toxicity after degradation, many biopolymers are normally better with bodily integration as they also possess more complex structures, similar to the human body.More specifically, polypeptides like collagen and silk, are biocompatible materials that are being used in ground-breaking research, as these are inexpensive and easily attainable materials.", "Gelatin polymer is often used on dressing wounds where it acts as an adhesive.", "Scaffolds and films with gelatin allow for the scaffolds to hold drugs and other nutrients that can be used to supply to a wound for healing.As collagen is one of the more popular biopolymers used in biomedical science, here are some examples of their use:'''Collagen based drug delivery systems:''' collagen films act like a barrier membrane and are used to treat tissue infections like infected corneal tissue or liver cancer.", "Collagen films have all been used for gene delivery carriers which can promote bone formation.", "'''Collagen sponges:''' Collagen sponges are used as a dressing to treat burn victims and other serious wounds.", "Collagen based implants are used for cultured skin cells or drug carriers that are used for burn wounds and replacing skin.", "'''Collagen as haemostat''': When collagen interacts with platelets it causes a rapid coagulation of blood.", "This rapid coagulation produces a temporary framework so the fibrous stroma can be regenerated by host cells.", "Collagen based haemostat reduces blood loss in tissues and helps manage bleeding in organs such as the liver and spleen.Chitosan is another popular biopolymer in biomedical research.", "Chitosan is derived from chitin, the main component in the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects and the second most abundant biopolymer in the world.", "Chitosan has many excellent characteristics for biomedical science.", "Chitosan is biocompatible, it is highly bioactive, meaning it stimulates a beneficial response from the body, it can biodegrade which can eliminate a second surgery in implant applications, can form gels and films, and is selectively permeable.", "These properties allow for various biomedical applications of chitosan.", "'''Chitosan as drug delivery:''' Chitosan is used mainly with drug targeting because it has potential to improve drug absorption and stability.", "In addition, chitosan conjugated with anticancer agents can also produce better anticancer effects by causing gradual release of free drug into cancerous tissue.", "'''Chitosan as an anti-microbial agent:''' Chitosan is used to stop the growth of microorganisms.", "It performs antimicrobial functions in microorganisms like algae, fungi, bacteria, and gram-positive bacteria of different yeast species.", "'''Chitosan composite for tissue engineering:''' Chitosan powder blended with alginate is used to form functional wound dressings.", "These dressings create a moist, biocompatible environment which aids in the healing process.", "This wound dressing is also biodegradable and has porous structures that allows cells to grow into the dressing.", "Furthermore, thiolated chitosans (see thiomers) are used for tissue engineering and wound healing, as these biopolymers are able to crosslink via disulfide bonds forming stable three-dimensional networks.=== Industrial ==='''Food''': Biopolymers are being used in the food industry for things like packaging, edible encapsulation films and coating foods.", "Polylactic acid (PLA) is very common in the food industry due to is clear color and resistance to water.", "However, most polymers have a hydrophilic nature and start deteriorating when exposed to moisture.", "Biopolymers are also being used as edible films that encapsulate foods.", "These films can carry things like antioxidants, enzymes, probiotics, minerals, and vitamins.", "The food consumed encapsulated with the biopolymer film can supply these things to the body.", "'''Packaging:''' The most common biopolymers used in packaging are polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactic acid (PLA), and starch.", "Starch and PLA are commercially available and biodegradable, making them a common choice for packaging.", "However, their barrier properties (either moisture-barrier or gas-barrier properties) and thermal properties are not ideal.", "Hydrophilic polymers are not water resistant and allow water to get through the packaging which can affect the contents of the package.", "Polyglycolic acid (PGA) is a biopolymer that has great barrier characteristics and is now being used to correct the barrier obstacles from PLA and starch.", "'''Water purification:''' Chitosan has been used for water purification.", "It is used as a flocculant that only takes a few weeks or months rather than years to degrade in the environment.", "Chitosan purifies water by chelation.", "This is the process in which binding sites along the polymer chain bind with the metal ions in the water forming chelates.", "Chitosan has been shown to be an excellent candidate for use in storm and wastewater treatment." ], [ "As materials", "Some biopolymers- such as PLA, naturally occurring zein, and poly-3-hydroxybutyrate can be used as plastics, replacing the need for polystyrene or polyethylene based plastics.Some plastics are now referred to as being 'degradable', 'oxy-degradable' or 'UV-degradable'.", "This means that they break down when exposed to light or air, but these plastics are still primarily (as much as 98 per cent) oil-based and are not currently certified as 'biodegradable' under the European Union directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste (94/62/EC).", "Biopolymers will break down, and some are suitable for domestic composting.Biopolymers (also called renewable polymers) are produced from biomass for use in the packaging industry.", "Biomass comes from crops such as sugar beet, potatoes, or wheat: when used to produce biopolymers, these are classified as non food crops.", "These can be converted in the following pathways:Sugar beet > Glyconic acid > Polyglyconic acidStarch > (fermentation) > Lactic acid > Polylactic acid (PLA)Biomass > (fermentation) > Bioethanol > Ethene > PolyethyleneMany types of packaging can be made from biopolymers: food trays, blown starch pellets for shipping fragile goods, thin films for wrapping.===Environmental impacts===Biopolymers can be sustainable, carbon neutral and are always renewable, because they are made from plant or animal materials which can be grown indefinitely.", "Since these materials come from agricultural crops, their use could create a sustainable industry.", "In contrast, the feedstocks for polymers derived from petrochemicals will eventually deplete.", "In addition, biopolymers have the potential to cut carbon emissions and reduce CO2 quantities in the atmosphere: this is because the CO2 released when they degrade can be reabsorbed by crops grown to replace them: this makes them close to carbon neutral.Almost all biopolymers are biodegradable in the natural environment: they are broken down into CO2 and water by microorganisms.", "These biodegradable biopolymers are also compostable: they can be put into an industrial composting process and will break down by 90% within six months.", "Biopolymers that do this can be marked with a 'compostable' symbol, under European Standard EN 13432 (2000).", "Packaging marked with this symbol can be put into industrial composting processes and will break down within six months or less.", "An example of a compostable polymer is PLA film under 20μm thick: films which are thicker than that do not qualify as compostable, even though they are \"biodegradable\".", "In Europe there is a home composting standard and associated logo that enables consumers to identify and dispose of packaging in their compost heap." ], [ "See also", "* Biomaterials* Bioplastic* ''Biopolymers & Cell'' (journal)* Condensation polymers* Condensed tannins* DNA sequence* * Melanin* Non food crops* Phosphoramidite* Polymer chemistry* Sequence-controlled polymers* Sequencing* Small molecules* Worm-like chain" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* NNFCC: The UK's National Centre for Biorenewable Energy, Fuels and Materials* Bioplastics Magazine* Biopolymer group* What’s Stopping Bioplastic?" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "2001 United Kingdom general election" ], [ "Introduction", "Seats won in the election (outer ring) against number of votes (inner ring).The '''2001 United Kingdom general election''' was held on Thursday 7 June 2001, four years after the previous election on 1 May 1997, to elect 659 members to the House of Commons.", "The governing Labour Party was re-elected to serve a second term in government with another landslide victory with a 167 majority, returning 412 members of Parliament versus 418 from the 1997 general election, a net loss of six seats, though with a significantly lower turnout than before—59.4%, compared to 71.6% at the previous election.", "The number of votes Labour received fell by nearly three million.", "Tony Blair went on to become the only Labour Prime Minister to serve two consecutive full terms in office.", "As Labour retained almost all of their seats won in the 1997 landslide victory, the media dubbed the 2001 election \"the quiet landslide\".There was little change outside Northern Ireland, with 620 out of the 641 seats in Great Britain electing candidates from the same party as they did in 1997.Factors contributing to the Labour victory included a strong economy, falling unemployment, and public perception that the Labour government had delivered on many key election pledges that it had made in 1997.The opposition Conservative Party, under William Hague's leadership, was still deeply divided on the issue of Europe and the party's policy platform had drifted considerably to the right.", "The party put the issue of European monetary union (and in particular, the prospect of the UK joining the Eurozone) at the centre of its campaign, but it failed to resonate with the electorate.", "The Tories briefly had a narrow lead in the polls during the 2000 fuel strikes, but Labour successfully resolved them by year end.", "Furthermore, a series of publicity stunts that backfired also harmed Hague, and he immediately announced his resignation as party leader when the election result was clear, formally stepping down three months later, therefore becoming the first leader of the Conservative and Unionist Party in the House of Commons since Austen Chamberlain nearly eighty years prior not to serve as prime minister.The election was largely a repeat of the 1997 general election, with Labour losing only six seats overall and the Conservatives making a net gain of one seat (gaining nine seats but losing eight).", "The Conservatives gained a seat in Scotland, which ended the party's status as an \"England-only\" party in the prior parliament, but failed again to win any seats in Wales.", "Although they did not gain many seats, three of the few new MPs elected were future Conservative Prime Ministers David Cameron and Boris Johnson and future Conservative Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne; Osborne would serve in the same Cabinet as Cameron from 2010 to 2016.The Liberal Democrats made a net gain of six seats.The 2001 general election is the last to date in which any government has held an overall majority of more than 100 seats in the House of Commons, and the second of only two since the Second World War (the other being 1997) in which a single party won over 400 MPs.", "Notable departing MPs included former Prime Ministers Edward Heath (also Father of the House) and John Major, former Deputy Prime Minister Michael Heseltine, former Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown, former Cabinet ministers Tony Benn, Tom King, John Morris, Mo Mowlam, John MacGregor and Peter Brooke, Teresa Gorman, and then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone.Change was seen in Northern Ireland, with the moderate unionist Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) losing four seats to the more hardline Democratic Unionist Party (DUP).", "A similar transition appeared in the nationalist community, with the moderate Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) losing votes to the more staunchly republican and abstentionist Sinn Féin.Exceptionally low voter turnout, which fell below 60% for the first (and so far, only) time since 1918, also marked this election.", "The election was broadcast live on BBC One and presented by David Dimbleby, Jeremy Paxman, Andrew Marr, Peter Snow, and Tony King.The 2001 general election was notable for being the first in which pictures of the party logos appeared on the ballot paper.", "Prior to this, the ballot paper had only displayed the candidate's name, address, and party name." ], [ "Overview", "The election had been expected on 3 May, to coincide with local elections, but on 2 April 2001, both were postponed to 7 June because of rural movement restrictions imposed in response to the foot-and-mouth outbreak that had started in February.The elections were marked by voter apathy, with turnout falling to 59.4%, the lowest (and first under 70%) since the Coupon Election of 1918.Throughout the election the Labour Party had maintained a significant lead in the opinion polls and the result was deemed to be so certain that some bookmakers paid out for a Labour majority before election day.", "However, the opinion polls the previous autumn had shown the first Tory lead (though only by a narrow margin) in the opinion polls for eight years as they benefited from the public anger towards the government over the fuel protests which had led to a severe shortage of motor fuel.By the end of 2000, however, the dispute had been resolved and Labour were firmly back in the lead of the opinion polls.", "In total, a mere 29 parliamentary seats changed hands at the 2001 Election.2001 also saw the rare election of an independent.", "Richard Taylor of Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern (usually now known simply as \"Health Concern\") unseated a government MP, David Lock, in Wyre Forest.", "There was also a high vote for British National Party leader Nick Griffin in Oldham West and Royton, in the wake of recent race riots in the town of Oldham.In Northern Ireland, the election was far more dramatic and marked a move by unionists away from support for the Good Friday Agreement, with the moderate unionist Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) losing to the more hardline Democratic Unionist Party (DUP).", "This polarisation was also seen in the nationalist community, with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) vote losing out to more left-wing and republican Sinn Féin.", "It also saw a tightening of the parties as the small UK Unionist Party lost its only seat." ], [ "Campaign", "For Labour, the last four years had run relatively smoothly.", "The party had successfully defended all their by election seats, and many suspected a Labour win was inevitable from the start.Many in the party, however, were afraid of voter apathy, which was epitomised in a poster of \"Hague with Margaret Thatcher's hair\", captioned \"Get out and vote.", "Or they get in.\"", "Despite recessions in mainland Europe and the United States, due to the bursting of global tech bubbles, Britain was notably unaffected and Labour however could rely on a strong economy as unemployment continued to decline toward election day, putting to rest any fears of a Labour government putting the economic situation at risk.For William Hague, however, the Conservative Party had still not fully recovered from the loss in 1997.The party was still divided over Europe, and talk of a referendum on joining the Eurozone was rife, and as a result \"Save The Pound\" was one of the key slogans deployed in the Conservatives' campaign.", "As Labour remained at the political centre, the Tories moved to the right.", "A policy gaffe by Oliver Letwin over public spending cuts left the party with an own goal that Labour soon exploited.Thatcher gave a speech to the Conservative Election Rally in Plymouth on 22 May 2001, calling New Labour \"rootless, empty, and artificial.\"", "She also added to Hague's troubles when speaking out strongly against the Euro to applause.", "Hague himself, although a witty performer at Prime Minister's Questions, was dogged in the press and reminded of his speech, given at the age of 16, at the 1977 Conservative Conference.", "''The Sun'' newspaper only added to the Conservatives' woes by backing Labour for a second consecutive election, calling Hague a \"dead parrot\" during the Conservative Party's conference in October 1998.The Tories campaigned on a strongly right-wing platform, emphasising the issues of Europe, immigration and tax, the fabled \"Tebbit Trinity\".", "They also released a poster showing a heavily pregnant Tony Blair, stating \"Four years of Labour and he still hasn't delivered\".", "However, Labour countered by asking where the proposed tax cuts were going to come from, and decried the Tory policy as \"cut here, cut there, cut everywhere\", in reference to the widespread belief that the Conservatives would make major cuts to public services in order to fund tax cuts.", "Labour also capitalised on the strong economic conditions of the time, and another major line of attack (primarily directed towards Michael Portillo, now Shadow Chancellor after returning to Parliament via a by-election) was to warn of a return to \"Tory Boom and Bust\" under a Conservative administration.Charles Kennedy contested his first election as leader of the Liberal Democrats.===Controversy===During the election Sharron Storer, a resident of Birmingham, criticised Prime Minister Tony Blair in front of television cameras about conditions in the National Health Service.", "The widely televised incident happened on 16 May during a campaign visit by Blair to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Birmingham.", "Sharron Storer's partner, Keith Sedgewick, a cancer patient with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and therefore highly susceptible to infection, was being treated at the time in the bone marrow unit, but no bed could be found for him and he was transferred to the casualty unit for his first 24 hours.", "On the evening of the same day Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott punched a protestor after being hit by an egg on his way to an election rally in Rhyl, North Wales." ], [ "Endorsements", "* Labour received endorsements from ''The Sun'', ''The Daily Express'', ''The Times'' (for the first time in its history), ''The Daily Mirror'', ''The Financial Times'', ''The Economist'', and ''The Guardian''.", "* ''The Independent'' endorsed Labour and the Liberal Democrats.", "* The Conservatives were endorsed by the ''Daily Mail'' and ''The Daily Telegraph''." ], [ "Opinion polling" ], [ "Results", "The election result was effectively a repeat of 1997, as the Labour Party retained an overwhelming majority, with the BBC announcing the victory at 02:58 on the early morning of 8 June.", "Having presided over relatively serene political, economic and social conditions, the feeling of prosperity in the United Kingdom had been maintained into the new millennium, and Labour would have a free hand to assert its ideals in the subsequent parliament.", "Despite the victory, voter apathy was a major issue, as turnout fell below 60%, 12 percentage points down on 1997.All three of the main parties saw their total votes fall, with Labour's total vote dropping by 2.8 million on 1997, the Conservatives 1.3 million, and the Liberal Democrats 428,000.Some suggested this dramatic fall was a sign of the general acceptance of the status quo and the likelihood of Labour's majority remaining unassailable.For the Conservatives, the huge loss they had sustained in 1997 was repeated.", "Despite gaining nine seats, the Tories lost seven to the Liberal Democrats, and one even to Labour.", "William Hague was quick to announce his resignation, doing so at 07:44 outside the Conservative Party headquarters.", "Some believed that Hague had been unlucky; although most considered him to be a talented orator and an intelligent statesman, he had come up against the charismatic Tony Blair in the peak of his political career, and it was no surprise that little progress was made in reducing Labour's majority after a relatively smooth parliament.Staying at what they considered rock bottom, however, showed that the Conservatives had failed to improve their negative public image, had remained somewhat disunited over Europe, and had not regained the trust that they had lost in the 1990s.", "Hague's focus on the \"Save The Pound\" campaign narrative had failed to gain any traction; Labour's successful countertactic was to be repeatedly vague over the issue of future monetary union - and said that the UK would only consider joining the Eurozone \"when conditions were right\".", "But in Scotland, despite flipping one seat from the Scottish National Party, their vote collapse continued.", "They failed to retake former strongholds in Scotland as the Nationalists consolidated their grip on the Northeastern portion of the country.The Liberal Democrats could point to steady progress under their new leader, Charles Kennedy, gaining more seats than the main two parties—albeit only six overall—and maintaining the performance of a pleasing 1997 election, where the party had doubled its number of seats from 20 to 46.While they had yet to become electable as a government, they underlined their growing reputation as a worthwhile alternative to Labour and Conservative, offering plenty of debate in Parliament and representing more than a mere protest vote.The SNP failed to gain any new seats and lost a seat to the Conservatives by just 79 votes.", "In Wales, Plaid Cymru both gained a seat from Labour and lost one to them.In Northern Ireland the Ulster Unionists, despite gaining North Down, lost five other seats.300px:'''Government's new majority''''''167'''Total votes cast26,367,383Turnout59.4%''All parties with more than 500 votes shown.", "''''The seat gains reflect changes on the 1997 general election result.", "Two seats had changed hands in by-elections in the intervening period.", "These were as follows:''* ''Romsey from Conservative to Liberal Democrats.", "The Liberal Democrats held this seat in 2001.", "''* ''South Antrim from Ulster Unionists to Democratic Unionists.", "The Ulster Unionists won this seat back in 2001.", "''The results of the election give a Gallagher index of dis-proportionality of 17.74.===Results by constituent country===LABCONLDSNPPCNI partiesOthersTotalEngland32316540 - - -1533Wales34 -2 -4 - -40Scotland561105 - - -72Northern Ireland - - - - -18 -18Total4131665254181659=== Seats changing hands === Seat 1997 electionConstituency result 2001 by party 2001 electionConLabLibPCSNPOthers Belfast North '''gain''' Carmarthen East and Dinefwr 4,91213,5402,815'''16,130'''656 '''gain''' Castle Point '''17,738'''16,7533,1161273 '''gain''' Cheadle 18,4446,086'''18,477'''599 '''gain''' Chesterfield 3,61318,663'''21,249'''437 '''gain''' Dorset Mid and Poole North 17,9746,765'''18,358'''621 '''gain''' Dorset South 18,874'''19,027'''6,531913 '''gain''' Fermanagh and South Tyrone '''gain''' Galloway and Upper Nithsdale '''12,222'''7,2583,69812,148588 '''gain''' Guildford 19,8206,558'''20,358'''736 '''gain''' Isle of Wight '''25,223'''9,67622,3972,106 '''gain''' Londonderry East '''gain''' Ludlow 16,9905,785'''18,620'''871 '''gain''' Newark '''20,983'''16,9105,970 '''gain''' Norfolk North 23,4957,490'''23,978'''649 '''gain''' Norfolk North West '''24,846'''21,3614,292704 '''gain''' North Down '''gain''' Romford '''18,931'''12,9542,869 '''gain''' Romsey 20,3863,986'''22,756''' '''gain''' Strangford '''gain''' Tatton '''19,860'''11,2497,685 '''gain''' Taunton '''23,033'''8,25422,7981,140 '''gain''' Teignbridge 23,3327,366'''26,343''' '''gain''' Tyrone West '''gain''' Upminster '''15,410'''14,1693,1831,089 '''gain''' Wyre Forest 9,35010,857'''28,487''' '''gain''' Ynys Mon 7,653'''11,906'''2,77211,106 '''gain'''=== MPs who lost their seats ===PartyNameConstituencyOffice held whilst in powerYear electedDefeated byPartyLabour PartyAlan WilliamsCarmarthen East and Dinefwr1987Adam PricePlaid CymruChristine ButlerCastle Point1997Dr.", "Bob SpinkConservative PartyFiona JonesNewark1997Colonel Patrick MercerConservative PartyGeorge TurnerNorfolk North West1997Henry BellinghamConservative PartyEileen GordonRomford1997Andrew RosindellConservative PartyKeith DarvillUpminster1997Angela WatkinsonConservative PartyDavid LockWyre Forest1997Dr.", "Richard TaylorIndependent Kidderminster Hospital and Health ConcernConservative PartyStephen DayCheadle1987Patsy CaltonLiberal DemocratsChristopher FraserMid Dorset and North Poole1997Annette BrookeLiberal DemocratsIan BruceDorset South1987Jim KnightLabour PartyNick St AubynGuildford1997Sue DoughtyLiberal DemocratsThe Hon.", "David PriorNorfolk North1997Norman LambLiberal DemocratsPatrick NichollsTeignbridge1983Richard Younger-RossLiberal DemocratsLiberal DemocratsDr.", "Peter BrandIsle of Wight1997Andrew TurnerConservative PartyJackie BallardTaunton1997Adrian FlookConservative PartyUlster Unionist PartyWillie RossEast Londonderry1974Gregory CampbellDemocratic Unionist PartyCecil WalkerNorth Belfast1983Nigel DoddsDemocratic Unionist PartyWilliam ThompsonWest Tyrone1997Pat DohertySinn FéinDemocratic Unionist PartyWilliam McCreaAntrim South2000David BurnsideUlster Unionist PartyUK Unionist PartyRobert McCartneyNorth Down1995Lady HermonUlster Unionist PartyIndependentMartin BellTatton contesting Brentwood and Ongar1997Eric PicklesConservative Party=== Voter Demographics ===MORI interviewed 18,657 adults in Great Britain after the election which suggested the following demographic breakdown...The 2001 UK general election vote in Great Britain (in per cent)Social GroupLabConLib DemOthersLeadTurnoutTotal'''42'''33196959GenderMen'''42'''321881061Women'''42'''33196958Age18-24'''41'''27248143925-34'''51'''24196274635-44'''45'''28198175945-54'''41'''3220796555-6437'''39'''17726965+39'''40'''174170Social classAB30'''39'''256968C1'''38'''36206260C2'''49'''291572056DE'''55'''241383153Work statusFull time'''43'''302071357Part time'''43'''292171456Not working'''41'''36185563Unemployed'''54'''2311123144Self-employed32'''39'''1811760Housing tenureOwner32'''43'''1961168Mortgage'''42'''312071159Council/HA'''60'''181484252Private rent'''40'''282571246Men by age18-24'''38'''2926794325-34'''52'''24195284735-54'''43'''29199146455+'''39''''''39'''166'''Tie'''73Men by social classAB31'''38'''256768C1'''39'''361411362C2'''49'''281492156DE'''55'''231483256Women by age18-24'''45'''24238213625-34'''49'''25197244635-54'''43'''31206126055+38'''40'''184267Women by social classAB28'''41'''2651368C1'''37''''''37'''206'''Tie'''59C2'''48'''301751856DE'''56'''251363150ReadershipDaily Express33'''43'''1951063Daily Mail24'''55'''1743165The Mirror'''71'''111355862Daily Record'''59'''810233657Daily Telegraph16'''65'''1454971Financial Times30'''48'''2111864The Guardian'''52'''63481868The Independent3812'''44'''6669Daily Star'''56'''211763548The Sun'''52'''291182350The Times28'''40'''2661266No daily paper'''45'''272261856Evening Standard'''42'''292181351Sunday ReadershipNews of World'''55'''271262852Sunday Express29'''47'''2041867Sunday Mail'''53'''1413203359Sunday Mirror'''72'''16935662Sunday Post'''43'''2218172164Sunday Telegraph17'''63'''1374671Mail on Sunday25'''53'''1752865The Observer'''53'''43491971Sunday People'''65'''191334660Sunday Times29'''40'''2471167Independent on Sunday'''47'''103761070No Sunday paper'''42'''302261255The disproportionality of the house of parliament in the 2001 election was 18.03 according to the Gallagher Index, mainly between Labour and the Liberal Democrats." ], [ "Manifestos", "* Labour (Ambitions for Britain)* Conservative (Time for Common Sense)* Liberal Democrat (Freedom, Justice, Honesty)* UK Independence Party* British National Party (Where we stand!", ")* Green Party of England and Wales* Ulster Unionist Party* Progressive Unionist Party* Social Democratic and Labour Party (It's working – let's keep building)* Plaid Cymru* Scottish National Party (Heart of the Manifesto 2001)* ProLife Alliance* The Democratic Party (The will of the people NOT the party)* Kidderminster Health Concern* Monster Raving Loony Party (Vote for insanity – you know it makes sense)* The Stuckist Party* Scottish Socialist Party* Left Alliance* Communist Party of Britain (People's need before corporate profit greed)* Revolutionary Communist Party of Britain (Marxist-Leninist)" ], [ "See also", "* List of MPs elected in the 2001 United Kingdom general election* List of MPs for constituencies in Wales (2001–2005)* List of MPs for constituencies in Scotland (2001–2005)* 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak* 2001 United Kingdom general election in Northern Ireland* 2001 United Kingdom general election in England* 2001 United Kingdom general election in Scotland* 2001 United Kingdom general election in Wales* 2001 United Kingdom local elections" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Butler, David and Dennis Kavanagh.", "''The British General Election of 2001'' (2002), the standard scholarly study*" ], [ "External links", "* BBC News: Vote 2001 – in depth coverage.", "* Catalogue of 2001 general election ephemera at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Mormon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Mormon''' is a religious text of the Latter Day Saint movement, which, according to Latter Day Saint theology, contains writings of ancient prophets who lived on the American continent from 600 BC to AD 421 and during an interlude dated by the text to the unspecified time of the Tower of Babel.", "It was first published in March 1830 by Joseph Smith as '''''The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi'''''.", "The Book of Mormon is one of the earliest and most well known unique writings of the Latter Day Saint movement.", "The denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement typically regard the text primarily as scripture (sometimes as one of four standard works) and secondarily as a record of God's dealings with ancient inhabitants of the Americas.", "The majority of Latter Day Saints believe the book to be a record of real-world history, with Latter Day Saint denominations viewing it variously as an inspired record of scripture to the lynchpin or \"keystone\" of their religion.", "Some Latter Day Saint academics and apologetic organizations strive to affirm the book as historically authentic through their scholarship and research, but mainstream archaeological, historical, and scientific communities have discovered little to support the existence of the civilizations described therein, and do not consider it to be an actual record of historical events.According to Smith's account and the book's narrative, the Book of Mormon was originally written in otherwise unknown characters referred to as \"reformed Egyptian\" engraved on golden plates.", "Smith said that the last prophet to contribute to the book, a man named Moroni, buried it in the Hill Cumorah in present-day Manchester, New York, before his death, and then appeared in a vision to Smith in 1827 as an angel, revealing the location of the plates and instructing him to translate the plates into English.", "Most naturalistic views on the origins of the Book of Mormon hold that Smith authored it, drawing, whether consciously or subconsciously, on material and ideas from his contemporary 19th-century environment, rather than translating an ancient record.The Book of Mormon has a number of doctrinal discussions on subjects such as the fall of Adam and Eve, the nature of the Christian atonement, eschatology, agency, priesthood authority, redemption from physical and spiritual death, the nature and conduct of baptism, the age of accountability, the purpose and practice of communion, personalized revelation, economic justice, the anthropomorphic and personal nature of God, the nature of spirits and angels, and the organization of the latter day church.", "The pivotal event of the book is an appearance of Jesus Christ in the Americas shortly after his resurrection.", "Common teachings of the Latter Day Saint movement hold that the Book of Mormon fulfills numerous biblical prophecies by ending a global apostasy and signaling a restoration of Christian gospel.", "The book is also a critique of Western society, condemning immorality, individualism, social inequality, ethnic injustice, nationalism, and the rejection of God, revelation, and miraculous religion.The Book of Mormon is divided into smaller books, titled after individuals named as primary authors or other caretakers of the ancient record the Book of Mormon describes itself as and, in most versions, is divided into chapters and verses.", "Its English text imitates the style of the King James Version of the Bible, and its grammar and word choice reflect Early Modern English.", "The Book of Mormon has been fully or partially translated into at least 112 languages." ], [ "Origin", "=== Conceptual emergence ===According to Joseph Smith, in 1823, when he was seventeen years old, an angel of God named Moroni appeared to him and said that a collection of ancient writings was buried in a nearby hill in present-day Wayne County, New York, engraved on golden plates by ancient prophets.", "The writings were said to describe a people whom God had led from Jerusalem to the Western hemisphere 600 years before Jesus's birth.", "(This \"angel Moroni\" figure also appears in the Book of Mormon as the last prophet among these people and had buried the record, which God had promised to bring forth in the latter days.)", "Smith said this vision occurred on the evening of September 21, 1823, and that on the following day, via divine guidance, he located the burial location of the plates on this hill and was instructed by Moroni to meet him at the same hill on September 22 of the following year to receive further instructions, which repeated annually for the next three years.", "Smith told his entire immediate family about this angelic encounter by the next night, and his brother William reported that the family \"believed all he Joseph Smith said\" about the angel and plates.A depiction of Joseph Smith's description of receiving the golden plates from the angel Moroni.|225x225pxSmith and his family reminisced that as part of what Smith believed was angelic instruction, Moroni provided Smith with a \"brief sketch\" of the \"origin, progress, civilization, laws, governments... righteousness and iniquity\" of the \"aboriginal inhabitants of the country\" (referring to the Nephites and Lamanites who figure in the Book of Mormon's primary narrative).", "Smith sometimes shared what he believed he had learned through such angelic encounters with his family in what his mother Lucy Mack Smith called \"most amusing recitals\".In Smith's account, Moroni allowed him, accompanied by his wife Emma Hale Smith, to take the plates on September 22, 1827, four years after his initial visit to the hill, and directed him to translate them into English.", "Smith said the angel Moroni strictly instructed him to not let anyone else see the plates without divine permission.", "Neighbors, some of whom had collaborated with Smith in earlier treasure-hunting enterprises, tried several times to steal the plates from Smith while he and his family guarded them.=== Dictation ===As Smith and contemporaries reported, the English manuscript of the Book of Mormon was produced as scribes wrote down Smith's dictation in multiple sessions between 1828 and 1829.The dictation of the extant Book of Mormon was completed in 1829 in between 53 and 74 working days.Descriptions of the way in which Smith dictated the Book of Mormon vary.", "Smith himself called the Book of Mormon a translated work, but in public he generally described the process itself only in vague terms, saying he translated by a miraculous gift from God.", "According to some accounts from his family and friends at the time, early on, Smith copied characters off the plates as part of a process of learning to translate an initial corpus.", "For the majority of the process, Smith dictated the text by voicing strings of words which a scribe would write down; after the scribe confirmed they had finished writing, Smith would continue.Many accounts describe Smith dictating by reading a text as it appeared either on seer stones he already possessed or on a set of spectacles that accompanied the plates, prepared by the Lord for the purpose of translating.", "The spectacles, often called the \"Nephite interpreters,\" or the \"Urim and Thummim,\" after the Biblical divination stones, were described as two clear seer stones which Smith said he could look through in order to translate, bound together by a metal rim and attached to a breastplate.", "Beginning around 1832, both the interpreters and Smith's own seer stone were at times referred to as the \"Urim and Thummim\", and Smith sometimes used the term interchangeably with \"spectacles\".", "Emma Smith's and David Whitmer's accounts describe Smith using the interpreters while dictating for Martin Harris's scribing and switching to only using his seer stone(s) in subsequent translation.", "Grant Hardy summarizes Smith's known dictation process as follows: \"Smith looked at a seer stone placed in his hat and then dictated the text of the Book of Mormon to scribes\".", "Early on, Smith sometimes separated himself from his scribe with a blanket between them, as he did while Martin Harris, a neighbor, scribed his dictation in 1828.At other points in the process, such as when Oliver Cowdery or Emma Smith scribed, the plates were left covered up but in the open.", "During some dictation sessions the plates were entirely absent.A depiction of Joseph Smith dictating the Book of Mormon through the use of a seer stone placed in a hat to block out lightIn 1828, while scribing for Smith, Harris, at the prompting of his wife Lucy Harris, repeatedly asked Smith to loan him the manuscript pages of the dictation thus far.", "Smith reluctantly acceded to Harris's requests.", "Within weeks, Harris lost the manuscript, most likely stolen by a member of his extended family.", "(These are now known as the \"lost 116 pages\".)", "After the loss, Smith recorded that he lost the ability to translate and that Moroni had taken back the plates to be returned only after Smith repented.", "Smith later stated that God allowed him to resume translation, but directed that he begin where he left off (in what is now called the Book of Mosiah), without retranslating what had been in the lost manuscript.Smith recommenced some Book of Mormon dictation between September 1828 and April 1829 with his wife Emma Smith scribing with occasional help from his brother Samuel Smith, though transcription accomplished was limited.", "In April 1829, Oliver Cowdery met Smith and, believing Smith's account of the plates, began scribing for Smith in what became a \"burst of rapid-fire translation\".", "In May, Joseph and Emma Smith along with Cowdery moved in with the Whitmer family, sympathetic neighbors, in an effort to avoid interruptions as they proceeded with producing the manuscript.While living with the Whitmers, Smith said he received permission to allow eleven specific others to see the uncovered golden plates and, in some cases, handle them.", "Their written testimonies are known as the Testimony of Three Witnesses, who described seeing the plates in a visionary encounter with an angel, and the Testimony of Eight Witnesses, who described handling the plates as displayed by Smith.", "Statements signed by them have been published in most editions of the Book of Mormon.", "In addition to Smith and these eleven, several others described encountering the plates by holding or moving them wrapped in cloth, although without seeing the plates themselves.", "Their accounts of the plates' appearance tend to describe a golden-colored compilation of thin metal sheets (the \"plates\") bound together by wires in the shape of a book.The manuscript was completed in June 1829.E.", "B. Grandin published the Book of Mormon in Palmyra, New York, and it went on sale in his bookstore on March 26, 1830.Smith said he returned the plates to Moroni upon the publication of the book.=== Views on composition ===Smith Patented Improved Press (no relation to Joseph Smith family) used by E. B. Grandin to print the first 5,000 copies of the Book of MormonNo single theory has consistently dominated naturalistic views on Book of Mormon composition.", "In the twenty-first century, leading naturalistic interpretations of Book of Mormon origins hold that Smith authored it himself, whether consciously or subconsciously, and simultaneously sincerely believed the Book of Mormon was an authentic sacred history.Most adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement consider the Book of Mormon an authentic historical record, translated by Smith from actual ancient plates through divine revelation.", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest Latter Day Saint denomination, maintains this as its official position.==== Methods ====The Book of Mormon as a written text is the transcription of what scholars Grant Hardy and William L. Davis call an \"extended oral performance\", one which Davis considers \"comparable in length and magnitude to the classic oral epics, such as Homer’s ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''\".", "Eyewitnesses said Smith never referred to notes or other documents while dictating, and Smith's followers and those close to him insisted he lacked the writing and narrative skills necessary to consciously produce a text like the Book of Mormon.", "Some naturalistic interpretations have therefore compared Smith's dictation to automatic writing arising from the subconscious.", "However, Ann Taves considers this description problematic for overemphasizing \"lack of control\" when historical and comparative study instead suggests Smith \"had a highly focused awareness\" and \"a considerable degree of control over the experience\" of dictation.Independent scholar William L. Davis posits that after believing he had encountered an angel in 1823, Smith \"carefully developed his ideas about the narratives\" of the Book of Mormon for several years by making outlines, whether mental or on private notes, until he began dictating in 1828.Smith's oral recitations about Nephites to his family could have been an opportunity to work out ideas and practice oratory, and he received some formal education as a lay Methodist exhorter.", "In this interpretation, Smith believed the dictation he produced reflected an ancient history, but he assembled the narrative in his own words.==== Inspirations ====Early observers, presuming Smith incapable of writing something as long or as complex as the Book of Mormon, often searched for a possible source he might have plagiarized.", "In the nineteenth century, a popular hypothesis was that Smith collaborated with Sidney Rigdon (a convert to the early movement whom Smith did not actually meet until after the Book of Mormon was published) to plagiarize an unpublished manuscript written by Solomon Spalding and turn into the Book of Mormon.", "Historians have considered the Spalding manuscript source hypothesis debunked since 1945, when Fawn M. Brodie thoroughly disproved it in her critical biography of Smith.Historians since the early-twentieth century have suggested Smith was inspired by ''View of the Hebrews'', an 1823 book which propounded the Hebraic Indian theory, since both associate American Indians with ancient Israel and describe clashes between two dualistically opposed civilizations (''View'' as speculation about American Indian history and the Book of Mormon as its narrative).", "Whether or not ''View'' influenced the Book of Mormon is the subject of debate.", "'s Hebraic Indian plotlines.", "Others contend that it is unlikely Cowdery ever interacted with Ethan Smith—indeed, to date no archival evidence has surfaced to link them directly—and highlight the numerous differences in style and content between ''View of the Hebrews'' and ''The Book of Mormon''.\"", "See A pseudo-anthropological treatise, ''View'' presented allegedly empirical evidence in support of its hypothesis.", "The Book of Mormon is written as a narrative, and Christian themes predominate rather than supposedly Indigenous parallels.", "Additionally, while ''View'' supposes that Indigenous American peoples descended from the Ten Lost Tribes, the Book of Mormon actively rejects the hypothesis; the peoples in its narrative have an \"ancient Hebrew\" origin but do not descend from the lost tribes, the perceived mystery of which the book preserves and escalates.", "The book ultimately heavily revises, rather than borrows, the Hebraic Indian theory.The Book of Mormon may creatively reconfigure, without plagiarizing, parts of the popular 1678 Christian allegory ''Pilgrim's Progress'' written by John Bunyan''.''", "For example, the martyr narrative of Abinadi in the Book of Mormon shares a complex matrix of descriptive language with Faithful's martyr narrative in ''Progress''.", "Some other Book of Mormon narratives, such as the dream Lehi has in the book's opening, also resemble creative reworkings of ''Progress'' story arcs as well as elements of other works by Bunyan, such as ''The Holy War'' and ''Grace Abounding''.Historical scholarship also suggests it's plausible for Smith to have produced the Book of Mormon himself, based on his knowledge of the Bible and enabled by a democratizing religious culture." ], [ "Content", "Cover page of The Book of Mormon from an original 1830 edition, by Joseph Smith(Image from the U.S. Library of Congress ''Rare Book and Special Collections Division'')===Presentation===The English text of the Book of Mormon resembles the style of the King James Version of the Bible, though its rendering can sometimes be repetitive and difficult to read.", "Narratively and structurally the book is complex with multiple arcs that diverge and converge in the story while contributing to the book's overarching plot and themes.", "Historian Daniel Walker Howe concluded in his own appraisal that the Book of Mormon \"is a powerful epic written on a grand scale\" and \"should rank among the great achievements of American literature\".The Book of Mormon presents its text through multiple narrators explicitly identified as figures within the book's own narrative.", "Narrators describe reading, redacting, writing, and exchanging records.", "The book also embeds sermons, given by figures from the narrative, throughout the text, and these internal orations make up just over 40 percent of the Book of Mormon.", "Periodically, the book's primary narrators reflexively describe themselves creating the book in a move that is \"almost postmodern\" in its self-consciousness.", "In an essay written to introduce the Book of Mormon, historian Laurie Maffly-Kipp explains that \"the mechanics of editing and transmitting thereby become an important feature of the text\".===Organization===The Book of Mormon is organized as a compilation of smaller books, each named after its main named narrator or a prominent leader, beginning with the First Book of Nephi (1 Nephi) and ending with the Book of Moroni.The book's sequence is primarily chronological based on the narrative content of the book.", "Exceptions include the Words of Mormon and the Book of Ether.", "The Words of Mormon contains editorial commentary by Mormon.", "The Book of Ether is presented as the narrative of an earlier group of people who had come to the American continent before the immigration described in 1 Nephi.", "First Nephi through Omni are written in first-person narrative, as are Mormon and Moroni.", "The remainder of the Book of Mormon is written in third-person historical narrative, said to be compiled and abridged by Mormon (with Moroni abridging the Book of Ether and writing the latter part of Mormon and the Book of Moroni).Most modern editions of the book have been divided into chapters and verses.", "Most editions of the book also contain supplementary material, including the \"Testimony of Three Witnesses\" and the \"Testimony of Eight Witnesses\" which appeared in the original 1830 edition and every official Latter-day Saint edition thereafter.===Narrative===The books from First Nephi to Omni are described as being from \"the small plates of Nephi\".", "This account begins in ancient Jerusalem around 600 BC, telling the story of a man named Lehi, his family, and several others as they are led by God from Jerusalem shortly before the fall of that city to the Babylonians.", "The book describes their journey across the Arabian peninsula, and then to a \"promised land\", presumably an unspecified location in the Americas, by ship.", "These books recount the group's dealings from approximately 600 BC to about 130 BC, during which time the community grows and splits into two main groups, called Nephites and Lamanites, that frequently war with each other throughout the rest of the narrative.Following this section is the Words of Mormon, a small book that introduces Mormon, the principal narrator for the remainder of the text.", "The narration describes the proceeding content (Book of Mosiah through to chapter 7 of the internal Book of Mormon) as being Mormon's abridgment of \"the large plates of Nephi\", existing records that detailed the people's history up to Mormon's own life.", "Part of this portion is the Book of Third Nephi, which describes a visit by Jesus to the people of the Book of Mormon sometime after his resurrection and ascension; historian John Turner calls this episode \"the climax of the entire scripture\".", "After this visit, the Nephites and Lamanites unite in a harmonious, peaceful society which endures for several generations before breaking into warring factions again, and in this conflict the Nephites are destroyed while the Lamanites emerge victorious.", "In the narrative, Mormon, a Nephite, lives during this period of war, and he dies before finishing his book.", "His son Moroni takes over as narrator, describing himself taking his father's record into his charge and finishing its writing.Before the very end of the book, Moroni describes making an abridgment (called the Book of Ether) of a record from a much earlier people.", "There is a subsequent subplot describing a group of families who God leads away from the Tower of Babel after it falls.", "Led by a man named Jared and his brother, described as a prophet of God, these Jaredites travel to the \"promised land\" and establish a society there.", "After successive violent reversals between rival monarchs and faction, their society collapses before Lehi's family arrive in the promised land.The narrative returns to Moroni's present (Book of Moroni) in which he transcribes a few short documents, meditates on and addresses the book's audience, finishes the record, and buries the plates upon which they are narrated to be inscribed upon, before implicitly dying as his father did, in what allegedly would have been the early-400s CE.=== Teachings =======Jesus====On its title page, the Book of Mormon describes its central purpose as being the \"convincing of the Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God, manifesting himself unto all nations.\"", "Jesus is mentioned every 1.7 verses on average.Although much of the Book of Mormon's internal chronology takes place prior to the birth of Jesus, prophets in the book frequently see him in vision and preach about him, and the people in the narrative worship Jesus as \"pre-Christian Christians.\"", "For example, the book's first narrator Nephi describes having a vision of the birth, ministry, and death of Jesus, said to have taken place nearly 600 years prior to Jesus' birth.", "Late in the book, a narrator refers to converted peoples as \"children of Christ\".", "By depicting ancient prophets and peoples as familiar with Jesus as a Savior, the Book of Mormon universalizes Christian salvation as being accessible across all time and places.", "By implying that even more ancient peoples were familiar with Jesus Christ, the book also presents a \"polygenist Christian history\" in which Christianity has multiple origins.246x246pxIn what is often called the climax of the book, Jesus visits some early inhabitants of the Americas after his resurrection in an extended bodily theophany.", "During this ministry, he reiterates many teachings from the New Testament, re-emphasizes salvific baptism, and introduces the ritual consumption of bread and water \"in remembrance of his body\", a teaching that became the basis for modern Latter-day Saints' \"memorialist\" view of their sacrament ordinance (analogous to communion).", "Jesus's ministry in the Book of Mormon resembles his portrayal in the Gospel of John, as Jesus similarly teaches without parables and preaches faith and obedience as a central message.The Book of Mormon depicts Jesus with \"a twist\" on Christian trinitarianism.", "Jesus in the Book of Mormon is distinct from God the Father, much as he is in the New Testament, as he prays to God while during a post-resurrection visit with the Nephites.", "However, the Book of Mormon also emphasizes Jesus and God have \"divine unity,\" and other parts of the book call Jesus \"the Father and the Son\" or describe the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as \"one.\"", "As a result, beliefs among the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement range between social trinitarianism (such as among Latter-day Saints) and traditional trinitarianism (such as in Community of Christ).Distinctively, the Book of Mormon describes Jesus as having, prior to his birth, a spiritual \"body\" \"without flesh and blood\" that looked similar to how he would appear during his physical life.", "According to the book, the Brother of Jared lived before Jesus and saw him manifest in this spiritual \"body\" thousands of years prior to his birth.==== Plan of salvation ====The Christian concept of God's plan of salvation for humanity is a frequently recurring theme of the Book of Mormon.", "While the Bible does not directly outline a plan of salvation, the Book of Mormon explicitly refers to the concept thirty times, using a variety of terms such as ''plan of salvation'', ''plan of happiness'', and ''plan of redemption''.", "The Book of Mormon's plan of salvation doctrine describes life as a probationary time for people to learn the gospel of Christ through revelation given to prophets and have the opportunity to choose whether or not to obey God.", "Jesus' atonement then makes repentance possible, enabling the righteous to enter a heavenly state after a final judgment.Although most of Christianity traditionally considers the fall of man a negative development for humanity, the Book of Mormon instead portrays the fall as a foreordained step in God's plan of salvation, necessary to securing human agency, eventual righteousness, and bodily joy through physical experience.", "This positive interpretation of the Adam and Eve story contributes to the Book of Mormon's emphasis \"on the importance of human freedom and responsibility\" to choose salvation.==== Dialogic revelation ====In the Book of Mormon, revelation from God typically manifests as \"personalized, dialogic exchange\" between God and persons, \"rooted in a radically anthropomorphic theology\" that personifies deity as a being who hears prayers and provides direct answers to questions.", "Multiple narratives in the book portray revelation as a dialogue in which petitioners and deity engage one another in a mutual exchange in which God's contributions originate from outside the mortal recipient.", "The Book of Mormon also emphasizes regular prayer as a significant component of devotional life, depicting it as a central means through which such dialogic revelation can take place.Distinctively, the Book of Mormon's portrayal democratizes revelation by extending it beyond the \"Old Testament paradigms\" of prophetic authority.", "In the Book of Mormon, dialogic revelation from God is not the purview of prophets alone but is instead the right of every person.", "Figures such as Nephi and Ammon receive visions and revelatory direction prior to or without ever becoming prophets, and Laman and Lemuel are rebuked for hesitating to pray for revelation.", "In the Book of Mormon, God and the divine are directly knowable through revelation and spiritual experience.Also in contrast with traditional Christian conceptions of revelations is the Book of Mormon's broader range of revelatory content.", "In the Book of Mormon, revelatory topics include not only the expected \"exegesis of existence\" but also questions that are \"pragmatic, and at times almost banal in their mundane specificity\".", "Figures petition God for revelatory answers to doctrinal questions and ecclesiastical crises as well as for inspiration to guide hunts, military campaigns, and sociopolitical decisions, and the Book of Mormon portrays God providing answers to these inquiries.The Book of Mormon depicts revelation as an active and sometimes laborious experience.", "For example, the Book of Mormon's Brother of Jared learns to act not merely as a petitioner with questions but moreover as an interlocutor with \"a specific proposal\" for God to consider as part of a guided process of miraculous assistance.", "Also in the Book of Mormon, Enos describes his revelatory experience as a \"wrestle which I had before God\" that spanned hours of intense prayer.==== Apocalyptic reversal and Indigenous or nonwhite liberation ====The Book of Mormon's \"eschatological content\" lends to a \"theology of Native and/or nonwhite liberation\", in the words of American studies scholar Jared Hickman.", "The Book of Mormon's narrative content includes prophecies describing how although Gentiles (generally interpreted as being whites of European descent) would conquer the Indigenous residents of the Americas (imagined in the Book of Mormon as being a remnant of descendants of the Lamanites), this conquest would only precede the Native Americans' revival and resurgence as a God-empowered people.", "The Book of Mormon narrative's prophecies envision a Christian eschaton in which Indigenous people are destined to rise up as the true leaders of the continent, manifesting in a new utopia to be called \"Zion\".", "White Gentiles would have an opportunity to repent of their sins and join themselves to the Indigenous remnant, but if white Gentile society fails to do so, the Book of Mormon's content foretells a future \"apocalyptic reversal\" in which Native Americans will destroy white American society and replace it with a godly, Zionic society.", "This prophecy commanding whites to repent and become supporters of American Indians even bears \"special authority as an utterance of Jesus\" Christ himself during a messianic appearance at the book's climax.Furthermore, the Book of Mormon's \"formal logic\" criticizes the theological supports for racism and white supremacy prevalent in the antebellum United States by enacting a textual apocalypse.", "The book's apparently white Nephite narrators fail to recognize and repent of their own sinful, hubristic prejudices against the seemingly darker-skinned Lamanites in the narrative.", "In their pride, the Nephites repeatedly backslide into producing oppressive social orders, such that the book's narrative performs a sustained critique of colonialist racism.", "The book concludes with its own narrative implosion in which Lamanites suddenly succeed over and destroy Nephites in a literary turn seemingly designed to jar the average antebellum white American reader into recognizing the \"utter inadequacy of his or her rac(ial)ist common sense\"." ], [ "Religious significance", "=== Early Mormonism ===An 1841 copy of the Book of MormonAdherents of the early Latter Day Saint movement frequently read the Book of Mormon as a corroboration of and supplement to the Bible, persuaded by its resemblance to the King James Version's form and language.", "For these early readers, the Book of Mormon confirmed the Bible's scriptural veracity and resolved then-contemporary theological controversies the Bible did not seem to adequately address, such as the appropriate mode of baptism, the role of prayer, and the nature of the Christian atonement.", "Early church administrative design also drew inspiration from the Book of Mormon.", "Oliver Cowdery and Joseph Smith, respectively, used the depiction of the Christian church in the Book of Mormon as a template for their ''Articles of the Church'' and ''Articles and Covenants of the Church''.The Book of Mormon was also significant in the early movement as a sign, proving Joseph Smith's claimed prophetic calling, signalling the \"restoration of all things\", and ending what was believed to have been an apostasy from true Christianity.", "Early Latter Day Saints tended to interpret the Book of Mormon through a millenarian lens and consequently believed the book portended Christ's imminent Second Coming.", "And during the movement's first years, observers identified converts with the new scripture they propounded, nicknaming them \"Mormons\".Early Mormons also cultivated their own individual relationships with the Book of Mormon.", "Reading the book became an ordinary habit for some, and some would reference passages by page number in correspondence with friends and family.", "Historian Janiece Johnson explains that early converts' \"depth of Book of Mormon usage is illustrated most thoroughly through intertextuality—the pervasive echoes, allusions, and expansions on the Book of Mormon text that appear in the early converts' own writings.\"", "Early Latter Day Saints alluded to Book of Mormon narratives, incorporated Book of Mormon turns of phrase into their writing styles, and even gave their children Book of Mormon names.", "==== Joseph Smith ====Like many other early adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement, Smith referenced Book of Mormon scriptures in his preaching relatively infrequently and cited the Bible more often, likely because he was more familiar with the Bible, which he had grown up with.", "In 1832, Smith dictated a revelation that condemned the \"whole church\" for treating the Book of Mormon lightly, although even after doing so Smith still referenced the Book of Mormon less often than the Bible.", "Nevertheless, in 1841 Joseph Smith characterized the Book of Mormon as \"the most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of the religion\".", "Although Smith quoted the book infrequently, he accepted the Book of Mormon narrative world as his own and conceived of his prophetic identity within the framework of the book's portrayal of a world history full of sacred records of God's dealings with humanity and description of him as a revelatory translator.While they were held in Carthage Jail together, shortly before being killed in a mob attack, Joseph's brother Hyrum Smith read aloud from the Book of Mormon, and Joseph told the jail guards present that the Book of Mormon was divinely authentic.=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) accepts the Book of Mormon as one of the four sacred texts in its scriptural canon called the ''standard works''.", "Church leaders and publications have \"strongly affirmed\" Smith's claims of the book's significance to the faith.", "According to the church's \"Articles of Faith\"—a document written by Joseph Smith in 1842 and canonized by the church as scripture in 1880—members \"believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly,\" and they \"believe the Book of Mormon to be the word of God,\" without the translation qualification.", "In their evangelism, Latter-day Saint leaders and missionaries have long emphasized the book's place in a causal chain which held that if the Book of Mormon was \"verifiably true revelation of God,\" then it justified Smith's claims to prophetic authority to restore the New Testament church.Latter-day Saints have also long believed the Book of Mormon's contents confirm and fulfill biblical prophecies.", "For example, \"many Latter-day Saints\" consider the biblical patriarch Jacob's description of his son Joseph as \"a fruitful bough... whose branches run over a wall\" a prophecy of Lehi's posterity—described as descendants of Joseph—overflowing into the New World.", "Latter-day Saints also believe the Bible prophesies of the Book of Mormon as an additional testament to God's dealings with humanity, such as in their interpretation of Ezekiel 37's injunction to \"take thee one stick... For Judah, and... take another stick... For Joseph\" as referring to the Bible as the \"stick of Judah\" and the Book of Mormon as \"the stick of Joseph\".In the 1980s, the church placed greater emphasis on the Book of Mormon as a central text of the faith and on studying and reading it as a means for devotional communion with Jesus Christ.", "In 1982, it added the subtitle \"Another Testament of Jesus Christ\" to its official editions of the Book of Mormon.", "Ezra Taft Benson, the church's thirteenth president (1985–1994), especially emphasized the Book of Mormon.", "Referencing Smith's 1832 revelation, Benson said the church remained under condemnation for treating the Book of Mormon lightly.Since the late 1980s, Latter-day Saint leaders have encouraged church members to read from the Book of Mormon daily, and in the twenty-first century, many Latter-day Saints use the book in private devotions and family worship.", "Literary scholar Terryl Givens observes that for Latter-day Saints, the Book of Mormon is \"the principal scriptural focus\", a \"cultural touchstone, and \"absolutely central\" to worship, including in weekly services, Sunday School, youth seminaries, and more.The church encourages those considering joining the faith to follow the suggestion in the Book of Mormon's final chapter to study the book, ponder it, and pray to God about it.", "Latter-day Saints believe that sincerely doing so will provide the reader with a spiritual witness confirming it as true scripture.", "The relevant passage in the chapter is sometimes referred to as \"Moroni's Promise.", "\"Approximately 90 to 95% of all Book of Mormon printings have been affiliated with the church.", "As of October 2020, it has published more than 192 million copies of the Book of Mormon.RLDS devotional literature about the Book of Mormon, published in 1912===Community of Christ===The Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints or RLDS Church) views the Book of Mormon as scripture which provides an additional witness of Jesus Christ in support of the Bible.", "The Community of Christ publishes two versions of the book.", "The first is the Authorized Edition, first published by the then-RLDS Church in 1908, whose text is based on comparing the original printer's manuscript and the 1837 Second Edition (or \"Kirtland Edition\") of the Book of Mormon.", "Its content is similar to the Latter-day Saint edition of the Book of Mormon, but the versification is different.", "The Community of Christ also publishes a \"New Authorized Version\" (also called a \"reader's edition\"), first released in 1966, which attempts to modernize the language of the text by removing archaisms and standardizing punctuation.Use of the Book of Mormon varies among Community of Christ membership.", "The church describes it as scripture and includes references to the Book of Mormon in its official lectionary.", "In 2010, representatives told the National Council of Churches that \"the Book of Mormon is in our DNA\".", "The book remains a symbol of the denomination's belief in continuing revelation from God.", "Nevertheless, its usage in North American congregations declined between the mid-twentieth and twenty-first centuries.", "Community of Christ theologian Anthony Chvala-Smith describes the Book of Mormon as being akin to a \"subordinate standard\" relative to the Bible, giving the Bible priority over the Book of Mormon, and the denomination does not emphasize the book as part of its self-conceived identity.", "Book of Mormon use varies in what David Howlett calls \"Mormon heritage regions\": North America, Western Europe, and French Polynesia.", "Outside these regions, where there are tens of thousands of members, congregations almost never use the Book of Mormon in their worship, and they may be entirely unfamiliar with it.", "Some in Community of Christ remain interested in prioritizing the Book of Mormon in religious practice and have variously responded to these developments by leaving the denomination or by striving to re-emphasize the book.During this time, the Community of Christ moved away from emphasizing the Book of Mormon as an authentic record of a historical past.", "By the late-twentieth century, church president W. Grant McMurray made open the possibility the book was nonhistorical.", "McMurray reiterated this ambivalence in 2001, reflecting, \"The proper use of the Book of Mormon as sacred scripture has been under wide discussion in the 1970s and beyond, in part because of long-standing questions about its historical authenticity and in part because of perceived theological inadequacies, including matters of race and ethnicity.\"", "When a resolution was submitted at the 2007 Community of Christ World Conference to \"reaffirm the Book of Mormon as a divinely inspired record\", church president Stephen M. Veazey ruled it out-of-order.", "He stated, \"while the Church affirms the Book of Mormon as scripture, and makes it available for study and use in various languages, we do not attempt to mandate the degree of belief or use.", "This position is in keeping with our longstanding tradition that belief in the Book of Mormon is not to be used as a test of fellowship or membership in the church.", "\"=== Greater Latter Day Saint movement ===Since the death of Joseph Smith in 1844, there have been approximately seventy different churches that have been part of the Latter Day Saint movement, fifty of which were extant as of 2012.Religious studies scholar Paul Gutjahr explains that \"each of these sects developed its own special relationship with the Book of Mormon\".", "For example James Strang, who led a denomination in the nineteenth century, reenacted Smith's production of the Book of Mormon by claiming in the 1840s and 1850s to receive and translate new scriptures engraved on metal plates, which became the Voree Plates and the Book of the Law of the Lord.William Bickerton led another denomination, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (today called The Church of Jesus Christ), which accepted the Book of Mormon as scripture alongside the Bible although it did not canonize other Latter Day Saint religious texts like the Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price.", "The contemporary Church of Jesus Christ continues to consider the \"Bible and Book of Mormon together\" to be \"the foundation of their faith and the building blocks of\" their church.Nahua-Mexican Latter-day Saint Margarito Bautista believed the Book of Mormon told an Indigenous history of Mexico before European contact, and he identified himself as a \"descendant of Father Lehi\", a prophet in the Book of Mormon.", "Bautista believed the Book of Mormon revealed that Indigenous Mexicans were a chosen remnant of biblical Israel and therefore had a sacred destiny to someday lead the church spiritually and the world politically.", "To promote this belief, he wrote a theological treatise synthesizing Mexican nationalism and Book of Mormon content, published in 1935.Anglo-American LDS Church leadership suppressed the book and eventually excommunicated Bautista, and he went on to found a new Mormon denomination.", "Officially named ''El Reino de Dios en su Plenitud'', the denomination continues to exist in Colonial Industrial, Ozumba, Mexico as a church with several hundred members who call themselves ''Mormons''.Separate editions of the Book of Mormon have been published by a number of churches in the Latter Day Saint movement, along with private individuals and organizations not endorsed by any specific denomination." ], [ "Views on historical authenticity", "Mainstream archaeological, historical, and scientific communities do not consider the Book of Mormon an ancient record of actual historical events.", "Principally, the content of the Book of Mormon does not correlate with archaeological, paleontological, and historical evidence about the past of the Americas.", "There is no accepted correlation between locations described in the Book of Mormon and known American archaeological sites.", "There is also no evidence in Mesoamerican societies of cultural influence from anything described in the Book of Mormon.", "Additionally, the Book of Mormon's narrative refers to the presence of animals, plants, metals, and technologies of which archaeological and scientific studies have found little or no evidence in post-Pleistocene, pre-Columbian America.", "Such anachronistic references include crops such as barley, wheat, and silk; livestock like sheep and horses; and metals and technology such as brass, steel, the wheel, and chariots.", "The Book of Mormon also includes excerpts from and demonstrates intertextuality with portions of the biblical Book of Isaiah whose widely-accepted periods of creation postdate the alleged departure of Lehi's family from Jerusalem circa 600 BCE.Until the late-twentieth century, most adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement who affirmed Book of Mormon historicity believed the people described in the Book of Mormon text were the exclusive ancestors of all Indigenous peoples in the Americas.", "However, linguistics and genetics proved that impossible.", "There are no widely accepted linguistic connections between any Native American languages and Near Eastern languages, and \"the diversity of Native American languages could not have developed from a single origin in the time frame\" that would be necessary to validate such a view of Book of Mormon historicity.", "Finally, there is no DNA evidence linking any Native American group to ancestry from the ancient Near East as a belief in Book of Mormon peoples as the exclusive ancestors of Indigenous Americans would require.", "Instead, geneticists find that Indigenous Americans' ancestry traces back to Asia.Despite this, most adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement consider the Book of Mormon to generally be historically authentic.", "Within the Latter Day Saint movement there are several individuals and apologetic organizations, most of whom are or which are lay Latter-day Saints, that seek to answer challenges to or advocate for Book of Mormon historicity.", "For example, in response to linguistics and genetics rendering long-popular hemispheric models of Book of Mormon geography impossible, many apologists posit Book of Mormon peoples could have dwelled in a limited geographical region while Indigenous peoples of other descents occupied the rest of the Americas.", "To account for anachronisms, apologists often suggest Smith's translation assigned familiar terms to unfamiliar ideas.", "In the context of a miraculously translated Book of Mormon, anachronistic intertextuality may also have miraculous explanations.Advocating their interpretation of the book's historicity, some apologists strive to identify parallels between the Book of Mormon and biblical antiquity, such as the presence of several complex chiasmi resembling a literary form used in ancient Hebrew poetry and in the Old Testament.", "Others attempt to identify parallels between Mesoamerican archaeological sites and locations described in the Book of Mormon, such as John L. Sorenson, according to whom the Santa Rosa archaeological site resembles the city of Zarahemla in the Book of Mormon.", "When mainstream, non-Mormon scholars examine alleged parallels between the Book of Mormon and the ancient world, however, scholars typically deem them \"chance based upon only superficial similarities\" or \"parallelomania\", the result of having predetermined ideas about the subject.Despite the popularity and influence among Latter-day Saints of literature propounding Book of Mormon historicity, not all Mormons who affirm Book of Mormon historicity are universally persuaded by apologetic work.", "Some claim historicity more modestly, such as Richard Bushman's statement that \"I read the Book of Mormon as informed Christians read the Bible.", "As I read, I know the arguments against the book's historicity, but I can't help feeling that the words are true and the events happened.", "I believe it in the face of many questions.", "\"Some denominations and adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement consider the Book of Mormon a work of inspired fiction akin to pseudepigrapha or biblical midrash that constitutes scripture by revealing true doctrine about God, similar to a common interpretation of the biblical Book of Job.", "Many in Community of Christ hold this view, and the leadership takes no official position on Book of Mormon historicity; among lay members, views vary.", "Some Latter-day Saints consider the Book of Mormon fictional, although this view is marginal in the community at large.Influenced by continental philosophy, a handful of academics argue for understanding the Book of Mormon not as ''historical'' or ''unhistorical'' (either factual or fictional) but as ''nonhistorical'' (existing outside history).", "In this view, both skeptical and affirmative approaches to Book of Mormon historicity make the same Enlightenment-derived assumptions about scriptures being representations of external reality, whereas a premodern understanding would accept scripture as capable of divinely ordering, rather than simply depicting, reality." ], [ "Historical context", "=== American Indian origins ===Contact with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas prompted intellectual and theological controversy among many Europeans and European Americans who wondered how biblical narratives of world history could account for hitherto unrecognized Indigenous societies.", "From the seventeenth century through the early-nineteenth, numerous European and American writers proposed that ancient Jews, perhaps through the Lost Ten Tribes, were the ancestors of Native Americans.", "One of the first books to suggest that Native Americans descended from Jews was written by Jewish-Dutch rabbi and scholar Manasseh ben Israel in 1650.Such curiosity and speculation about Indigenous origins persisted in the United States into the antebellum period when the Book of Mormon was published, as archaeologist Stephen Williams explains that \"relating the American Indians to the Lost Tribes of Israel was supported by many at\" the time of the book's production and publication.", "Although the Book of Mormon did not explicitly identify Native Americans as descendants of the diasporic Israelites in its narrative, nineteenth-century readers consistently drew that conclusion and considered the book theological support for believing American Indians were of Israelite descent.Additionally, European settlers viewed the impressive earthworks left behind by the Mound Builder cultures and had some difficulty believing that the Native Americans, whose numbers had been greatly reduced over the previous centuries, could have produced them.", "A common theory was that a more \"civilized\" and \"advanced\" people had built them, but were overrun and destroyed by a more savage, numerous group.", "Some Book of Mormon content resembles this \"mound-builder\" genre pervasive in the nineteenth century.", "Historian Curtis Dahl wrote, \"Undoubtedly the most famous and certainly the most influential of all Mound-Builder literature is the ''Book of Mormon'' (1830).", "Whether one wishes to accept it as divinely inspired or the work of Joseph Smith, it fits exactly into the tradition.\"", "However, the Book of Mormon does not comfortably fit the genre, since, as historian Richard Bushman explains, \"When other writers delved into Indian origins, they were explicit about recognizable Indian practices\", such as Abner Cole, who dressed characters in moccasins in his parody of the book.", "Meanwhile, the \"Book of Mormon deposited its people on some unknown shore—not even definitely identified as America—and had them live out their history in a remote place in a distant time, using names that had no connections to modern Indians\" and without including stereotypical Indian terms, practices, or tropes, suggesting disinterest in making connections to mound-builder tropes.=== Critique of the United States ===The Book of Mormon can be read as a critique of the United States during Smith's lifetime.", "Historian of religion Nathan O. Hatch called the Book of Mormon \"a document of profound social protest\", and Bushman \"found the book thundering no to the state of the world in Joseph Smith's time.\"", "In the Jacksonian era of antebellum America, class inequality was a major concern as fiscal downturns and the economy's transition from guild-based artisanship to private business sharpened socioeconomic disparity.", "Poll taxes in New York limited access to the vote, and the culture of civil discourse and mores surrounding liberty allowed social elites to ignore and delegitimize populist participation in public discourse.", "Ethnic prejudices were also prominent, as Americans typically stereotyped American Indians as ferocious, lazy, and uncivilized.", "Meanwhile, some Americans thought antebellum disestablishment and denominational proliferation undermined religious authority through ubiquity, producing sectarian confusion that only obfuscated the path to spiritual security.Against the backdrop of these trends, the Book of Mormon \"condemned social inequalities, moral abominations, rejection of revelations and miracles, disrespect for Israel (including the Jews), subjection of the Indians, and the abuse of the continent by interloping European migrants\".", "The book's narratives critique bourgeois public discourse where rules of civil democracy silence the demands of common people, and it advocates for the poor, condemning acquisitiveness as antithetical to righteousness.", "Within the narrative, Lamanites, whom readers generally identified with American Indians, at times were overwhelmingly righteous, even producing a prophet who preached to backsliding Nephites, and the book declared Natives to be the rightful inheritors to and leaders of the North American continent.", "According to the book, implicitly-European Gentiles had an obligation to serve the Native people and join their remnant of covenant Israel or else face a violent downfall like the Nephites of the text.", "In the context of the nineteenth-century United States, the Book of Mormon rejects American denominational pluralism, Enlightenment hegemony, individualistic capitalism, and American nationalism, calling instead for ecclesiastical unity, miraculous religion, communitarian economics, and universal society under God's authority." ], [ "Manuscripts", "Book of Mormon printer's manuscript, shown with a 19th-century owner, George Schweich (grandson of early Latter Day Saint movement figure David Whitmer)Replica of the cabin in Fayette (Waterloo), New York (owned by Peter Whitmer) where much of the manuscript of the Book of Mormon was writtenJoseph Smith dictated the Book of Mormon to several scribes over a period of 13 months, resulting in three manuscripts.", "Upon examination of pertinent historical records, the book appears to have been dictated over the course of 57 to 63 days within the 13 month period.The 116 lost pages contained the first portion of the Book of Lehi; it was lost after Smith loaned the original, uncopied manuscript to Martin Harris.The first completed manuscript, called the original manuscript, was completed using a variety of scribes.", "Portions of the original manuscript were also used for typesetting.", "In October 1841, the entire original manuscript was placed into the cornerstone of the Nauvoo House, and sealed up until nearly forty years later when the cornerstone was reopened.", "It was then discovered that much of the original manuscript had been destroyed by water seepage and mold.", "Surviving manuscript pages were handed out to various families and individuals in the 1880s.Only 28 percent of the original manuscript now survives, including a remarkable find of fragments from 58 pages in 1991.The majority of what remains of the original manuscript is now kept in the LDS Church's archives.The second completed manuscript, called the printer's manuscript, was a copy of the original manuscript produced by Oliver Cowdery and two other scribes.", "It is at this point that initial copyediting of the Book of Mormon was completed.", "Observations of the original manuscript show little evidence of corrections to the text.", "Shortly before his death in 1850, Cowdery gave the printer's manuscript to David Whitmer, another of the Three Witnesses.", "In 1903, the manuscript was bought from Whitmer's grandson by the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now known as the Community of Christ.", "On September 20, 2017, the LDS Church purchased the manuscript from the Community of Christ at a reported price of $35million.", "The printer's manuscript is now the earliest surviving complete copy of the Book of Mormon.", "The manuscript was imaged in 1923 and has been made available for viewing online.Critical comparisons between surviving portions of the manuscripts show an average of two to three changes per page from the original manuscript to the printer's manuscript, with most changes being corrections of scribal errors such as misspellings or the correction, or standardization, of grammar inconsequential to the meaning of the text.", "The printer's manuscript was further edited, adding paragraphing and punctuation to the first third of the text.The printer's manuscript was not used fully in the typesetting of the 1830 version of Book of Mormon; portions of the original manuscript were also used for typesetting.", "The original manuscript was used by Smith to further correct errors printed in the 1830 and 1837 versions of the Book of Mormon for the 1840 printing of the book.===Ownership history: Book of Mormon printer's manuscript===In the late-19th century the extant portion of the printer's manuscript remained with the family of David Whitmer, who had been a principal founder of the Latter Day Saints and who, by the 1870s, led the Church of Christ (Whitmerite).", "During the 1870s, according to the ''Chicago Tribune'', the LDS Church unsuccessfully attempted to buy it from Whitmer for a record price.", "Church president Joseph F. Smith refuted this assertion in a 1901 letter, believing such a manuscript \"possesses no value whatever.\"", "In 1895, Whitmer's grandson George Schweich inherited the manuscript.", "By 1903, Schweich had mortgaged the manuscript for $1,800 and, needing to raise at least that sum, sold a collection including 72 percent of the book of the original printer's manuscript (John Whitmer's manuscript history, parts of Joseph Smith's translation of the Bible, manuscript copies of several revelations, and a piece of paper containing copied Book of Mormon characters) to the RLDS Church (now the Community of Christ) for $2,450, with $2,300 of this amount for the printer's manuscript.", "The LDS Church had not sought to purchase the manuscript.In 2015, this remaining portion was published by the Church Historian's Press in its ''Joseph Smith Papers'' series, in Volume Three of \"Revelations and Translations\"; and, in 2017, the church bought the printer's manuscript for ." ], [ "Editions", "=== Chapter and verse notation systems ===The original 1830 publication had unnumbered paragraphs (and no verses) which were divided into relatively long chapters.", "Just as the Bible's present chapter and verse notation system is a later addition of Bible publishers to books that were originally solid blocks of undivided text, the chapter and verse markers within the books of the Book of Mormon are conventions, not part of the original text.The format of the Book of Mormon stayed the same, with citations noted by book and page number, (Book of Alma, page 262) or just the page number (page 262).", "As more editions were made, the references were noted by the edition.", "In 1852, Franklin D. Richards integrated numbered paragraphs for easier reference.In 1876, Orson Pratt revised the Book of Mormon, and while doing so, created smaller chapters comparable in length to the Bible, and added true versification.", "In 1908, the RLDS Church revised their edition.", "While doing so, they added versification similar in breaks to the 1876 edition, but opted to use the original longer chapters.Most modern editions use one of the two, based on their heritage.", "The editions published by the Community of Christ (1908/AV & 1966/RAV), the RCE, and the Temple Lot edition use the 1908 Authorized Version Versing.", "The LDS Church uses the 1876 Orson Pratt versing.===Church editions=== Publisher Year Titles and notes Link The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 1981 ''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ''.", "New introductions, chapter summaries, and footnotes.", "1920 edition errors corrected based on original manuscript and 1840 edition.", "Updated in a revised edition in 2013.link Community of Christ 1966 \"Revised Authorized Version\", based on 1908 Authorized Version, 1837 edition and original manuscript.", "Omits numerous repetitive \"it came to pass\" phrases.", "The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) 2001 Compiled by a committee of Apostles.", "It uses the chapter and verse designations from the 1879 LDS edition.", "Church of Christ with the Elijah Message 1957 ''The Record of the Nephites'', \"Restored Palmyra Edition\".", "1830 text with the 1879 LDS edition's chapters and verses.", "link Church of Christ (Temple Lot) 1990 Based on 1908 RLDS edition, 1830 edition, printer's manuscript, and corrections by church leaders.", "linkFellowships of the remnants2019Based on Joseph Smith's last personally-updated 1840 version, with revisions per Denver Snuffer Jr.", "Distributed jointly with the New Testament, in a volume called the \"New Covenants\".", "link=== Other editions === Publisher Year Titles and notes Link Herald Heritage 1970 Facsimile of the 1830 edition.Macmillan1992''Encyclopedia of Mormonism''.", "The ''Encyclopedia'''s fifth volume includes the full text of the Book of Mormon, as well as the Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price.", "There are brief introductions but no footnotes or indices (an index to the ''Encyclopedia'' is found in its fourth volume).", "The ''Encyclopedia'', including the volume containing the Book of Mormon, is no longer in print.", "Zarahemla Research Foundation 1999 ''The Book of Mormon: Restored Covenant Edition''.", "Text from Original and Printer's Manuscripts, in poetic layout.", "link Bookcraft 1999 ''The Book of Mormon for Latter-day Saint Families''.", "Large print with visuals and explanatory notes.", "University of Illinois Press 2003 ''The Book of Mormon: A Reader's Edition''.", "The text of the 1920 LDS edition reformatted into paragraphs and poetic stanzas and accompanied by some footnotes.", "link Doubleday 2004 ''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ''.", "Text from the LDS edition without footnotes.", "A second edition was printed in 2006.linkSignature Books2008''The Reader's Book of Mormon''.", "Text from the 1830 edition with its original paragraphing and without versification.", "Published in seven volumes, each introduced with a personal essay on the portion of the Book of Mormon contained.", "Penguin Books 2008 ''The Book of Mormon''.", "Penguin Classics series.", "Paperback with 1840 text, \"the last edition that Smith himself edited.", "\"link Yale University Press 2009 ''The Book of Mormon: The Earliest Text''.", "Joseph Smith's dictated text with corrections from Royal Skousen's study of more than five thousand textual variances across manuscripts and editions.", "linkThe Olive Leaf Foundation2017''A New Approach To Studying The Book Of Mormon''.", "The complete text of the 1981 edition organized in paragraphs and poetic stanzas, annotated with marginal notes, and divided into event-based chaptering.", "link Neal A. Maxwell Institute 2018\t ''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ, Maxwell Institute Study Edition.''", "Text from the church's 1981 and 2013 editions reformatted into paragraphs and poetic stanzas.", "Selected textual variants discovered in the Book of Mormon Critical Text Project appear in footnotes.", "Digital Legend Press 2018 ''Annotated Edition of the Book of Mormon''.", "Text from the 1920 edition footnoted and organized in paragraphs.===Historic editions===The following editions no longer in publication marked major developments in the text or reader's helps printed in the Book of Mormon.PublisherYearTitles and notesLink E. B. Grandin 1830 \"First edition\" in Palmyra.", "Based on printer's manuscript copied from original manuscript.", "link Pratt and Goodson 1837 \"Second edition\" in Kirtland.", "Revision of first edition, using the printer's manuscript with emendations and grammatical corrections.", "link Ebenezer Robinson and Smith 1840 \"Third edition\" in Nauvoo.", "Revised by Joseph Smith in comparison to the original manuscript.", "link Young, Kimball and Pratt 1841 \"First European edition\".", "1837 reprint with British spellings.", "Future LDS editions descended from this, not the 1840 edition.", "linkJoseph Smith Jr.1842\"Fourth American edition\" in Nauvoo.", "A reprint of the 1840 edition.", "Facsimiles of an original 1842 edition.", "Franklin D. Richards 1852 \"Third European edition\".", "Edited by Richards.", "Introduced primitive verses (numbered paragraphs).", "link James O. Wright 1858 Unauthorized reprinting of 1840 edition.", "Used by the early RLDS Church in 1860s.", "link Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints 1874 First RLDS edition.", "1840 text with verses.", "link Deseret News 1879 Edited by Orson Pratt.", "Introduced footnotes, new verses, and shorter chapters.", "link Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints 1908 \"Authorized Version\".", "New verses and corrections based on printer's manuscript.", "link The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 1920 Edited by James E. Talmage.", "Added introductions, double columns, chapter summaries, new footnotes, pronunciation guide.", "link=== Textual criticism ===A page from the original manuscript of the Book of Mormon, covering – .Although some earlier unpublished studies had been prepared, not until the early 1970s was true textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon.", "At that time BYU Professor Ellis Rasmussen and his associates were asked by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) to begin preparation for a new edition of its scriptures.", "One aspect of that effort entailed digitizing the text and preparing appropriate footnotes; another aspect required establishing the most dependable text.", "To that latter end, Stanley R. Larson (a Rasmussen graduate student) set about applying modern text critical standards to the manuscripts and early editions of the Book of Mormon as his thesis project—which he completed in 1974.Larson carefully examined the original manuscript (the one dictated by Joseph Smith to his scribes) and the printer's manuscript (the copy Oliver Cowdery prepared for the printer in 1829–1830), and compared them with the first, second, and third editions of the Book of Mormon; this was done to determine what sort of changes had occurred over time and to make judgments as to which readings were the most original.", "Larson proceeded to publish a set of well-argued articles on the phenomena which he had discovered.", "Many of his observations were included as improvements in the church's 1981 edition of the Book of Mormon.By 1979, with the establishment of the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) as a California non-profit research institution, an effort led by Robert F. Smith began to take full account of Larson's work and to publish a critical text of the Book of Mormon.", "Thus was born the FARMS Critical Text Project which published the first volume of the three-volume Book of Mormon Critical Text in 1984.The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987, but was already being superseded by a second, revised edition of the entire work, greatly aided through the advice and assistance of a team that included Yale doctoral candidate Grant Hardy, Dr. Gordon C. Thomasson, Professor John W. Welch (the head of FARMS), and Professor Royal Skousen.", "However, these were merely preliminary steps to a far more exacting and all-encompassing project.In 1988, with that preliminary phase of the project completed, Skousen took over as editor and head of the FARMS Critical Text of the Book of Mormon Project and proceeded to gather still scattered fragments of the original manuscript of the Book of Mormon and to have advanced photographic techniques applied to obtain fine readings from otherwise unreadable pages and fragments.", "He also closely examined the printer's manuscript (then owned by RLDS Church) for differences in types of ink or pencil, in order to determine when and by whom they were made.", "He also collated the various editions of the Book of Mormon down to the present to see what sorts of changes have been made through time.Skousen and the Critical Text Project have published complete transcripts of the Original and Printer's Manuscripts (volumes I and II), parts of a history of the text (volume III), and a six-part analysis of textual variants (volume IV).", "The remainder of the eight-part history of the text and a complete electronic collation of editions and manuscripts (volumes 5 of the Project) remain forthcoming.", "In 2009, Yale University published an edition of the Book of Mormon which incorporates all aspects of Skousen's research.Differences between the original and printer's manuscript, the 1830 printed version, and modern versions of the Book of Mormon have led some critics to claim that evidence has been systematically removed that could have proven that Smith fabricated the Book of Mormon, or are attempts to hide embarrassing aspects of the church's past.", "Latter-day Saint scholars view the changes as superficial, done to clarify the meaning of the text.=== Non-English translations ===Translations of the Book of MormonThe Latter-day Saints version of the Book of Mormon has been translated into 83 languages and selections have been translated into an additional 25 languages.", "In 2001, the LDS Church reported that all or part of the Book of Mormon was available in the native language of 99 percent of Latter-day Saints and 87 percent of the world's total population.Translations into languages without a tradition of writing (e.g., Kaqchikel, Tzotzil) have been published as audio recordings and as transliterations with Latin characters.", "Translations into American Sign Language are available as video recordings.Typically, translators are Latter-day Saints who are employed by the church and translate the text from the original English.", "Each manuscript is reviewed several times before it is approved and published.In 1998, the church stopped translating selections from the Book of Mormon and announced that instead each new translation it approves will be a full edition." ], [ "Representations in media", "Still from ''The Life of Nephi'' (1915)Artists have depicted Book of Mormon scenes and figures in visual art since the beginnings of the Latter Day Saint movement.", "The nonprofit Book of Mormon Art Catalog documents the existence of at least 2,500 visual depictions of Book of Mormon content.", "According to art historian Jenny Champoux, early artwork of the Book of Mormon relied on European iconography; eventually, a distinctive \"Latter-day Saint style\" developed.Events of the Book of Mormon are the focus of several films produced by the LDS Church, including ''The Life of Nephi'' (1915), ''How Rare a Possession'' (1987) and ''The Testaments of One Fold and One Shepherd'' (2000).", "Depictions of Book of Mormon narratives in films not officially commissioned by the church (sometimes colloquially known as Mormon cinema) include ''The Book of Mormon Movie, Vol.", "1: The Journey'' (2003) and ''Passage to Zarahemla'' (2007).In \"one of the most complex uses of Mormonism in cinema,\" Alfred Hitchcock's film ''Family Plot'' portrays a funeral service in which a priest (apparently non-Mormon, by his appearance) reads Second Nephi 9:20–27, a passage describing Jesus Christ having victory over death.In 2011, a long-running religious satire musical titled ''The Book of Mormon'', written by ''South Park'' creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone in collaboration with Robert Lopez, premiered on Broadway, winning nine Tony Awards, including Best Musical.", "Its London production won the Olivier Award for best musical.", "Although it is titled ''The Book of Mormon'', the musical does not depict Book of Mormon content.", "Its plot tells an original story about Latter-day Saint missionaries in the twenty-first century.In 2019, the church began producing a series of live-action adaptations of various stories within the Book of Mormon, titled Book of Mormon Videos, which it distributed on its website and YouTube channel." ], [ "Distribution", "The LDS Church distributes free copies of the Book of Mormon, and it reported in 2011 that 150 million copies of the book have been printed since its initial publication.The initial printing of the Book of Mormon in 1830 produced 5000 copies.", "The 50 millionth copy was printed in 1990, with the 100 millionth following in 2000 and reaching 150 million in 2011.In October 2020, the church announced it had printed over 192 million copies of the Book of Mormon, and by December 2023 it had distributed over 200 million copies." ], [ "See also", "* ''Journal of Book of Mormon Studies''* List of Gospels* ''Studies of the Book of Mormon''* List of Book of Mormon places" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===* * * * .", "* * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * One volume in six parts.", "* One volume in six parts.", "Republished online by the Interpreter Foundation in 2014.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Book of Mormon (the current official edition of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)* Project Gutenberg has the full text of the Book of Mormon in various formats (LDS chapters and numbering)* RLDS 1908 Book of Mormon (RLDS chapters and numbering)* The Book of Mormon; An Account Written By the Hand of Mormon Upon Plates Taken From the Plates of Nephi.", "From the Collections at the Library of Congress* Photographs and transcription of the printer's manuscript of the Book of Mormon by the Joseph Smith Papers* Photocopies and transcription of the 1830 edition of the Book of Mormon by the Joseph Smith Papers* Photographs and transcription of the 1840 of the Book of Mormon by the Joseph Smith Papers* * Book of Mormon Art Catalog database of known works of visual art depicting Book of Mormon content" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Baptists" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Baptists''' form a major branch of evangelical Protestantism distinguished by baptizing only professing Christian believers (believer's baptism), and doing so by complete immersion.", "Baptist churches also generally subscribe to the doctrines of soul competency (the responsibility and accountability of every person before God), ''sola fide'' (salvation by just faith alone), ''sola scriptura'' (the scripture of the Bible alone, as the rule of faith and practice) and congregationalist church government.", "Baptists generally recognize two ordinances: baptism and communion.", "Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.", "Baptist missionaries have spread various Baptist confessions to every continent.", "The largest group of Baptist churches is the Baptist World Alliance, but there are many different groupings of Baptist churches and Baptist congregations which belong to no larger group.Historians trace the earliest Baptist church to 1609 in Amsterdam, Dutch Republic with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor.", "In accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults.", "Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect.", "Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, so that individuals might have freedom of religion.", "Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious conflict with English Dissenters under James I." ], [ "Origins", "Baptist historian Bruce Gourley outlines four main views of Baptist origins:# the modern scholarly consensus that the movement traces its origin to the 17th century via the English Separatists,# the view that it was an outgrowth of the Anabaptist movement of believer's baptism begun in 1525 on the European continent,# the perpetuity view which assumes that the Baptist ''faith and practice'' has existed since the time of Christ, and# the successionist view, or \"Baptist successionism\", which argues that Baptist ''churches'' actually existed in an unbroken chain since the time of Christ.===English separatist view===John Smyth led the first Baptist church in Amsterdam in 1609.Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the 1600s, the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations.", "This view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted.", "Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal.", "It was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil.", "Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical \"truth\" had been discovered.During the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England (Anglicans) separated from the Roman Catholic Church.", "There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation.", "There also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses.", "Of those most critical of the Church's direction, some chose to stay and try to make constructive changes from within the Anglican Church.", "They became known as \"Puritans\" and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists.", "Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction and became known as the Separatists.In 1579, Faustus Socinus founded the Unitarians in Poland, which was a tolerant country.", "The Unitarians taught baptism by immersion.", "When Poland ceased to be tolerant, they fled to Holland.", "In Holland, the Unitarians introduced immersion baptism to the Dutch Mennonites.Baptist churches have their origins in a movement started by the English John Smyth and Thomas Helwys in Amsterdam.", "Due to their shared beliefs with the Puritans and Congregationalists, they went into exile in 1607 for Holland with other believers who held the same biblical positions.", "They believe that the Bible is to be the only guide and that the believer's baptism is what the scriptures require.", "In 1609, the year considered to be the foundation of the movement, they baptized believers and founded the first Baptist church.In 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled \"The Character of the Beast,\" or \"The False Constitution of the Church.\"", "In it he expressed two propositions: first, infants are not to be baptized; and second, \"Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism.\"", "Hence, his conviction was that a scriptural church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith.", "He rejected the Separatist movement's doctrine of infant baptism (paedobaptism).", "Shortly thereafter, Smyth left the group.", "Ultimately, Smyth became committed to believers' baptism as the only biblical baptism.", "He was convinced on the basis of his interpretation of Scripture that infants would not be damned should they die in infancy.", "Smyth, convinced that his self-baptism was invalid, applied with the Mennonites for membership.", "He died while waiting for membership, and some of his followers became Mennonites.", "Thomas Helwys and others kept their baptism and their Baptist commitments.", "The modern Baptist denomination is an outgrowth of Smyth's movement.", "Baptists rejected the name Anabaptist when they were called that by opponents in derision.", "McBeth writes that as late as the 18th century, many Baptists referred to themselves as \"the Christians commonly—though ''falsely''—called Anabaptists.", "\"Thomas Helwys took over the leadership, leading the church back to England in 1611 and published the first Baptist confession of faith \"A Declaration of Faith of English People\" in 1611.He founded the first General Baptist Church in Spitalfields, east London, England in 1612.Another milestone in the early development of Baptist doctrine was in 1638 with John Spilsbury, a Calvinist minister who helped to promote the strict practice of believer's baptism by immersion (as opposed to affusion or aspersion).", "According to Tom Nettles, professor of historical theology at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, \"Spilsbury's cogent arguments for a gathered, disciplined congregation of believers baptized by immersion as constituting the New Testament church gave expression to and built on insights that had emerged within separatism, advanced in the life of John Smyth and the suffering congregation of Thomas Helwys, and matured in Particular Baptists.", "\"===Anabaptist influence view===A minority view is that early-17th-century Baptists were influenced by (but not directly connected to) continental Anabaptists.", "According to this view, the General Baptists shared similarities with Dutch Waterlander Mennonites (one of many Anabaptist groups) including believer's baptism only, religious liberty, separation of church and state, and Arminian views of salvation, predestination and original sin.", "It is certain that the early Baptist church led by Smyth had contacts with the Anabaptists, however it is debated if these influences found their way into the English General Baptists.", "Representatives of this theory include A.C. Underwood and William R. Estep.", "Gourley wrote that among some contemporary Baptist scholars who emphasize the faith of the community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist influence theory is making a comeback.", "This view was also taught by the Reformed historian Philip Schaff.", "However, the relations between Baptists and Anabaptists were early strained.", "In 1624, the then five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists.", "Furthermore, the original group associated with Smyth and popularly believed to be the first Baptists broke with the Waterlander Mennonite Anabaptists after a brief period of association in the Netherlands.===Perpetuity and succession view===Traditional Baptist historians write from the perspective that Baptists had existed since the time of Christ.", "Proponents of the Baptist successionist or perpetuity view consider the Baptist movement to have existed independently from Roman Catholicism and prior to the Protestant Reformation.The perpetuity view is often identified with ''The Trail of Blood'', a booklet of five lectures by J.M.", "Carrol published in 1931.Other Baptist writers who advocate the successionist theory of Baptist origins are John T. Christian, Thomas Crosby, G. H. Orchard, J. M. Cramp, William Cathcart, Adam Taylor and D. B. Ray.", "This view was also held by English Baptist preacher, Charles Spurgeon as well as Jesse Mercer, the namesake of Mercer University.In 1898 William Whitsitt was pressured to resign his presidency of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary for denying Baptist successionism.===Baptist origins in the United Kingdom===''A Short Declaration of the Mistery of Iniquity'' (1612) by Thomas Helwys.", "For Helwys, religious liberty was a right for everyone, even for those he disagreed with.In 1612, Thomas Helwys established a Baptist congregation in London, consisting of congregants from Smyth's church.", "A number of other Baptist churches sprang up, and they became known as the General Baptists.", "The Particular Baptists were established when a group of Calvinist Separatists adopted believers' Baptism.", "The Particular Baptists consisted of seven churches by 1644 and had created a confession of faith called the First London Confession of Faith.===Baptist origins in North America===The First Baptist Church in America located in Providence, Rhode IslandBoth Roger Williams and John Clarke, his compatriot and coworker for religious freedom, are variously credited as founding the earliest Baptist church in North America.", "In 1639, Williams established a Baptist church in Providence, Rhode Island, and Clarke began a Baptist church in Newport, Rhode Island.", "According to a Baptist historian who has researched the matter extensively, \"There is much debate over the centuries as to whether the Providence or Newport church deserved the place of 'first' Baptist congregation in America.", "Exact records for both congregations are lacking.", "\"The Great Awakening energized the Baptist movement, and the Baptist community experienced spectacular growth.", "Baptists became the largest Christian community in many southern states, including among the enslaved Black population.Baptist missionary work in Canada began in the British colony of Nova Scotia (present day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) in the 1760s.", "The first official record of a Baptist church in Canada was that of the Horton Baptist Church (now Wolfville) in Wolfville, Nova Scotia on 29 October 1778.The church was established with the assistance of the New Light evangelist Henry Alline.", "Many of Alline's followers, after his death, would convert and strengthen the Baptist presence in the Atlantic region.", "Two major groups of Baptists formed the basis of the churches in the Maritimes.", "These were referred to as Regular Baptist (Calvinistic in their doctrine) and Free Will Baptists (Arminian in their doctrine).In May 1845, the Baptist congregations in the United States split over slavery and missions.", "The Home Mission Society prevented slaveholders from being appointed as missionaries.", "The split created the Southern Baptist Convention, while the northern congregations formed their own umbrella organization now called the American Baptist Churches USA (ABC-USA).", "The Methodist Episcopal Church, South had recently separated over the issue of slavery, and southern Presbyterians would do so shortly thereafter.In 2015, Baptists in the U.S. number 50 million people and constitute roughly one-third of American Protestants.===Baptist origins in Ukraine===The Baptist churches in Ukraine were preceded by the German Anabaptist and Mennonite communities, who had been living in the south of Ukraine since the 16th century, and who practiced adult believers baptism.", "The first Baptist baptism (adult baptism by full immersion) in Ukraine took place in 1864 on the river Inhul in the Yelizavetgrad region (now Kropyvnytskyi region), in a German settlement.", "In 1867, the first Baptist communities were organized in that area.", "From there, the Baptist movement spread across the south of Ukraine and then to other regions as well.", "One of the first Baptist communities was registered in Kyiv in 1907, and in 1908 the First All-Russian Convention of Baptists was held there, as Ukraine was still controlled by the Russian Empire.", "The All-Russian Union of Baptists was established in the town of Yekaterinoslav (now Dnipro) in Southern Ukraine.", "At the end of the 19th century, estimates are that there were between 100,000 and 300,000 Baptists in Ukraine.", "An independent All-Ukrainian Baptist Union of Ukraine was established during the brief period of Ukraine's independence in early 20th-century, and once again after the fall of the Soviet Union, the largest of which is currently known as the Evangelical Baptist Union of Ukraine." ], [ "Baptist churches", "Baptist Hospital Mutengene (Tiko), member of the Cameroon Baptist ConventionFinnish-language Baptist Church in Vaasa, FinlandSome Baptist church congregations choose to be independent of larger church organizations (Independent Baptist).", "Other Baptist churches choose to be part of an international or national Baptist Christian denomination or association, while still adhering to a congregational polity.", "This cooperative relationship allows the development of common organizations, for mission and societal purposes, such as humanitarian aid, schools, theological institutes and hospitals.", "The majority of Baptist churches are part of national denominations (or 'associations' or 'cooperative groups'), as well as the Baptist World Alliance (BWA), formed in 1905 by 24 Baptist denominations from various countries.", "The BWA's goals include caring for the needy, leading in world evangelism and defending human rights and religious freedom." ], [ "Missionary organizations", "Missionary organizations favored the development of the movement on all continents.", "In England there was the founding of the BMS World Mission in 1792 at Kettering, England.", "In United States, there was the founding of International Ministries in 1814 and International Mission Board in 1845." ], [ "Membership", "===Statistics===In 2010, an estimated 100 million Christians identified themselves as Baptist or belong to Baptist-type churches.", "In 2020, according to the researcher Sébastien Fath of the CNRS, the Baptist movement has around 170 million believers in the world.According to a census released in 2023 by the Baptist World Alliance, the largest global organization of Baptists, the BWA includes 253 participating Baptist fellowships in 130 countries, with 176,000 churches and 51,000,000 baptized members.", "These statistics may not be fully representative, however, since some churches in the United States have dual or triple national Baptist affiliation, causing a church and its members to be counted possibly by more than one Baptist association, if these associations are members of the BWA.Among the censuses carried out by individual Baptist associations in 2023, those which claimed the most members on each continent were:In North America, the Southern Baptist Convention with 47,198 churches and 13,223,122 members, the National Baptist Convention, USA with 21,145 churches and 8,415,100 members.In South America, the Brazilian Baptist Convention with 9,070 churches and 1,797,597 members, the Evangelical Baptist Convention of Argentina with 670 churches and 85,000 members.In Africa, the Nigerian Baptist Convention with 14,523 churches and 8,925,000 members, the Baptist Convention of Tanzania with 1,350 churches and 2,680,000 members, the Baptist Community of the Congo River with 2,673 churches and 1,764,155 members.In Asia, the Myanmar Baptist Convention with 5,337 churches and 1,013,499 members, the Nagaland Baptist Church Council with 1,661 churches and 648,096 members, the Garo Baptist Convention with 2,619 churches and 333,908 members, the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches with 1,079 churches and 600,000 members.In Europe, the All-Ukrainian Union of Churches of Evangelical Christian Baptists with 2,192 churches and 105,189 members, the Baptist Union of Great Britain with 1,897 churches and 99,475 members, the Union of Christian Baptist Churches in Romania with 1,697 churches and 83,853 members.In Oceania, the Australian Baptist Ministries with 1,024 churches and 87,555 members, the Baptist Union of Papua New Guinea with 493 churches and 84,700 members.===Qualification for membership===Membership policies vary due to the autonomy of churches, but generally an individual becomes a member of a church through believer's baptism (which is a public profession of faith in Jesus, followed by immersion baptism).Most baptists do not believe that baptism is a requirement for salvation, but rather a public expression of one's inner repentance and faith.", "In general, Baptist churches do not have a stated age restriction on membership, but believer's baptism requires that an individual be able to freely and earnestly profess their faith." ], [ "Baptist beliefs", "Since the early days of the Baptist movement, various associations have adopted common confessions of faith as the basis for cooperative work among churches.", "Each church has a particular confession of faith and a common confession of faith if it is a member of an association of churches.", "Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, 1742 Philadelphia Baptist Confession, the 1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith, and written church covenants which some individual Baptist churches adopt as a statement of their faith and beliefs.Baptist theology shares many doctrines with evangelical theology.", "It is based on believers' Church doctrine.Baptists, like other Christians, are defined by school of thought—some of it common to all orthodox and evangelical groups and a portion of it distinctive to Baptists.", "Through the years, different Baptist groups have issued confessions of faith—without considering them to be ''creeds''—to express their particular doctrinal distinctions in comparison to other Christians as well as in comparison to other Baptists.", "Baptist denominations are traditionally seen as belonging to two parties, General Baptists who uphold Arminian theology and Particular Baptists who uphold Reformed theology.", "During the holiness movement, some General Baptists accepted the teaching of a second work of grace and formed denominations that emphasized this belief, such as the Ohio Valley Association of the Christian Baptist Churches of God and the Holiness Baptist Association.", "Most Baptists are evangelical in doctrine, but their beliefs may vary due to the congregational governance system that gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches.", "Historically, Baptists have played a key role in encouraging religious freedom and separation of church and state.Shared doctrines would include beliefs about one God; the virgin birth; miracles; atonement for sins through the death, burial, and bodily resurrection of Jesus; the Trinity; the need for salvation (through belief in Jesus Christ as the Son of God, his death and resurrection); grace; the Kingdom of God; last things (eschatology) (Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the earth, the dead will be raised, and Christ will judge everyone in righteousness); and evangelism and missions.Most Baptists hold that no church or ecclesiastical organization has inherent authority over a Baptist church.", "Churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation, never by any sort of coercion.", "Furthermore, this Baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control.Exceptions to this local form of local governance include a few churches that submit to the leadership of a body of elders, as well as the Episcopal Baptists that have an Episcopal system.Baptists generally believe in the literal Second Coming of Christ.", "Beliefs among Baptists regarding the \"end times\" include amillennialism, both dispensational and historic premillennialism, with views such as postmillennialism and preterism receiving some support.Some additional distinctive Baptist principles held by many Baptists:* The supremacy of the canonical Scriptures as a norm of faith and practice.", "For something to become a matter of faith and practice, it is not sufficient for it to be merely ''consistent with'' and not contrary to scriptural principles.", "It must be something ''explicitly'' ordained through command or example in the Bible.", "For instance, this is why Baptists do not practice infant baptism—they say the Bible neither commands nor exemplifies infant baptism as a Christian practice.", "More than any other Baptist principle, this one when applied to infant baptism is said to separate Baptists from other evangelical Christians.", "* Baptists believe that faith is a matter between God and the individual (religious freedom).", "To them it means the advocacy of absolute liberty of conscience.", "* Insistence on immersion believer's baptism as the only mode of baptism.", "Baptists do not believe that baptism is necessary for salvation.", "Therefore, for Baptists, baptism is an ordinance, not a sacrament, since, in their view, it imparts no saving grace.===Beliefs that vary among Baptists===Church sign indicating that the congregation uses the Authorized King James Version of the Bible of 1611Since there is no hierarchical authority and each Baptist church is autonomous, there is no official set of Baptist theological beliefs.", "These differences exist both among associations, and even among churches within the associations.Some doctrinal issues on which there is widespread difference among Baptists are:* Eschatology* Arminianism versus Calvinism (General Baptists uphold Arminian theology while Particular Baptists teach Calvinist theology).", "* The doctrine of separation from \"the world\" and whether to associate with those who are \"of the world\"* Belief in a second work of grace, i.e.", "entire sanctification (held by General Baptists in the Holiness tradition)* Speaking-in-tongues and the operation of other charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit in the charismatic churches* How the Bible should be interpreted (hermeneutics)* The extent to which missionary boards should be used to support missionaries* The extent to which non-members may participate in the Lord's Supper services* Which translation of Scripture to use (see King-James-Only movement in the English-speaking world)* Dispensationalism versus Covenant theology* The role of women in marriage.", "* The ordination of women as deacons or pastors.", "* Attitudes to and involvement in the ecumenical movement.", "* The role of repentance in salvation (Lordship salvation controversy).Excommunication may be used as a last resort by some denominations and churches for members who do not want to repent of beliefs or behavior at odds with the confession of faith of the community.", "When an entire congregation is excluded, it is often called disfellowship." ], [ "Worship", " Show on the life of Jesus at Igreja da Cidade in São José dos Campos, affiliated to the Brazilian Baptist Convention, 2017Chümoukedima Ao Baptist Church building in Chümoukedima, affiliated with the Nagaland Baptist Church Council (India)In Baptist churches, worship service is part of the life of the Church and includes praise, worship, of prayers to God, a sermon based on the Bible, offering, and periodically the Lord's Supper.", "Some churches have services with traditional Christian music, others with contemporary Christian music, and some offer both in separate services.", "In many churches, there are services adapted for children, even teenagers.", "Prayer meetings are also held during the week.===Places of worship===The architecture is sober and the Latin cross is one of the only spiritual symbols that can usually be seen on the building of a Baptist church and that identifies the place where it belongs." ], [ "Education", "Baptist churches established elementary and secondary schools, Bible colleges, colleges and universities as early as the 1680s in England, before continuing in various countries.", "In 2006, the International Association of Baptist Colleges and Universities was founded in the United States.", "In 2023, it had 42 member universities." ], [ "Sexuality", "Rivas, Baptist Convention of Nicaragua, 2011Many churches promote virginity pledges to young Baptist Christians, who are invited to engage in a public ceremony at sexual abstinence until Christian marriage.", "This pact is often symbolized by a purity ring.", "Programs like True Love Waits, founded in 1993 by the Southern Baptist Convention have been developed to support the commitments.Most Baptist associations around the world believe only in marriage between a man and a woman.", "Some Baptist associations in the United States do not have official beliefs about marriage in a confession of faith and invoke congregationalism to leave the choice to each church to decide.", "This is the case of American Baptist Churches USA, Progressive National Baptist Convention, Cooperative Baptist Fellowship and National Baptist Convention, USA.Some Baptist associations support same-sex marriage.", "The Alliance of Baptists (USA), the Canadian Association for Baptist Freedoms, the Aliança de Batistas do Brasil, the Fraternidad de Iglesias Bautistas de Cuba, and the Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists (international) all support same-sex marriage." ], [ "Controversies that have shaped Baptists", "Baptists have faced many controversies in their 400-year history, controversies of the level of crises.", "Baptist historian Walter Shurden says the word ''crisis'' comes from the Greek word meaning 'to decide.'", "Shurden writes that contrary to the presumed negative view of crises, some controversies that reach a crisis level may actually be \"positive and highly productive.\"", "He claims that even schism, though never ideal, has often produced positive results.", "In his opinion crises among Baptists each have become decision-moments that shaped their future.", "Some controversies that have shaped Baptists include the \"missions crisis\", the \"slavery crisis\", the \"landmark crisis\", and the \"modernist crisis\".===Missions crisis===Early in the 19th century, the rise of the modern missions movement, and the backlash against it, led to widespread and bitter controversy among the American Baptists.", "During this era, the American Baptists were split between missionary and anti-missionary.", "A substantial secession of Baptists went into the movement led by Alexander Campbell to return to a more fundamental church.===Slavery crisis=======United States====Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, affiliated with the Progressive National Baptist ConventionLeading up to the American Civil War, Baptists became embroiled in the controversy over slavery in the United States.", "Whereas in the First Great Awakening Methodist and Baptist preachers had opposed slavery and urged manumission, over the decades they made more of an accommodation with the institution.", "They worked with slaveholders in the South to urge a paternalistic institution.", "Both denominations made direct appeals to slaves and free Blacks for conversion.", "The Baptists particularly allowed them active roles in congregations.", "By the mid-19th century, northern Baptists tended to oppose slavery.", "As tensions increased, in 1844 the Home Mission Society refused to appoint a slaveholder as a missionary who had been proposed by Georgia.", "It noted that missionaries could not take servants with them, and also that the board did not want to appear to condone slavery.In 1845, a group of churches in favor of slavery and in disagreement with the abolitionism of the Triennial Convention (now American Baptist Churches USA) left to form the Southern Baptist Convention.", "They believed that the Bible sanctions slavery and that it was acceptable for Christians to own slaves.", "They believed slavery was a human institution which Baptist teaching could make less harsh.", "By this time many planters were part of Baptist congregations, and some of the denomination's prominent preachers, such as the Rev.", "Basil Manly, Sr., president of the University of Alabama, were also planters who owned slaves.As early as the late 18th century, Black Baptists began to organize separate churches, associations and mission agencies.", "Blacks set up some independent Baptist congregations in the South before the American Civil War.", "White Baptist associations maintained some oversight of these churches.In the postwar years, freedmen quickly left the white congregations and associations, setting up their own churches.", "In 1866, the Consolidated American Baptist Convention, formed from Black Baptists of the South and West, helped southern associations set up Black state conventions, which they did in Alabama, Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky.", "In 1880, Black state conventions united in the national Foreign Mission Convention to support Black Baptist missionary work.", "Two other national Black conventions were formed, and in 1895 they united as the National Baptist Convention.", "This organization later went through its own changes, spinning off other conventions.", "It is the largest Black religious organization and the second-largest Baptist organization in the world.", "Baptists are numerically most dominant in the Southeast.In 2007, the Pew Research Center's Religious Landscape Survey found that 45% of all African Americans identify with Baptist denominations, with the vast majority of those being within the historically Black tradition.Martin Luther King Jr., a Baptist minister and civil rights leader, at the 1963 civil rights march on Washington, D.C.", "The Civil Rights movement divided various Baptists in the U.S., as slavery had more than a century earlier.In the American South, the interpretation of the American Civil War, abolition of slavery and postwar period has differed sharply by race since those years.", "Americans have often interpreted great events in religious terms.", "Historian Wilson Fallin contrasts the interpretation of Civil War and Reconstruction in white versus Black memory by analyzing Baptist sermons documented in Alabama.", "Soon after the Civil War, most Black Baptists in the South left the Southern Baptist Convention, reducing its numbers by hundreds of thousands or more.", "They quickly organized their own congregations and developed their own regional and state associations and, by the end of the 19th century, a national convention.White preachers in Alabama after Reconstruction expressed the view that:Black preachers interpreted the Civil War, Emancipation and Reconstruction as \"God's gift of freedom.\"", "They had a gospel of liberation, having long identified with the Book of Exodus from slavery in the Old Testament.", "They took opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man.", "Most of all, they quickly formed their own churches, associations, and conventions to operate freely without white supervision.", "These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, a place to develop and use leadership, and places for proclamation of the gospel of liberation.", "As a result, Black preachers said that God would protect and help him and God's people; God would be their rock in a stormy land.The Southern Baptist Convention supported white supremacy and its results: disenfranchising most Blacks and many poor whites at the turn of the 20th century by raising barriers to voter registration, and passage of racial segregation laws that enforced the system of Jim Crow.", "Its members largely resisted the civil rights movement in the South, which sought to enforce their constitutional rights for public access and voting; and enforcement of midcentury federal civil rights laws.In 1995, the Southern Baptist Convention passed a resolution that recognized the failure of their ancestors to protect the civil rights of African Americans.", "More than 20,000 Southern Baptists registered for the meeting in Atlanta.", "The resolution declared that messengers, as SBC delegates are called, \"unwaveringly denounce racism, in all its forms, as deplorable sin\" and \"lament and repudiate historic acts of evil such as slavery from which we continue to reap a bitter harvest.\"", "It offered an apology to all African Americans for \"condoning and/or perpetuating individual and systemic racism in our lifetime\" and repentance for \"racism of which we have been guilty, whether consciously or unconsciously.\"", "Although Southern Baptists have condemned racism in the past, this was the first time the convention, predominantly white since the Reconstruction era, had specifically addressed the issue of slavery.The statement sought forgiveness \"from our African-American brothers and sisters\" and pledged to \"eradicate racism in all its forms from Southern Baptist life and ministry.\"", "In 1995, about 500,000 members of the 15.6-million-member denomination were African Americans and another 300,000 were ethnic minorities.", "The resolution marked the denomination's first formal acknowledgment that racism played a role in its founding.====Caribbean islands====Elsewhere in the Americas, in the Caribbean in particular, Baptist missionaries and members took an active role in the anti-slavery movement.", "In Jamaica, for example, William Knibb, a prominent British Baptist missionary, worked toward the emancipation of slaves in the British West Indies (which took place in full in 1838).", "Knibb also supported the creation of \"Free Villages\" and sought funding from English Baptists to buy land for freedmen to cultivate; the Free Villages were envisioned as rural communities to be centered around a Baptist church where emancipated slaves could farm their own land.", "Thomas Burchell, missionary minister in Montego Bay, also was active in this movement, gaining funds from Baptists in England to buy land for what became known as Burchell Free Village.Prior to emancipation, Baptist deacon Samuel Sharpe, who served with Burchell, organized a general strike of slaves seeking better conditions.", "It developed into a major rebellion of as many as 60,000 slaves, which became known as the Christmas Rebellion (when it took place) or the Baptist War.", "It was put down by government troops within two weeks.", "During and after the rebellion, an estimated 200 slaves were killed outright, with more than 300 judicially executed later by prosecution in the courts, sometimes for minor offenses.Baptists were active after emancipation in promoting the education of former slaves; for example, Jamaica's Calabar High School, named after the port of Calabar in Nigeria, was founded by Baptist missionaries.", "At the same time, during and after slavery, slaves and free Blacks formed their own Spiritual Baptist movements – breakaway spiritual movements which theology often expressed resistance to oppression.===Landmark crisis===Southern Baptist Landmarkism sought to reset the ecclesiastical separation which had characterized the old Baptist churches, in an era when inter-denominational union meetings were the order of the day.", "James Robinson Graves was an influential Baptist of the 19th century and the primary leader of this movement.", "While some Landmarkers eventually separated from the Southern Baptist Convention, the movement continued to influence the Convention into the 20th and 21st centuries.===Modernist crisis===Charles Spurgeon later in lifeThe rise of theological modernism in the latter 19th and early 20th centuries also greatly affected Baptists.", "The Landmark movement, already mentioned, has been described as a reaction among Southern Baptists in the United States against incipient modernism.", "In England, Charles Haddon Spurgeon fought against modernistic views of the Scripture in the Downgrade Controversy and severed his church from the Baptist Union as a result.The Northern Baptist Convention in the United States had internal conflict over modernism in the early 20th century, ultimately embracing it.", "Two new conservative associations of congregations that separated from the convention were founded as a result: the General Association of Regular Baptist Churches in 1933 and the Conservative Baptist Association of America in 1947.Following similar conflicts over modernism, the Southern Baptist Convention adhered to conservative theology as its official position.", "In the late 20th century, Southern Baptists who disagreed with this direction founded two new groups: the liberal Alliance of Baptists in 1987 and the more moderate Cooperative Baptist Fellowship in 1991.Originally both schisms continued to identify as Southern Baptist, but over time \"became permanent new families of Baptists.", "\"===Criticism===In his 1963 book, ''Strength to Love'', Baptist pastor Martin Luther King Jr. criticized some Baptist churches for their anti-intellectualism, especially because of the lack of theological training among pastors.In 2018, Baptist theologian Russell D. Moore criticized some Baptists in the United States for their moralism emphasizing strongly the condemnation of certain personal sins, but silent on the social injustices that afflict entire populations, such as racism.", "In 2020, the North American Baptist Fellowship, a region of the Baptist World Alliance, officially made a commitment to social justice and spoke out against institutionalized discrimination in the American justice system.", "In 2022, the Baptist World Alliance adopted a resolution encouraging Baptist churches and associations that have historically contributed to the sin of slavery to engage in restorative justice." ], [ "See also", "* List of Baptist denominations* List of Baptist World Alliance National Fellowships* List of Baptists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "* .", "* Kidd, Thomas S. and Barry Hankins, ''Baptists in America: A History'' (2015)* , comprehensive international History.", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Bebbington, David.", "''Baptists through the Centuries: A History of a Global People'' (Baylor University Press, 2010) emphasis on the United States and Europe; the last two chapters are on the global context.", "* Brackney, William H. ''A Genetic History of Baptist Thought: With Special Reference to Baptists in Britain and North America'' (Mercer University Press, 2004), focus on confessions of faith, hymns, theologians, and academics.", "* Brackney, William H.", "ed., ''Historical Dictionary of the Baptists'' (2nd ed.", "Scarecrow, 2009).", "* Cathcart, William, ed.", "''The Baptist Encyclopedia'' (2 vols.", "1883).", "online* Gavins, Raymond.", "''The Perils and Prospects of Southern Black Leadership: Gordon Blaine Hancock, 1884–1970.''", "Duke University Press, 1977.", "* Harrison, Paul M. ''Authority and Power in the Free Church Tradition: A Social Case Study of the American Baptist Convention'' Princeton University Press, 1959.", "* Harvey, Paul.", "''Redeeming the South: Religious Cultures and Racial Identities among Southern Baptists, 1865–1925'' University of North Carolina Press, 1997.", "* Heyrman, Christine Leigh.", "''Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt'' (1997).", "* Isaac, Rhy.", "\"Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 to 1775\", ''William and Mary Quarterly,'' 3d ser., XXXI (July 1974), 345–368.", "* .", "*Kidd, Thomas S., Barry Hankins, Oxford University Press, 2015* Leonard, Bill J.", "''Baptists in America'' (Columbia University Press, 2005).", "* * Pitts, Walter F. ''Old Ship of Zion: The Afro-Baptist Ritual in the African Diaspora'' Oxford University Press, 1996.", "* Rawlyk, George.", "''Champions of the Truth: Fundamentalism, Modernism, and the Maritime Baptists'' (1990), Canada.", "* Spangler, Jewel L. \"Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia\" ''Journal of Southern History.''", "Volume: 67.Issue: 2.2001.pp.", "243+* Stringer, Phil.", "''The Faithful Baptist Witness,'' Landmark Baptist Press, 1998.", "* Underwood, A. C. ''A History of the English Baptists.''", "London: Kingsgate Press, 1947.", "* Whitley, William Thomas ''A Baptist Bibliography: being a register of the chief materials for Baptist history, whether in manuscript or in print, preserved in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Colonies''.", "2 vols.", "London: Kingsgate Press, 1916–1922 (reissued) Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1984 * * Wills, Gregory A.", "''Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South, 1785–1900,'' Oxford.===Primary sources===* McBeth, H. Leon, ed.", "''A Sourcebook for Baptist Heritage'' (1990), primary sources for Baptist history.", "* McKinion, Steven A., ed.", "''Life and Practice in the Early Church: A Documentary Reader'' (2001)* McGlothlin, W. J., ed.", "''Baptist Confessions of Faith.''", "Philadelphia: The American Baptist Publication Society, 1911." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Early Church Fathers on Baptism* Oxford bibliographies: \"Baptists\" (2015) by Janet Moore Lindman* * Baptist church history collection, Rare Books and Manuscripts, Indiana State Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Blackjack" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blackjack''' (formerly '''black jack''' and '''''vingt-un''''') is a casino banking game.", "It is the most widely played casino banking game in the world.", "It uses decks of 52 cards and descends from a global family of casino banking games known as \"twenty-one\".", "This family of card games also includes the European games ''vingt-et-un'' and pontoon, and the Russian game .", "Blackjack players do not compete against each other.", "The game is a comparing card game where each player competes against the dealer." ], [ "History", "Blackjack's immediate precursor was the English version of ''twenty-one'' called ''vingt-un'', a game of unknown (but likely Spanish) provenance.", "The first written reference is found in a book by the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes.", "Cervantes was a gambler, and the protagonists of his \"Rinconete y Cortadillo\", from ''Novelas Ejemplares'', are card cheats in Seville.", "They are proficient at cheating at ''veintiuna'' (Spanish for \"twenty-one\") and state that the object of the game is to reach 21 points without going over and that the ace values 1 or 11.The game is played with the Spanish ''baraja'' deck.", "\"Rinconete y Cortadillo\" was written between 1601 and 1602, implying that ''ventiuna'' was played in Castile since the beginning of the 17th century or earlier.", "Later references to this game are found in France and Spain.The first record of the game in France occurs in 1888 and in Britain during the 1770s and 1780s, but the first rules appeared in Britain in 1800 under the name of ''vingt-un''.", "Twenty-One, still known then as ''vingt-un'', appeared in the United States in the early 1800s.", "The first American rules were an 1825 reprint of the 1800 English rules.", "English vingt-un later developed into an American variant in its own right which was renamed blackjack around 1899.According to popular myth, when vingt-un ('twenty-one') was introduced into the United States (in the early 1800s, during the First World War, or in the 1930s, depending on the source), gambling houses offered bonus payouts to stimulate players' interest.", "One such bonus was a ten-to-one payout if the player's hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black jack (either the jack of clubs or the jack of spades).", "This hand was called a \"blackjack\", and the name stuck even after the ten-to-one bonus was withdrawn.French card historian Thierry Depaulis debunks this story, showing that prospectors during the Klondike Gold Rush (1896–99) gave the name ''blackjack'' to the game of American ''vingt-un'', the bonus being the usual ace and any 10-point card.", "Since ''blackjack'' also refers to the mineral zincblende, which was often associated with gold or silver deposits, he suggests that the mineral name was transferred by prospectors to the top bonus hand.", "He could not find any historical evidence for a special bonus for having the combination of an ace and a black jack.In September 1956, Roger Baldwin, Wilbert Cantey, Herbert Maisel, and James McDermott published a paper titled \"The Optimum Strategy in Blackjack\" in the ''Journal of the American Statistical Association'', the first mathematically sound optimal blackjack strategy.", "This paper became the foundation of future efforts to beat blackjack.", "Ed Thorp used Baldwin's hand calculations to verify the basic strategy and later published (in 1963) ''Beat the Dealer''." ], [ "Rules of play at casinos", "At a blackjack table, the dealer faces five to nine playing positions from behind a semicircular table.", "Between one and eight standard 52-card decks are shuffled together.", "To start each round, players place bets in the \"betting box\" at each position.", "In jurisdictions allowing back betting, up to three players can be at each position.", "The player whose bet is at the front of the betting box controls the position, and the dealer consults the controlling player for playing decisions; the other bettors \"play behind\".", "A player can usually control or bet in as many boxes as desired at a single table, but an individual cannot play on more than one table at a time or place multiple bets within a single box.", "In many U.S. casinos, players are limited to playing one to three positions at a table.The dealer deals from their left (\"first base\") to their far right (\"third base\").", "Each box gets an initial hand of two cards visible to the people playing on it.", "The dealer's hand gets its first card face-up and, in \"hole card\" games, immediately gets a second card face-down (the hole card), which the dealer peeks at but only reveals when it makes the dealer's hand a blackjack.", "Hole card games are sometimes played on tables with a small mirror or electronic sensor used to peek securely at the hole card.", "In European casinos, \"no hole card\" games are prevalent; the dealer's second card is not drawn until the players have played their hands.Dealers deal the cards from one or two handheld decks, from a dealer's shoe or from a shuffling machine.", "Single cards are dealt to each wagered-on position clockwise from the dealer's left, followed by a single card to the dealer, followed by an additional card to each of the positions in play.", "The players' initial cards may be dealt face-up or face-down (more common in single-deck games).The object of the game is to win money by creating card totals higher than those of the dealer's hand but not exceeding 21, or by stopping at a total in the hope that the dealer will bust.", "On their turn, players choose to \"hit\" (take a card), \"stand\" (end their turn and stop without taking a card), \"double\" (double their wager, take a single card, and finish), \"split\" (if the two cards have the same value, separate them to make two hands), or \"surrender\" (give up a half-bet and retire from the game).Number cards count as their number, the jack, queen, and king (\"face cards\" or \"pictures\") count as 10, and aces count as either 1 or 11 according to the player's choice.", "If the total exceeds 21 points, it busts, and all bets on it immediately lose.After the boxes have finished playing, the dealer's hand is resolved by drawing cards until the hand achieves a total of 17 or higher.", "If the dealer has a total of 17 including an ace valued as 11 (a \"soft 17\"), some games require the dealer to stand while other games require another draw.", "The dealer never doubles, splits, or surrenders.", "If the dealer busts, all remaining player hands win.", "If the dealer does not bust, each remaining bet wins if its hand is higher than the dealer's and loses if it is lower.A player total of 21 on the first two cards is a \"natural\" or \"blackjack\", and the player wins immediately unless the dealer also has one, in which case the hand ties.", "In the case of a tie (\"push\" or \"standoff\"), bets are returned without adjustment.", "A blackjack beats any hand that is not a blackjack, even one with a value of 21.Wins are paid out at even money, except for player blackjacks, which are traditionally paid out at 3 to 2 odds.", "Many casinos today pay blackjacks at less than 3:2.This is common in single-deck blackjack games.Blackjack games usually offer a side bet called ''insurance'', which may be placed when the dealer's face-up card is an ace.", "Additional side bets, such as \"Dealer Match\" which pays when the player's cards match the dealer's up card, are also sometimes available.===Player decisions===After the initial two cards, the player has up to five options: \"hit\", \"stand\", \"double down\", \"split\", or \"surrender\".", "Each option has a corresponding hand signal.", "* '''Hit''': Take another card.", ": ''Signal'': Scrape cards against the table (in handheld games); tap the table with a finger or wave a hand toward the body (in games dealt face-up).", "* '''Stand''': Take no more cards; also known as \"stand pat\", \"sit\", \"stick\", or \"stay\".", ": ''Signal'': Slide cards under chips (in handheld games); wave hand horizontally (in games dealt face-up).", "* '''Double down''': Increase the initial bet by 100% and take exactly one more card.", "The additional bet is placed next to the original bet.", "Some games permit the player to increase the bet by amounts smaller than 100%, which is known as \"double for less\".", "Non-controlling players may or may not double their wager, but they still only take one card.", ": ''Signal'': Place additional chips beside the original bet outside the betting box and point with one finger.", "* '''Split''': Create two hands from a starting hand where both cards are the same value.", "Each new hand gets a second card resulting in two starting hands.", "This requires an additional bet on the second hand.", "The two hands are played out independently, and the wager on each hand is won or lost independently.", "In the case of cards worth 10 points, some casinos only allow splitting when the cards rank the same.", "For example, 10-10 could be split, but K-10 could not.", "Doubling and re-splitting after splitting are often restricted.", "A 10-valued card and an ace resulting from a split usually isn't considered a blackjack.", "Hitting split aces is often not allowed.", "Non-controlling players can opt to put up a second bet or not.", "If they do not, they only get paid or lose on one of the two post-split hands.", ": ''Signal'': Place additional chips next to the original bet outside the betting box and point with two fingers spread into a V formation.", "* '''Surrender''': Forfeit half the bet and end the hand immediately.", "This option is only available at some tables in some casinos, and the option is only available as the first decision.", ": ''Signal'': Spoken; there are no standard signals.Hand signals help the \"eye in the sky\" make a video recording of the table, which resolves disputes and identifies dealer mistakes.", "It is also used to protect the casino against dealers who steal chips or players who cheat.", "Recordings can also identify advantage players.", "When a player's hand signal disagrees with their words, the hand signal takes precedence.A hand can \"hit\" as often as desired until the total is 21 or more.", "Players must stand on a total of 21.After a bust or a stand, play proceeds to the next hand clockwise around the table.", "After the last hand is played, the dealer reveals the hole card and stands or draws according to the game's rules.", "When the outcome of the dealer's hand is established, any hands with bets remaining on the table are resolved (usually in counterclockwise order); bets on losing hands are forfeited, the bet on a push is left on the table, and winners are paid out.===Insurance===If the dealer shows an ace, an \"insurance\" bet is allowed.", "Insurance is a side bet that the dealer has a blackjack.", "The dealer asks for insurance bets before the first player plays.", "Insurance bets of up to half the player's current bet are placed on the \"insurance bar\" above the player's cards.", "If the dealer has a blackjack, insurance pays 2 to 1.In most casinos, the dealer looks at the down card and pays off or takes the insurance bet immediately.", "In other casinos, the payoff waits until the end of the play.In face-down games, if a player has more than one hand, they can look at all their hands before deciding.", "This is the only condition where a player can look at multiple hands.Players with blackjack can also take insurance.Insurance bets lose money in the long run.", "The dealer has a blackjack less than one-third of the time.", "In some games, players can also take insurance when a 10-valued card shows, but the dealer has an ace in the hole less than one-tenth of the time.The insurance bet is susceptible to advantage play.", "It is advantageous to make an insurance bet whenever the hole card has more than a one in three chance of being a ten.", "Card counting techniques can identify such situations." ], [ "Rule variations and effects on house edge", "''Note: Where changes in the house edge due to changes in the rules are stated in percentage terms, the difference is usually stated here in percentage points, not a percentage.", "For example, if an edge of 10% is reduced to 9%, it is reduced by '''one''' percentage point, not reduced by ten percent.", "''Doubling down.", "The third card is placed at right angles to signify that the player cannot receive any more cards.Blackjack rules are generally set by regulations that establish permissible rule variations at the casino's discretion.", "Blackjack comes with a \"house edge\"; the casino's statistical advantage is built into the game.", "Most of the house's edge comes from the fact that the player loses when both the player and dealer bust.", "Blackjack players using basic strategy lose on average less than 1% of their action over the long run, giving blackjack one of the lowest edges in the casino.", "The house edge for games where blackjack pays 6 to 5 instead of 3 to 2 increases by about 1.4%, though.", "Player deviations from basic strategy also increase the house edge.", ";Dealer hits soft 17A \"soft 17\" in blackjack (an ace and any combination of 6)Each game has a rule about whether the dealer must hit or stand on soft 17, which is generally printed on the table surface.", "The variation where the dealer must hit soft 17 is abbreviated \"H17\" in blackjack literature, with \"S17\" used for the stand-on-soft-17 variation.", "Substituting an \"H17\" rule with an \"S17\" rule in a game benefits the player, decreasing the house edge by about 0.2%.", ";Number of decksAll things being equal, using fewer decks decreases the house edge.", "This mainly reflects an increased likelihood of player blackjack, since if the player draws a ten on their first card, the subsequent probability of drawing an ace is higher with fewer decks.", "It also reflects the decreased likelihood of a blackjack–blackjack push in a game with fewer decks.Casinos generally compensate by tightening other rules in games with fewer decks, to preserve the house edge or discourage play altogether.", "When offering single-deck blackjack games, casinos are more likely to disallow doubling on soft hands or after splitting, restrict resplitting, require higher minimum bets, and pay the player less than 3:2 for a winning blackjack.The following table illustrates the mathematical effect on the house edge of the number of decks, by considering games with various deck counts under the following ruleset: double after split allowed, resplit to four hands allowed, no hitting split aces, no surrendering, double on any two cards, original bets only lost on dealer blackjack, dealer hits soft 17, and cut-card used.", "The increase in house edge per unit increase in the number of decks is most dramatic when comparing the single-deck game to the two-deck game, and becomes progressively smaller as more decks are added.", "Number of decks House advantage Single deck 0.17% Double deck 0.46% Four decks 0.60% Six decks 0.64% Eight decks 0.66%;Late/early surrender:Surrender, for those games that allow it, is usually not permitted against a dealer blackjack; if the dealer's first card is an ace or ten, the hole card is checked to make sure there is no blackjack before surrender is offered.", "This rule protocol is consequently known as \"late\" surrender.", "The alternative, \"early\" surrender, gives the player the option to surrender ''before'' the dealer checks for blackjack, or in a no hole card game.", "Early surrender is much more favorable to the player than late surrender.For late surrender, however, while it is tempting to opt for surrender on any hand which will probably lose, the correct strategy is to only surrender on the very worst hands, because having even a one-in-four chance of winning the full bet is better than losing half the bet and pushing the other half, as entailed by surrendering.", ";Resplitting: If the cards of a post-split hand have the same value, most games allow the player to split again, or \"resplit\".", "The player places a further wager, and the dealer separates the new pair dealing a further card to each as before.", "Some games allow unlimited resplitting, while others may limit it to a certain number of hands, such as four hands (for example, \"resplit to 4\").", ";Hit/resplit split aces: After splitting aces, the common rule is that only one card will be dealt to each ace; the player cannot split, double, or take another hit on either hand.", "Rule variants include allowing resplitting aces or allowing the player to hit split aces.", "Games allowing aces to be resplit are not uncommon, but those allowing the player to hit split aces are extremely rare.", "Allowing the player to hit hands resulting from split aces reduces the house edge by about 0.13%; allowing resplitting of aces reduces the house edge by about 0.03%.", "Note that a ten-value card dealt on a split ace (or vice versa) will not be counted as a blackjack but as a soft 21.;No double after split: After a split, most games allow doubling down on the new two-card hands.", "Disallowing doubling after a split increases the house edge by about 0.12%.", ";Double on 9/10/11 or 10/11 only: Under the \"Reno rule\", doubling down is only permitted on hard totals of 9, 10, or 11 (under a similar European rule, only 10 or 11).", "The basic strategy would otherwise call for some doubling down with hard 9 and soft 13–18, and advanced players can identify situations where doubling on soft 19–20 and hard 8, 7, and even 6 is advantageous.", "The Reno rule prevents the player from taking advantage of double-down in these situations and thereby increases the player's expected loss.", "The Reno rule increases the house edge by around 0.1%, and its European version by around 0.2%.", ";No hole card and OBO:In most non-U.S. casinos, a \"no hole card\" game is played, meaning that the dealer does not draw nor consult their second card until after all players have finished making decisions.", "With no hole card, it is rarely the correct basic strategy to double or split against a dealer ten or ace, since a dealer blackjack will result in the loss of the split and double bets; the only exception is with a pair of aces against a dealer 10, where it is still correct to split.", "In all other cases, a stand, hit, or surrender is called for.", "For instance, when holding 11 against a dealer 10, the correct strategy is to double in a hole card game (where the player knows the dealer's second card is not an ace), but to hit in a no-hole card game.", "The no-hole-card rule adds approximately 0.11% to the house edge.The \"original bets only\" rule variation appearing in certain no hole card games states that if the player's hand loses to a dealer blackjack, only the mandatory initial bet (\"original\") is forfeited, and all optional bets, meaning doubles and splits, are pushed.", "\"Original bets only\" is also known by the acronym OBO; it has the same effect on basic strategy and the house edge as reverting to a hole card game.", ";Altered payout for a winning blackjack: In many casinos, a blackjack pays only 6:5 or even 1:1 instead of the usual 3:2.This is most common at tables with lower table minimums.", "Although this payoff was originally limited to single-deck games, it has spread to double-deck and shoe games.", "Among common rule variations in the U.S., these altered payouts for blackjack are the most damaging to the player, causing the greatest increase in house edge.", "Since blackjack occurs in approximately 4.8% of hands, the 1:1 game increases the house edge by 2.3%, while the 6:5 game adds 1.4% to the house edge.", "Video blackjack machines generally pay a 1:1 payout for a blackjack.", ";Dealer wins ties: The rule that bets on tied hands are lost rather than pushed is catastrophic to the player.", "Though rarely used in standard blackjack, it is sometimes seen in \"blackjack-like\" games, such as in some charity casinos." ], [ "Blackjack strategy", "===Basic strategy===Each blackjack game has a basic strategy, the optimal method of playing any hand.", "When using basic strategy, the long-term house advantage (the expected loss of the player) is minimized.An example of a basic strategy is shown in the table below, which applies to a game with the following specifications: * Four to eight decks* The dealer hits on a soft 17* A double is allowed after a split* Only original bets are lost on dealer blackjack Player hand Dealer's face-up card 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A Hard totals (excluding pairs) 18–21 S S S S S S S S S S 17 S S S S S S S S S Us 16 S S S S S H H Uh Uh Uh 15 S S S S S H H H Uh Uh 13–14 S S S S S H H H H H 12 H H S S S H H H H H 11 Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh 10 Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh H H 9 H Dh Dh Dh Dh H H H H H 5–8 H H H H H H H H H H Soft totals 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A A,9 S S S S S S S S S S A,8 S S S S Ds S S S S S A,7 Ds Ds Ds Ds Ds S S H H H A,6 H Dh Dh Dh Dh H H H H H A,4–A,5 H H Dh Dh Dh H H H H H A,2–A,3 H H H Dh Dh H H H H H Pairs 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A A, A SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP 10,10 S S S S S S S S S S 9,9 SP SP SP SP SP S SP SP S S 8,8 SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP Usp 7,7 SP SP SP SP SP SP H H H H 6,6 SP SP SP SP SP H H H H H 5,5 Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh H H 4,4 H H H SP SP H H H H H 2,2–3,3 SP SP SP SP SP SP H H H HKey::'''S''' = Stand:'''H''' = Hit:'''Dh''' = Double (if not allowed, then hit):'''Ds''' = Double (if not allowed, then stand):'''SP''' = Split:'''Uh''' = Surrender (if not allowed, then hit):'''Us''' = Surrender (if not allowed, then stand):'''Usp''' = Surrender (if not allowed, then split)Most basic strategy decisions are the same for all blackjack games.", "Rule variations call for changes in only a few situations.", "For example, to use the table above on a game with the stand-on-soft-17 rule (which favors the player, and is typically found only at higher-limit tables today) only 6 cells would need to be changed: hit on 11 ''vs.''", "A, hit on 15 ''vs.''", "A, stand on 17 ''vs.''", "A, stand on A,7 ''vs.''", "2, stand on A,8 ''vs.''", "6, and split on 8,8 ''vs.''", "A.", "Regardless of the specific rule variations, taking insurance or \"even money\" is never the correct play under a basic strategy.Estimates of the house edge for blackjack games quoted by casinos and gaming regulators are based on the assumption that the players follow basic strategy.Most blackjack games have a house edge of between 0.5% and 1%, placing blackjack among the cheapest casino table games for the player.", "Casino promotions such as complimentary matchplay vouchers or 2:1 blackjack payouts allow players to acquire an advantage without deviating from basic strategy.===Composition-dependent strategy===The basic strategy is based on a player's point total and the dealer's visible card.", "Players can sometimes improve on this decision by considering the composition of their hand, not just the point total.", "For example, players should ordinarily stand when holding 12 against a dealer 4.But in a single deck game, players should hit if their 12 consists of a 10 and a 2.The presence of a 10 in the player's hand has two consequences:* It makes the player's 12 a worse hand to stand on (since the only way to avoid losing is for the dealer to go bust, which is less likely if there are fewer 10s left in the shoe).", "* It makes hitting safer, since the only way of going bust is to draw a 10, and this is less likely with a 10 already in the hand.Even when basic and composition-dependent strategies lead to different actions, the difference in expected reward is small, and it becomes smaller with more decks.", "Using a composition-dependent strategy rather than a basic strategy in a single-deck game reduces the house edge by 4 in 10,000, which falls to 3 in 100,000 for a six-deck game.===Advantage play===Blackjack has been a high-profile target for advantage players since the 1960s.", "Advantage play attempts to win more using skills such as memory, computation, and observation.", "While these techniques are legal, they can give players a mathematical edge in the game, making advantage players unwanted customers for casinos.", "Advantage play can lead to ejection or blacklisting.", "Some advantageous play techniques in blackjack include:====Card counting====During the course of a blackjack shoe, the dealer exposes the dealt cards.", "Players can infer from their accounting of the exposed cards which cards remain.", "These inferences can be used in the following ways:* Players can make larger bets when they have an advantage.", "For example, the players can increase the starting bet if many aces and tens are left in the deck, in the hope of hitting a blackjack.", "* Players can deviate from basic strategy according to the composition of their undealt cards.", "For example, with many tens left in the deck, players might double down in more situations since there is a better chance of getting a good hand.A card counting system assigns a point score to each card rank (e.g., 1 point for 2–6, 0 points for 7–9, and −1 point for 10–A).", "When a card is exposed, a counter adds the score of that card to a running total, the 'count'.", "A card counter uses this count to make betting and playing decisions.", "The count starts at 0 for a freshly shuffled deck for \"balanced\" counting systems.", "Unbalanced counts are often started at a value that depends on the number of decks used in the game.Blackjack's house edge is usually around 0.5–1% when players use basic strategy.", "Card counting can give the player an edge of up to about 2%.Card counting works best when a few cards remain.", "This makes single-deck games better for counters.", "As a result, casinos are more likely to insist that players do not reveal their cards to one another in single-deck games.", "In games with more decks, casinos limit penetration by ending the shoe and reshuffling when one or more decks remain undealt.", "Casinos also sometimes use a shuffling machine to reintroduce the cards whenever a deck has been played.Card counting is legal unless the counter is using an external device, but a casino might inform counters that they are no longer welcome to play blackjack.", "Sometimes a casino might ban a card counter from the property.The use of external devices to help count cards is illegal throughout the United States.====Shuffle tracking====Another advantage play technique, mainly applicable in multi-deck games, involves tracking groups of cards (also known as slugs, clumps, or packs) through the shuffle and then playing and betting according to when those cards come into play from a new shoe.", "Shuffle tracking requires excellent eyesight and powers of visual estimation but is harder to detect; shuffle trackers' actions are largely unrelated to the composition of the cards in the shoe.Arnold Snyder's articles in ''Blackjack Forum'' magazine brought shuffle tracking to the general public.", "His book, ''The Shuffle Tracker's Cookbook'', mathematically analyzed the player edge available from shuffle tracking based on the actual size of the tracked slug.", "Jerry L. Patterson also developed and published a shuffle-tracking method for tracking favorable clumps of cards and cutting them into play and tracking unfavorable clumps of cards and cutting them out of play.====Identifying concealed cards====The player can also gain an advantage by identifying cards from distinctive wear markings on their backs, or by hole carding (observing during the dealing process the front of a card dealt face-down).", "These methods are generally legal although their status in particular jurisdictions may vary." ], [ "Side bets", "Many blackjack tables offer side bets on various outcomes including:*Player hand and dealer's up card total 19, 20, or 21 (\"Lucky Lucky\")*Player initial hand is a pair (\"Perfect pairs\")*Player initial hand is suited, and connected, or a suited K-Q (\"Royal match\")*Player initial hand plus dealer's card makes a flush, straight, or three-of-a-kind poker hand (\"21+3\")*Player initial hand totals 20 (\"Lucky Ladies\")*Dealer upcard is in between the value of the player's two cards (\"In Bet\")*First card drawn to the dealer will result in a dealer bust (\"Bust It!", "\")*One or both of the player's cards is the same as the dealer's card (\"Match the Dealer\")The side wager is typically placed in a designated area next to the box for the main wager.", "A player wishing to wager on a side bet usually must place a wager on blackjack.", "Some games require that the blackjack wager should equal or exceed any side bet wager.", "A non-controlling player of a blackjack hand is usually permitted to place a side bet regardless of whether the controlling player does so.The house edge for side bets is generally higher than for the blackjack game itself.", "Nonetheless, side bets can be susceptible to card counting.", "A side count designed specifically for a particular side bet can improve the player's edge.", "Only a few side bets, like \"Insurance\" and \"Lucky Ladies\", correlate well with the high-low counting system and offer a sufficient win rate to justify the effort of advantage play.In team play, it is common for team members to be dedicated to only counting a side bet using a specialized count." ], [ "Video blackjack", "Seven Feathers Casino.Some casinos, as well as general betting outlets, provide blackjack among a selection of casino-style games at electronic consoles.", "Video blackjack game rules are generally more favorable to the house; e.g., paying out only even money for winning blackjacks.", "Video and online blackjack games generally deal each round from a fresh shoe (i.e., use an RNG for each deal), rendering card counting ineffective in most situations." ], [ "Variants and related games", "Blackjack is a member of the family of traditional card games played recreationally worldwide.", "Most of these games have not been adapted for casino play.", "Furthermore, the casino game development industry actively produces blackjack variants, most of which are ultimately not adopted by casinos.", "The following are the most prominent and established variants in casinos.", "*''Spanish 21'' provides players with liberal rules, such as doubling down any number of cards (with the option to \"rescue\", or surrender only one wager to the house), payout bonuses for five or more card 21s, 6–7–8 21s, 7–7–7 21s, late surrender, and player blackjacks and player 21s always winning.", "The trade-off is having no 10s in the deck, although the jacks, queens, and kings are still there.", "An unlicensed version of Spanish 21 played without a hole card is found in Australian casinos under the name \"pontoon\".", "*''21st-century blackjack'' (or ''Vegas-style blackjack'') is found in California card rooms.", "In variations, a player bust does not always result in an automatic loss; depending on the casino, the player can still push if the dealer also busts.", "The dealer has to bust with a higher total, though.", "*''Double exposure blackjack'' deals the first two cards of the dealer's hand face up.", "Blackjacks pay even money, and players lose on ties.", "Also, players can neither buy insurance nor surrender.", "*''Double attack blackjack'' has liberal blackjack rules and the option of increasing one's wager after seeing the dealer's up card.", "This game is dealt from a Spanish shoe, and blackjacks only pay even money.", "*''Blackjack switch'' is played over two hands, and the second card can be switched between hands.", "For example, if the player is dealt 10–6 and 5–10, then the player can switch two cards to make hands of 10–10 and 6–5.Natural blackjacks are paid 1:1 instead of the standard 3:2, and a dealer 22 is a push.", "*''Super fun 21'' allows a player to split a hand up to four times.", "If the player has six cards totaling 20, they automatically win.", "Wins are paid 1:1.Examples of local traditional and recreational related games include French ''vingt-et-un'' ('twenty-one') and German ''Siebzehn und Vier'' ('seventeen and four').", "Neither game allows splitting.", "An ace counts only eleven, but two aces count as a blackjack.", "It is mostly played in private circles and barracks.", "The popular British member of the ''vingt-un'' family is called \"pontoon\", the name being probably a corruption of ''vingt-et-un''." ], [ "Blackjack Hall of Fame", "In 2002, professional gamblers worldwide were invited to nominate great blackjack players for admission into the Blackjack Hall of Fame.", "Seven members were inducted in 2002, with new people inducted every year after.", "The Hall of Fame is at the Barona Casino in San Diego.", "Members include Edward O. Thorp, author of the 1960s book ''Beat the Dealer''; Ken Uston, who popularized the concept of team play; Arnold Snyder, author and editor of the ''Blackjack Forum'' trade journal; and Stanford Wong, author and popularizer of \"Wonging\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== General literature ===* * * * Parlett, David (1990).", "''A History of Card Games'', OUP, Oxford.", "===Blackjack literature===* ''Beat the Dealer: A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One'', Edward O. Thorp, 1966, * ''Blackbelt in Blackjack'', Arnold Snyder, 1998 (1980), * ''Blackjack and the Law'', I. Nelson Rose and Robert A. Loeb, 1998, * ''Blackjack: A Winner's Handbook'', Jerry L. Patterson, 2001, (1978), * ''Encyclopedia of Casino Twenty-One'', Michael Dalton, 2016, (1993), * ''Ken Uston on Blackjack'', Ken Uston, 1986, * ''Knock-Out Blackjack'', Olaf Vancura and Ken Fuchs, 1998, * ''Million Dollar Blackjack'', Ken Uston, 1994 (1981), * ''Playing Blackjack as a Business'', Lawrence Revere, 1998 (1971), * ''Professional Blackjack'', Stanford Wong, 1994 (1975), * ''The Blackjack Life'', Nathaniel Tilton, 2012, * ''The Theory of Blackjack'', Peter Griffin, 1996 (1979), * ''The World's Greatest Blackjack Book'', Lance Humble and Carl Cooper, 1980, === Mathematics of blackjack ===* ''Luck, Logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games'', Jörg Bewersdorff, 2004, , , 121–134, online supplement: ''Blackjack calculator'' (JavaScript)* ''The Doctrine of Chances.", "Probabilistic Aspects of Gambling'', Stewart Ethier, 2010, , , 643–687* ''The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic'', Richard A. Epstein, 2009 (1967), , , 265–286" ], [ "External links", "*Search for" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bicarbonate" ], [ "Introduction", "In inorganic chemistry, '''bicarbonate''' (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: '''hydrogencarbonate''') is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid.", "It is a polyatomic anion with the chemical formula .Bicarbonate serves a crucial biochemical role in the physiological pH buffering system.The term \"bicarbonate\" was coined in 1814 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston.", "The name lives on as a trivial name." ], [ "Chemical properties", "The bicarbonate ion (hydrogencarbonate ion) is an anion with the empirical formula and a molecular mass of 61.01 daltons; it consists of one central carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement, with a hydrogen atom attached to one of the oxygens.", "It is isoelectronic with nitric acid .", "The bicarbonate ion carries a negative one formal charge and is an amphiprotic species which has both acidic and basic properties.", "It is both the conjugate base of carbonic acid ; and the conjugate acid of , the carbonate ion, as shown by these equilibrium reactions:: + 2 H2O + H2O + OH− H2CO3 + 2 OH−:H2CO3 + 2 H2O + H3O+ + H2O + 2 H3O+.A bicarbonate salt forms when a positively charged ion attaches to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the ion, forming an ionic compound.", "Many bicarbonates are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure; in particular, sodium bicarbonate contributes to total dissolved solids, a common parameter for assessing water quality." ], [ "Physiological role", "CO2 produced as a waste product of the oxidation of sugars in the mitochondria reacts with water in a reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase to form H2CO3, which is in equilibrium with the cation H+ and anion HCO3−.", "It is then carried to the lung, where the reverse reaction occurs and CO2 gas is released.", "In the kidney (left), cells (green) lining the proximal tubule conserve bicarbonate by transporting it from the glomerular filtrate in the lumen (yellow) of the nephron back into the blood (red).", "The exact stoichiometry in the kidney is omitted for simplicity.Bicarbonate () is a vital component of the pH buffering system of the human body (maintaining acid–base homeostasis).", "70%–75% of CO2 in the body is converted into carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is the conjugate acid of and can quickly turn into it.With carbonic acid as the central intermediate species, bicarbonate – in conjunction with water, hydrogen ions, and carbon dioxide – forms this buffering system, which is maintained at the volatile equilibrium required to provide prompt resistance to pH changes in both the acidic and basic directions.", "This is especially important for protecting tissues of the central nervous system, where pH changes too far outside of the normal range in either direction could prove disastrous (see acidosis or alkalosis).", "Recently it has been also demonstrated that cellular bicarbonate metabolism can be regulated by mTORC1 signaling.Additionally, bicarbonate plays a key role in the digestive system.", "It raises the internal pH of the stomach, after highly acidic digestive juices have finished in their digestion of food.", "Bicarbonate also acts to regulate pH in the small intestine.", "It is released from the pancreas in response to the hormone secretin to neutralize the acidic chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach." ], [ "Bicarbonate in the environment", "Bicarbonate is the dominant form of dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water, and in most fresh waters.", "As such it is an important sink in the carbon cycle.Some plants like ''Chara'' utilize carbonate and produce calcium carbonate (CaCO3) as result of biological metabolism.In freshwater ecology, strong photosynthetic activity by freshwater plants in daylight releases gaseous oxygen into the water and at the same time produces bicarbonate ions.", "These shift the pH upward until in certain circumstances the degree of alkalinity can become toxic to some organisms or can make other chemical constituents such as ammonia toxic.", "In darkness, when no photosynthesis occurs, respiration processes release carbon dioxide, and no new bicarbonate ions are produced, resulting in a rapid fall in pH.The flow of bicarbonate ions from rocks weathered by the carbonic acid in rainwater is an important part of the carbon cycle." ], [ "Other uses", "The most common salt of the bicarbonate ion is sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, which is commonly known as baking soda.", "When heated or exposed to an acid such as acetic acid (vinegar), sodium bicarbonate releases carbon dioxide.", "This is used as a leavening agent in baking.Ammonium bicarbonate is used in digestive biscuit manufacture." ], [ "Diagnostics", "In diagnostic medicine, the blood value of bicarbonate is one of several indicators of the state of acid–base physiology in the body.", "It is measured, along with chloride, potassium, and sodium, to assess electrolyte levels in an electrolyte panel test (which has Current Procedural Terminology, CPT, code 80051).The parameter ''standard bicarbonate concentration'' (SBCe) is the bicarbonate concentration in the blood at a PaCO2 of , full oxygen saturation and 36 °C.Reference ranges for blood tests, comparing blood content of bicarbonate (shown in blue at right) with other constituents." ], [ "Bicarbonate compounds", "* Sodium bicarbonate* Potassium bicarbonate* Caesium bicarbonate* Magnesium bicarbonate* Calcium bicarbonate* Ammonium bicarbonate* Carbonic acid" ], [ "See also", "* Carbon dioxide* Carbonate* Carbonic anhydrase* Hard water* Arterial blood gas test" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bernie Federko" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bernard Allan Federko''' (born May 12, 1956) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played fourteen seasons in the National Hockey League from 1976 through 1990." ], [ "Playing career", "Federko began playing hockey at a young age in his home town of Foam Lake, Saskatchewan.", "He was captain of the 1971 Bantam provincial champions.", "He also played Senior hockey with the local Foam Lake Flyers of the Fishing Lake Hockey League, winning the league scoring title as a bantam-aged player.", "Federko continued his career with the Saskatoon Blades of the WHL where he set and still holds the team record for assists.", "He played three seasons with the Blades, and in his final year with the club he led the league in assists and points in both the regular season ''and'' playoffs.", "Federko was drafted 7th overall by the St. Louis Blues in the 1976 NHL Amateur Draft.", "He started the next season with the Kansas City Blues of the Central Hockey League and was leading the league in points when he was called up mid-season to play 31 games with St. Louis.", "He scored three hat tricks in those 31 games.", "In the 1978–79 NHL season, Federko developed into a bona fide star, as he scored 95 points.Federko scored 100 points in a season four times, and was a consistent and underrated performer for the Blues.", "Federko scored at least 90 points in seven of the eight seasons between 1978 and 1986, and became the first player in NHL history to record at least 50 assists in 10 consecutive seasons.", "However, in an era when Wayne Gretzky was scoring 200 points a season, Federko never got the attention many felt he deserved.", "In 1986, in a poll conducted by GOAL magazine, he was named the most overlooked talent in hockey.", "His General Manager Ron Caron said he was \"A great playmaker.", "He makes the average or above average player look like a star at times.", "He's such an unselfish player.", "\"On March 19, 1988, Federko became the 22nd NHL player to record 1000 career points.", "After he had a poor season as a captain in 1988–89, he was traded to the Detroit Red Wings with Tony McKegney for future Blues star Adam Oates, and Paul MacLean.", "In Detroit, Federko re-united with former Blues head coach Jacques Demers, but he had to play behind Steve Yzerman and did not get his desired ice time.", "After his lowest point output since his rookie season, Federko decided to retire after the 1989–90 season, having played exactly 1,000 NHL games with his final game on April 1, 1990." ], [ "Post-NHL career", "Less than a year after retiring as a player, the Blues retired number '''24''' in his honor on March 16, 1991.Federko was eventually inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2002, the first Hall of Famer to earn his credentials primarily as a Blue.Currently, Federko is a television color commentator and studio analyst for Bally Sports Midwest during Blues broadcasts.", "He was the head coach/general manager of the St. Louis Vipers roller hockey team of the Roller Hockey International for the 1993 and 1994 seasons." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Regular season and playoffs===Regular seasonPlayoffs Season Team League GP G A Pts PIM GP G A Pts PIM 1973–74 Saskatoon Blades WCHL 68 22 28 50 19 6 0 0 0 2 1974–75 Saskatoon Blades WCHL 66 39 68 107 30 17 15 7 22 8 1975–76 Saskatoon Blades WCHL 72 72 115 187 106 20 18 27 45 8 1976–77 Kansas City Blues CHL 42 30 39 69 41 — — — — — 1976–77 St. Louis Blues NHL 31 14 9 23 15 4 1 1 2 2 1977–78 St. Louis Blues NHL 72 17 24 41 27 — — — — — 1978–79 St. Louis Blues NHL 74 31 64 95 14 — — — — — 1979–80 St. Louis Blues NHL 79 38 56 94 24 3 1 0 1 2 1980–81 St. Louis Blues NHL 78 31 73 104 47 11 8 10 18 2 1981–82 St. Louis Blues NHL 74 30 62 92 70 10 3 15 18 10 1982–83 St. Louis Blues NHL 75 24 60 84 24 4 2 3 5 0 1983–84 St. Louis Blues NHL 79 41 66 107 43 11 4 4 8 10 1984–85 St. Louis Blues NHL 76 30 73 103 27 3 0 2 2 4 1985–86 St. Louis Blues NHL 80 34 68 102 34 19 7 14 21 17 1986–87 St. Louis Blues NHL 64 20 52 72 32 6 3 3 6 18 1987–88 St. Louis Blues NHL 79 20 69 89 52 10 2 6 8 18 1988–89 St. Louis Blues NHL 66 22 45 67 54 10 4 8 12 0 1989–90 Detroit Red Wings NHL 73 17 40 57 24 — — — — — NHL totals 1,000 369 761 1,130 487 91 35 66 101 83" ], [ "Awards", "*Bob Brownridge Memorial Trophy (WCHL leading scorer) - 1976*Named to the WCHL First All-Star Team (1976)*Named WCHL MVP (1976)*Named to the CHL Second All-Star Team (1977)*Won Ken McKenzie Trophy as CHL Rookie of the Year (1977)*Played in the NHL All-Star Game (1980, 1981)*Named NHL Player of the Week (For week ending December 3, 1984)" ], [ "Records", "* St. Louis Blues team record for career games played (927)* St. Louis Blues team record for career assists (721)* St. Louis Blues team record for career points (1073)* Shares St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one game (5 on February 27, 1988)* St. Louis Blues team record for career playoff assists (66)* First NHL player to get 50 assists in 10 consecutive seasons." ], [ "See also", "* Hockey Hall of Fame* List of NHL players with 1,000 points* List of NHL players with 1,000 games played* List of NHL players with 100-point seasons* List of NHL statistical leaders" ], [ "References", "===Citations======General references===*" ], [ "External links", "* * St. Louis Blues Website" ] ]
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[ [ "Buffalo, New York" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Buffalo''' is a city in the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Erie County.", "It lies in Western New York, at the eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of the Niagara River, on the United States border with Canada.", "With a population of 278,349 according to the 2020 census, Buffalo is the 2nd-largest city in New York State and the 78th largest city in the United States.", "Buffalo and the city of Niagara Falls together make up the two-county Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), which had an estimated population of 1.2 million in 2020, making it the 49th-largest MSA in the United States.Before the 17th century, the region was inhabited by nomadic Paleo-Indians who were succeeded by the Neutral, Erie, and Iroquois nations.", "In the early 17th century, the French began to explore the region.", "In the 18th century, Iroquois land surrounding Buffalo Creek was ceded through the Holland Land Purchase, and a small village was established at its headwaters.", "In 1825, after its harbor was improved, Buffalo was selected as the terminus of the Erie Canal, which led to its incorporation in 1832.The canal stimulated its growth as the primary inland port between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean.", "Transshipment made Buffalo the world's largest grain port of that era.", "After the coming of railroads greatly reduced the canal's importance, the city became the second-largest railway hub (after Chicago).", "During the mid-19th century, Buffalo transitioned to manufacturing, which came to be dominated by steel production.", "Later, deindustrialization and the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway saw the city's economy decline and diversify.", "It developed its service industries, such as health care, retail, tourism, logistics, and education, while retaining some manufacturing.", "In 2019, the gross domestic product of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls MSA was $53 billion (~$ in ).The city's cultural landmarks include the oldest urban parks system in the United States, the Buffalo AKG Art Museum, the Buffalo History Museum, the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, Shea's Performing Arts Center, the Buffalo Museum of Science, and several annual festivals.", "Its educational institutions include the University at Buffalo, Buffalo State University, Canisius College, D'Youville University.", "Buffalo is also known for its winter weather, Buffalo wings, and three major-league sports teams: the National Football League's Buffalo Bills, the National Hockey League's Buffalo Sabres and the National Lacrosse League's Buffalo Bandits." ], [ "History", "===Pre-Columbian era to European exploration===Wenro territory Before the arrival of Europeans, nomadic Paleo-Indians inhabited the western New York region from the 8th millennium BCE.", "The Woodland period began around 1000 BC, marked by the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy and the spread of its tribes throughout the state.", "Seventeenth-century Jesuit missionaries were the first Europeans to visit the area.During French exploration of the region in 1620, the region was sparsely populated and occupied by the agrarian Erie people in the south and the Wenrohronon (Wenro) of the Neutral Nation in the north.", "The Neutral grew tobacco and hemp to trade with the Iroquois, who traded furs with the French for European goods.", "The tribes used animal- and war paths to travel and move goods across what today is New York State.", "(Centuries later, these same paths were gradually improved, then paved, then developed into major modern roads.)", "During the Beaver Wars in the mid-17th century the Senecas partly wiped out and partly absorbed the Erie and Neutrals in the region.", "Native Americans did not settle along Buffalo Creek permanently until 1780, when displaced Senecas were relocated from Fort Niagara.Louis Hennepin and Sieur de La Salle explored the upper Niagara and Ontario regions in the late 1670s.", "In 1679, La Salle's ship, Le Griffon, became the first to sail above Niagara Falls near Cayuga Creek.", "Baron de Lahontan visited the site of Buffalo in 1687.A small French settlement along Buffalo Creek lasted for only a year (1758).", "After the French and Indian War, the region was ruled by Britain.", "After the American Revolution, the Province of New York—now a U.S. state—began westward expansion, looking for arable land by following the Iroquois.New York and Massachusetts were vying for the territory which included Buffalo, and Massachusetts had the right to purchase all but a one-mile-(1600-meter)-wide portion of land.", "The rights to the Massachusetts territories were sold to Robert Morris in 1791.Despite objections from Seneca chief Red Jacket, Morris brokered a deal between fellow chief Cornplanter and the Dutch dummy corporation Holland Land Company.", "The Holland Land Purchase gave the Senecas three reservations, and the Holland Land Company received for about thirty-three cents per acre.Permanent white settlers along the creek were prisoners captured during the Revolutionary War.", "Early landowners were Iroquois interpreter Captain William Johnston, former enslaved man Joseph \"Black Joe\" Hodges and Cornelius Winney, a Dutch trader who arrived in 1789.As a result of the war, in which the Iroquois sided with the British Army, Iroquois territory was gradually reduced in the late 1700s by European settlers through successive statewide treaties which included the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) and the First Treaty of Buffalo Creek (1788).", "The Iroquois were moved onto reservations, including Buffalo Creek.", "By the end of the 18th century, only of reservations remained.After the Treaty of Big Tree removed Iroquois title to lands west of the Genesee River in 1797, Joseph Ellicott surveyed land at the mouth of Buffalo Creek.", "In the middle of the village was an intersection of eight streets at present-day Niagara Square.", "Originally named New Amsterdam, its name was soon changed to Buffalo.=== Erie Canal, grain and commerce ===Buffalo in 1813The village of Buffalo was named for Buffalo Creek.", "British military engineer John Montresor referred to \"Buffalo Creek\" in his 1764 journal, the earliest recorded appearance of the name.", "A road to Pennsylvania from Buffalo was built in 1802 for migrants traveling to the Connecticut Western Reserve in Ohio.", "Before an east–west turnpike across the state was completed, traveling from Albany to Buffalo would take a week; a trip from nearby Williamsville to Batavia could take over three days.British forces burned Buffalo and the northwestern village of Black Rock in 1813.The battle and subsequent fire was in response to the destruction of Niagara-on-the-Lake by American forces and other skirmishes during the War of 1812.Rebuilding was swift, completed in 1815.As a remote outpost, village residents hoped that the proposed Erie Canal would bring prosperity to the area.", "To accomplish this, Buffalo's harbor was expanded with the help of Samuel Wilkeson; it was selected as the canal's terminus over the rival Black Rock.", "It opened in 1825, ushering in commerce, manufacturing and hydropower.", "By the following year, the Buffalo Creek Reservation (at the western border of the village) was transferred to Buffalo.", "Buffalo was incorporated as a city in 1832.During the 1830s, businessman Benjamin Rathbun significantly expanded its business district.", "The city doubled in size from 1845 to 1855.Almost two-thirds of the city's population was foreign-born, largely a mix of unskilled (or educated) Irish and German Catholics.Fugitive slaves made their way north to Buffalo during the 1840s.", "Buffalo was a terminus of the Underground Railroad, with many free blacks crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario; others remained in Buffalo.", "During this time, Buffalo's port continued to develop.", "Passenger and commercial traffic expanded, leading to the creation of feeder canals and the expansion of the city's harbor.", "Unloading grain in Buffalo was a laborious job, and grain handlers working on lake freighters would make $1.50 a day () in a six-day work week.", "Local inventor Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar created the grain elevator in 1843, adapting the steam-powered elevator.", "Dart's Elevator initially processed one thousand bushels per hour, speeding global distribution to consumers.", "Buffalo was the transshipment hub of the Great Lakes, and weather, maritime and political events in other Great Lakes cities had a direct impact on the city's economy.", "In addition to grain, Buffalo's primary imports included agricultural products from the Midwest (meat, whiskey, lumber and tobacco), and its exports included leather, ships and iron products.", "The mid-19th century saw the rise of new manufacturing capabilities, particularly with iron.By the 1860s, many railroads terminated in Buffalo; they included the Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh Railroad, Buffalo and Erie Railroad, the New York Central Railroad, and the Lehigh Valley Railroad.", "During this time, Buffalo controlled one-quarter of all shipping traffic on Lake Erie.", "After the Civil War, canal traffic began to drop as railroads expanded into Buffalo.", "Unionization began to take hold in the late 19th century, highlighted by the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and 1892 Buffalo switchmen's strike.=== Steel, challenges, and the modern era ===Pan-American Exposition, 1901At the start of the 20th century, Buffalo was the world's leading grain port and a national flour-milling hub.", "Local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectricity generated by the Niagara River.", "Buffalo hosted the 1901 Pan-American Exposition after the Spanish–American War, showcasing the nation's advances in art, architecture, and electricity.", "Its centerpiece was the Electric Tower, with over two million light bulbs, but some exhibits were jingoistic and racially charged.", "At the exposition, President William McKinley was assassinated by anarchist Leon Czolgosz.", "When McKinley died, Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion in Buffalo.Attorney John Milburn and local industrialists convinced the Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company to relocate from Scranton, Pennsylvania to the town of West Seneca in 1904.Employment was competitive, with many Eastern Europeans and Scrantonians vying for jobs.", "From the late 19th century to the 1920s, mergers and acquisitions led to distant ownership of local companies; this had a negative effect on the city's economy.", "Examples include the acquisition of Lackawanna Steel by Bethlehem Steel and, later, the relocation of Curtiss-Wright in the 1940s.", "The Great Depression saw severe unemployment, especially among the working class.", "New Deal relief programs operated in full force, and the city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party.Iron ore unloaded at Buffalo, During World War II, Buffalo regained its manufacturing strength as military contracts enabled the city to manufacture steel, chemicals, aircraft, trucks and ammunition.", "The 15th-most-populous US city in 1950, Buffalo's economy relied almost entirely on manufacturing; eighty percent of area jobs were in the sector.", "The city also had over a dozen railway terminals, as railroads remained a significant industry.The St. Lawrence Seaway was proposed in the 19th century as a faster shipping route to Europe, and later as part of a bi-national hydroelectric project with Canada.", "Its combination with an expanded Welland Canal led to a grim outlook for Buffalo's economy.", "After its 1959 opening, the city's port and barge canal became largely irrelevant.", "Shipbuilding in Buffalo wound down in the 1960s due to reduced waterfront activity, ending an industry which had been part of the city's economy since 1812.Downsizing of the steel mills was attributed to the threat of higher wages and unionization efforts.", "Racial tensions culminated in riots in 1967.Suburbanization led to the selection of the town of Amherst for the new University at Buffalo campus by 1970.Unwilling to modernize its plant, Bethlehem Steel began cutting thousands of jobs in Lackawanna during the mid-1970s before closing it in 1983.The region lost at least 70,000 jobs between 1970 and 1984.Like much of the Rust Belt, Buffalo has focused on recovering from the effects of late-20th-century deindustrialization." ], [ "Geography", "=== Topography ===Satellite image of the Niagara Peninsula and Niagara Frontier; Buffalo is at the lower right.|alt=A satellite photo shows two bodies of water and two peninsulas from spaceBuffalo is on the eastern end of Lake Erie opposite Fort Erie, Ontario.", "It is at the head of the Niagara River, which flows north over Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario.The Buffalo metropolitan area is on the Erie/Ontario Lake Plain of the Eastern Great Lakes Lowlands, a narrow plain extending east to Utica, New York.", "The city is generally flat, except for elevation changes in the University Heights and Fruit Belt neighborhoods.", "The Southtowns are hillier, leading to the Cattaraugus Hills in the Appalachian Upland.", "Several types of shale, limestone and lagerstätten are prevalent in Buffalo and its surrounding area, lining their stream beds.According to Fox Weather, Buffalo is one of the top five snowiest large cities in the country, receiving, on average, 95 inches of snow annually.Although the city has not experienced any recent or significant earthquakes, Buffalo is in the Southern Great Lakes Seismic Zone (part of the Great Lakes tectonic zone).", "Buffalo has four channels within its boundaries: the Niagara River, Buffalo River (and Creek), Scajaquada Creek, and the Black Rock Canal, adjacent to the Niagara River.", "The city's Bureau of Forestry maintains a database of over seventy thousand trees.According to the United States Census Bureau, Buffalo has an area of ; is land, and the rest is water.", "The city's total area is 22.66 percent water.", "In 2010, its population density was 6,470.6 per square mile.===Cityscape===Buffalo's architecture is diverse, with a collection of 19th- and 20th-century buildings.", "Downtown Buffalo landmarks include Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building, an early skyscraper; the Ellicott Square Building, once one of the largest of its kind in the world; the Art Deco Buffalo City Hall and the McKinley Monument, and the Electric Tower.", "Beyond downtown, the Buffalo Central Terminal was built in the Broadway-Fillmore neighborhood in 1929; the Richardson Olmsted Complex, built in 1881, was an insane asylum until its closure in the 1970s.", "Urban renewal from the 1950s to the 1970s spawned the Brutalist-style Buffalo City Court Building and Seneca One Tower, the city's tallest building.", "In the city's Parkside neighborhood, the Darwin D. Martin House was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in his Prairie School style.", "Since 2016, Washington DC real estate developer Douglas Jemal has been acquiring, and redeveloping iconic properties throughout the city.===Neighborhoods===AllentownAccording to Mark Goldman, the city has a \"tradition of separate and independent settlements\".", "The boundaries of Buffalo's neighborhoods have changed over time.", "The city is divided into five districts, each containing several neighborhoods, for a total of thirty-five neighborhoods.", "Main Street divides Buffalo's east and west sides, and the west side was fully developed earlier.", "This division is seen in architectural styles, street names, neighborhood and district boundaries, demographics, and socioeconomic conditions; Buffalo's West Side is generally more affluent than its East Side.Several neighborhoods in Buffalo have had increased investment since the 1990s, beginning with the Elmwood Village.", "The 2002 redevelopment of the Larkin Terminal Warehouse led to the creation of Larkinville, home to several mixed-use projects and anchored by corporate offices.", "Downtown Buffalo and its central business district (CBD) had a 10.6-percent increase in residents from 2010 to 2017, as over 1,061 housing units became available; the Seneca One Tower was redeveloped in 2020.Other revitalized areas include Chandler Street, in the Grant-Amherst neighborhood, and Hertel Avenue in Parkside.The Buffalo Common Council adopted its Green Code in 2017, replacing zoning regulations which were over sixty years old.", "Its emphasis on regulations promoting pedestrian safety and mixed land use received an award at the 2019 Congress for the New Urbanism conference.===Climate===Buffalo in winter, 2019Buffalo has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa), and temperatures have been warming with the rest of the US.", "Lake-effect snow is characteristic of Buffalo winters, with snow bands (producing intense snowfall in the city and surrounding area) depending on wind direction off Lake Erie.", "However, Buffalo is rarely the snowiest city in the state.", "The Blizzard of 1977 resulted from a combination of high winds and snow which accumulated on land and on the frozen Lake Erie.", "Although snow does not typically impair the city's operation, it can cause significant damage in autumn (as the October 2006 storm did).", "In November 2014 (called \"Snowvember\"), the region had a record-breaking storm which produced over of snow.", "Buffalo's lowest recorded temperature was , which occurred twice: on February 9, 1934, and February 2, 1961.Although the city's summers are drier and sunnier than other cities in the northeastern United States, its vegetation receives enough precipitation to remain hydrated.", "Buffalo summers are characterized by abundant sunshine, with moderate humidity and temperatures; the city benefits from cool, southwestern Lake Erie summer breezes which temper warmer temperatures.", "Temperatures rise above an average of three times a year.", "No official recording of or more has occurred to date, with a maximum temperature of reached on August 27, 1948.Rainfall is moderate, typically falling at night, and cooler lake temperatures hinder storm development in July.", "August is usually rainier and muggier, as the warmer lake loses its temperature-controlling ability." ], [ "Demographics", " Racial composition 2023 2020 2010 1990 1970 1940White 47.8% 41.9% 50.4% 64.7% 78.7% 96.8%—Non-Hispanic 44.7% 39.0% 45.8% 63.1% n/a n/aAfrican Americans 33.3% 36.9% 38.6% 30.7% 20.4% 3.1%Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 12.2% 12.8% 10.5% 4.9% 1.6% n/aAsian Americans 6.7% 7.6% 3.2% 1.0% 0.2% n/a Other race 6.3% 5.3% 3.1% 2.8% 0.2% n/aSeveral hundred Seneca, Tuscarora and other Iroquois tribal peoples were the primary residents of the Buffalo area before 1800, concentrated along Buffalo Creek.", "After the Revolutionary War, settlers from New England and eastern New York began to move into the area.From the 1830s to the 1850s, they were joined by Irish and German immigrants from Europe, both peasants and working class, who settled in enclaves on the city's south and east sides.", "At the turn of the 20th century, Polish immigrants replaced Germans on the East Side, who moved to newer housing; Italian immigrant families settled throughout the city, primarily on the lower West Side.During the 1830s, Buffalo residents were generally intolerant of the small groups of Black Americans who began settling on the city's East Side.", "In the 20th century, wartime and manufacturing jobs attracted Black Americans from the South during the First and Second Great Migrations.", "In the World War II and postwar years from 1940 to 1970, the city's Black population rose by 433 percent.", "They replaced most of the Polish community on the East Side, who were moving out to suburbs.", "However, the effects of redlining, steering, social inequality, blockbusting, white flight and other racial policies resulted in the city (and region) becoming one of the most segregated in the U.S.During the 1940s and 1950s, Puerto Rican migrants arrived en masse, also seeking industrial jobs, settling on the East Side and moving westward.", "In the 21st century, Buffalo is classified as a majority minority city, with a plurality of residents who are Black and Latino.Ethnic origins in BuffaloBuffalo has experienced effects of urban decay since the 1970s, and also saw population loss to the suburbs and Sun Belt states, and experienced job losses from deindustrialization.", "The city's population peaked at 580,132 in 1950, when Buffalo was the 15th-largest city in the United Statesdown from the eighth-largest city in 1900, after its growth rate slowed during the 1920s.", "Buffalo's population began declining in the second half of the 20th century, due to suburbanization and loss of industrial jobs, and the city's population is now less than half its peak population in 1950.Buffalo finally saw a population gain of 6.5% in the 2020 census, reversing a decades long trend of population decline.", "The city has 278,349 residents as of the 2020 census, making it the 76th-largest city in the United States.", "Its metropolitan area had 1.1 million residents in 2020, the country's 49th-largest.Racial distribution in Buffalo in 2010: Each dot represents 25 residents.", "Compared to other major US metropolitan areas, the number of foreign-born immigrants to Buffalo is low.", "New immigrants are primarily resettled refugees (especially from war- or disaster-affected nations) and refugees who had previously settled in other U.S. cities.", "During the early 2000s, most immigrants came from Canada and Yemen; this shifted in the 2010s to Burmese (Karen) refugees and Bangladeshi immigrants.", "Between 2008 and 2016, Burmese, Somali, Bhutanese, and Iraqi Americans were the four largest ethnic immigrant groups in Erie County.Poverty has remained an issue for the city; in 2019, it was estimated that 30.1 percent of individuals and 24.8 percent of families lived below the federal poverty line.", "Per capita income was $24,400 and household income was $37,354: much less than the national average.", "A 2008 report noted that although food deserts were seen in larger cities and not in Buffalo, the city's neighborhoods of color have access only to smaller grocery stores and lack the supermarkets more typical of newer, white neighborhoods.", "A 2018 report noted that over fifty city blocks on Buffalo's East Side lacked adequate access to a supermarket.Health disparities exist compared to the rest of the state: Erie County's average 2019 lifespan was three years lower (78.4 years); its 17-percent smoking and 30-percent obesity rates were slightly higher than the state average.", "According to the Partnership for the Public Good, educational achievement in the city is lower than in the surrounding area; city residents are almost twice as likely as adults in the metropolitan area to lack a high-school diploma.===Religion===Temple Beth ZionDuring the early 19th century, Presbyterian missionaries tried to convert the Seneca people on the Buffalo Creek Reservation to Christianity.", "Initially resistant, some tribal members set aside their traditions and practices to form their own sect.", "Later, European immigrants added other faiths.", "Christianity is the predominant religion in Buffalo and Western New York.", "Catholicism (primarily the Latin Church) has a significant presence in the region, with 161 parishes and over 570,000 adherents in the Diocese of Buffalo.", "A Jewish community began developing in the city with immigrants from the mid-1800s; about one thousand German and Lithuanian Jews settled in Buffalo before 1880.Buffalo's first synagogue, Temple Beth El, was established in 1847.The city's Temple Beth Zion is the region's largest synagogue.With changing demographics and an increased number of refugees from other areas on the city's East Side, Islam and Buddhism have expanded their presence.", "In this area, new residents have converted empty churches into mosques and temples.", "Hinduism maintains a small, active presence in the area, including the town of Amherst.A 2016 American Bible Society survey reported that Buffalo is the fifth-least \"Bible-minded\" city in the United States; 13 percent of its residents associate with the Bible." ], [ "Economy", "+Top private-sector Buffalo area employers, 2020Source: ''Invest Buffalo Niagara''Rank Employer Employees 1Kaleida Health8,359 2Catholic Health7,623 3M&T Bank7,400 4Tops Friendly Markets5,374 5Seneca Gaming Corp.3,402 6Roswell Park Cancer Institute3,328 7GEICO3,250 8Wegmans3,102 9HSBC Bank USA3,000 10General Motors2,981The Erie Canal was the impetus for Buffalo's economic growth as a transshipment hub for grain and other agricultural products headed east from the Midwest.", "Later, manufacturing of steel and automotive parts became central to the city's economy.", "When these industries downsized in the region, Buffalo's economy became service-based.", "Its primary sectors include health care, business services (banking, accounting, and insurance), retail, tourism and logistics, especially with Canada.", "Despite the loss of large-scale manufacturing, some manufacturing of metals, chemicals, machinery, food products, and electronics remains in the region.", "Advanced manufacturing has increased, with an emphasis on research and development (R&D) and automation.", "In 2019, the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis valued the gross domestic product (GDP) of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls MSA at $53 billion (~$ in ).The civic sector is a major source of employment in the Buffalo area, and includes public, non-profit, healthcare and educational institutions.", "New York State, with over 19,000 employees, is the region's largest employer.", "In the private sector, top employers include the Kaleida Health and Catholic Health hospital networks and M&T Bank, the sole Fortune 500 company headquartered in the city.", "Most have been the top employers in the region for several decades.", "Buffalo is home to the headquarters of Rich Products, Delaware North and New Era Cap Company; the aerospace manufacturer Moog Inc. and toy maker Fisher-Price are based in nearby East Aurora.", "National Fuel Gas and Life Storage are headquartered in Williamsville, New York.Buffalo weathered the Great Recession of 2006–09 well in comparison with other U.S. cities, exemplified by increased home prices during this time.", "The region's economy began to improve in the early 2010s, adding over 25,000 jobs from 2009 to 2017.With state aid, Tesla, Inc.'s Giga New York plant opened in South Buffalo in 2017.The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, however, increased the local unemployment rate to 7.5 percent by December 2020.The local unemployment rate had been 4.2 percent in 2019, higher than the national average of 3.5 percent.The Buffalo area has a larger-than-average pay disparity than the rest of the U.S.", "The average salary ($43,580) was six percent less than the national average in 2017, with the pay gap increasing to ten percent with increased career specialization.", "Workforce productivity is higher and turnover lower than other regions." ], [ "Culture", "===Performing arts and music===Shea's Performing Arts CenterKleinhans Music HallBuffalo is home to over 20 theater companies, with many centered in the downtown Theatre District.", "Shea's Performing Arts Center is the city's largest theater.", "Designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany and built in 1926, the theater presents Broadway musicals and concerts.", "Shakespeare in Delaware Park has been held outdoors every summer since 1976.Stand-up comedy can be found throughout the city and is anchored by Helium Comedy Club, which hosts both local talent and national touring acts.The Nickel City Opera (NCO) was founded in 2004 by Valerian Ruminski and performs at Shea's Performing Arts Center.", "Matthias Manasi was music director and chief conductor of NCO from 2017 to 2021, his predecessor Michael Ching was music director and chief conductor of NCO from 2012 to 2017.NCO's repertoire consists of a wide range of operas from 18th-century Baroque and 19th-century Bel canto to the Minimalism of the 20th century and to contemporary operas of the 20th and 21st centuries.", "The NCO has commissioned operas and has staged world premieres of notable works.The Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra was formed in 1935 and performs at Kleinhans Music Hall, whose acoustics have been praised.", "Although the orchestra nearly disbanded during the late 1990s due to a lack of funding, philanthropic contributions and state aid stabilized it.", "Under the direction of JoAnn Falletta, the orchestra has received a number of Grammy Award nominations and won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Classical Composition in 2009.KeyBank Center draws national music acts year-round.", "Sahlen Field hosts the annual WYRK Taste of Country music festival every summer with national country music acts.", "Canalside regularly hosts outdoor summer concerts, a tradition that spun off from the defunct Thursday at the Square concert series.", "Colored Musicians Club, an extension of what was a separate musicians'-union chapter, maintains jazz history.Rick James was born and raised in Buffalo and later lived on a ranch in the nearby Town of Aurora.", "James formed his Stone City Band in Buffalo, and had national appeal with several crossover singles in the R&B, disco and funk genres in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "Around the same time, the jazz fusion band Spyro Gyra and jazz saxophonist Grover Washington Jr. also got their start in the city.The Goo Goo Dolls, an alternative rock group which formed in 1986, had 19 top-ten singles.", "Singer-songwriter and activist Ani DiFranco has released over 20 folk and indie rock albums on Righteous Babe Records, her Buffalo-based label.Underground hip-hop acts in the city partner with Buffalo-based Griselda Records, whose artists include Westside Gunn and Conway the Machine, and occasionally refer to Buffalo culture in their lyrics.=== Cuisine ===Buffalo wings with celery and blue cheeseThe city's cuisine encompasses a variety of cultures and ethnicities.", "In 2015, the National Geographic Society ranked Buffalo third on its \"World's Top Ten Food Cities\" list.", "Teressa Bellissimo first prepared Buffalo wings (seasoned chicken wings) at the Anchor Bar in 1964.The Anchor Bar has a crosstown rivalry with Duff's Famous Wings, but Buffalo wings are served at many bars and restaurants throughout the city (some with unique cooking styles and flavor profiles).", "Buffalo wings are traditionally served with blue cheese dressing and celery.", "In 2003, the Anchor Bar received a James Beard Foundation Award in the America's Classics category.The Buffalo area has over 600 pizzerias, estimated at more per capita than New York City.", "Several craft breweries began opening in the 1990s, and the city's last call is 4 am.", "Other mainstays of Buffalo cuisine include beef on weck, butter lambs, kielbasa, pierogi, sponge candy, chicken finger subs (including the stinger - a version that also includes steak), and the fish fry (popular any time of year, but especially during Lent).", "With an influx of refugees and other immigrants to Buffalo, its number of ethnic restaurants (including the West Side Bazaar kitchen incubator) has increased.", "Some restaurants use food trucks to serve customers, and nearly fifty food trucks appeared at Larkin Square in 2019.===Museums and tourism===Delaware ParkBuffalo was ranked the seventh-best city in the United States to visit in 2021 by ''Travel + Leisure'', which noted the growth and potential of the city's cultural institutions.", "The Albright–Knox Art Gallery is a modern and contemporary art museum with a collection of more than 8,000 works, of which only two percent are on display.", "With a donation from Jeffrey Gundlach, a three-story addition designed by the Dutch architectural firm OMA opened June 2023 .", "Across the street, the Burchfield Penney Art Center contains paintings by Charles E. Burchfield and is operated by Buffalo State College.", "Buffalo is home to the Freedom Wall, a 2017 art installation commemorating civil-rights activists throughout history.", "Near both museums is the Buffalo History Museum, featuring artwork, literature and exhibits related to the city's history and major events, and the Buffalo Museum of Science is on the city's East Side.Canalside, Buffalo's historic business district and harbor, attracts more than 1.5 million visitors annually.", "It includes the Explore & More Children's Museum, the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park, LECOM Harborcenter, and a number of shops and restaurants.", "A restored 1924 carousel (now solar-powered) and a replica boathouse were added to Canalside in 2021.Other city attractions include the Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site, the Michigan Street Baptist Church, Buffalo RiverWorks, Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino, Buffalo Transportation Pierce-Arrow Museum, and the Nash House Museum.The National Buffalo Wing Festival is held every Labor Day at Highmark Stadium.", "Since 2002, it has served over 4.8 million Buffalo wings and has had a total attendance of 865,000.The Taste of Buffalo is a two-day food festival held in July at Niagara Square, attracting 450,000 visitors annually.", "Other events include the Allentown Art Festival, the Polish-American Dyngus Day, the Elmwood Avenue Festival of the Arts, Juneteenth in Martin Luther King Jr. Park, the World's Largest Disco in October and Friendship Festival in summer, which celebrates Canada-US relations." ], [ "Sports", "+ Professional sports teams in Buffalo Team Sport League Began Venue (capacity) Championships Buffalo Bills American football NFL 1959 Highmark Stadium (71,608) 1964 and 1965 Buffalo Bisons Baseball IL 1979 Sahlen Field (16,600) 1997, 1998, 2004 Buffalo eXtreme Basketball ABA 2023 XGen Elite Sports Complex Buffalo Sabres Ice hockey NHL 1970 KeyBank Center (19,070) Buffalo Bandits Lacrosse NLL 1992 KeyBank Center (19,070) 1992, 1993, 1996, 2008, 2023 FC Buffalo Soccer USL League Two 2009 Williamsville South High School (2,700) FC Buffalo Women Soccer UWS 2021 Williamsville South High School (2,700) Buffalo has two major professional sports teams: the Buffalo Sabres (National Hockey League) and the Buffalo Bills (National Football League).", "The Bills were a founding member of the American Football League in 1960, and have played at Highmark Stadium in Orchard Park since they moved from War Memorial Stadium in 1973.They are the only NFL team based in New York State.", "Before the Super Bowl era, the Bills won the American Football League Championship in 1964 and 1965.With mixed success throughout their history, the Bills had a close loss in Super Bowl XXV and returned to consecutive Super Bowls after the 1991, 1992, and 1993 seasons (losing each time).", "The Sabres, an expansion team in 1970, share KeyBank Center with the Buffalo Bandits of the National Lacrosse League.", "The Bandits are the most decorated of the city's professional teams, with five championships.", "The Bills, Sabres and Bandits are owned by Pegula Sports and Entertainment.Several colleges and universities in the area field intercollegiate sports teams; the Buffalo Bulls and the Canisius Golden Griffins compete in NCAA Division I.", "The Bulls have 16 varsity sports in the Mid-American Conference (MAC); the Golden Griffins field 15 teams in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), with the men's hockey team part of the Atlantic Hockey Association (AHA).", "The Bulls participate in the Football Bowl Subdivision, the highest level of college football.", "Buffalo's minor-league teams include the Buffalo Bisons (Triple-A baseball), who play at Sahlen Field, and the Buffalo eXtreme (American Basketball Association), who play at XGen Elite Sports Complex in West Seneca." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Tifft Nature PreserveFrederick Law Olmsted described Buffalo as being \"the best planned city ... in the United States, if not the world\".", "With encouragement from city stakeholders, he and Calvert Vaux augmented the city's grid plan by drawing inspiration from Paris and introducing landscape architecture with aspects of the countryside.", "Their plan would introduce a system of interconnected parks, parkways and trails, unlike the singular Central Park in New York City.", "The largest would be Delaware Park, across Forest Lawn Cemetery to amplify the amount of open space.", "With construction of the system finishing in 1876, it is regarded as the country's oldest; however, some of Olmsted's plans were never fully realized.", "Some parks later diminished and succumbed to diseases, highway construction, and weather events such as Lake Storm Aphid in 2006.The non-profit Buffalo Olmsted Park Conservancy was created in 2004 to help preserve the of parkland.", "Olmsted's work in Buffalo inspired similar efforts in cities such as San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston.", "The city's Division of Parks and Recreation manages over 180 parks and facilities, seven recreational centers, twenty-one pools and splash pads, and three ice rinks.", "The Delaware Park features the Buffalo Zoo, Hoyt Lake, a golf course, and playing fields.", "Buffalo collaborated with its sister city Kanazawa to create the park's Japanese Garden in 1970, where cherry blossoms bloom in the spring.", "Opening in 1976, Tifft Nature Preserve in South Buffalo is on of remediated industrial land.", "The preserve is an Important Bird Area, including a meadow with trails for hiking and cross-country skiing, marshland and fishing.", "The Olmsted-designed Cazenovia and South Parks, the latter home to the Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens, are also in South Buffalo.", "According to the Trust for Public Land, Buffalo's 2022 ParkScore ranking had high marks for access to parks, with 89 percent of city residents living within a ten-minute walk from a park.", "The city ranked lower in acreage, however; nine percent of city land is devoted to parks, compared with the national median of about fifteen percent.Looking down Canalside's Central WharfEfforts to convert Buffalo's former industrial waterfront into recreational space have attracted national attention, with some writers comparing its appeal to that of Niagara Falls.", "Redevelopment of the waterfront began in the early 2000s, with the reconstruction of historically aligned canals on the site of the former Buffalo Memorial Auditorium.", "Placemaking initiatives would lead to the area's popularity, rather than permanent buildings and attractions.", "Under Mayor Byron Brown, Canalside was cited by the Brookings Institution as an example of waterfront revitalization for other U.S. cities to follow.", "Summer events have included paddle-boating and fitness classes, and the frozen canals permit ice skating, curling, and ice cycling in winter.", "Its success spurred the state to create Buffalo Harbor State Park in 2014; the park has trails, open recreation areas, bicycle paths and piers.", "The park's Gallagher Beach, the city's only public beach, has prohibited swimming due to high bacteria levels and other environmental concerns.The Shoreline Trail passes through Buffalo near the Outer Harbor, Centennial Park, and the Black Rock Canal.", "The North Buffalo–Tonawanda rail trail begins in Shoshone Park, near the LaSalle metro station in North Buffalo." ], [ "Government", "Common Council Chamber, Buffalo City HallBuffalo has a Strong mayor–council government.", "As the chief executive of city government, the mayor oversees the heads of the city's departments, participates in ceremonies, boards and commissions, and is as the liaison between the city and local cultural institutions.", "Some agencies, including utilities, urban renewal and public housing, are state- and federally-funded public benefit-corporations semi-independent of city government.", "Byron Brown, the city's first African American mayor, has held the office since 2006, longer than anyone else.", "Brown, defeated by India Walton in the 2021 mayoral primary election, began a write-in campaign for the general election.", "Brown initially denied Walton the chance to become the first female and socialist mayor of Buffalo, winning just under 60% of the votes.", "No Republican has been mayor of Buffalo since Chester A. Kowal in 1965.With its nine districts, the Buffalo Common Council enacts laws, levies taxes, and approves mayoral appointees and the city budget.", "Pastor Darius Pridgen has been the Common Council president since 2014.Generally reflecting the city's electorate, all nine councilmen are members of the Democratic Party.", "Buffalo is the Erie County seat, and is within five of the county's eleven legislative districts.The city is part of the Eighth Judicial District.", "Court cases handled at the city level include misdemeanors, violations, housing matters, and claims under $15,000; more severe cases are handled at the county level.", "Buffalo is represented by members of the New York State Assembly and New York State Senate.", "At the federal level, the city takes up most of and has been represented by Democrat Brian Higgins since 2005.Federal offices in the city include the Buffalo District of the United States Army Corps of Engineers' Great Lakes and Ohio River Division, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States District Court for the Western District of New York.In 2020, the city spent $519 million (~$ in ) on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "supplemented by about $50 million in federal stimulus money.", "The proposed budget includes a slight increase in the commercial tax and a slight decrease in the residential tax to compensate for the pandemic.=== Public safety ===Buffalo is served by the Buffalo Police Department.", "The police commissioner is Byron Lockwood, who was appointed by Mayor Byron Brown in 2018.Although some criminal activity in the city remains higher than the national average, total crimes have decreased since the 1990s; one reason may be the gun buyback program implemented by the Brown administration in the mid-2000s.", "Before this, the city was part of the nationwide crack epidemic of the 1980s and 1990s and its accompanying record-high crime levels.", "In 2018, city police began wearing 300 body cameras.", "A 2021 Partnership for the Public Good report noted that the BPD, which had a 2020–21 budget of about $145.7 million, had an above-average police-to-citizen ratio of 28.9 officers per 10,000 residents in 2020higher than peer cities Minneapolis and Toledo, Ohio.", "The force had a roster of 740 officers during the year, about two-thirds of whom handled emergency requests, road patrol and other non-office assignments.", "The department has been criticized for misconduct and brutality, including the 2004 wrongful termination of officer Cariol Horne for opposing police brutality toward a suspect and a 2020 protest-shoving incident.The Buffalo Fire Department and American Medical Response (AMR) handle fire-protection and emergency medical services (EMS) calls in the city.", "The fire department has about 710 firefighters and thirty-five stations, including twenty-three engine companies and twelve ladder companies.", "The department also operates the ''Edward M. Cotter'', considered the world's oldest active fireboat.With vacant and abandoned homes prone to arson, squatting, prostitution and other criminal activities, the fire and police department's resources were overburdened before the 2010s.", "Buffalo ranked second nationwide to St. Louis for vacant homes per capita in 2007, and the city began a five-year program to demolish five thousand vacant, damaged and abandoned homes.", "On May 14, 2022, there was a mass shooting in a Tops supermarket on the East Side of Buffalo where 13 victims were shot in a racially motivated attack by a white supremacist who was not a Buffalo native.", "Ten victims, all of whom were Black, were murdered and three were injured." ], [ "Media", "''The Buffalo News'' headquartersBuffalo's major daily newspaper is ''The Buffalo News.''", "Established in 1880 as the ''Buffalo Evening News,'' the newspaper is estimated to have a daily circulation of 87,000 and 125,000 on Sundays (down from a high of 300,000).", "The newspaper announced in February 2023 that is had a pending sale on its building and was to be moving printing operations to the home of the ''Cleveland Plain Dealer''.", "Other newspapers in the Buffalo area include ''The Public,'' the Black-focused ''Challenger Community News,'' ''The Record'' of Buffalo State College, ''The Spectrum'' of the University at Buffalo, and ''Buffalo Business First.", "''Eighteen radio stations are licensed in Buffalo, including an FM station at Buffalo State College.", "Over ninety FM and AM radio signals can be received throughout the city.", "Eight full-power television outlets serve the city.", "Major stations include WKBW-TV (ABC), WIVB-TV (CBS), WGRZ (NBC), WUTV (Fox, received in parts of Southern Ontario), and WNED-TV (PBS); WNED reported that most of the station's members live in the Greater Toronto Area.", "According to Nielsen Media Research, the Buffalo television market was the 51st largest in the United States .Movies shooting significant footage in Buffalo include ''Hide in Plain Sight'' (1980), ''Tuck Everlasting'' (1981), ''Best Friends'' (1982), ''The Natural'' (1984), ''Vamping'' (1984), ''Canadian Bacon'' (1995), ''Buffalo '66'' (1998), ''Manna from Heaven'' (2002), ''Bruce Almighty ''(2003), ''The Savages'' (2007), Slime City Massacre (2010), ''Henry's Crime'' (2011), ''Sharknado 2: The Second One'' (2014), ''Killer Rack (2015), Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows'' (2016), ''Marshall'' (2016), ''The American Side'' (2017), ''The First Purge'' (2018), ''The True Adventures of Wolfboy'' (2019), ''A Quiet Place Part II'' (2021) and ''Guns of Eden'' (2022).", "Although higher Buffalo production costs led to some films being finished elsewhere, tax credits and other economic incentives have enabled new film studios and production facilities to open.", "In 2021, several studio projects were in the planning stages." ], [ "Education", "=== Primary and secondary education ===City Honors SchoolThe Buffalo Public Schools have about thirty-four thousand students enrolled in their primary and secondary schools.", "The district administers about sixty public schools, including thirty-six primary schools, five middle high schools, fourteen high schools and three alternative schools, with a total of about 3,500 teachers.", "Its board of education, authorized by the state, has nine elected members who select the superintendent and oversee the budget, curriculum, personnel, and facilities.", "In 2020, the graduation rate was seventy-six percent.", "The public City Honors School was ranked the top high school in the city and 178th nationwide by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' in 2021.There are twenty charter schools in Buffalo, with some oversight by the district.", "The city has over a dozen private schools, including Bishop Timon – St. Jude High School, Canisius High School, Mount Mercy Academy, and Nardin Academy—all Roman Catholic, and Darul Uloom Al-Madania and Universal School of Buffalo (both Islamic schools); nonsectarian options include Buffalo Seminary and the Nichols School.=== Colleges and universities ===The quad at Buffalo State CollegeFounded by Millard Fillmore, the University at Buffalo (UB) is one of the State University of New York's two flagship universities and the state's largest public university.", "A Research I university, over 32,000 undergraduate, graduate and professional students attend its thirteen schools and colleges.", "Two of UB's three campuses (the South and Downtown Campuses) are in the city, but most university functions take place at the large North Campus in Amherst.", "In 2020, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked UB the 34th-best public university and 88th in national universities.", "Buffalo State College, founded as a normal school, is one of SUNY's thirteen comprehensive colleges.", "The city's four-year private institutions include Canisius College, D'Youville University, Medaille University, Trocaire College, and Villa Maria College.", "SUNY Erie, the county's two-year public higher-education institution, and the for-profit Bryant & Stratton College have small downtown campuses.=== Libraries ===Reading Park at Buffalo's Central LibraryEstablished in 1835, Buffalo's main library is the Central Library of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library system.", "Rebuilt in 1964, it contains an auditorium, the original manuscript of the ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (donated by Mark Twain), and a collection of about two million books.", "Its Grosvenor Room maintains a special-collections listing of nearly five hundred thousand resources for researchers.", "A pocket park funded by Southwest Airlines opened in 2020, and brought landscaping improvements and seating to Lafayette Square.", "The system's free library cards are valid at the city's eight branch libraries and at member libraries throughout Erie County." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Healthcare===Nine hospitals are operated in the city: Oishei Children's Hospital and Buffalo General Medical Center by Kaleida Health, Mercy Hospital and Sisters of Charity Hospital (Catholic Health), Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, the county-run Erie County Medical Center (ECMC), Buffalo VA Medical Center, BryLin (Psychiatric) Hospital and the state-operated Buffalo Psychiatric Center.", "John R. Oishei Children's Hospital, built in 2017, is adjacent to Buffalo General Medical Center on the Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus north of downtown; its Gates Vascular Institute specializes in acute stroke recovery.", "The medical campus includes the University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute and Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, ranked the 14th-best cancer-treatment center in the United States by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.===Transportation===Buffalo Metro Rail train at the Amherst Street stationGrowth and changing transportation needs altered Buffalo's grid plan, which was developed by Joseph Ellicott in 1804.His plan laid out streets like the spokes of a wheel, naming them after Dutch landowners and Native American tribes.", "City streets expanded outward, denser in the west and spreading out east of Main Street.", "Buffalo is a port of entry with Canada; the Peace Bridge crosses the Niagara River and links the Niagara Thruway (I-190) and Queen Elizabeth Way.", "I-190, NY 5 and NY 33 are the primary expressways serving the city, carrying a total of over 245,000 vehicles daily.", "NY 5 carries traffic to the Southtowns, and NY 33 carries traffic to the eastern suburbs and the Buffalo Airport.", "The east-west Scajacquada Expressway (NY 198) bisects Delaware Park, connecting I-190 with the Kensington Expressway (NY 33) on the city's East Side to form a partial beltway around the city center.", "The Scajacquada and Kensington Expressways and the Buffalo Skyway (NY 5) have been targeted for redesign or removal.", "Other major highways include US 62 on the city's East Side; NY 354 and a portion of NY 130, both east–west routes; and NY 265, NY 266 and NY 384, all north–south routes on the city's West Side.", "Buffalo has a higher-than-average percentage of households without a car: 30 percent in 2015, decreasing to 28.2 percent in 2016; the 2016 national average was 8.7 percent.", "Buffalo averaged 1.03 cars per household in 2016, compared to the national average of 1.8.Reddy Bikeshare at 250 Delaware AvenueThe Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) operates the region's public transit, including its airport, light-rail system, buses, and harbors.", "The NFTA operates 323 buses on 61 lines throughout Western New York.", "Buffalo Metro Rail is a line which runs from Canalside to the University Heights district.", "The line's downtown section, south of the Fountain Plaza station, runs at grade and is free of charge.", "The Buffalo area ranks twenty-third nationwide in transit ridership, with thirty trips per capita per year.", "Expansions have been proposed since Buffalo Metro Rail's inception in the 1980s, with the latest plan (in the late 2010s) reaching the town of Amherst.", "Buffalo Niagara International Airport in Cheektowaga has daily scheduled flights by domestic, charter and regional carriers.", "The airport handled nearly five million passengers in 2019.It received a J.D.", "Power award in 2018 for customer satisfaction at a mid-sized airport, and underwent a $50 million expansion in 2020–21.The airport, light rail, small-boat harbor and buses are monitored by the NFTA's transit police.Buffalo has an Amtrak intercity train station, Buffalo–Exchange Street station, which was rebuilt in 2020.The city's eastern suburbs are served by Amtrak's Buffalo–Depew station in Depew, which was built in 1979.Buffalo was a major stop on through routes between Chicago and New York City through the lower Ontario Peninsula; trains stopped at Buffalo Central Terminal, which operated from 1929 to 1979.Intercity buses depart and arrive from the NFTA's Metropolitan Transportation Center on Ellicott Street.Since Buffalo adopted a complete streets policy in 2008, efforts have been made to accommodate cyclists and pedestrians into new infrastructure projects.", "Improved corridors have bike lanes, and Niagara Street received separate bike lanes in 2020.Walk Score gave Buffalo a \"somewhat walkable\" rating of 68 out of 100, with Allentown and downtown considered more walkable than other areas of the city.===Utilities===Buffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water, and water treatment begins at the Colonel Francis G. Ward Pumping Station.", "When it opened in 1915, the station's capacity was second only to Paris.", "Wastewater is treated by the Buffalo Sewer Authority, its coverage extending to the eastern suburbs.", "National Grid and New York State Electric & Gas (NYSEG) provide electricity, and National Fuel Gas provides natural gas.", "The city's primary telecommunications provider is Spectrum; Verizon Fios serves the North Park neighborhood.", "A 2018 report by Ookla noted that Buffalo was one of the bottom five U.S. cities in average download speeds at 66 megabits per second.The city's Department of Public Works manages Buffalo's snow and trash removal and street cleaning.", "Snow removal generally operates from November 15 to April 1.A snow emergency is declared by the National Weather Service after a snowstorm, and the city's roads, major sidewalks and bridges are cleared by over seventy snowplows within 24 hours.", "Rock salt is the principal agent for preventing snow accumulation and melting ice.", "Snow removal may coincide with driving bans and parking restrictions.", "The area along the Outer Harbor is the most dangerous driving area during a snowstorm; when weather conditions dictate, the Buffalo Skyway is closed by the city's police department.To prevent ice jams which may impact hydroelectric plants in Niagara Falls, the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation began installing an ice boom annually in 1964.The boom's installation date is temperature-dependent, and it is removed on April 1 unless there is more than of ice remaining on eastern Lake Erie.", "It stretches from the outer breakwall at the Buffalo Outer Harbor to the Canadian shore near Fort Erie.", "Originally made of wood, the boom now consists of steel pontoons." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Notable people\"></span>Notable residents" ], [ "Sister cities", "Buffalo has eighteen sister cities:* Aboadze, Ghana* Baní, Dominican Republic* Bursa, Turkey* Cape Coast, Ghana (1976)* Changzhou, China (2011)* Dortmund, Germany (1972)* Drohobych, Ukraine (2000)* Horlivka, Ukraine (2007)* Kanazawa, Japan (1962)* Kiryat Gat, Israel (1977)* Lille, France (2000)* Rzeszów, Poland (1975)* Saint Ann, Jamaica (2007)* Siena, Italy (1961)* Torremaggiore, Italy (2004)* Wolverhampton, United Kingdom* Yıldırım, Turkey (2010)" ], [ "See also", "*Architecture of Buffalo, New York*Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo*Buffalo crime family*Buffalo wing*History of Buffalo, New York*Index of New York (state)–related articles*Inland Northern American English*List of City of Buffalo landmarks and historic districts*List of mayors of Buffalo, New York*List of people from Buffalo, New York*List of routes of City of Buffalo streetcars*National Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York*Sports in Buffalo*Politics and government of Buffalo, New York*Timeline of Buffalo, New York*USS ''Buffalo'', 4 ships" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds.", "''Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980'' (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980.online; see index at pp.", "406–411 for list.", "********" ], [ "External links", " **NYPL Digital Gallery, Media related to Buffalo*Library of Congress, Prints & Photos Division: Historical images related to Buffalo* WNED Documentaries and Specials: Historical and cultural programming related to Buffalo from Buffalo–Toronto Public Media**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Benjamin Franklin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benjamin Franklin''' (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath, a leading writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher.", "Among the most influential intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States; a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence; and the first postmaster general.Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the ''Pennsylvania Gazette'' at age 23.He became wealthy publishing this and ''Poor Richard's Almanack'', which he wrote under the pseudonym \"Richard Saunders\".", "After 1767, he was associated with the ''Pennsylvania Chronicle'', a newspaper known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the British Parliament and the Crown.He pioneered and was the first president of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1751 and later became the University of Pennsylvania.", "He organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected its president in 1769.He was appointed deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies in 1753, which enabled him to set up the first national communications network.", "He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs.", "Franklin became a hero in America when, as an agent in London for several colonies, he spearheaded the repeal of the unpopular Stamp Act by the British Parliament.", "An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired as the first U.S. ambassador to France and was a major figure in the development of positive FrancoAmerican relations.", "His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing French aid.From 1785 to 1788, he served as President of Pennsylvania.", "At some points in his life, he owned slaves and ran \"for sale\" ads for slaves in his newspaper, but by the late 1750s, he began arguing against slavery, became an active abolitionist, and promoted the education and integration of African Americans into U.S. society.As a scientist, his studies of electricity made him a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics.", "He also charted and named the Gulf Stream current.", "His numerous important inventions include the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove.", "He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department, and the University of Pennsylvania.Franklin earned the title of \"The First American\" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity.", "Foundational in defining the American ethos, Franklin has been called \"the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become\".His life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored for more than two centuries after his death on the $100 bill and in the names of warships, many towns and counties, educational institutions, and corporations, as well as in numerous cultural references and a portrait in the Oval Office.", "His more than 30,000 letters and documents have been collected in ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin.''" ], [ "Ancestry", "Benjamin Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, soaper, and candlemaker.", "Josiah Franklin was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and his wife, Jane White.", "Benjamin's father and all four of his grandparents were born in England.Josiah Franklin had a total of seventeen children with his two wives.", "He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683; they had three children before emigration and four after.", "Following her death, Josiah married Abiah Folger on July 9, 1689, in the Old South Meeting House by Reverend Samuel Willard, and had ten children with her.", "Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child overall, and his tenth and final son.Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts Bay Colony, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrell Folger, a former indentured servant.", "Mary Folger came from a Puritan family that was among the first Pilgrims to flee to Massachusetts for religious freedom, sailing for Boston in 1635 after King Charles I of England had begun persecuting Puritans.", "Her father Peter was \"the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America.\"", "As clerk of the court, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners." ], [ "Early life and education", "===Boston===Franklin was born on Milk Street in Boston, Province of Massachusetts Bay on January 17, 1706, and baptized at the Old South Meeting House in Boston.", "As a child growing up along the Charles River, Franklin recalled that he was \"generally the leader among the boys\".Franklin's father wanted him to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years.", "He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading.", "Although \"his parents talked of the church as a career\" for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten.", "He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught him the printing trade.", "When Benjamin was 15, James founded ''The New-England Courant'', which was the third newspaper founded in Boston.When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of \"Silence Dogood\", a middle-aged widow.", "Mrs. Dogood's letters were published and became a subject of conversation around town.", "Neither James nor the ''Courant'' readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Benjamin when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother.", "Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age.", "When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood proclaim, quoting ''Cato's Letters'', \"Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech\".", "Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive.===Move to Philadelphia===At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, seeking a new start in a new city.", "When he first arrived, he worked in several printing shops in Philadelphia, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects in any of these jobs.", "After a few months, while working in one printing house, Pennsylvania governor Sir William Keith convinced him to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia.", "Discovering that Keith's promises of backing a newspaper were empty, he worked as a typesetter in a printer's shop in what is the present-day Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the Smithfield area of London.", "Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of Thomas Denham, a merchant who employed him as a clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business.===Junto and library===''La scuola della economia e della morale'', an 1825 sketch of FranklinIn 1727, at age 21, Franklin formed the Junto, a group of \"like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community\".", "The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia.", "The Junto was modeled after English coffeehouses that Franklin knew well and which had become the center of the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Britain.Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive.", "The members created a library initially assembled from their own books after Franklin wrote:This did not suffice, however.", "Franklin conceived the idea of a subscription library, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read.", "This was the birth of the Library Company of Philadelphia, whose charter he composed in 1731.===Newspaperman===Franklin (center) at work on a printing press in a painting published by the Detroit Publishing Company in Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade.", "In 1728, he set up a printing house in partnership with Hugh Meredith; the following year he became the publisher of ''The Pennsylvania Gazette'', a newspaper in Philadelphia.", "The ''Gazette'' gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations.", "Over time, his commentary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect.", "But even after he achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B.", "Franklin, Printer.", "'In 1732, he published the first German-language newspaper in America – ''Die Philadelphische Zeitung'' – although it failed after only one year because four other newly founded German papers quickly dominated the newspaper market.", "Franklin also printed Moravian religious books in German.", "He often visited Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, staying at the Moravian Sun Inn.", "In a 1751 pamphlet on demographic growth and its implications for the Thirteen Colonies, he called the Pennsylvania Germans \"Palatine Boors\" who could never acquire the \"Complexion\" of Anglo-American settlers and referred to \"Blacks and Tawneys\" as weakening the social structure of the colonies.", "Although he apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764.According to Ralph Frasca, Franklin promoted the printing press as a device to instruct colonial Americans in moral virtue.", "Frasca argues he saw this as a service to God, because he understood moral virtue in terms of actions, thus, doing good provides a service to God.", "Despite his own moral lapses, Franklin saw himself as uniquely qualified to instruct Americans in morality.", "He tried to influence American moral life through the construction of a printing network based on a chain of partnerships from the Carolinas to New England.", "He thereby invented the first newspaper chain.", "It was more than a business venture, for like many publishers he believed that the press had a public-service duty.When he established himself in Philadelphia, shortly before 1730, the town boasted two \"wretched little\" news sheets, Andrew Bradford's ''The American Weekly Mercury'', and Samuel Keimer's ''Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette''.", "This instruction in all arts and sciences consisted of weekly extracts from ''Chambers's Universal Dictionary''.", "Franklin quickly did away with all of this when he took over the ''Instructor'' and made it ''The Pennsylvania Gazette''.", "The ''Gazette'' soon became his characteristic organ, which he freely used for satire, for the play of his wit, even for sheer excess of mischief or of fun.", "From the first, he had a way of adapting his models to his own uses.", "The series of essays called \"The Busy-Body\", which he wrote for Bradford's ''American Mercury'' in 1729, followed the general Addisonian form, already modified to suit homelier conditions.", "The thrifty Patience, in her busy little shop, complaining of the useless visitors who waste her valuable time, is related to the women who address Mr. Spectator.", "The Busy-Body himself is a true Censor Morum, as Isaac Bickerstaff had been in the ''Tatler''.", "And a number of the fictitious characters, Ridentius, Eugenius, Cato, and Cretico, represent traditional 18th-century classicism.", "Even this Franklin could use for contemporary satire, since Cretico, the \"sowre Philosopher\", is evidently a portrait of his rival, Samuel Keimer.Franklin had mixed success in his plan to establish an inter-colonial network of newspapers that would produce a profit for him and disseminate virtue.", "Over the years he sponsored two dozen printers in Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Connecticut and even the Caribbean.", "By 1753, 8 of the 15 English language newspapers in the colonies were published by him or his partners.", "He began in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1731.After his second editor died, the widow Elizabeth Timothy took over and made it a success.", "She was one of the colonial era's first woman printers.", "For three decades Franklin maintained a close business relationship with her and her son Peter Timothy, who took over the ''South Carolina Gazette'' in 1746.The ''Gazette'' was impartial in political debates, while creating the opportunity for public debate, which encouraged others to challenge authority.", "Timothy avoided blandness and crude bias and after 1765 increasingly took a patriotic stand in the growing crisis with Great Britain.", "However, Franklin's ''Connecticut Gazette'' (1755–68) proved unsuccessful.", "As the Revolution approached, political strife slowly tore his network apart.===Freemasonry===In 1730 or 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local Masonic lodge.", "He became a grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania.", "The same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's ''Constitutions of the Free-Masons''.", "He was the secretary of St. John's Lodge in Philadelphia from 1735 to 1738.In January 1738, \"Franklin appeared as a witness\" in a manslaughter trial against two man who killed \"a simple-minded apprentice\" named Daniel Rees in a fake Masonic initiation gone wrong.", "One of the men \"threw, or accidentally spilled, the burning spirits, and Daniel Rees died of his burns two days later.\"", "While Franklin did not directly participate in the hazing that led to Rees' death, he knew of the hazing before it turned fatal, and did nothing to stop it.", "He was criticized for his inaction in ''The American Weekly Mercury'', by his publishing rival Andrew Bradford.", "Ultimately, \"Franklin replied in his own defense in the ''Gazette.", "''\"Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.===Common-law marriage to Deborah Read===At age 17 in 1723, Franklin proposed to 15-year-old Deborah Read while a boarder in the Read home.", "At that time, Deborah's mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to marry Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Keith's request, and also because of his financial instability.", "Her own husband had recently died, and she declined Franklin's request to marry her daughter.While Franklin was in London, his trip was extended, and there were problems with the governor's promises of support.", "Perhaps because of the circumstances of this delay, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers.", "This proved to be a regrettable decision.", "Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to Barbados with her dowry, leaving her behind.", "Rodgers's fate was unknown, and because of bigamy laws, Deborah was not free to remarry.Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah on September 1, 1730.They took in his recently acknowledged illegitimate young son and raised him in their household.", "They had two children together.", "Their son, Francis Folger Franklin, was born in October 1732 and died of smallpox in 1736.Their daughter, Sarah \"Sally\" Franklin, was born in 1743 and eventually married Richard Bache.Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe; another possible reason why they spent much time apart is that he may have blamed her for possibly preventing their son Francis from being inoculated against the disease that subsequently killed him.", "Deborah wrote to him in November 1769, saying she was ill due to \"dissatisfied distress\" from his prolonged absence, but he did not return until his business was done.", "Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke on December 14, 1774, while Franklin was on an extended mission to Great Britain; he returned in 1775.===William Franklin===William Franklin (1730–1813), Franklin's son, whose mother was unknown, was born out of wedlock on February 22, 1730In 1730, 24-year-old Franklin publicly acknowledged his illegitimate son William and raised him in his household.", "William was born on February 22, 1730, but his mother's identity is unknown.", "He was educated in Philadelphia and beginning at about age 30 studied law in London in the early 1760s.", "William himself fathered an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, born on the same day and month: February 22, 1760.The boy's mother was never identified, and he was placed in foster care.", "In 1762, the elder William Franklin married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a planter from Barbados, in London.", "In 1763, he was appointed as the last royal governor of New Jersey.A Loyalist to the king, William Franklin saw his relations with father Benjamin eventually break down over their differences about the American Revolutionary War, as Benjamin Franklin could never accept William's position.", "Deposed in 1776 by the revolutionary government of New Jersey, William was placed under house arrest at his home in Perth Amboy for six months.", "After the Declaration of Independence, he was formally taken into custody by order of the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, an entity which he refused to recognize, regarding it as an \"illegal assembly\".", "He was incarcerated in Connecticut for two years, in Wallingford and Middletown, and, after being caught surreptitiously engaging Americans into supporting the Loyalist cause, was held in solitary confinement at Litchfield for eight months.", "When finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778, he moved to New York City, which was occupied by the British at the time.While in New York City, he became leader of the Board of Associated Loyalists, a quasi-military organization chartered by King George III and headquartered in New York City.", "They initiated guerrilla forays into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city.", "When British troops evacuated from New York, William Franklin left with them and sailed to England.", "He settled in London, never to return to North America.", "In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain, \"... Benjamin Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne arms against the United States would be excluded from this plea (that they be given a general pardon).", "He was undoubtedly thinking of William Franklin.", "\"===Success as an author===The January 1741 edition of ''The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle'', Franklin's magazineIn 1732, Franklin began to publish the noted ''Poor Richard's Almanack'' (with content both original and borrowed) under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his popular reputation is based.", "He frequently wrote under pseudonyms.", "The first issue published was for the upcoming year, 1733.He had developed a distinct, signature style that was plain, pragmatic and had a sly, soft but self-deprecating tone with declarative sentences.", "Although it was no secret that he was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly denied it.", "\"Poor Richard's Proverbs\", adages from this almanac, such as \"A penny saved is twopence dear\" (often misquoted as \"A penny saved is a penny earned\") and \"Fish and visitors stink in three days\", remain common quotations in the modern world.", "Wisdom in folk society meant the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and his readers became well prepared.", "He sold about ten thousand copies per year—it became an institution.", "In 1741, Franklin began publishing ''The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle for all the British Plantations in America.''", "He used the heraldic badge of the Prince of Wales as the cover illustration.In 1758, the year he ceased writing for the Almanack, he printed ''Father Abraham's Sermon'', also known as ''The Way to Wealth''.", "Franklin began writing his autobiography in 1771, but it was not published until after his death.", "It has become one of the classics in the genre of autobiographical non-fiction.", "Franklin wrote a letter, \"Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress\", dated June 25, 1745, in which he gives advice to a young man about channeling sexual urges.", "Due to its licentious nature, it was not published in collections of his papers during the 19th century.", "Federal court rulings from the mid-to-late 20th century cited the document as a reason for overturning obscenity laws and against censorship." ], [ "Public life", "===Early steps in Pennsylvania===A portrait of Franklin c. 1746–1750, by Robert Feke widely believed to be the earliest known painting of Franklin''Join, or Die'', a 1754 political cartoon by Franklin, urged the colonies to join the Seven Years' War in the French and Indian War; the cartoon was later resurrected, serving as an iconic symbol in support of the American Revolution.In 1751, Franklin co-founded Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, one of the first hospitals in the United States, depicted in this 1755 engraving by William Strickland.Seal of the College of Philadelphia, a college founded by Franklin that is now the University of PennsylvaniaSketch of the original Tun TavernIn 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, one of the first volunteer firefighting companies in America.", "In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques he had devised.", "Throughout his career, he was an advocate for paper money, publishing ''A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency'' in 1729, and his printer printed money.", "He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the Middle Colonies, which stopped deflation without causing excessive inflation.", "In 1766, he made a case for paper money to the British House of Commons.As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs.", "In 1743, he first devised a scheme for the Academy, Charity School, and College of Philadelphia.", "However, the person he had in mind to run the academy, Rev.", "Richard Peters, refused and Franklin put his ideas away until 1749 when he printed his own pamphlet, ''Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania.''", "He was appointed president of the Academy on November 13, 1749; the academy and the charity school opened in 1751.In 1743, he founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories.", "He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.During King George's War, Franklin raised a militia called the Association for General Defense because the legislators of the city had decided to take no action to defend Philadelphia \"either by erecting fortifications or building Ships of War\".", "He raised money to create earthwork defenses and buy artillery.", "The largest of these was the \"Association Battery\" or \"Grand Battery\" of 50 guns.In 1747, Franklin (already a very wealthy man) retired from printing and went into other businesses.", "He formed a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years.", "This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made many new discoveries.Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed.", "In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman; in June 1749, he became a justice of the peace for Philadelphia; and in 1751, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly.", "On August 10, 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general of British North America.", "His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, with mail sent out every week.In 1751, Franklin and Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital.", "Pennsylvania Hospital was the first hospital in the colonies.", "In 1752, Franklin organized the Philadelphia Contributionship, the Colonies' first homeowner's insurance company.Between 1750 and 1753, the \"educational triumvirate\" of Franklin, Samuel Johnson of Stratford, Connecticut, and schoolteacher William Smith built on Franklin's initial scheme and created what Bishop James Madison, president of the College of William & Mary, called a \"new-model\" plan or style of American college.", "Franklin solicited, printed in 1752, and promoted an American textbook of moral philosophy by Samuel Johnson, titled ''Elementa Philosophica'', to be taught in the new colleges.", "In June 1753, Johnson, Franklin, and Smith met in Stratford.", "They decided the new-model college would focus on the professions, with classes taught in English instead of Latin, have subject matter experts as professors instead of one tutor leading a class for four years, and there would be no religious test for admission.", "Johnson went on to found King's College (now Columbia University) in New York City in 1754, while Franklin hired Smith as provost of the College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1755.At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one with a Master of Arts.", "It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the University of Pennsylvania.", "The college was to become influential in guiding the founding documents of the United States: in the Continental Congress, for example, over one-third of the college-affiliated men who contributed to the Declaration of Independence between September 4, 1774, and July 4, 1776, were affiliated with the college.In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Albany Congress.", "This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French.", "Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies.", "While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.In 1753, both Harvard and Yale awarded him honorary master of arts degrees.", "In 1756, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from the College of William & Mary.", "Later in 1756, Franklin organized the Pennsylvania Militia.", "He used Tun Tavern as a gathering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies.=== Postmaster ===U.S.", "postage stamp, issued in 1847 in honor of FranklinWilliam Goddard the authority to travel as needed to investigate and inspect postal routes and protect the mail.Well known as a printer and publisher, Franklin was appointed postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737, holding the office until 1753, when he and publisher William Hunter were named deputy postmasters–general of British North America, the first to hold the office.", "(Joint appointments were standard at the time, for political reasons.)", "He was responsible for the British colonies from Pennsylvania north and east, as far as the island of Newfoundland.", "A post office for local and outgoing mail had been established in Halifax, Nova Scotia, by local stationer Benjamin Leigh, on April 23, 1754, but service was irregular.", "Franklin opened the first post office to offer regular, monthly mail in Halifax on December 9, 1755.Meantime, Hunter became postal administrator in Williamsburg, Virginia, and oversaw areas south of Annapolis, Maryland.", "Franklin reorganized the service's accounting system and improved speed of delivery between Philadelphia, New York, and Boston.", "By 1761, efficiencies led to the first profits for the colonial post office.When the lands of New France were ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British province of Quebec was created among them, and Franklin saw mail service expanded between Montreal, Trois-Rivières, Quebec City, and New York.", "For the greater part of his appointment, he lived in England (from 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1774)—about three-quarters of his term.", "Eventually, his sympathies for the rebel cause in the American Revolution led to his dismissal on January 31, 1774.On July 26, 1775, the Second Continental Congress established the United States Post Office and named Franklin as the first United States postmaster general.", "He had been a postmaster for decades and was a natural choice for the position.", "He had just returned from England and was appointed chairman of a Committee of Investigation to establish a postal system.", "The report of the committee, providing for the appointment of a postmaster general for the 13 American colonies, was considered by the Continental Congress on July 25 and 26.On July 26, 1775, Franklin was appointed postmaster general, the first appointed under the Continental Congress.", "His apprentice, William Goddard, felt that his ideas were mostly responsible for shaping the postal system and that the appointment should have gone to him, but he graciously conceded it to Franklin, 36 years his senior.", "Franklin, however, appointed Goddard as Surveyor of the Posts, issued him a signed pass, and directed him to investigate and inspect the various post offices and mail routes as he saw fit.", "The newly established postal system became the United States Post Office, a system that continues to operate today.=== Decades in London ===From the mid-1750s to the mid-1770s, Franklin spent much of his time in London.====Political work====David Hall in 1764French court in later years, depicted in a portrait by David Martin that is now on display in the White HouseIn 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony.", "He remained there for five years, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly and their exemption from paying taxes on their land.", "His lack of influential allies in Whitehall led to the failure of this mission.At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn's heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors.", "After his return to the colony, Franklin led the \"anti-proprietary party\" in the struggle against the Penn family and was elected Speaker of the Pennsylvania House in May 1764.His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms.", "Because of these fears and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October 1764 Assembly elections.", "The anti-proprietary party dispatched him to England again to continue the struggle against the Penn family proprietorship.", "During this trip, events drastically changed the nature of his mission.In London, Franklin opposed the 1765 Stamp Act.", "Unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania.", "Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia.", "Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and he testified during the House of Commons proceedings that led to its repeal.", "With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England.", "He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies.", "Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts also appointed him as their agent to the Crown.During his lengthy missions to London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin lodged in a house on Craven Street, just off the Strand in central London.", "During his stays there, he developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson, and her circle of friends and relations, in particular, her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly.", "The house is now a museum known as the Benjamin Franklin House.", "Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics.", "He belonged to a gentleman's club (which he called \"the honest Whigs\"), which held stated meetings, and included members such as Richard Price, the minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church who ignited the Revolution controversy, and Andrew Kippis.====Scientific work====In 1756, Franklin had become a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now the Royal Society of Arts), which had been founded in 1754.After his return to the United States in 1775, he became the Society's Corresponding Member, continuing a close connection.", "The Royal Society of Arts instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of his birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.The study of natural philosophy (referred today as science in general) drew him into overlapping circles of acquaintance.", "Franklin was, for example, a corresponding member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham.", "In 1759, the University of St Andrews awarded him an honorary doctorate in recognition of his accomplishments.", "In October 1759, he was granted Freedom of the Borough of St Andrews.", "He was also awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University in 1762.Because of these honors, he was often addressed as \" Franklin\".While living in London in 1768, he developed a phonetic alphabet in ''A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling''.", "This reformed alphabet discarded six letters he regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own.", "This alphabet never caught on, and he eventually lost interest.===Travels around Europe===Franklin used London as a base to travel.", "In 1771, he made short journeys through different parts of England, staying with Joseph Priestley at Leeds, Thomas Percival at Manchester and Erasmus Darwin at Lichfield.", "In Scotland, he spent five days with Lord Kames near Stirling and stayed for three weeks with David Hume in Edinburgh.", "In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son and later reported that he considered his six weeks in Scotland \"six weeks of the densest happiness I have met with in any part of my life\".In Ireland, he stayed with Lord Hillsborough.", "Franklin noted of him that \"all the plausible behaviour I have described is meant only, by patting and stroking the horse, to make him more patient, while the reins are drawn tighter, and the spurs set deeper into his sides.\"", "In Dublin, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the Irish Parliament rather than in the gallery.", "He was the first American to receive this honor.", "While touring Ireland, he was deeply moved by the level of poverty he witnessed.", "The economy of the Kingdom of Ireland was affected by the same trade regulations and laws that governed the Thirteen Colonies.", "He feared that the American colonies could eventually come to the same level of poverty if the regulations and laws continued to apply to them.Franklin spent two months in German lands in 1766, but his connections to the country stretched across a lifetime.", "He declared a debt of gratitude to German scientist Otto von Guericke for his early studies of electricity.", "Franklin also co-authored the first treaty of friendship between Prussia and America in 1785.In September 1767, he visited Paris with his usual traveling partner, Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet.", "News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France.", "His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King Louis XV.===Defending the American cause===One line of argument in Parliament was that Americans should pay a share of the costs of the French and Indian War and therefore taxes should be levied on them.", "Franklin became the American spokesman in highly publicized testimony in Parliament in 1766.He stated that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire.", "He said local governments had raised, outfitted and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone.In 1772, Franklin obtained private letters of Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver, governor and lieutenant governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, proving that they had encouraged the Crown to crack down on Bostonians.", "Franklin sent them to America, where they escalated tensions.", "The letters were finally leaked to the public in the ''Boston Gazette'' in mid-June 1773, causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England.", "The British began to regard him as the fomenter of serious trouble.", "Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by Solicitor-General Alexander Wedderburn, before the Privy Council on January 29, 1774.He returned to Philadelphia in March 1775, and abandoned his accommodationist stance.In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: \"Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One\", and \"An Edict by the King of Prussia\".=== Agent for British and Hellfire Club membership ===Franklin is known to have occasionally attended the Hellfire Club's meetings during 1758 as a non-member during his time in England.", "However, some authors and historians would argue he was in fact a British spy.", "As there are no records left (having been burned in 1774), many of these members are just assumed or linked by letters sent to each other.", "One early proponent that Franklin was a member of the Hellfire Club and a double agent is the historian Donald McCormick, who has a history of making controversial claims.===Coming of revolution===In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania from England for the first time, the western frontier was engulfed in a bitter war known as Pontiac's Rebellion.", "The Paxton Boys, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them from American Indian raids, murdered a group of peaceful Susquehannock Indians and marched on Philadelphia.", "Franklin helped to organize a local militia to defend the capital against the mob.", "He met with the Paxton leaders and persuaded them to disperse.", "Franklin wrote a scathing attack against the racial prejudice of the Paxton Boys.", "\"If an ''Indian'' injures me\", he asked, \"does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all ''Indians''?", "\"He provided an early response to British surveillance through his own network of counter-surveillance and manipulation.", "\"He waged a public relations campaign, secured secret aid, played a role in privateering expeditions, and churned out effective and inflammatory propaganda.", "\"===Declaration of Independence===John Trumbull's portrait of the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress in PhiladelphiaBy the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, after his second mission to Great Britain, the American Revolution had begun at the Battles of Lexington and Concord the previous month, on April 19, 1775.The New England militia had forced the main British army to remain inside Boston.", "The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress.", "In June 1776, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence.", "Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the committee, he made several \"small but important\" changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson.At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by John Hancock that they must all hang together, saying, \"Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately.", "\"===Ambassador to France (1776–1785)===Franklin, in his fur hat, charmed the French with what they perceived as his rustic New World genius.While in France, Franklin designed and commissioned Augustin Dupré to engrave the medallion Libertas Americana, which was minted in Paris in 1783.On October 26, 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as commissioner for the United States.", "He took with him as secretary his 16-year-old grandson, William Temple Franklin.", "They lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of Passy, donated by Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont, who supported the United States.", "Franklin remained in France until 1785.He conducted the affairs of his country toward the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and signing the 1783 Treaty of Paris.Among his associates in France was Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau—a French Revolutionary writer, orator and statesman who in 1791 was elected president of the National Assembly.", "In July 1784, Franklin met with Mirabeau and contributed anonymous materials that the Frenchman used in his first signed work: ''Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus''.", "The publication was critical of the Society of the Cincinnati, established in the United States.", "Franklin and Mirabeau thought of it as a \"noble order\", inconsistent with the egalitarian ideals of the new republic.During his stay in France, he was active as a Freemason, serving as venerable master of the lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1779 until 1781.In 1784, when Franz Mesmer began to publicize his theory of \"animal magnetism\" which was considered offensive by many, Louis XVI appointed a commission to investigate it.", "These included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and Franklin.", "In doing so, the committee concluded, through blind trials that mesmerism only seemed to work when the subjects expected it, which discredited mesmerism and became the first major demonstration of the placebo effect, which was described at that time as \"imagination\".", "In 1781, he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.Franklin's advocacy for religious tolerance in France contributed to arguments made by French philosophers and politicians that resulted in Louis XVI's signing of the Edict of Versailles in November 1787.This edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau, which had denied non-Catholics civil status and the right to openly practice their faith.Franklin also served as American minister to Sweden, although he never visited that country.", "He negotiated a treaty that was signed in April 1783.On August 27, 1783, in Paris, he witnessed the world's first hydrogen balloon flight.", "''Le Globe'', created by professor Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert, was watched by a vast crowd as it rose from the Champ de Mars (now the site of the Eiffel Tower).", "Franklin became so enthusiastic that he subscribed financially to the next project to build a manned hydrogen balloon.", "On December 1, 1783, Franklin was seated in the special enclosure for honored guests it took off from the Jardin des Tuileries, piloted by Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert.===Return to America===''Franklin's return to Philadelphia, 1785'', a portrait by Jean Leon Gerome FerrisGeorge Washington witnesses Gouverneur Morris sign the Constitution with Franklin seen behind Morris, in John Henry Hintermeister's 1925 portrait, ''Foundation of the American Government''When he returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position second only to that of George Washington as the champion of American independence.", "He returned from France with an unexplained shortage of 100,000 pounds in Congressional funds.", "In response to a question from a member of Congress about this, Franklin, quoting the Bible, quipped, \"Muzzle not the ox that treadeth out his master's grain.\"", "The missing funds were never again mentioned in Congress.", "Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by Joseph Duplessis, which now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an abolitionist and freed his two slaves.", "He eventually became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society.==== President of Pennsylvania and Delegate to the Constitutional convention ====Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785, unanimously elected him the sixth president of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson.", "The office was practically that of the governor.", "He held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the constitutional limit of three full terms.", "Shortly after his initial election, he was re-elected to a full term on October 29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, 1787.In that capacity, he served as host to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia.He also served as a delegate to the Convention.", "It was primarily an honorary position and he seldom engaged in debate." ], [ "Death", "Franklin's gravesite at Christ Church Burial Ground in PhiladelphiaFranklin suffered from obesity throughout his middle age and elder years, which resulted in multiple health problems, particularly gout, which worsened as he aged.", "In poor health during the signing of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death.Franklin died from pleuritic attack at his home in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790.He was aged 84 at the time of his death.", "His last words were reportedly, \"a dying man can do nothing easy\", to his daughter after she suggested that he change position in bed and lie on his side so he could breathe more easily.", "Franklin's death is described in the book ''The Life of Benjamin Franklin'', quoting from the account of John Paul Jones:Approximately 20,000 people attended Franklin's funeral after which he was interred in Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia.", "Upon learning of his death, the Constitutional Assembly in Revolutionary France entered into a state of mourning for a period of three days, and memorial services were conducted in honor of Franklin throughout the country.In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph:Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will, simply reads \"Benjamin and Deborah Franklin\"." ], [ "Inventions and scientific inquiries", "Franklin was a prodigious inventor.", "Among his many creations were the lightning rod, Franklin stove, bifocal glasses and the flexible urinary catheter.", "He never patented his inventions; in his autobiography he wrote, \"... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously.", "\"===Electricity===''Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky'', a portrait by Benjamin West now on display at the Philadelphia Museum of ArtFranklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity in the 1740s, after he met the itinerant lecturer Archibald Spencer, who used static electricity in his demonstrations.", "He proposed that \"vitreous\" and \"resinous\" electricity were not different types of \"electrical fluid\" (as electricity was called then), but the same \"fluid\" under different pressures.", "(The same proposal was made independently that same year by William Watson.)", "He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively, and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.", "In 1748, he constructed a multiple plate capacitor, that he called an \"electrical battery\" (not a true battery like Volta's pile) by placing eleven panes of glass sandwiched between lead plates, suspended with silk cords and connected by wires.In pursuit of more pragmatic uses for electricity, remarking in spring 1749 that he felt \"chagrin'd a little\" that his experiments had heretofore resulted in \"Nothing in this Way of Use to Mankind\", he planned a practical demonstration.", "He proposed a dinner party where a turkey was to be killed via electric shock and roasted on an electrical spit.", "After having prepared several turkeys this way, he noted that \"the birds kill'd in this manner eat uncommonly tender.\"", "Franklin recounted that in the process of one of these experiments, he was shocked by a pair of Leyden jars, resulting in numbness in his arms that persisted for one evening, noting \"I am Ashamed to have been Guilty of so Notorious a Blunder.", "\"Franklin briefly investigated electrotherapy, including the use of the electric bath.", "This work led to the field becoming widely known.", "In recognition of his work with electricity, he received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756, he became one of the few 18th-century Americans elected a fellow of the Society.", "The CGS unit of electric charge has been named after him: one ''franklin'' (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb.Franklin advised Harvard University in its acquisition of new electrical laboratory apparatus after the complete loss of its original collection, in a fire that destroyed the original Harvard Hall in 1764.The collection he assembled later became part of the Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, now on public display in its Science Center.====Kite experiment and lightning rod====engraved by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm.", "On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin's experiment using a iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud.", "On June 15, 1752, Franklin may possibly have conducted his well-known kite experiment in Philadelphia, successfully extracting sparks from a cloud.", "He described the experiment in his newspaper, ''The Pennsylvania Gazette'', on October 19, 1752, without mentioning that he himself had performed it.", "This account was read to the Royal Society on December 21 and printed as such in the ''Philosophical Transactions''.", "Joseph Priestley published an account with additional details in his 1767 ''History and Present Status of Electricity''.", "Franklin was careful to stand on an insulator, keeping dry under a roof to avoid the danger of electric shock.", "Others, such as Georg Wilhelm Richmann in Russia, were indeed electrocuted in performing lightning experiments during the months immediately following his experiment.In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground.", "He did not perform this experiment in the way that is often pictured in popular literature, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, as it would have been dangerous.", "Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, showing that lightning was electrical.", "On October 19, 1752, in a letter to England with directions for repeating the experiment, he wrote:Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod.", "He said that conductors with a sharp rather than a smooth point could discharge silently and at a far greater distance.", "He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by attaching \"upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!\"", "Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in 1752.===Population studies===Franklin had a major influence on the emerging science of demography or population studies.", "In the 1730s and 1740s, he began taking notes on population growth, finding that the American population had the fastest growth rate on Earth.", "Emphasizing that population growth depended on food supplies, he emphasized the abundance of food and available farmland in America.", "He calculated that America's population was doubling every 20 years and would surpass that of England in a century.", "In 1751, he drafted ''Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.''", "Four years later, it was anonymously printed in Boston and was quickly reproduced in Britain, where it influenced the economist Adam Smith and later the demographer Thomas Malthus, who credited Franklin for discovering a rule of population growth.", "Franklin's predictions how British mercantilism was unsustainable alarmed British leaders who did not want to be surpassed by the colonies, so they became more willing to impose restrictions on the colonial economy.Kammen (1990) and Drake (2011) say Franklin's ''Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind'' (1755) stands alongside Ezra Stiles' \"Discourse on Christian Union\" (1760) as the leading works of 18th-century Anglo-American demography; Drake credits Franklin's \"wide readership and prophetic insight\".", "Franklin was also a pioneer in the study of slave demography, as shown in his 1755 essay.", "In his capacity as a farmer, he wrote at least one critique about the negative consequences of price controls, trade restrictions, and subsidy of the poor.", "This is succinctly preserved in his letter to the ''London Chronicle'' published November 29, 1766, titled \"On the Price of Corn, and Management of the poor\".===Oceanography===As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns.", "While in England in 1768, he heard a complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs.", "British packet ships carrying mail had taken several weeks longer to reach New York than it took an average merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island.", "The merchantmen had a longer and more complex voyage because they left from London, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall.", "Franklin put the question to his cousin Timothy Folger, a Nantucket whaler captain, who told him that merchant ships routinely avoided a strong eastbound mid-ocean current.", "The mail packet captains sailed dead into it, thus fighting an adverse current of .", "Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, learning enough to chart the current and name it the Gulf Stream, by which it is still known today.Franklin published his Gulf Stream chart in 1770 in England, where it was ignored.", "Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786.The British original edition of the chart had been so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until Phil Richardson, a Woods Hole oceanographer and Gulf Stream expert, discovered it in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris in 1980.This find received front-page coverage in ''The New York Times''.", "It took many years for British sea captains to adopt Franklin's advice on navigating the current; once they did, they were able to trim two weeks from their sailing time.", "In 1853, the oceanographer and cartographer Matthew Fontaine Maury noted that while Franklin charted and codified the Gulf Stream, he did not discover it:An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findings in ''Maritime Observations'', published by the Philosophical Society's ''transactions'' in 1786.It contained ideas for sea anchors, catamaran hulls, watertight compartments, shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay stable in stormy weather.===Theories and experiments===Franklin was, along with his contemporary Leonhard Euler, the only major scientist who supported Christiaan Huygens's wave theory of light, which was basically ignored by the rest of the scientific community.", "In the 18th century, Isaac Newton's corpuscular theory was held to be true; it took Thomas Young's well-known slit experiment in 1803 to persuade most scientists to believe Huygens's theory.On October 21, 1743, according to the popular myth, a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportunity of witnessing a lunar eclipse.", "He was said to have noted that the prevailing winds were actually from the northeast, contrary to what he had expected.", "In correspondence with his brother, he learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia.", "He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced meteorology.", "After the Icelandic volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783, and the subsequent harsh European winter of 1784, Franklin made observations on the causal nature of these two seemingly separate events.", "He wrote about them in a lecture series.Though Franklin is famously associated with kites from his lightning experiments, he has also been noted by many for using kites to pull humans and ships across waterways.", "George Pocock in the book ''A Treatise on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails'' noted being inspired by Benjamin Franklin's traction of his body by kite power across a waterway.Franklin noted a principle of refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one.", "To understand this phenomenon more clearly, he conducted experiments.", "In 1758 on a warm day in Cambridge, England, he and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury thermometer with ether and using bellows to evaporate the ether.", "With each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching .", "Another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at .", "In his letter ''Cooling by Evaporation'', Franklin noted that, \"One may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day.", "\"According to Michael Faraday, Franklin's experiments on the non-conduction of ice are worth mentioning, although the law of the general effect of liquefaction on electrolytes is not attributed to Franklin.", "However, as reported in 1836 by Franklin's great-grandson Alexander Dallas Bache of the University of Pennsylvania, the law of the effect of heat on the conduction of bodies otherwise non-conductors, for example, glass, could be attributed to Franklin.", "Franklin wrote, \"... A certain quantity of heat will make some bodies good conductors, that will not otherwise conduct ...\" and again, \"... And water, though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well when frozen into ice.", "\"While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship was diminished when the cooks scuttled their greasy water.", "He studied the effects on a large pond in Clapham Common, London.", "\"I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water ... though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square.\"", "He later used the trick to \"calm the waters\" by carrying \"a little oil in the hollow joint of my cane\".===Decision-making===An illustration that appears in Franklin's paper, \"Water-spouts and Whirlwinds\"In a 1772 letter to Joseph Priestley, Franklin laid out the earliest known description of the Pro & Con list, a common decision-making technique, now sometimes called a decisional balance sheet:" ], [ "Views on religion and morality", "A bust of Franklin built by Jean-Antoine Houdon in 1778''Voltaire blessing Franklin's grandson, in the name of God and Liberty'', an 1890 portrait by Pedro AméricoA statue of Franklin by Hiram PowersRichard Price, the radical minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church, holding a letter from FranklinLike the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous.", "All his life, he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in ''Poor Richard's'' aphorisms.", "He felt that organized religion was necessary to keep men good to their fellow men, but rarely attended religious services himself.", "When he met Voltaire in Paris and asked his fellow member of the Enlightenment vanguard to bless his grandson, Voltaire said in English, \"God and Liberty\", and added, \"this is the only appropriate benediction for the grandson of Monsieur Franklin.", "\"Franklin's parents were both pious Puritans.", "The family attended the Old South Church, the most liberal Puritan congregation in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was baptized in 1706.Franklin's father, a poor chandler, owned a copy of a book, ''Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good'', by the Puritan preacher and family friend Cotton Mather, which Franklin often cited as a key influence on his life.", "\"If I have been\", Franklin wrote to Cotton Mather's son seventy years later, \"a useful citizen, the public owes the advantage of it to that book\".", "His first pen name, Silence Dogood, paid homage both to the book and to a widely known sermon by Mather.", "The book preached the importance of forming voluntary associations to benefit society.", "Franklin learned about forming do-good associations from Mather, but his organizational skills made him the most influential force in making voluntarism an enduring part of the American ethos.Franklin formulated a presentation of his beliefs and published it in 1728.He no longer accepted the key Puritan ideas regarding salvation, the divinity of Jesus, or indeed much religious dogma.", "He classified himself as a deist in his 1771 autobiography, although he still considered himself a Christian.", "He retained a strong faith in a God as the wellspring of morality and goodness in man, and as a Providential actor in history responsible for American independence.At a critical impasse during the Constitutional Convention in June 1787, he attempted to introduce the practice of daily common prayer with these words:The motion gained almost no support and was never brought to a vote.Franklin was an enthusiastic admirer of the evangelical minister George Whitefield during the First Great Awakening.", "He did not himself subscribe to Whitefield's theology, but he admired Whitefield for exhorting people to worship God through good works.", "He published all of Whitefield's sermons and journals, thereby earning a lot of money and boosting the Great Awakening.When he stopped attending church, Franklin wrote in his autobiography:Franklin retained a lifelong commitment to the non-religious Puritan virtues and political values he had grown up with, and through his civic work and publishing, he succeeded in passing these values into the American culture permanently.", "He had a \"passion for virtue\".", "These Puritan values included his devotion to egalitarianism, education, industry, thrift, honesty, temperance, charity and community spirit.", "Thomas Kidd states, \"As an adult, Franklin touted ethical responsibility, industriousness, and benevolence, even as he jettisoned Christian orthodoxy.", "\"The classical authors read in the Enlightenment period taught an abstract ideal of republican government based on hierarchical social orders of king, aristocracy and commoners.", "It was widely believed that English liberties relied on their balance of power, but also hierarchal deference to the privileged class.", "\"Puritanism ... and the epidemic evangelism of the mid-eighteenth century, had created challenges to the traditional notions of social stratification\" by preaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class, and that all men can be saved.", "Franklin, steeped in Puritanism and an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical movement, rejected the salvation dogma but embraced the radical notion of egalitarian democracy.Franklin's commitment to teach these values was itself something he gained from his Puritan upbringing, with its stress on \"inculcating virtue and character in themselves and their communities\".", "These Puritan values and the desire to pass them on, were one of his quintessentially American characteristics and helped shape the character of the nation.", "Max Weber considered Franklin's ethical writings a culmination of the Protestant ethic, which ethic created the social conditions necessary for the birth of capitalism.One of his notable characteristics was his respect, tolerance and promotion of all churches.", "Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, \"new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused.\"", "\"He helped create a new type of nation that would draw strength from its religious pluralism.\"", "The evangelical revivalists who were active mid-century, such as Whitefield, were the greatest advocates of religious freedom, \"claiming liberty of conscience to be an 'inalienable right of every rational creature.", "Whitefield's supporters in Philadelphia, including Franklin, erected \"a large, new hall, that ... could provide a pulpit to anyone of any belief.\"", "Franklin's rejection of dogma and doctrine and his stress on the God of ethics and morality and civic virtue made him the \"prophet of tolerance\".", "He composed \"A Parable Against Persecution\", an apocryphal 51st chapter of Genesis in which God teaches Abraham the duty of tolerance.", "While he was living in London in 1774, he was present at the birth of British Unitarianism, attending the inaugural session of the Essex Street Chapel, at which Theophilus Lindsey drew together the first avowedly Unitarian congregation in England; this was somewhat politically risky and pushed religious tolerance to new boundaries, as a denial of the doctrine of the Trinity was illegal until the 1813 Act.Although his parents had intended for him a career in the church, Franklin as a young man adopted the Enlightenment religious belief in deism, that God's truths can be found entirely through nature and reason, declaring, \"I soon became a thorough Deist.\"", "He rejected Christian dogma in a 1725 pamphlet ''A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain'', which he later saw as an embarrassment, while simultaneously asserting that God is \"all wise, all good, all powerful.\"", "He defended his rejection of religious dogma with these words: \"I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me.\"", "After the disillusioning experience of seeing the decay in his own moral standards, and those of two friends in London whom he had converted to deism, Franklin decided that deism was true but it was not as useful in promoting personal morality as were the controls imposed by organized religion.", "Ralph Frasca contends that in his later life he can be considered a non-denominational Christian, although he did not believe Christ was divine.In a major scholarly study of his religion, Thomas Kidd argues that Franklin believed that true religiosity was a matter of personal morality and civic virtue.", "Kidd says Franklin maintained his lifelong resistance to orthodox Christianity while arriving finally at a \"doctrineless, moralized Christianity.\"", "According to David Morgan, Franklin was a proponent of \"generic religion.\"", "He prayed to \"Powerful Goodness\" and referred to God as \"the infinite\".", "John Adams noted that he was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: \"The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic.", "The Church of England claimed him as one of them.", "The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker.\"", "Adams himself decided that Franklin best fit among the \"Atheists, Deists, and Libertines.\"", "Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, \"he was a true champion of generic religion\".", "In a letter to Richard Price, Franklin states that he believes religion should support itself without help from the government, claiming, \"When a Religion is good, I conceive that it will support itself; and, when it cannot support itself, and God does not take care to support, so that its Professors are oblig'd to call for the help of the Civil Power, it is a sign, I apprehend, of its being a bad one.", "\"In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale University, who had asked him his views on religion:On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a three-member committee composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams to design the Great Seal of the United States.", "Franklin's proposal (which was not adopted) featured the motto: \"Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God\" and a scene from the Book of Exodus he took from the frontispiece of the Geneva Bible, with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as pharaoh.", "Sir Rowland Hill The design that was produced was not acted upon by Congress, and the Great Seal's design was not finalized until a third committee was appointed in 1782.Franklin strongly supported the right to freedom of speech:===Thirteen Virtues===A bust of Franklin in the Archives Department at Columbia University in New York CityFranklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of 13 virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life.", "His autobiography lists his 13 virtues as:# Temperance.", "Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation.", "\"# Silence.", "Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation.", "\"# Order.", "Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.# Resolution.", "Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.# Frugality.", "Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.# Industry.", "Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.# Sincerity.", "Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.# Justice.", "Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.# Moderation.", "Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.# Cleanliness.", "Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation.# Tranquility.", "Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.# Chastity.", "Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation.# Humility.", "Imitate Jesus and Socrates.Franklin did not try to work on them all at once.", "Instead, he worked on one and only one each week \"leaving all others to their ordinary chance\".", "While he did not adhere completely to the enumerated virtues, and by his own admission he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man, contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point and wrote, \"I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit.", "\"===Slavery===Franklin owned as many as seven slaves, including two men who worked in his household and his shop.", "He posted paid ads for the sale of slaves and for the capture of runaway slaves and allowed the sale of slaves in his general store.", "However, he later became an outspoken critic of slavery.", "In 1758, he advocated the opening of a school for the education of black slaves in Philadelphia.", "He took two slaves to England with him, Peter and King.", "King escaped with a woman to live in the outskirts of London, and by 1758 he was working for a household in Suffolk.", "After returning from England in 1762, Franklin became notably more abolitionist in nature, attacking American slavery.", "In the wake of ''Somerset v Stewart'', he voiced frustration at British abolitionists:Franklin, however, refused to publicly debate the issue of slavery at the 1787 Constitutional Convention.At the time of the American founding, there were about half a million slaves in the United States, mostly in the five southernmost states, where they made up 40% of the population.", "Many of the leading American foundersmost notably Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and James Madisonowned slaves, but many others did not.", "Benjamin Franklin thought that slavery was \"an atrocious debasement of human nature\" and \"a source of serious evils\".", "He and Benjamin Rush founded the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery in 1774.In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition to Congress.", "Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society.In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that stressed the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of African Americans into American society.", "These writings included:* ''An Address to the Public'' (1789)* ''A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks'' (1789)* ''Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade'' (1790)===Vegetarianism===Franklin became a vegetarian when he was a teenager apprenticing at a print shop, after coming upon a book by the early vegetarian advocate Thomas Tryon.", "In addition, he would have also been familiar with the moral arguments espoused by prominent vegetarian Quakers in the colonial-era Province of Pennsylvania, including Benjamin Lay and John Woolman.", "His reasons for vegetarianism were based on health, ethics, and economy:Franklin also declared the consumption of meat to be \"unprovoked murder\".", "Despite his convictions, he began to eat fish after being tempted by fried cod on a boat sailing from Boston, justifying the eating of animals by observing that the fish's stomach contained other fish.", "Nonetheless, he recognized the faulty ethics in this argument and would continue to be a vegetarian on and off.", "He was \"excited\" by tofu, which he learned of from the writings of a Spanish missionary to South East Asia, Domingo Fernández Navarrete.", "Franklin sent a sample of soybeans to prominent American botanist John Bartram and had previously written to British diplomat and Chinese trade expert James Flint inquiring as to how tofu was made, with their correspondence believed to be the first documented use of the word \"tofu\" in the English language.Franklin's \"Second Reply to ''Vindex Patriae''\", a 1766 letter advocating self-sufficiency and less dependence on England, lists various examples of the bounty of American agricultural products, and does not mention meat.", "Detailing new American customs, he wrote that, \"they resolved last spring to eat no more lamb; and not a joint of lamb has since been seen on any of their tables ... the sweet little creatures are all alive to this day, with the prettiest fleeces on their backs imaginable.", "\"===View on inoculation===The concept of preventing smallpox by variolation was introduced to colonial America by an African slave named Onesimus via his owner Cotton Mather in the early eighteenth century, but the procedure was not immediately accepted.", "James Franklin's newspaper carried articles in 1721 that vigorously denounced the concept.However, by 1736 Benjamin Franklin, by then a prominent Boston citizen, was known as a supporter of the procedure.", "Therefore, when four-year-old \"Franky\" died of smallpox, opponents of the procedure circulated rumors that the child had been inoculated, and that this was the cause of his subsequent death.", "When Franklin became aware of this gossip, he placed a notice in the ''Pennsylvania Gazette'', stating: \"I do hereby sincerely declare, that he was not inoculated, but receiv'd the Distemper in the common Way of Infection ...", "I intended to have my Child inoculated.\".", "The child had a bad case of flux diarrhea, and his parents had waited for him to get well before having him inoculated.", "Franklin wrote in his ''Autobiography'': \"In 1736 I lost one of my sons, a fine boy of four years old, by the small-pox, taken in the common way.", "I long regretted bitterly, and still regret that I had not given it to him by inoculation.", "This I mention for the sake of parents who omit that operation, on the supposition that they should never forgive themselves if a child died under it; my example showing that the regret may be the same either way, and that, therefore, the safer should be chosen.\"" ], [ "Interests and activities", "===Musical endeavors===While in London, Franklin developed an improved version of the glass harmonicaFranklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar.", "He also composed music, notably a string quartet in early classical style.", "While he was in London, he developed a much-improved version of the glass harmonica, in which the glasses rotate on a shaft, with the player's fingers held steady, instead of the other way around.", "He worked with the London glassblower Charles James to create it, and instruments based on his mechanical version soon found their way to other parts of Europe.", "Joseph Haydn, a fan of Franklin's enlightened ideas, had a glass harmonica in his instrument collection.", "Mozart composed for Franklin's glass harmonica, as did Beethoven.", "Gaetano Donizetti used the instrument in the accompaniment to Amelia's aria \"Par che mi dica ancora\" in the tragic opera ''Il castello di Kenilworth'' (1821), as did Camille Saint-Saëns in his 1886 ''The Carnival of the Animals''.", "Richard Strauss calls for the glass harmonica in his 1917 ''Die Frau ohne Schatten'', and numerous other composers used Franklin's instrument as well.===Chess===The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, named in Franklin's honorFranklin was an avid chess player.", "He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies.", "His essay on \"The Morals of Chess\" in ''Columbian Magazine'' in December 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America.", "This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for the game has been widely reprinted and translated.", "He and a friend used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting.Franklin was able to play chess more frequently against stronger opposition during his many years as a civil servant and diplomat in England, where the game was far better established than in America.", "He was able to improve his playing standard by facing more experienced players during this period.", "He regularly attended Old Slaughter's Coffee House in London for chess and socializing, making many important personal contacts.", "While in Paris, both as a visitor and later as ambassador, he visited the famous Café de la Régence, which France's strongest players made their regular meeting place.", "No records of his games have survived, so it is not possible to ascertain his playing strength in modern terms.Franklin was inducted into the U.S.", "Chess Hall of Fame in 1999.The Franklin Mercantile Chess Club in Philadelphia, the second oldest chess club in the U.S., is named in his honor." ], [ "Legacy", "===Bequest===A marble memorial statue of Franklin, the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial, in PhiladelphiaFranklin bequeathed £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $125,000 in 2021 dollars) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years.", "The trust began in 1785 when the French mathematician Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour, who admired Franklin greatly, wrote a friendly parody of Franklin's ''Poor Richard's Almanack'' called ''Fortunate Richard''.", "The main character leaves a smallish amount of money in his will, five lots of 100 ''livres'', to collect interest over one, two, three, four or five full centuries, with the resulting astronomical sums to be spent on impossibly elaborate utopian projects.", "Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia.By 1990, more than $2,000,000 (~$ in ) had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents.", "From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans.", "When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students.", "Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time; at the end of its first 100 years a portion was allocated to help establish a trade school that became the Franklin Institute of Boston, and the entire fund was later dedicated to supporting this institute.In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proposed the foundation of a new college named in Franklin's honor.", "Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College (now called Franklin & Marshall College).=== Likeness and image ===A life-size bronze statue of Franklin (seated with cane) in the National Constitution Center in PhiladelphiaAs the only person to have signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776, Treaty of Alliance with France in 1778, Treaty of Paris in 1783, and U.S. Constitution in 1787, Franklin is considered one of the leading Founding Fathers of the United States.", "His pervasive influence in the early history of the nation has led to his being jocularly called \"the only president of the United States who was never president of the United States\".Franklin's likeness is ubiquitous.", "Since 1928, it has adorned American $100 bills.", "From 1948 to 1963, Franklin's portrait was on the half-dollar.", "He has appeared on a $50 bill and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918.Franklin also appears on the $1,000 Series EE savings bond.On April 12, 1976, as part of a bicentennial celebration, Congress dedicated a tall marble statue in Philadelphia's Franklin Institute as the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial.", "Vice President Nelson Rockefeller presided over the dedication ceremony.", "Many of Franklin's personal possessions are on display at the institute.", "In London, his house at 36 Craven Street, which is the only surviving former residence of Franklin, was first marked with a blue plaque and has since been opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House.", "In 1998, workmen restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home.", "A total of 15 bodies have been recovered.", "The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house.", "They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man.He has been honored on U.S. postage stamps many times.", "The image of Franklin, the first postmaster general of the United States, occurs on the face of U.S. postage more than any other notable American save that of George Washington.", "He appeared on the first U.S. postage stamp issued in 1847.From 1908 through 1923, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps commonly referred to as the Washington–Franklin Issues, in which Washington and Franklin were depicted many times over a 14-year period, the longest run of any one series in U.S. postal history.", "However, he only appears on a few commemorative stamps.", "Some of the finest portrayals of Franklin on record can be found on the engravings inscribed on the face of U.S. postage." ], [ "See also", "* Benjamin Franklin in popular culture* Benjamin Franklin on postage stamps* Bibliography of early American publishers and printers* Founders Online database of Franklin's papers* Franklin's electrostatic machine* Fugio Cent, 1787 coin designed by Franklin* List of early American publishers and printers* List of opponents of slavery* List of richest Americans in history* ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Biographies===* Becker, Carl Lotus.", "\"Benjamin Franklin\", ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1931) – vol 3, with links online * * Crane, Vernon W. ''Benjamin Franklin and a rising people'' (1954) short biography by a scholar; online* Franklin, Benjamin.", "''The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin''; many editions* Gaustad, Edwin S. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (2006) online* * James Srodes, ''Franklin, The Essential Founding Father'', (2002, softcover 2003, Regnery History) * Ketcham, Ralph.", "''Benjamin Franklin'' (1966) 228 pp; short biography by scholar* Lemay, J.A.", "Leo.", "''The Life of Benjamin Franklin'', scholarly biography, 3 volumes appeared before the author's death in 2008** ''Volume 1: Journalist, 1706–1730'' (2005) 568 pp ** ''Volume 2: Printer and publisher, 1730–1747'' (2005) 664 pp ** ''Volume 3: Soldier, scientist, and politician, 1748–1757'' (2008), 768 pp * Morgan, Edmund S. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (2003), interpretation by leading scholar online* Schiff, Stacy, ''A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America'', (2005) Henry Holt* , Pulitzer Prize winning older biography; online* Wood, Gordon.", "\"Benjamin Franklin\" ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2021) online * Wood, Gordon.", "''The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin'' (2005) , intellectual history by leading historian.", "* Wright, Esmond.", "''Franklin of Philadelphia'' (1986) –brief older scholarly study===Scholarly studies===* * Anderson, Douglas.", "''The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin'' (1997) – fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin* Buxbaum, M.H., ed.", "''Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin'' (1987)* Chaplin, Joyce.", "''The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius.''", "(2007)* Cohen, I. Bernard.", "''Benjamin Franklin's Science'' (1990) – Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin's science* Conner, Paul W. ''Poor Richard's Politicks'' (1965) – analyzes Franklin's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment and republicanism* Dixon, Charles Robert.", "\"All about the Benjamins: The nineteenth century character assassination of Benjamin Franklin\" (PhD dissertation, The University of Alabama; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2011.3461038).", "* Dray, Philip.", "''Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America.''", "(2005).", "279 pp.", "* Dull, Jonathan.", "''A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution'' (1985)* Dull, Jonathan.", "''Benjamin Franklin and the American Revolution'' (2010)* Ford, Paul Leicester.", "''The Many-Sided Franklin'' (1899) online edition – collection of scholarly essays** \"Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist\" in ''The Century'' (October 1899) v. 57 pp.", "881–899.By Paul Leicester Ford.", "** \"Franklin as Printer and Publisher\" in ''The Century'' (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–818.", "** \"Franklin as Scientist\" in ''The Century'' (September 1899) v.57 pp.", "750–763.By Paul Leicester Ford.", "* Frasca, Ralph.", "\"Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network and the Stamp Act.\"", "''Pennsylvania History'' 71.4 (2004): 403–419 online .", "* Frasca, Ralph.", "''Benjamin Franklin's printing network: disseminating virtue in early America'' (U of Missouri Press, 2006) excerpt.", "* * Hartsock, Pamela Ann. \"", "'Tracing the pattern among the tangled threads': The composition and publication history of 'The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin' \" (PhD dissertation,  University of Missouri – Columbia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2000.9999293).", "* Houston, Alan.", "''Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement'' (2009) * Kidd, Thomas S. ''Benjamin Franklin: The Religious Life of a Founding Father'' (Yale UP, 2017) excerpt* Lemay, J.A.", "Leo, ed.", "''Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective'' (1993) – scholarly essays* Mathews, L.K.", "\"Benjamin Franklin's Plans for a Colonial Union, 1750–1775.\"", "''American Political Science Review'' 8 (August 1914): 393–412.", "* * Merli, Frank J., and Theodore A. Wilson, eds.", "''Makers of American diplomacy, from Benjamin Franklin to Henry Kissinger'' (1974) online* Mulford, Carla.", "\"Figuring Benjamin Franklin in American Cultural Memory.\"", "''New England Quarterly'' 72.3 (1999): 415–443.online* * Newman, Simon P. \"Benjamin Franklin and the Leather-Apron Men: The Politics of Class in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia\", ''Journal of American Studies'', August 2009, Vol.", "43#2 pp.", "161–75; Franklin took pride in his working class origins and his printer's skills.", "* * Olson, Lester C. ''Benjamin Franklin's Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology.''", "(2004).", "323 pp.", "* Rosenthall, Karen M. \"A Generative Populace: Benjamin Franklin's Economic Agendas\" ''Early American Literature'' 51#3 (2016), pp.", "571–598.online* Royot, Daniel.", "\"New Perspectives on Benjamin Franklin's Humor.\"", "''Studies in American Humor'' (2006) 3#14: 133–138.online* Schiffer, Michael Brian.", "''Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment.''", "(2003).", "383 pp.", "* Skemp, Sheila L. ''Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist'' (1994) – Ben's son was a leading Loyalist.", "* Slack, Kevin Lee.", "\"Benjamin Franklin and the science of virtue\" (PhD dissertation, University of Dallas; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2009.3357482).", "* Smart, Karl Lyman.", "\"A man for all ages: The changing image of Benjamin Franklin in nineteenth century American popular literature\" (PhD dissertation,  University of Florida; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1989.9021252).", "* Waldstreicher, David.", "''Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution.''", "Hill and Wang, 2004.315 pp.", "* Walters, Kerry S. ''Benjamin Franklin and His Gods.''", "(1999).", "213 pp.", "Takes position midway between D H Lawrence's brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin's religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and Owen Aldridge's sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin's \"polytheistic\" religion.", "* York, Neil.", "\"When Words Fail: William Pitt, Benjamin Franklin and the Imperial Crisis of 1766\", ''Parliamentary History'', October 2009, Vol.", "28#3 pp.", "341–374.===Historiography===* Brands, H. W. \"Lives and Times\" ''Reviews in American History'' 41#2 (2013), pp.", "207–212.online* Waldstreicher, David, ed.", "''A Companion to Benjamin Franklin'' (2011), 25 essays by scholars emphasizing how historians have handled Franklin.", "online edition ===Primary sources===* \"''A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain''.", "\"* \"''Experiments and Observations on Electricity''.\"", "(1751)* \"''Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School''.\"", "Carl Japikse, Ed.", "Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed.", "2003.", "* \"''Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin''.", "\"* \"''On Marriage''.", "\"* \"''Satires and Bagatelles''.", "\"* ''Autobiography, Poor Richard, & Later Writings'' (J.A.", "Leo Lemay, ed.)", "(Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) * ''Benjamin Franklin Reader'' edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)* '' Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography'' edited by J.A.", "Leo Lemay and P.M. Zall, (Norton Critical Editions, 1986); 390 pp.", "text, contemporary documents and 20th century analysis* * * Houston, Alan, ed.", "''Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue.''", "Cambridge University Press, 2004.371 pp.", "* Ketcham, Ralph, ed.", "''The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin.''", "(1965, reprinted 2003).", "459 pp.", "* Lass, Hilda, ed. ''", "The Fabulous American: A Benjamin Franklin Almanac.''", "(1964).", "222 pp.", "* Woody, Thomas, ed.", "''Educational views of Benjamin Franklin'' (1931) * Leonard Labaree, and others., eds., '' The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', 39 vols.", "to date (1959–2008), definitive edition, through 1783.This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries.", "It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics.", "The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable; .", "* ''Poor Richard Improved'' by Benjamin Franklin (1751)* ''Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, & Early Writings'' (J.A.", "Leo Lemay, ed.)", "(Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) * The Papers of Benjamin Franklin online, Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University* ''The Way to Wealth''.", "Applewood Books; 1986.", "* ''Writings (Franklin)|Writings''.", "===For young readers===* Asimov, Isaac.", "''The Kite That Won the Revolution'', a biography for children that focuses on Franklin's scientific and diplomatic contributions.", "* Fleming, Candace.", "''Ben Franklin's Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman's Life.''", "Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pp.", ".", "* Miller, Brandon.", "Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Activities (For Kids series) 2009 Chicago Review Press" ], [ "External links", "* Benjamin Franklin and Electrostatics experiments and Franklin's electrical writings from Wright Center for Science Education* Benjamin Franklin Papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.", "* Franklin's impact on medicine – talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin's birth on ''Okham's Razor'' ABC Radio National – December 2006* Video with sheet music of Benjamin Franklin's string quartet===Biographical and guides===* * \"Special Report: Citizen Ben's Greatest Virtues\" ''Time''* \"Writings of Benjamin Franklin\" from C-SPAN's ''American Writers: A Journey Through History''* Afsai, Shai (2019). \"", "Benjamin Franklin's Influence on ''Mussar'' Thought and Practice: a Chronicle of Misapprehension.\"", "''Review of Rabbinic Judaism'' 22, 2: 228–276.", "* Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History by J.A.", "Leo Lemay* Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life PBS* Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat, 1776–1785 US State Department* * Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide Library of Congress* Guide to Benjamin Franklin By a history professor at the University of Illinois.", "* Online edition of Franklin's personal library* The Electric Benjamin Franklin ushistory.org===Online writings===* \"A Silence Dogood Sampler\" – Selections from Franklin's Silence Dogood writings* Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer (1773), by Benjamin Franklin and Francis Dashwood, transcribed by Richard Mammana* Franklin's Last Will & Testament Transcription.", "* Library of Congress web resource: ''Benjamin Franklin ...", "In His Own Words''* Online Works by Franklin* * * * * Yale edition of complete works, the standard scholarly edition** Online, searchable edition===Autobiography===* ''The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin'' at Project Gutenberg* ''The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin'' LibriVox recording===In the arts===* Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006) Official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.", "* The Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Benjamin Franklin Papers, including correspondence, government documents, writings and a copy of his will, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Banach space" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, more specifically in functional analysis, a '''Banach space''' (pronounced ) is a complete normed vector space.", "Thus, a Banach space is a vector space with a metric that allows the computation of vector length and distance between vectors and is complete in the sense that a Cauchy sequence of vectors always converges to a well-defined limit that is within the space.Banach spaces are named after the Polish mathematician Stefan Banach, who introduced this concept and studied it systematically in 1920–1922 along with Hans Hahn and Eduard Helly.", "Maurice René Fréchet was the first to use the term \"Banach space\" and Banach in turn then coined the term \"Fréchet space\".Banach spaces originally grew out of the study of function spaces by Hilbert, Fréchet, and Riesz earlier in the century.", "Banach spaces play a central role in functional analysis.", "In other areas of analysis, the spaces under study are often Banach spaces." ], [ "Definition", "A '''Banach space''' is a complete normed space A normed space is a pair consisting of a vector space over a scalar field (where is commonly or ) together with a distinguished norm Like all norms, this norm induces a translation invariant distance function, called the '''canonical''' or ('''norm''') '''induced metric''', defined for all vectors byThis makes into a metric space A sequence is called or or if for every real there exists some index such thatwhenever and are greater than The normed space is called a '''''' and the canonical metric is called a '''''' if is a , which by definition means for every Cauchy sequence in there exists some such thatwhere because this sequence's convergence to can equivalently be expressed as:The norm of a normed space is called a '''''' if is a Banach space.", "'''L-semi-inner product'''For any normed space there exists an L-semi-inner product on such that for all ; in general, there may be infinitely many L-semi-inner products that satisfy this condition.", "L-semi-inner products are a generalization of inner products, which are what fundamentally distinguish Hilbert spaces from all other Banach spaces.", "This shows that all normed spaces (and hence all Banach spaces) can be considered as being generalizations of (pre-)Hilbert spaces.", "'''Characterization in terms of series'''The vector space structure allows one to relate the behavior of Cauchy sequences to that of converging series of vectors.", "A normed space is a Banach space if and only if each absolutely convergent series in converges in ===Topology===The canonical metric of a normed space induces the usual metric topology on which is referred to as the '''canonical''' or '''norm induced topology'''.", "Every normed space is automatically assumed to carry this Hausdorff topology, unless indicated otherwise.", "With this topology, every Banach space is a Baire space, although there exist normed spaces that are Baire but not Banach.", "The norm is always a continuous function with respect to the topology that it induces.The open and closed balls of radius centered at a point are, respectively, the sets Any such ball is a convex and bounded subset of but a compact ball/neighborhood exists if and only if is a finite-dimensional vector space.", "In particular, no infinite–dimensional normed space can be locally compact or have the Heine–Borel property.", "If is a vector and is a scalar then Using shows that this norm-induced topology is translation invariant, which means that for any and the subset is open (respectively, closed) in if and only if this is true of its translation Consequently, the norm induced topology is completely determined by any neighbourhood basis at the origin.", "Some common neighborhood bases at the origin include:where is a sequence in of positive real numbers that converges to in (such as or for instance).", "So for example, every open subset of can be written as a union indexed by some subset where every may be picked from the aforementioned sequence (the open balls can be replaced with closed balls, although then the indexing set and radii may also need to be replaced).", "Additionally, can always be chosen to be countable if is a , which by definition means that contains some countable dense subset.", "'''Homeomorphism classes of separable Banach spaces'''All finite–dimensional normed spaces are separable Banach spaces and any two Banach spaces of the same finite dimension are linearly homeomorphic.", "Every separable infinite–dimensional Hilbert space is linearly isometrically isomorphic to the separable Hilbert sequence space with its usual norm The Anderson–Kadec theorem states that every infinite–dimensional separable Fréchet space is homeomorphic to the product space of countably many copies of (this homeomorphism need not be a linear map).", "Thus all infinite–dimensional separable Fréchet spaces are homeomorphic to each other (or said differently, their topology is unique up to a homeomorphism).", "Since every Banach space is a Fréchet space, this is also true of all infinite–dimensional separable Banach spaces, including In fact, is even homeomorphic to its own unit which stands in sharp contrast to finite–dimensional spaces (the Euclidean plane is not homeomorphic to the unit circle, for instance).", "This pattern in homeomorphism classes extends to generalizations of metrizable (locally Euclidean) topological manifolds known as , which are metric spaces that are around every point, locally homeomorphic to some open subset of a given Banach space (metric Hilbert manifolds and metric Fréchet manifolds are defined similarly).", "For example, every open subset of a Banach space is canonically a metric Banach manifold modeled on since the inclusion map is an open local homeomorphism.", "Using Hilbert space microbundles, David Henderson showed in 1969 that every metric manifold modeled on a separable infinite–dimensional Banach (or Fréchet) space can be topologically embedded as an subset of and, consequently, also admits a unique smooth structure making it into a Hilbert manifold.", "'''Compact and convex subsets'''There is a compact subset of whose convex hull is closed and thus also compact (see this footnote for an example).", "However, like in all Banach spaces, the convex hull of this (and every other) compact subset will be compact.", "But if a normed space is not complete then it is in general guaranteed that will be compact whenever is; an example can even be found in a (non-complete) pre-Hilbert vector subspace of '''As a topological vector space'''This norm-induced topology also makes into what is known as a topological vector space (TVS), which by definition is a vector space endowed with a topology making the operations of addition and scalar multiplication continuous.", "It is emphasized that the TVS is a vector space together with a certain type of topology; that is to say, when considered as a TVS, it is associated with particular norm or metric (both of which are \"forgotten\").", "This Hausdorff TVS is even locally convex because the set of all open balls centered at the origin forms a neighbourhood basis at the origin consisting of convex balanced open sets.", "This TVS is also , which by definition refers to any TVS whose topology is induced by some (possibly unknown) norm.", "Normable TVSs are characterized by being Hausdorff and having a bounded convex neighborhood of the origin.", "All Banach spaces are barrelled spaces, which means that every barrel is neighborhood of the origin (all closed balls centered at the origin are barrels, for example) and guarantees that the Banach–Steinhaus theorem holds.", "'''Comparison of complete metrizable vector topologies'''The open mapping theorem implies that if and are topologies on that make both and into complete metrizable TVS (for example, Banach or Fréchet spaces) and if one topology is finer or coarser than the other then they must be equal (that is, if or then ).So for example, if and are Banach spaces with topologies and and if one of these spaces has some open ball that is also an open subset of the other space (or equivalently, if one of or is continuous) then their topologies are identical and their norms are equivalent.===Completeness==='''Complete norms and equivalent norms'''Two norms, and on a vector space are said to be '''''' if they induce the same topology; this happens if and only if there exist positive real numbers such that for all If and are two equivalent norms on a vector space then is a Banach space if and only if is a Banach space.", "See this footnote for an example of a continuous norm on a Banach space that is equivalent to that Banach space's given norm.", "All norms on a finite-dimensional vector space are equivalent and every finite-dimensional normed space is a Banach space.", "'''Complete norms vs complete metrics'''A metric on a vector space is induced by a norm on if and only if is translation invariant and '''''', which means that for all scalars and all in which case the function defines a norm on and the canonical metric induced by is equal to Suppose that is a normed space and that is the norm topology induced on Suppose that is metric on such that the topology that induces on is equal to If is translation invariant then is a Banach space if and only if is a complete metric space.", "If is translation invariant, then it may be possible for to be a Banach space but for to be a complete metric space (see this footnote for an example).", "In contrast, a theorem of Klee, which also applies to all metrizable topological vector spaces, implies that if there exists complete metric on that induces the norm topology on then is a Banach space.A Fréchet space is a locally convex topological vector space whose topology is induced by some translation-invariant complete metric.", "Every Banach space is a Fréchet space but not conversely; indeed, there even exist Fréchet spaces on which no norm is a continuous function (such as the space of real sequences with the product topology).", "However, the topology of every Fréchet space is induced by some countable family of real-valued (necessarily continuous) maps called seminorms, which are generalizations of norms.", "It is even possible for a Fréchet space to have a topology that is induced by a countable family of (such norms would necessarily be continuous) but to not be a Banach/normable space because its topology can not be defined by any norm.", "An example of such a space is the Fréchet space whose definition can be found in the article on spaces of test functions and distributions.", "'''Complete norms vs complete topological vector spaces'''There is another notion of completeness besides metric completeness and that is the notion of a complete topological vector space (TVS) or TVS-completeness, which uses the theory of uniform spaces.", "Specifically, the notion of TVS-completeness uses a unique translation-invariant uniformity, called the canonical uniformity, that depends on vector subtraction and the topology that the vector space is endowed with, and so in particular, this notion of TVS completeness is independent of whatever norm induced the topology (and even applies to TVSs that are even metrizable).", "Every Banach space is a complete TVS.", "Moreover, a normed space is a Banach space (that is, its norm-induced metric is complete) if and only if it is complete as a topological vector space.", "If is a metrizable topological vector space (such as any norm induced topology, for example), then is a complete TVS if and only if it is a complete TVS, meaning that it is enough to check that every Cauchy in converges in to some point of (that is, there is no need to consider the more general notion of arbitrary Cauchy nets).If is a topological vector space whose topology is induced by (possibly unknown) norm (such spaces are called ), then is a complete topological vector space if and only if may be assigned a norm that induces on the topology and also makes into a Banach space.", "A Hausdorff locally convex topological vector space is normable if and only if its strong dual space is normable, in which case is a Banach space ( denotes the strong dual space of whose topology is a generalization of the dual norm-induced topology on the continuous dual space ; see this footnote for more details).", "If is a metrizable locally convex TVS, then is normable if and only if is a Fréchet–Urysohn space.", "This shows that in the category of locally convex TVSs, Banach spaces are exactly those complete spaces that are both metrizable and have metrizable strong dual spaces.====Completions====Every normed space can be isometrically embedded onto a dense vector subspace of Banach space, where this Banach space is called a '''''' of the normed space.", "This Hausdorff completion is unique up to isometric isomorphism.More precisely, for every normed space there exist a Banach space and a mapping such that is an isometric mapping and is dense in If is another Banach space such that there is an isometric isomorphism from onto a dense subset of then is isometrically isomorphic to This Banach space is the Hausdorff '''''' of the normed space The underlying metric space for is the same as the metric completion of with the vector space operations extended from to The completion of is sometimes denoted by" ], [ "General theory", "===Linear operators, isomorphisms===If and are normed spaces over the same ground field the set of all continuous -linear maps is denoted by In infinite-dimensional spaces, not all linear maps are continuous.", "A linear mapping from a normed space to another normed space is continuous if and only if it is bounded on the closed unit ball of Thus, the vector space can be given the operator normFor a Banach space, the space is a Banach space with respect to this norm.", "In categorical contexts, it is sometimes convenient to restrict the function space between two Banach spaces to only the short maps; in that case the space reappears as a natural bifunctor.If is a Banach space, the space forms a unital Banach algebra; the multiplication operation is given by the composition of linear maps.If and are normed spaces, they are '''isomorphic normed spaces''' if there exists a linear bijection such that and its inverse are continuous.", "If one of the two spaces or is complete (or reflexive, separable, etc.)", "then so is the other space.", "Two normed spaces and are '''isometrically isomorphic''' if in addition, is an isometry, that is, for every in The Banach–Mazur distance between two isomorphic but not isometric spaces and gives a measure of how much the two spaces and differ.====Continuous and bounded linear functions and seminorms====Every continuous linear operator is a bounded linear operator and if dealing only with normed spaces then the converse is also true.", "That is, a linear operator between two normed spaces is bounded if and only if it is a continuous function.", "So in particular, because the scalar field (which is or ) is a normed space, a linear functional on a normed space is a bounded linear functional if and only if it is a continuous linear functional.", "This allows for continuity-related results (like those below) to be applied to Banach spaces.", "Although boundedness is the same as continuity for linear maps between normed spaces, the term \"bounded\" is more commonly used when dealing primarily with Banach spaces.If is a subadditive function (such as a norm, a sublinear function, or real linear functional), then is continuous at the origin if and only if is uniformly continuous on all of ; and if in addition then is continuous if and only if its absolute value is continuous, which happens if and only if is an open subset of And very importantly for applying the Hahn–Banach theorem, a linear functional is continuous if and only if this is true of its real part and moreover, and the real part completely determines which is why the Hahn–Banach theorem is often stated only for real linear functionals.Also, a linear functional on is continuous if and only if the seminorm is continuous, which happens if and only if there exists a continuous seminorm such that ; this last statement involving the linear functional and seminorm is encountered in many versions of the Hahn–Banach theorem.===Basic notions===The Cartesian product of two normed spaces is not canonically equipped with a norm.", "However, several equivalent norms are commonly used, such aswhich correspond (respectively) to the coproduct and product in the category of Banach spaces and short maps (discussed above).", "For finite (co)products, these norms give rise to isomorphic normed spaces, and the product (or the direct sum ) is complete if and only if the two factors are complete.If is a closed linear subspace of a normed space there is a natural norm on the '''quotient space''' The quotient is a Banach space when is complete.", "The '''quotient map''' from onto sending to its class is linear, onto and has norm except when in which case the quotient is the null space.The closed linear subspace of is said to be a '''complemented subspace''' of if is the range of a surjective bounded linear projection In this case, the space is isomorphic to the direct sum of and the kernel of the projection Suppose that and are Banach spaces and that There exists a '''canonical factorization''' of aswhere the first map is the quotient map, and the second map sends every class in the quotient to the image in This is well defined because all elements in the same class have the same image.", "The mapping is a linear bijection from onto the range whose inverse need not be bounded.===Classical spaces===Basic examples of Banach spaces include: the Lp spaces and their special cases, the sequence spaces that consist of scalar sequences indexed by natural numbers ; among them, the space of absolutely summable sequences and the space of square summable sequences; the space of sequences tending to zero and the space of bounded sequences; the space of continuous scalar functions on a compact Hausdorff space equipped with the max norm,According to the Banach–Mazur theorem, every Banach space is isometrically isomorphic to a subspace of some For every separable Banach space there is a closed subspace of such that Any Hilbert space serves as an example of a Banach space.", "A Hilbert space on is complete for a norm of the formwhereis the inner product, linear in its first argument that satisfies the following:For example, the space is a Hilbert space.The Hardy spaces, the Sobolev spaces are examples of Banach spaces that are related to spaces and have additional structure.", "They are important in different branches of analysis, Harmonic analysis and Partial differential equations among others.===Banach algebras===A '''Banach algebra''' is a Banach space over or together with a structure of algebra over , such that the product map is continuous.", "An equivalent norm on can be found so that for all ====Examples====* The Banach space with the pointwise product, is a Banach algebra.", "* The disk algebra consists of functions holomorphic in the open unit disk and continuous on its closure: Equipped with the max norm on the disk algebra is a closed subalgebra of * The Wiener algebra is the algebra of functions on the unit circle with absolutely convergent Fourier series.", "Via the map associating a function on to the sequence of its Fourier coefficients, this algebra is isomorphic to the Banach algebra where the product is the convolution of sequences.", "* For every Banach space the space of bounded linear operators on with the composition of maps as product, is a Banach algebra.", "* A C*-algebra is a complex Banach algebra with an antilinear involution such that The space of bounded linear operators on a Hilbert space is a fundamental example of C*-algebra.", "The Gelfand–Naimark theorem states that every C*-algebra is isometrically isomorphic to a C*-subalgebra of some The space of complex continuous functions on a compact Hausdorff space is an example of commutative C*-algebra, where the involution associates to every function its complex conjugate ===Dual space===If is a normed space and the underlying field (either the real or the complex numbers), the '''continuous dual space''' is the space of continuous linear maps from into or '''continuous linear functionals'''.", "The notation for the continuous dual is in this article.", "Since is a Banach space (using the absolute value as norm), the dual is a Banach space, for every normed space The main tool for proving the existence of continuous linear functionals is the Hahn–Banach theorem.In particular, every continuous linear functional on a subspace of a normed space can be continuously extended to the whole space, without increasing the norm of the functional.", "An important special case is the following: for every vector in a normed space there exists a continuous linear functional on such thatWhen is not equal to the vector, the functional must have norm one, and is called a '''norming functional''' for The Hahn–Banach separation theorem states that two disjoint non-empty convex sets in a real Banach space, one of them open, can be separated by a closed affine hyperplane.", "The open convex set lies strictly on one side of the hyperplane, the second convex set lies on the other side but may touch the hyperplane.A subset in a Banach space is '''total''' if the linear span of is dense in The subset is total in if and only if the only continuous linear functional that vanishes on is the functional: this equivalence follows from the Hahn–Banach theorem.If is the direct sum of two closed linear subspaces and then the dual of is isomorphic to the direct sum of the duals of and If is a closed linear subspace in one can associate the in the dual,The orthogonal is a closed linear subspace of the dual.", "The dual of is isometrically isomorphic to The dual of is isometrically isomorphic to The dual of a separable Banach space need not be separable, but:When is separable, the above criterion for totality can be used for proving the existence of a countable total subset in ====Weak topologies====The '''weak topology''' on a Banach space is the coarsest topology on for which all elements in the continuous dual space are continuous.", "The norm topology is therefore finer than the weak topology.", "It follows from the Hahn–Banach separation theorem that the weak topology is Hausdorff, and that a norm-closed convex subset of a Banach space is also weakly closed.", "A norm-continuous linear map between two Banach spaces and is also '''weakly continuous''', that is, continuous from the weak topology of to that of If is infinite-dimensional, there exist linear maps which are not continuous.", "The space of all linear maps from to the underlying field (this space is called the algebraic dual space, to distinguish it from also induces a topology on which is finer than the weak topology, and much less used in functional analysis.On a dual space there is a topology weaker than the weak topology of called '''weak* topology'''.", "It is the coarsest topology on for which all evaluation maps where ranges over are continuous.", "Its importance comes from the Banach–Alaoglu theorem.The Banach–Alaoglu theorem can be proved using Tychonoff's theorem about infinite products of compact Hausdorff spaces.", "When is separable, the unit ball of the dual is a metrizable compact in the weak* topology.====Examples of dual spaces====The dual of is isometrically isomorphic to : for every bounded linear functional on there is a unique element such thatThe dual of is isometrically isomorphic to .", "The dual of Lebesgue space is isometrically isomorphic to when and For every vector in a Hilbert space the mappingdefines a continuous linear functional on The Riesz representation theorem states that every continuous linear functional on is of the form for a uniquely defined vector in The mapping is an antilinear isometric bijection from onto its dual When the scalars are real, this map is an isometric isomorphism.When is a compact Hausdorff topological space, the dual of is the space of Radon measures in the sense of Bourbaki.", "The subset of consisting of non-negative measures of mass 1 (probability measures) is a convex w*-closed subset of the unit ball of The extreme points of are the Dirac measures on The set of Dirac measures on equipped with the w*-topology, is homeomorphic to The result has been extended by Amir and Cambern to the case when the multiplicative Banach–Mazur distance between and is The theorem is no longer true when the distance is In the commutative Banach algebra the maximal ideals are precisely kernels of Dirac measures on More generally, by the Gelfand–Mazur theorem, the maximal ideals of a unital commutative Banach algebra can be identified with its characters—not merely as sets but as topological spaces: the former with the hull-kernel topology and the latter with the w*-topology.", "In this identification, the maximal ideal space can be viewed as a w*-compact subset of the unit ball in the dual Not every unital commutative Banach algebra is of the form for some compact Hausdorff space However, this statement holds if one places in the smaller category of commutative C*-algebras.", "Gelfand's representation theorem for commutative C*-algebras states that every commutative unital ''C''*-algebra is isometrically isomorphic to a space.", "The Hausdorff compact space here is again the maximal ideal space, also called the spectrum of in the C*-algebra context.====Bidual====If is a normed space, the (continuous) dual of the dual is called '''''', or '''''' of For every normed space there is a natural map,This defines as a continuous linear functional on that is, an element of The map is a linear map from to As a consequence of the existence of a norming functional for every this map is isometric, thus injective.For example, the dual of is identified with and the dual of is identified with the space of bounded scalar sequences.", "Under these identifications, is the inclusion map from to It is indeed isometric, but not onto.If is surjective, then the normed space is called '''reflexive''' (see below).", "Being the dual of a normed space, the bidual is complete, therefore, every reflexive normed space is a Banach space.Using the isometric embedding it is customary to consider a normed space as a subset of its bidual.", "When is a Banach space, it is viewed as a closed linear subspace of If is not reflexive, the unit ball of is a proper subset of the unit ball of The Goldstine theorem states that the unit ball of a normed space is weakly*-dense in the unit ball of the bidual.", "In other words, for every in the bidual, there exists a net in so thatThe net may be replaced by a weakly*-convergent sequence when the dual is separable.", "On the other hand, elements of the bidual of that are not in cannot be weak*-limit of in since is weakly sequentially complete.===Banach's theorems===Here are the main general results about Banach spaces that go back to the time of Banach's book () and are related to the Baire category theorem.", "According to this theorem, a complete metric space (such as a Banach space, a Fréchet space or an F-space) cannot be equal to a union of countably many closed subsets with empty interiors.", "Therefore, a Banach space cannot be the union of countably many closed subspaces, unless it is already equal to one of them; a Banach space with a countable Hamel basis is finite-dimensional.The Banach–Steinhaus theorem is not limited to Banach spaces.", "It can be extended for example to the case where is a Fréchet space, provided the conclusion is modified as follows: under the same hypothesis, there exists a neighborhood of in such that all in are uniformly bounded on This result is a direct consequence of the preceding ''Banach isomorphism theorem'' and of the canonical factorization of bounded linear maps.This is another consequence of Banach's isomorphism theorem, applied to the continuous bijection from onto sending to the sum ===Reflexivity===The normed space is called '''reflexive''' when the natural mapis surjective.", "Reflexive normed spaces are Banach spaces.This is a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem.", "Further, by the open mapping theorem, if there is a bounded linear operator from the Banach space onto the Banach space then is reflexive.Indeed, if the dual of a Banach space is separable, then is separable.", "If is reflexive and separable, then the dual of is separable, so is separable.Hilbert spaces are reflexive.", "The spaces are reflexive when More generally, uniformly convex spaces are reflexive, by the Milman–Pettis theorem.", "The spaces are not reflexive.", "In these examples of non-reflexive spaces the bidual is \"much larger\" than Namely, under the natural isometric embedding of into given by the Hahn–Banach theorem, the quotient is infinite-dimensional, and even nonseparable.", "However, Robert C. James has constructed an example of a non-reflexive space, usually called \"''the James space''\" and denoted by such that the quotient is one-dimensional.", "Furthermore, this space is isometrically isomorphic to its bidual.When is reflexive, it follows that all closed and bounded convex subsets of are weakly compact.", "In a Hilbert space the weak compactness of the unit ball is very often used in the following way: every bounded sequence in has weakly convergent subsequences.Weak compactness of the unit ball provides a tool for finding solutions in reflexive spaces to certain optimization problems.", "For example, every convex continuous function on the unit ball of a reflexive space attains its minimum at some point in As a special case of the preceding result, when is a reflexive space over every continuous linear functional in attains its maximum on the unit ball of The following theorem of Robert C. James provides a converse statement.The theorem can be extended to give a characterization of weakly compact convex sets.On every non-reflexive Banach space there exist continuous linear functionals that are not ''norm-attaining''.", "However, the Bishop–Phelps theorem states that norm-attaining functionals are norm dense in the dual of ===Weak convergences of sequences===A sequence in a Banach space is '''weakly convergent''' to a vector if converges to for every continuous linear functional in the dual The sequence is a '''weakly Cauchy sequence''' if converges to a scalar limit for every in A sequence in the dual is '''weakly* convergent''' to a functional if converges to for every in Weakly Cauchy sequences, weakly convergent and weakly* convergent sequences are norm bounded, as a consequence of the Banach–Steinhaus theorem.When the sequence in is a weakly Cauchy sequence, the limit above defines a bounded linear functional on the dual that is, an element of the bidual of and is the limit of in the weak*-topology of the bidual.", "The Banach space is '''weakly sequentially complete''' if every weakly Cauchy sequence is weakly convergent in It follows from the preceding discussion that reflexive spaces are weakly sequentially complete.An orthonormal sequence in a Hilbert space is a simple example of a weakly convergent sequence, with limit equal to the vector.", "The unit vector basis of for or of is another example of a '''weakly null sequence''', that is, a sequence that converges weakly to For every weakly null sequence in a Banach space, there exists a sequence of convex combinations of vectors from the given sequence that is norm-converging to The unit vector basis of is not weakly Cauchy.", "Weakly Cauchy sequences in are weakly convergent, since -spaces are weakly sequentially complete.", "Actually, weakly convergent sequences in are norm convergent.", "This means that satisfies Schur's property.====Results involving the basis====Weakly Cauchy sequences and the basis are the opposite cases of the dichotomy established in the following deep result of H. P. Rosenthal.A complement to this result is due to Odell and Rosenthal (1975).By the Goldstine theorem, every element of the unit ball of is weak*-limit of a net in the unit ball of When does not contain every element of is weak*-limit of a in the unit ball of When the Banach space is separable, the unit ball of the dual equipped with the weak*-topology, is a metrizable compact space and every element in the bidual defines a bounded function on :This function is continuous for the compact topology of if and only if is actually in considered as subset of Assume in addition for the rest of the paragraph that does not contain By the preceding result of Odell and Rosenthal, the function is the pointwise limit on of a sequence of continuous functions on it is therefore a first Baire class function on The unit ball of the bidual is a pointwise compact subset of the first Baire class on ====Sequences, weak and weak* compactness====When is separable, the unit ball of the dual is weak*-compact by the Banach–Alaoglu theorem and metrizable for the weak* topology, hence every bounded sequence in the dual has weakly* convergent subsequences.", "This applies to separable reflexive spaces, but more is true in this case, as stated below.The weak topology of a Banach space is metrizable if and only if is finite-dimensional.", "If the dual is separable, the weak topology of the unit ball of is metrizable.", "This applies in particular to separable reflexive Banach spaces.", "Although the weak topology of the unit ball is not metrizable in general, one can characterize weak compactness using sequences.A Banach space is reflexive if and only if each bounded sequence in has a weakly convergent subsequence.A weakly compact subset in is norm-compact.", "Indeed, every sequence in has weakly convergent subsequences by Eberlein–Šmulian, that are norm convergent by the Schur property of === Type and cotype ===A way to classify Banach spaces is through the probabilistic notion of type and cotype, these two measure how far a Banach space is from a Hilbert space." ], [ "Schauder bases", "A '''Schauder basis''' in a Banach space is a sequence of vectors in with the property that for every vector there exist defined scalars depending on such thatBanach spaces with a Schauder basis are necessarily separable, because the countable set of finite linear combinations with rational coefficients (say) is dense.It follows from the Banach–Steinhaus theorem that the linear mappings are uniformly bounded by some constant Let denote the coordinate functionals which assign to every in the coordinate of in the above expansion.", "They are called '''biorthogonal functionals'''.", "When the basis vectors have norm the coordinate functionals have norm in the dual of Most classical separable spaces have explicit bases.", "The Haar system is a basis for The trigonometric system is a basis in when The Schauder system is a basis in the space The question of whether the disk algebra has a basis remained open for more than forty years, until Bočkarev showed in 1974 that admits a basis constructed from the Franklin system.Since every vector in a Banach space with a basis is the limit of with of finite rank and uniformly bounded, the space satisfies the bounded approximation property.", "The first example by Enflo of a space failing the approximation property was at the same time the first example of a separable Banach space without a Schauder basis.Robert C. James characterized reflexivity in Banach spaces with a basis: the space with a Schauder basis is reflexive if and only if the basis is both shrinking and boundedly complete.", "In this case, the biorthogonal functionals form a basis of the dual of" ], [ "Tensor product", "thumbLet and be two -vector spaces.", "The tensor product of and is a -vector space with a bilinear mapping which has the following universal property::If is any bilinear mapping into a -vector space then there exists a unique linear mapping such that The image under of a couple in is denoted by and called a '''simple tensor'''.", "Every element in is a finite sum of such simple tensors.There are various norms that can be placed on the tensor product of the underlying vector spaces, amongst others the projective cross norm and injective cross norm introduced by A. Grothendieck in 1955.In general, the tensor product of complete spaces is not complete again.", "When working with Banach spaces, it is customary to say that the '''projective tensor product''' of two Banach spaces and is the of the algebraic tensor product equipped with the projective tensor norm, and similarly for the '''injective tensor product''' Grothendieck proved in particular thatwhere is a compact Hausdorff space, the Banach space of continuous functions from to and the space of Bochner-measurable and integrable functions from to and where the isomorphisms are isometric.", "The two isomorphisms above are the respective extensions of the map sending the tensor to the vector-valued function ===Tensor products and the approximation property===Let be a Banach space.", "The tensor product is identified isometrically with the closure in of the set of finite rank operators.", "When has the approximation property, this closure coincides with the space of compact operators on For every Banach space there is a natural norm linear mapobtained by extending the identity map of the algebraic tensor product.", "Grothendieck related the approximation problem to the question of whether this map is one-to-one when is the dual of Precisely, for every Banach space the mapis one-to-one if and only if has the approximation property.Grothendieck conjectured that and must be different whenever and are infinite-dimensional Banach spaces.", "This was disproved by Gilles Pisier in 1983.Pisier constructed an infinite-dimensional Banach space such that and are equal.", "Furthermore, just as Enflo's example, this space is a \"hand-made\" space that fails to have the approximation property.", "On the other hand, Szankowski proved that the classical space does not have the approximation property." ], [ "Some classification results", "===Characterizations of Hilbert space among Banach spaces===A necessary and sufficient condition for the norm of a Banach space to be associated to an inner product is the parallelogram identity:It follows, for example, that the Lebesgue space is a Hilbert space only when If this identity is satisfied, the associated inner product is given by the polarization identity.", "In the case of real scalars, this gives:For complex scalars, defining the inner product so as to be -linear in antilinear in the polarization identity gives:To see that the parallelogram law is sufficient, one observes in the real case that is symmetric, and in the complex case, that it satisfies the Hermitian symmetry property and The parallelogram law implies that is additive in It follows that it is linear over the rationals, thus linear by continuity.Several characterizations of spaces isomorphic (rather than isometric) to Hilbert spaces are available.", "The parallelogram law can be extended to more than two vectors, and weakened by the introduction of a two-sided inequality with a constant : Kwapień proved that iffor every integer and all families of vectors then the Banach space is isomorphic to a Hilbert space.", "Here, denotes the average over the possible choices of signs In the same article, Kwapień proved that the validity of a Banach-valued Parseval's theorem for the Fourier transform characterizes Banach spaces isomorphic to Hilbert spaces.Lindenstrauss and Tzafriri proved that a Banach space in which every closed linear subspace is complemented (that is, is the range of a bounded linear projection) is isomorphic to a Hilbert space.", "The proof rests upon Dvoretzky's theorem about Euclidean sections of high-dimensional centrally symmetric convex bodies.", "In other words, Dvoretzky's theorem states that for every integer any finite-dimensional normed space, with dimension sufficiently large compared to contains subspaces nearly isometric to the -dimensional Euclidean space.The next result gives the solution of the so-called .", "An infinite-dimensional Banach space is said to be '''homogeneous''' if it is isomorphic to all its infinite-dimensional closed subspaces.", "A Banach space isomorphic to is homogeneous, and Banach asked for the converse.An infinite-dimensional Banach space is '''hereditarily indecomposable''' when no subspace of it can be isomorphic to the direct sum of two infinite-dimensional Banach spaces.", "The Gowers dichotomy theorem asserts that every infinite-dimensional Banach space contains, either a subspace with unconditional basis, or a hereditarily indecomposable subspace and in particular, is not isomorphic to its closed hyperplanes.", "If is homogeneous, it must therefore have an unconditional basis.", "It follows then from the partial solution obtained by Komorowski and Tomczak–Jaegermann, for spaces with an unconditional basis, that is isomorphic to ===Metric classification===If is an isometry from the Banach space onto the Banach space (where both and are vector spaces over ), then the Mazur–Ulam theorem states that must be an affine transformation.", "In particular, if this is maps the zero of to the zero of then must be linear.", "This result implies that the metric in Banach spaces, and more generally in normed spaces, completely captures their linear structure.===Topological classification===Finite dimensional Banach spaces are homeomorphic as topological spaces, if and only if they have the same dimension as real vector spaces.Anderson–Kadec theorem (1965–66) proves that any two infinite-dimensional separable Banach spaces are homeomorphic as topological spaces.", "Kadec's theorem was extended by Torunczyk, who proved that any two Banach spaces are homeomorphic if and only if they have the same density character, the minimum cardinality of a dense subset.===Spaces of continuous functions===When two compact Hausdorff spaces and are homeomorphic, the Banach spaces and are isometric.", "Conversely, when is not homeomorphic to the (multiplicative) Banach–Mazur distance between and must be greater than or equal to see above the results by Amir and Cambern.", "Although uncountable compact metric spaces can have different homeomorphy types, one has the following result due to Milutin:The situation is different for countably infinite compact Hausdorff spaces.", "Every countably infinite compact is homeomorphic to some closed interval of ordinal numbersequipped with the order topology, where is a countably infinite ordinal.", "The Banach space is then isometric to .", "When are two countably infinite ordinals, and assuming the spaces and are isomorphic if and only if .For example, the Banach spacesare mutually non-isomorphic." ], [ "Examples" ], [ "Derivatives", "Several concepts of a derivative may be defined on a Banach space.", "See the articles on the Fréchet derivative and the Gateaux derivative for details.", "The Fréchet derivative allows for an extension of the concept of a total derivative to Banach spaces.", "The Gateaux derivative allows for an extension of a directional derivative to locally convex topological vector spaces.", "Fréchet differentiability is a stronger condition than Gateaux differentiability.", "The quasi-derivative is another generalization of directional derivative that implies a stronger condition than Gateaux differentiability, but a weaker condition than Fréchet differentiability." ], [ "Generalizations", "Several important spaces in functional analysis, for instance the space of all infinitely often differentiable functions or the space of all distributions on are complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not Banach spaces.", "In Fréchet spaces one still has a complete metric, while LF-spaces are complete uniform vector spaces arising as limits of Fréchet spaces." ], [ "See also", "* ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * ** * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * .", "* * .", "* .", "* * .", "* * * * * * .", "* .", "* * * * .", "* * * * * ." ], [ "External links", "* * category:Functional analysis" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bram Stoker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abraham Stoker''' (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912) was an Irish author who wrote the 1897 Gothic horror novel ''Dracula''.", "During his lifetime, he was better known as the personal assistant of actor Sir Henry Irving and business manager of the West End's Lyceum Theatre, which Irving owned.In his early years, Stoker worked as a theatre critic for an Irish newspaper, and wrote stories as well as commentaries.", "He also enjoyed travelling, particularly to Cruden Bay in Scotland where he set two of his novels.", "During another visit to the English coastal town of Whitby, Stoker drew inspiration for writing ''Dracula''.", "He died on 20 April 1912 due to locomotor ataxia and was cremated in north London.", "Since his death, his magnum opus ''Dracula'' has become one of the best-known works in English literature, and the novel has been adapted for numerous films, short stories, and plays." ], [ "Early life", "Stoker was born on 8 November 1847 at 15 Marino Crescent, Clontarf in Dublin, Ireland.", "The park adjacent to the house is now known as Bram Stoker Park.", "His parents were Abraham Stoker (1799–1876) from Dublin and Charlotte Mathilda Blake Thornley (1818–1901), who was raised in County Sligo.", "Stoker was the third of seven children, the eldest of whom was Sir Thornley Stoker, 1st Baronet Abraham and Charlotte were members of the Church of Ireland Parish of Clontarf and attended the parish church with their children, who were baptised there.", "Abraham was a senior civil servant.Stoker was bedridden with an unknown illness until he started school at the age of seven, when he made a complete recovery.", "Of this time, Stoker wrote, \"I was naturally thoughtful, and the leisure of long illness gave opportunity for many thoughts which were fruitful according to their kind in later years.\"", "He was privately educated at Bective House school run by the Reverend (William Woods).After his recovery, he grew up without further serious illnesses, even excelling as an athlete at Trinity College, Dublin, which he attended from 1864 to 1870.He graduated with a BA in 1870, and paid to receive his MA in 1875.Though he later in life recalled graduating \"with honours in mathematics\", this appears to have been a mistake.", "He was named University Athlete, participating in multiple sports, including playing rugby for Dublin University.", "He was auditor of the College Historical Society (''the Hist'') and president of the University Philosophical Society (he remains the only student in Trinity's history to hold both positions), where his first paper was on ''Sensationalism in Fiction and Society''." ], [ "Early career", "Bram Stoker's former home featuring a commemorative plaque, Kildare Street, DublinStoker became interested in the theatre while a student through his friend Dr. Maunsell.", "While working for the Irish Civil Service, he became the theatre critic for the ''Dublin Evening Mail'', which was co-owned by Sheridan Le Fanu, an author of Gothic tales.", "Theatre critics were held in low esteem at the time, but Stoker attracted notice by the quality of his reviews.", "In December 1876, he gave a favourable review of Henry Irving's ''Hamlet'' at the Theatre Royal in Dublin.", "Irving invited Stoker for dinner at the Shelbourne Hotel where he was staying, and they became friends.", "Stoker also wrote stories, and \"Crystal Cup\" was published by the London Society in 1872, followed by \"The Chain of Destiny\" in four parts in ''The Shamrock''.", "In 1876, while a civil servant in Dublin, Stoker wrote the non-fiction book ''The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland'' (published 1879), which remained a standard work.", "Furthermore, he possessed an interest in art and was a founder of the Dublin Sketching Club in 1879." ], [ "Lyceum Theatre", "In 1878, Stoker married Florence Balcombe, daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel James Balcombe of 1 Marino Crescent.", "She was a celebrated beauty whose former suitor had been Oscar Wilde.", "Stoker had known Wilde from his student days, having proposed him for membership of the university's Philosophical Society while he was president.", "Wilde was upset at Florence's decision, but Stoker later resumed the acquaintanceship, and, after Wilde's fall, visited him on the Continent.The Stokers moved to London, where Stoker became acting manager and then business manager of Irving's Lyceum Theatre in the West End, a post he held for 27 years.", "On 31 December 1879, Bram and Florence's only child was born, a son whom they christened Irving Noel Thornley Stoker.", "The collaboration with Henry Irving was important for Stoker and through him, he became involved in London's high society, where he met James Abbott McNeill Whistler and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (to whom he was distantly related).", "Working for Irving, the most famous actor of his time, and managing one of the most successful theatres in London made Stoker a notable if busy man.", "He was dedicated to Irving and his memoirs show he idolised him.", "In London, Stoker also met Hall Caine, who became one of his closest friends – he dedicated ''Dracula'' to him.In the course of Irving's tours, Stoker travelled the world, although he never visited Eastern Europe, a setting for his most famous novel.", "Stoker enjoyed the United States, where Irving was popular.", "With Irving he was invited twice to the White House, and knew William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt.", "Stoker set two of his novels in America, and used Americans as characters, the most notable being Quincey Morris.", "He also met one of his literary idols, Walt Whitman, having written to him in 1872 an extraordinary letter that some have interpreted as the expression of a deeply-suppressed homosexuality." ], [ "Bram Stoker in Cruden Bay", "Slains Castle, Cruden Bay.", "The early chapters of ''Dracula'' were written in Cruden Bay, and Slains Castle possibly provided visual inspiration for Bram Stoker during the writing phase.Stoker was a regular visitor to Cruden Bay in Scotland between 1892 and 1910.His month-long holidays to the Aberdeenshire coastal village provided a large portion of available time for writing his books.", "Two novels were set in Cruden Bay: ''The Watter's Mou' ''(1895) and ''The Mystery of the Sea'' (1902).", "He started writing ''Dracula'' there in 1895 while in residence at the Kilmarnock Arms Hotel.", "The guest book with his signatures from 1894 and 1895 still survives.", "The nearby Slains Castle (also known as New Slains Castle) is linked with Bram Stoker and plausibly provided the visual palette for the descriptions of Castle Dracula during the writing phase.", "A distinctive room in Slains Castle, the octagonal hall, matches the description of the octagonal room in Castle Dracula." ], [ "Writings", "Commemorative plaque in Whitby, North Yorkshire, the English coastal town frequented by Stoker, and where Count Dracula comes ashore in ''Dracula''Stoker visited the English coastal town of Whitby in 1890, and that visit was said to be part of the inspiration for ''Dracula''.", "Count Dracula comes ashore at Whitby, and in the shape of a black dog runs up the 199 steps to the graveyard of St Mary's Church in the shadow of the Whitby Abbey ruins.", "Stoker began writing novels while working as manager for Irving and secretary and director of London's Lyceum Theatre, beginning with ''The Snake's Pass'' in 1890 and ''Dracula'' in 1897.During this period, he was part of the literary staff of ''The Daily Telegraph'' in London, and he wrote other fiction, including the horror novels ''The Lady of the Shroud'' (1909) and ''The Lair of the White Worm'' (1911).", "He published his ''Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving'' in 1906, after Irving's death, which proved successful, and managed productions at the Prince of Wales Theatre.Before writing ''Dracula'', Stoker met Ármin Vámbéry, a Hungarian-Jewish writer and traveller (born in Szent-György, Kingdom of Hungary now Svätý Jur, Slovakia).", "Dracula likely emerged from Vámbéry's dark stories of the Carpathian mountains.", "However this claim has been challenged by many including Elizabeth Miller, a professor who, since 1990, has had as her major field of research and writing ''Dracula'', and its author, sources, and influences.", "She has stated, “The only comment about the subject matter of the talk was that Vambery 'spoke loudly against Russian aggression.'\"", "There had been nothing in their conversations about the \"tales of the terrible Dracula\" that are supposed to have \"inspired Stoker to equate his vampire-protagonist with the long-dead tyrant.\"", "At any rate, by this time, Stoker's novel was well underway, and he was already using the name Dracula for his vampire.", "Stoker then spent several years researching Central and East European folklore and mythological stories of vampires.The 1972 book ''In Search of Dracula'' by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally claimed that the Count in Stoker's novel was based on Vlad III Dracula.", "However, according to Elizabeth Miller, Stoker borrowed only the name and \"scraps of miscellaneous information\" about Romanian history; further, there are no comments about Vlad III in the author's working notes.The first edition cover of ''Dracula''''Dracula'' is an epistolary novel, written as a collection of realistic but completely fictional diary entries, telegrams, letters, ship's logs, and newspaper clippings, all of which added a level of detailed realism to the story, a skill which Stoker had developed as a newspaper writer.", "At the time of its publication, ''Dracula'' was considered a \"straightforward horror novel\" based on imaginary creations of supernatural life.", "\"It gave form to a universal fantasy ... and became a part of popular culture.", "\"According to the ''Encyclopedia of World Biography'', Stoker's stories are today included in the categories of horror fiction, romanticized Gothic stories, and melodrama.", "They are classified alongside other works of popular fiction, such as Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'', which also used the myth-making and story-telling method of having multiple narrators telling the same tale from different perspectives.", "According to historian Jules Zanger, this leads the reader to the assumption that \"they can't all be lying\".The original 541-page typescript of ''Dracula'' was believed to have been lost until it was found in a barn in northwestern Pennsylvania in the early 1980s.", "It consisted of typed sheets with many emendations, and handwritten on the title page was \"THE UN-DEAD.\"", "The author's name was shown at the bottom as Bram Stoker.", "Author Robert Latham remarked: \"the most famous horror novel ever published, its title changed at the last minute.\"", "The typescript was purchased by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen.Stoker's inspirations for the story, in addition to Whitby, may have included a visit to Slains Castle in Aberdeenshire, a visit to the crypts of St. Michan's Church in Dublin, and the novella ''Carmilla'' by Sheridan Le Fanu.Stoker's original research notes for the novel are kept by the Rosenbach Museum and Library in Philadelphia.", "A facsimile edition of the notes was created by Elizabeth Miller and Robert Eighteen-Bisang in 1998." ], [ "Stoker at The London Library", "Stoker was a member of The London Library and conducted much of the research for ''Dracula'' there''.''", "In 2018, the Library discovered some of the books that Stoker used for his research, complete with notes and marginalia." ], [ "Death", "Shared urn which contains Stoker's and his son's ashes in Golders Green CrematoriumAfter suffering a number of strokes, Stoker died at No.", "26 St George's Square, London on 20 April 1912.Some biographers attribute the cause of death to overwork, others to tertiary syphilis.", "His death certificate listed the cause of death as \"Locomotor ataxia 6 months\", presumed to be a reference to syphilis.", "He was cremated, and his ashes were placed in a display urn at Golders Green Crematorium in north London.", "The ashes of Irving Noel Stoker, the author's son, were added to his father's urn following his death in 1961.The original plan had been to keep his parents' ashes together, but after Florence Stoker's death, her ashes were scattered at the Gardens of Rest." ], [ "Beliefs and philosophy", "Stoker was raised a Protestant in the Church of Ireland.", "He was a strong supporter of the Liberal Party and took a keen interest in Irish affairs.", "As a \"philosophical home ruler\", he supported Home Rule for Ireland brought about by peaceful means.", "He remained an ardent monarchist who believed that Ireland should remain within the British Empire, an entity that he saw as a force for good.", "He was an admirer of Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, whom he knew personally, and supported his plans for Ireland.Stoker believed in progress and took a keen interest in science and science-based medicine.", "Some of Stoker's novels represent early examples of science fiction, such as ''The Lady of the Shroud'' (1909).", "He had a writer's interest in the occult, notably mesmerism, but despised fraud and believed in the superiority of the scientific method over superstition.", "Stoker counted among his friends J. W. Brodie-Innis, a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and hired member Pamela Colman Smith as an artist for the Lyceum Theatre, but no evidence suggests that Stoker ever joined the Order himself.", "Although Irving was an active Freemason, no evidence has been found of Stoker taking part in Masonic activities in London.", "The Grand Lodge of Ireland also has no record of his membership." ], [ "Posthumous", "The short story collection ''Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories'' was published in 1914 by Stoker's widow, Florence Stoker, who was also his literary executrix.", "The first film adaptation of ''Dracula'' was F. W. Murnau's ''Nosferatu'', released in 1922, with Max Schreck starring as Count Orlok.", "Florence Stoker eventually sued the filmmakers, and was represented by the attorneys of the British Incorporated Society of Authors.", "Her chief legal complaint was that she had neither been asked for permission for the adaptation nor paid any royalty.", "The case dragged on for some years, with Mrs. Stoker demanding the destruction of the negative and all prints of the film.", "The suit was finally resolved in the widow's favour in July 1925.A single print of the film survived, however, and it has become well known.", "The first authorised film version of ''Dracula'' did not come about until almost a decade later when Universal Studios released Tod Browning's ''Dracula'' starring Bela Lugosi.===Dacre Stoker===Canadian writer Dacre Stoker, a great-grandnephew of Bram Stoker, decided to write \"a sequel that bore the Stoker name\" to \"reestablish creative control over\" the original novel, with encouragement from screenwriter Ian Holt, because of the Stokers' frustrating history with ''Dracula's'' copyright.", "In 2009, ''Dracula: The Un-Dead'' was released, written by Dacre Stoker and Ian Holt.", "Both writers \"based their work on Bram Stoker's own handwritten notes for characters and plot threads excised from the original edition\" along with their own research for the sequel.", "This also marked Dacre Stoker's writing debut.In spring 2012, Dacre Stoker (in collaboration with Elizabeth Miller) presented the \"lost\" Dublin Journal written by Bram Stoker, which had been kept by his great-grandson Noel Dobbs.", "Stoker's diary entries shed a light on the issues that concerned him before his London years.", "A remark about a boy who caught flies in a bottle might be a clue for the later development of the Renfield character in ''Dracula''." ], [ "Commemorations", "On 8 November 2012, Stoker was honoured with a Google Doodle on Google's homepage commemorating the 165th anniversary of his birth.An annual festival takes place in Dublin, the birthplace of Bram Stoker, in honour of his literary achievements.", "The 2014 Bram Stoker Festival encompassed literary, film, family, street, and outdoor events, and ran from October 24 to 27 in Dublin.", "The festival is supported by the Bram Stoker Estate and funded by Dublin City Council and Fáilte Ireland." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Novels===* ''The Primrose Path'' (1875)* ''The Chain of Destiny'' (novella) (1875)* ''The Snake's Pass'' (1890)* ''The Fate of Fenella'' (consecutive novel, chapter 10) (1891–1892) * ''The Watter's Mou''' (1895)* ''The Shoulder of Shasta'' (1895)* ''Dracula'' (1897)* ''Miss Betty'' (1898)* ''The Mystery of the Sea'' (1902)* ''The Jewel of Seven Stars'' (1903, revised 1912)* ''The Man'' (1905); issued also as ''The Gates of Life''* ''Lady Athlyne'' (1908)* ''The Lady of the Shroud'' (1909)* ''The Lair of the White Worm'' (1911, posthumously abridged 1925); issued also as ''The Garden of Evil''* ''Seven Golden Buttons'' (written in 1891, much material reused in ''Miss Betty''; posthumously published in 2015)===Short story collections===* ''Under the Sunset'' (1881) – eight fairy tales for children* ''Snowbound: The Record of a Theatrical Touring Party'' (1908)* ''Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories'' (1914)===Uncollected stories=== Title Date of earliest appearance Earliest appearance Novelisation\"The Crystal Cup\"September 1872''London Society'' (London)\"Buried Treasures\"13 March 1875 and 20 March 1875''The Shamrock'' (Dublin)\"The Chain of Destiny\"1 May 1875 and 22 May 1875''The Shamrock'' (Dublin)\"The Dualitists; or, The Death Doom of the Double Born\"1887''The Theatre Annual'' (London)\"The Gombeen Man\"1889–1890''The People'' (London)Chapter 3 of ''The Snake's Pass''\"Lucky Escapes of Sir Henry Irving\"1890\"The Night of the Shifting Bog\"January 1891''Current Literature: A Magazine of Record and Review'', Vol.", "VI, No.", "1.", "(New York)\"Lord Castleton Explains\"30 January 1892''The Gentlewoman: The Illustrated Weekly Journal for Gentlewomen'' (London)Chapter 10 of ''The Fate of Fenella'' (Hutchinson, 1892)\"Old Hoggen: A Mystery\"1893\"The Man from Shorrox\"February 1894''The Pall Mall Magazine'' (London)\"The Red Stockade\"September 1894''The Cosmopolitan: An Illustrated Monthly Magazine'' (London)\"When the Sky Rains Gold\"26 August and 2 September 1894''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' (London)\"At the Watter's Mou': Between Duty and Love\"November 1895''Current Literature: A Magazine of Record and Review'', Vol.", "XVIII, No.", "5.", "(New York)Part of Chapter 2 of ''The Watter's Mou'''\"Our New House\"20 December 1895''The Theatre Annual'' (London)\"Bengal Roses\"17 and 24 July 1898''Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper''\"A Yellow Duster\"7 May 1899''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper''\"A Young Widow\"1899\"A Baby Passenger\"9 February 1899''Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper''\"The Seer\"1902''The Mystery of the Sea'' (New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.)Chapters 1 and 2 of ''The Mystery of the Sea''\"The Bridal of Death\"1903''The Jewel of the Seven Stars'' (London: William Heinemann)Alternate ending to ''The Jewel of Seven Stars''\"What They Confessed: A Low Comedian's Story\"1908\"The Way of Peace\"1909''Everybody's Story Magazine'' (London)\"The 'Eroes of the Thames\"October 1908''The Royal Magazine'' (London)\"Greater Love\"October 1914''The London Magazine'' (London)===Non-fiction===* ''The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland'' (1879)* ''A Glimpse of America'' (1886)* ''Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving'' (1906)* ''Famous Impostors'' (1910)* ''Great Ghost Stories'' (1998) (Compiled by Peter Glassman, Illustrated by Barry Moser)* ''Bram Stoker's Notes for Dracula: A Facsimile Edition'' (2008) Bram Stoker Annotated and Transcribed by Robert Eighteen-Bisang and Elizabeth Miller, Foreword by Michael Barsanti.", "Jefferson, NC & London: McFarland.", "===Articles===* \"Recollections of the Late W. G. Wills\", ''The Graphic'', 19 December 1891* \"The Art of Ellen Terry\", ''The Playgoer'', October 1901 * \"The Question of a National Theatre\", ''The Nineteenth Century and After,'' Vol.", "LXIII, January/June 1908* \"Mr. De Morgan's Habits of Work\", ''The World's Work'', Vol.", "XVI, May/October 1908* \"The Censorship of Fiction\", ''The Nineteenth Century and After'', Vol.", "LXIV, July/December 1908* \"The Censorship of Stage Plays\", ''The Nineteenth Century and After'', Vol.", "LXVI, July/December 1909* \"Irving and Stage Lightning\", ''The Nineteenth Century and After'', Vol.", "LXIX, January/June 1911===Critical works on Stoker===*William Hughes, ''Beyond Dracula: Bram Stoker's Fiction and Its Cultural Context'' (Palgrave, 2000) *Belford, Barbara.", "''Bram Stoker: A Biography of the Author of Dracula''.", "London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996.", "*Hopkins, Lisa.", "''Bram Stoker: A Literary Life''.", "Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.", "*Murray, Paul.", "''From the Shadow of Dracula: A Life of Bram Stoker'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004)*Senf, Carol.", "''Science and Social Science in Bram Stoker's Fiction'' (Greenwood, 2002).", "*Senf, Carol.", "''Dracula: Between Tradition and Modernism'' (Twayne, 1998).", "*Senf, Carol A.", "''Bram Stoker'' (University of Wales Press, 2010).", "*Shepherd, Mike.", "''When Brave Men Shudder: the Scottish origins of Dracula'' (Wild Wolf Publishing, 2018).", "*Skal, David J.", "''Something in the Blood: The Untold Story of Bram Stoker'' (Liveright, 2016)===Bibliographies===*William Hughes Bram Stoker – Victorian Fiction Research Guide" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * ** h2g2 article on Bram Stoker* * Archival material at * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Billion (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Billion''' is a name for a large number.", "It may refer specifically to:* 1,000,000,000 (, one thousand million), the short scale definition* 1,000,000,000,000 (, one million million), the long scale definition'''Billion''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Film and TV", "* ''Billions'' (TV series), a Showtime series* ''Billions'' (film), a 1920 silent comedy* ''Mr.", "Billion'', a 1977 film by Jonathan Kaplan" ], [ "Music", "* \"Billions\" a 2023 song by Caroline Polachek, from the album ''Desire, I Want to Turn Into You''* \"Billions\", a 2017 song by Russell Dickerson, from the album ''Yours''* \"Billion\", a 1996 song by Cardiacs, from the album ''Sing to God''" ], [ "Other", "* Billion (company), a Taiwanese modem manufacturer* Jack Billion (1939–2023), American politician" ], [ "See also", "* Long and short scales* Names of large numbers* Billion laughs, an XML parser vulnerability* Golden billion, a Russian term for the wealthy people of the developed world* Billon (disambiguation)* BN (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Contract bridge" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Contract bridge''', or simply '''bridge''', is a trick-taking card game using a standard 52-card deck.", "In its basic format, it is played by four players in two competing partnerships, with partners sitting opposite each other around a table.", "Millions of people play bridge worldwide in clubs, tournaments, online and with friends at home, making it one of the world's most popular card games, particularly among seniors.", "The World Bridge Federation (WBF) is the governing body for international competitive bridge, with numerous other bodies governing it at the regional level.The game consists of a number of , each progressing through four phases.", "The cards are dealt to the players; then the players ''call'' (or ''bid'') in an auction seeking to take the , specifying how many tricks the partnership receiving the contract (the declaring side) needs to take to receive points for the deal.", "During the auction, partners use their bids to exchange information about their hands, including overall strength and distribution of the suits; no other means of conveying or implying any information is permitted.", "The cards are then played, the trying to fulfill the contract, and the trying to stop the declaring side from achieving its goal.", "The deal is scored based on the number of tricks taken, the contract, and various other factors which depend to some extent on the variation of the game being played.Rubber bridge is the most popular variation for casual play, but most club and tournament play involves some variant of duplicate bridge, where the cards are not re-dealt on each occasion, but the same deal is played by two or more sets of players (or \"tables\") to enable comparative scoring." ], [ "History and etymology", "John Collinson's \"Biritch, or Russian Whist\", 1886Bridge is a member of the family of trick-taking games and is a derivative of whist, which had become the dominant such game and enjoyed a loyal following for centuries.", "The idea of a trick-taking 52-card game has its first documented origins in Italy and France.", "The French physician and author Rabelais (1493–1553) mentions a game called \"La Triomphe\" in one of his works.", "Also Juan Luis Vives, in his ''Linguae latinae exercitio'' (Exercise in the Latin language) of 1539 has a dialogue on card games, where the characters play ‘Triumphus hispanicus’ (Spanish Triumph).Bridge departed from whist with the creation of \"Biritch\" in the 19th century and evolved through the late 19th and early 20th centuries to form the present game.", "The first rule book for bridge, dated 1886, is ''Biritch, or Russian Whist'' written by John Collinson, an English financier working in Ottoman Constantinople.", "It and his subsequent letter to ''The Saturday Review'' dated 28 May 1906, document the origin of ''Biritch'' as being the Russian community in Constantinople.", "The word ''biritch'' is thought to be a transliteration of the Russian word Бирюч (бирчий, бирич), an occupation of a diplomatic clerk or an announcer.", "Another theory is that British soldiers invented the game bridge while serving in the Crimean War, and named it after the Galata Bridge, which they crossed on their way to a coffeehouse to play cards.Biritch had many significant bridge-like developments: dealer chose the trump suit, or nominated his partner to do so; there was a call of \"no trumps\" (''biritch''); dealer's partner's hand became dummy; points were scored above and below the line; game was 3NT, 4 and 5 (although 8 club odd tricks and 15 spade odd tricks were needed); the score could be doubled and redoubled; and there were slam bonuses.", "It has some features in common with solo whist.", "This game, and variants of it known as \"bridge\" and \"bridge whist\", became popular in the United States and the United Kingdom in the 1890s despite the long-established dominance of whist.", "Its breakthrough was its acceptance in 1894 by Lord Brougham at London's Portland Club.Bridge club at Shimer College, 1942In 1904 auction bridge was developed, in which the players bid in a competitive auction to decide the contract and declarer.", "The object became to make at least as many tricks as were contracted for, and penalties were introduced for failing to do so.", "Auction bridge bidding beyond winning the auction is pointless.", "If taking all 13 tricks, there is no difference in score between a 1 and a 7 final bid, as the bonus for rubber, small slam or grand slam depends on the number of tricks taken rather than the number of tricks bid.The modern game of contract bridge was the result of innovations to the scoring of auction bridge by Harold Stirling Vanderbilt and others.", "The most significant change was that only the tricks contracted for were scored below the line toward game or a slam bonus, a change that resulted in bidding becoming much more challenging and interesting.", "Also new was the concept of \"vulnerability\", making sacrifices to protect the lead in a rubber more expensive.", "The various scores were adjusted to produce a more balanced and interesting game.", "Vanderbilt set out his rules in 1925, and within a few years contract bridge had so supplanted other forms of the game that \"bridge\" became synonymous with \"contract bridge\".The form of bridge mostly played in clubs, tournaments and online is duplicate bridge.", "The number of people playing contract bridge has declined since its peak in the 1940s, when a survey found it was played in 44% of US households.", "The game is still widely played, especially amongst retirees, and in 2005 the ACBL estimated there were 25 million players in the US." ], [ "Gameplay", "=== Overview ===Bridge is a four-player partnership trick-taking game with thirteen tricks per deal.", "The dominant variations of the game are rubber bridge, more common in social play; and duplicate bridge, which enables comparative scoring in tournament play.", "Each player is dealt thirteen cards from a standard 52-card deck.", "A starts when a player leads, i.e.", "plays the first card.", "The leader to the first trick is determined by the auction; the leader to each subsequent trick is the player who won the preceding trick.", "Each player, in clockwise order, plays one card on the trick.", "Players must play a card of the same suit as the original card led, unless they have none (said to be \"void\"), in which case they may play any card.Laws of Rubber Bridge, Law 44, pp.", "20–21.East \"follows suit\" with K, South with J and West with 7.In a no-trump game, East wins the trick, having played the highest spade.", "If diamonds or hearts are trumps, South or West respectively win.The player who played the highest-ranked card wins the trick.", "Within a suit, the ace is ranked highest followed by the king, queen and jack and then the ten through to the two.", "In a deal where the auction has determined that there is no trump suit, the trick must be won by a card of the suit led.", "In a deal with a trump suit, cards of that suit are superior in rank to any of the cards of any other suit.", "If one or more players plays a trump to a trick when void in the suit led, the highest trump wins.", "For example, if the trump suit is spades and a player is void in the suit led and plays a spade card, they win the trick if no other player plays a higher spade.", "If a trump suit is led, the usual rule for trick-taking applies.Unlike its predecessor, whist, the goal of bridge is not simply to take the most tricks in a deal.", "Instead, the goal is to successfully estimate how many tricks one's partnership can take.", "To illustrate this, the simpler partnership trick-taking game of spades has a similar mechanism: the usual trick-taking rules apply with the trump suit being spades, but in the beginning of the game, players ''bid'' or estimate how many tricks they can win, and the number of tricks bid by both players in a partnership are added.", "If a partnership takes at least that many tricks, they receive points for the round; otherwise, they lose penalty points.Bridge extends the concept of bidding into an , where partnerships compete to take a , specifying how many tricks they will need to take in order to receive points, and also specifying the trump suit (or ''no trump'', meaning that there will be no trump suit).", "Players take turns to call in a clockwise order: each player in turn either passes, doubleswhich increases the penalties for not making the contract specified by the opposing partnership's last bid, but also increases the reward for making itor redoubles, or states a contract that their partnership will adopt, which must be higher than the previous highest bid (if any).", "Eventually, the player who bid the highest contractwhich is determined by the contract's level as well as the trump suit or no trumpwins the contract for their partnership.In the example auction below, the east–west pair secures the contract of 6; the auction concludes when there have been three successive passes.", "Note that six tricks are added to contract values, so the six-level contract is a contract of twelve tricks.", "In practice, establishing a contract without enough information on the other partner's hand is difficult, so there exist many bidding systems assigning meanings to bids, with common ones including Standard American, Acol, and 2/1 game forcing.", "Contrast with Spades, where players only have to bid their own hand.After the contract is decided, and the first lead is made, the declarer's partner (dummy) lays their cards face up on the table, and the declarer plays the dummy's cards as well as their own.", "The opposing partnership is called the , and their goal is to stop the declarer from fulfilling his contract.", "Once all the cards have been played, the hand is scored: if the declaring side makes their contract, they receive points based on the level of the contract, with some trump suits being worth more points than others and ''no trump'' being the highest, as well as bonus points for .", "If the declarer fails to fulfill the contract, the defenders receive points depending on the declaring side's undertricks (the number of tricks short of the contract) and whether the contract was ''doubled'' by the defenders.=== Setup and dealing ===The four players sit in two partnerships with players sitting opposite their partners.", "A cardinal direction is assigned to each seat, so that one partnership sits in North and South, while the other sits in West and East.", "The cards may be freshly dealt or, in duplicate bridge games, pre-dealt.", "All that is needed in basic games are the cards and a method of keeping score, but there is often other equipment on the table, such as a board containing the cards to be played (in duplicate bridge), bidding boxes, or screens.In rubber bridge each player draws a card at the start of the game; the player who draws the highest card deals first.", "The second highest card becomes the dealer's partner and takes the chair on the opposite side of the table.", "They play against the other two.", "The deck is shuffled and cut, usually by the player to the left of the dealer, before dealing.", "Players take turns to deal, in clockwise order.", "The dealer deals the cards clockwise, one card at a time.", "Normally, rubber bridge is played with two packs of cards and whilst one pack is being dealt, the dealer's partner shuffles the other pack.", "After shuffling the pack is placed on the right ready for the next dealer.", "Before dealing, the next dealer passes the cards to the previous dealer who cuts them.In duplicate bridge the cards are pre-dealt, either by hand or by a computerized dealing machine, in order to allow for competitive scoring.", "Once dealt, the cards are placed in a device called a \"board\", having slots designated for each player's cardinal direction seating position.", "After a deal has been played, players return their cards to the appropriate slot in the board, ready to be played by the next table.=== Auction ===WestNorthEastSouth+ 1112234Pass4NTPass5Pass6PassPassPass The dealer opens the auction and can make the first call, and the auction proceeds clockwise.", "When it is their turn to call, a player may passbut can enter into the bidding lateror bid a contract, specifying the level of their contract and either the trump suit or ''no trump'' (the denomination), provided that it is higher than the last bid by any player, including their partner.", "All bids promise to take a number of tricks in excess of six, so a bid must be between one (seven tricks) and seven (thirteen tricks).", "A bid is higher than another bid if either the level is greater (e.g., 2 over 1NT) or the denomination is higher, with the order being in ascending (or alphabetical) order: , , , , and NT (no trump).", "Calls may be made orally or with a bidding box.If the last bid was by the opposing partnership, one may also the opponents' bid, increasing the penalties for undertricks, but also increasing the reward for making the contract.", "Doubling does not carry to future bids by the opponents unless future bids are doubled again.", "A player on the opposing partnership being doubled may also , which increases the penalties and rewards further.", "Players may not see their partner's hand during the auction, only their own.", "There exist many bidding conventions that assign agreed meanings to various calls to assist players in reaching an optimal contract (or obstruct the opponents).The auction ends when, after a player bids, doubles, or redoubles, every other player has passed, in which case the action proceeds to the play; or every player has passed and no bid has been made, in which case the round is considered to be \"passed out\" and not played.=== Play ===The player from the declaring side who first bid the denomination named in the final contract becomes declarer.", "The player left to the declarer leads to the first trick.", "Dummy then lays his or her cards face-up on the table, organized in columns by suit.", "Play proceeds clockwise, with each player required to follow suit if possible.", "Tricks are won by the highest trump, or if there were none played, the highest card of the led suit.", "The player who won the previous trick leads to the next trick.", "The declarer has control of the dummy's cards and tells his partner which card to play at dummy's turn.", "There also exist conventions that communicate further information between defenders about their hands during the play.At any time, a player may , stating that their side will win a specific number of the remaining tricks.", "The claiming player lays his cards down on the table and explains the order in which he intends to play the remaining cards.", "The opponents can either accept the claim and the round is scored accordingly, or dispute the claim.", "If the claim is disputed, play continues with the claiming player's cards face up in rubber games, or in duplicate games, play ceases and the tournament director is called to adjudicate the hand.=== Scoring ===At the end of the hand, points are awarded to the declaring side if they make the contract, or else to the defenders.", "Partnerships can be , increasing the rewards for making the contract, but also increasing the penalties for undertricks.", "In rubber bridge, if a side has won 100 contract points, they have won a and are vulnerable for the remaining rounds, but in duplicate bridge, vulnerability is predetermined based on the number of each board.If the declaring side makes their contract, they receive points for , or tricks bid and made in excess of six.", "In both rubber and duplicate bridge, the declaring side is awarded 20 points per odd trick for a contract in clubs or diamonds, and 30 points per odd trick for a contract in hearts or spades.", "For a contract in notrump, the declaring side is awarded 40 points for the first odd trick and 30 points for the remaining odd tricks.", "Contract points are doubled or quadrupled if the contract is respectively doubled or redoubled.In rubber bridge, a partnership wins one game once it has accumulated 100 contract points; excess contract points do not carry over to the next game.", "A partnership that wins two games wins the rubber, receiving a bonus of 500 points if the opponents have won a game, and 700 points if they have not.Overtricks score the same number of points per odd trick, although their doubled and redoubled values differ.", "Bonuses vary between the two bridge variations both in score and in type (for example, rubber bridge awards a bonus for holding a certain combination of high cards), although some are common between the two.A larger bonus is awarded if the declaring side makes a small slam or grand slam, a contract of 12 or 13 tricks respectively.", "If the declaring side is not vulnerable, a small slam gets 500 points, and a grand slam 1000 points.", "If the declaring side is vulnerable, a small slam is 750 points and a grand slam is 1,500.In rubber bridge, the rubber finishes when a partnership has won two games, but the partnership receiving the most ''overall'' points wins the rubber.", "Duplicate bridge is scored comparatively, meaning that the score for the hand is compared to other tables playing the same cards and match points are scored according to the comparative results: usually either \"matchpoint scoring\", where each partnership receives 2 points (or 1 point) for each pair that they beat, and 1 point (or point) for each tie; or IMPs (international matchpoint) scoring, where the number of IMPs varies (but less than proportionately) with the points difference between the teams.Undertricks are scored in both variations as follows:UndertricksPoints per undertrickVulnerableNot vulnerableUndoubled Doubled RedoubledUndoubled Doubled Redoubled1st undertrick100200400501002002nd and 3rd, each3006002004004th and each subsequent300600300600" ], [ "Rules", "The rules of the game are referred to as the ''laws'' as promulgated by various bridge organizations.===Duplicate===The official rules of duplicate bridge are promulgated by the WBF as \"The Laws of Duplicate Bridge 2017\".", "The Laws Committee of the WBF, composed of world experts, updates the Laws every 10 years; it also issues a Laws Commentary advising on interpretations it has rendered.In addition to the basic rules of play, there are many additional rules covering playing conditions and the rectification of irregularities, which are primarily for use by tournament directors who act as referees and have overall control of procedures during competitions.", "But various details of procedure are left to the discretion of the zonal bridge organisation for tournaments under their aegis and some (for example, the choice of ''movement'') to the sponsoring organisation (for example, the club).Some zonal organisations of the WBF also publish editions of the Laws.", "For example, the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) publishes the ''Laws of Duplicate Bridge'' and additional documentation for club and tournament directors.===Rubber===There are no universally accepted rules for rubber bridge, but some zonal organisations have published their own.", "An example for those wishing to abide by a published standard is ''The Laws of Rubber Bridge'' as published by the American Contract Bridge League.The majority of rules mirror those of duplicate bridge in the bidding and play and differ primarily in procedures for dealing and scoring.===Online===In 2001, the WBF promulgated a set of laws for online play." ], [ "Tournaments", "Bridge is a game of skill played with randomly dealt cards, which makes it also a game of chance, or more exactly, a tactical game with inbuilt randomness, imperfect knowledge and restricted communication.", "The chance element is in the deal of the cards; in duplicate bridge some of the chance element is eliminated by comparing results of multiple pairs in identical situations.", "This is achievable when there are eight or more players, sitting at two or more tables, and the deals from each table are preserved and passed to the next table, thereby ''duplicating'' them for the other table(s) of players.", "At the end of a session, the scores for each deal are compared, and the most points are awarded to the players doing the best with each particular deal.", "This measures relative skill (but still with an element of luck) because each pair or team is being judged only on the ability to bid with, and play, the same cards as other players.Duplicate bridge is played in clubs and tournaments, which can gather as many as several hundred players.", "Duplicate bridge is a mind sport, and its popularity gradually became comparable to that of chess, with which it is often compared for its complexity and the mental skills required for high-level competition.", "Bridge and chess are the only \"mind sports\" recognized by the International Olympic Committee, although they were not found eligible for the main Olympic program.", "In October 2017 the British High Court ruled against the English Bridge Union, finding that Bridge is not a sport under a definition of sport as involving physical activity, but did not rule on the \"broad, somewhat philosophical question\" as to whether or not bridge is a sport.The basic premise of duplicate bridge had previously been used for whist matches as early as 1857.Initially, bridge was not thought to be suitable for duplicate competition; it was not until the 1920s that (auction) bridge tournaments became popular.In 1925 when contract bridge first evolved, bridge tournaments were becoming popular, but the rules were somewhat in flux, and several different organizing bodies were involved in tournament sponsorship: the American Bridge League (formerly the ''American Auction Bridge League'', which changed its name in 1929), the American Whist League, and the United States Bridge Association.", "In 1935, the first officially recognized world championship was held.", "In 1958, the World Bridge Federation (WBF) was founded to promote bridge worldwide, coordinate periodic revision to the Laws (each ten years, next in 2027) and conduct world championships.===Bidding boxes and screens===A bidding box containing all the possible calls a player can make in the auction.In tournaments, \"bidding boxes\" are frequently used, as noted above.", "These avoid the possibility of players at other tables hearing any spoken bids.", "The bidding cards are laid out in sequence as the auction progresses.", "Although it is not a formal rule, many clubs adopt a protocol that the bidding cards stay revealed until the first playing card is tabled, after which point the bidding cards are put away.", "Bidding pads are an alternative to bidding boxes.", "A bidding pad is a block of 100mm square tear-off sheets.", "Players write their bids on the top sheet.", "When the first trick is complete the sheet is torn off and discarded.In top national and international events, \"bidding screens\" are used.", "These are placed diagonally across the table, preventing partners from seeing each other during the game; often the screen is removed after the auction is complete." ], [ "Strategy", "===Bidding===Much of the complexity in bridge arises from the difficulty of arriving at a good final contract in the auction (or deciding to let the opponents declare the contract).", "This is a difficult problem: the two players in a partnership must try to communicate enough information about their hands to arrive at a makeable contract, but the information they can exchange is restricted – information may be passed only by the calls made and later by the cards played, not by other means; in addition, the agreed-upon meaning of each call and play must be available to the opponents.Since a partnership that has freedom to bid gradually at leisure can exchange more information, and since a partnership that can interfere with the opponents' bidding (as by raising the bidding level rapidly) can cause difficulties for their opponents, bidding systems are both informational and strategic.", "It is this mixture of information exchange and evaluation, deduction, and tactics that is at the heart of bidding in bridge.A number of basic rules of thumb in bridge bidding and play are summarized as bridge maxims.====Systems and conventions====A ''bidding system'' is a set of partnership agreements on the meanings of bids.", "A partnership's bidding system is usually made up of a core system, modified and complemented by specific conventions (optional customizations incorporated into the main system for handling specific bidding situations) which are pre-chosen between the partners prior to play.", "The line between a well-known convention and a part of a system is not always clear-cut: some bidding systems include specified conventions by default.", "Bidding systems can be divided into mainly natural systems such as Acol and Standard American, and mainly artificial systems such as the Precision Club and Polish Club.Calls are usually considered to be either ''natural'' or ''conventional'' (artificial).", "A natural call carries a meaning that reflects the call; a natural bid intuitively showing hand or suit strength based on the level or suit of the bid, and a natural double expressing that the player believes that the opposing partnership will not make their contract.", "By contrast, a conventional (artificial) call offers and/or asks for information by means of pre-agreed coded interpretations, in which some calls convey very specific information or requests that are not part of the natural meaning of the call.", "Thus in response to 4NT, a 'natural' bid of 5 would state a preference towards a diamond suit or a desire to play in five diamonds, whereas if the partners have agreed to use the common Blackwood convention, a bid of 5 in the same situation would say nothing about the diamond suit, but would tell the partner that the hand in question contains exactly one ace.Conventions are valuable in bridge because of the need to pass information beyond a simple like or dislike of a particular suit, and because the limited bidding space can be used more efficiently by adopting a conventional (artificial) meaning for a given call where a natural meaning has less utility, because the information it conveys is not valuable or because the desire to convey that information arises only rarely.", "The conventional meaning conveys more useful (or more frequently useful) information.", "There are a very large number of conventions from which players can choose; many books have been written detailing bidding conventions.", "Well-known conventions include Stayman (to ask the opening 1NT bidder to show any four-card major suit), Jacoby transfers (a request by (usually) the weak hand for the partner to bid a particular suit first, and therefore to become the declarer), and the Blackwood convention (to ask for information on the number of aces and kings held, used in slam bidding situations).The term ''preempt'' refers to a high-level tactical bid by a weak hand, relying upon a very long suit rather than high cards for tricks.", "Preemptive bids serve a double purpose – they allow players to indicate they are bidding on the basis of a long suit in an otherwise weak hand, which is important information to share, and they also consume substantial bidding space which prevents a possibly strong opposing pair from exchanging information on their cards.", "Several systems include the use of opening bids or other early bids with weak hands including long (usually six to eight card) suits at the 2, 3 or even 4 or 5 levels as preempts.====Basic natural systems====As a rule, a natural suit bid indicates a holding of at least four (or more, depending on the situation and the system) cards in that suit as an opening bid, or a lesser number when supporting partner; a natural NT bid indicates a balanced hand.Most systems use a count of high card points as the basic evaluation of the strength of a hand, refining this by reference to shape and distribution if appropriate.", "In the most commonly used point count system, aces are counted as 4 points, kings as 3, queens as 2, and jacks as 1 point; therefore, the deck contains 40 points.", "In addition, the ''distribution'' of the cards in a hand into suits may also contribute to the strength of a hand and be counted as distribution points.", "A better than average hand, containing 12 or 13 points, is usually considered sufficient to ''open'' the bidding, i.e., to make the first bid in the auction.", "A combination of two such hands (i.e., 25 or 26 points shared between partners) is often sufficient for a partnership to bid, and generally to make, game in a major suit or notrump (more are usually needed for a minor suit game, as the level is higher).In natural systems, a 1NT opening bid usually reflects a hand that has a relatively balanced shape (usually between two and four (or less often five) cards in each suit) and a sharply limited number of high card points, usually somewhere between 12 and 18 – the most common ranges use a span of exactly three points (for example, 12–14, 15–17 or 16–18), but some systems use a four-point range, usually 15–18.Opening bids of three or higher are preemptive bids, i.e., bids made with weak hands that especially favor a particular suit, opened at a high level in order to define the hand's value quickly and to frustrate the opposition.", "For example, a hand of would be a candidate for an opening bid of 3, designed to make it difficult for the opposing team to bid and find their optimum contract even if they have the bulk of the points.", "This hand is nearly valueless unless spades are trumps but it contains good enough spades that the penalty for being set should not be higher than the value of an opponent game.", "The high card weakness makes it likely that the opponents have enough strength to make game themselves.Openings at the 2 level are either unusually strong (2NT, natural, and 2, artificial) or preemptive, depending on the system.", "Unusually strong bids communicate an especially high number of points (normally 20 or more) or a high trick-taking potential (normally 8 or more).", "Also 2 as the strongest (by HCP and by DP+HCP) has become more common, perhaps especially at websites that offer duplicate bridge.", "Here the 2 opening is used for either hands with a good 6-card suit or longer (max one losing card) and a total of 18 HCP up to 23 total points – or \"NT\", like 2NT but with 22–23 HCP.", "Whilst the 2 opening bid takes care of all hands with 24 points (HCP or with distribution points included) with the only exception of \"Gambling 3NT\".Opening bids at the one level are made with hands containing 12–13 points or more and which are not suitable for one of the preceding bids.", "Using Standard American with 5-card majors, opening hearts or spades usually promises a 5-card suit.", "Partnerships who agree to play 5-card majors open a minor suit with 4-card majors and then bid their major suit at the next opportunity.", "This means that an opening bid of 1 or 1 will sometimes be made with only 3 cards in that suit.Doubles are sometimes given conventional meanings in otherwise mostly natural systems.", "A natural, or ''penalty'' double, is one used to try to gain extra points when the defenders are confident of setting (defeating) the contract.", "The most common example of a conventional double is the takeout double of a low-level suit bid, implying support for the unbid suits or the unbid major suits and asking partner to choose one of them.====Basic variations====Bidding systems depart from these basic ideas in varying degrees.", "Standard American, for instance, is a collection of conventions designed to bolster the accuracy and power of these basic ideas, while Precision Club is a system that uses the 1 opening bid for all or almost all strong hands (but sets the threshold for \"strong\" rather lower than most other systems – usually 16 high card points) and may include other artificial calls to handle other situations (but it may contain natural calls as well).", "Many experts today use a system called 2/1 game forcing (enunciated as two over one game forcing), which amongst other features adds some complexity to the treatment of the one notrump response as used in Standard American.", "In the UK, Acol is the most common system; its main features are a weak one notrump opening with 12–14 high card points and several variations for 2-level openings.There are also a variety of advanced techniques used for hand evaluation.", "The most basic is the Milton Work point count, (the 4-3-2-1 system detailed above) but this is sometimes modified in various ways, or either augmented or replaced by other approaches such as losing trick count, honor point count, law of total tricks, or Zar Points.Common conventions and variations within natural systems include:* ''Blackwood'' (either the original version or ''Roman Key Card'')* How the partnership's bidding practices will be varied if their opponents intervene or compete.", "* Point count required for 1 NT opening bid ('mini' 10–12, 'weak' 12–14, 'strong' 15–17 or 16–18)* ''Stayman'' (together with Blackwood, described as \"the two most famous conventions in Bridge\".", ")* What types of ''cue bids (e.g.", "bidding the opponents' suit)'' the partnership will play, if any.", "* Whether 1 (and sometimes 1) is 'natural' or 'suspect' ''(also called 'phoney' or 'short')'', signifying an opening hand lacking a notable heart or spade suit* Whether an opening bid of 1 and 1 requires a minimum of 4 or 5 cards in the suit (''4 or 5 card majors'')* Whether doubling a contract at the 1, 2 and sometimes higher levels signifies a belief that the opponents' contract will fail and a desire to raise the stakes (a ''penalty double''), or an indication of strength but no biddable suit coupled with a request that partner bid something (a ''takeout double'').", "* Whether doubling or overcalling over opponents' 1NT is natural or conventional.", "One common artificial agreement is Cappelletti, where 2 is a transfer to be passed or corrected to a major, 2 means both majors and a major shows that suit plus a minor.", "* Whether opening bids at the two level are 'strong' (20+ points) or 'weak' (i.e., pre-emptive with a 6 card suit).", "(Note: an opening bid of 2 is usually played in otherwise natural systems as conventional, signifying any exceptionally strong hand)* Whether the partnership will play ''Jacoby transfers'' (bids of 2 and 2 over 1NT or 3 and 3 over 2NT respectively require the 1NT or 2NT bidder to rebid 2 and 2 or 3 and 3), ''minor suit transfers'' (bids of 2 and either 2NT or 3 over 1NT respectively require the 1NT bidder to bid 3 and 3) and ''Texas transfers'' (bids of 4 and 4 respectively require the 1NT, or 2NT bidder to rebid 4 and 4)* Which (if any) bids are ''forcing'' and require a response.Within play, it is also commonly agreed what systems of opening leads, signals and discards will be played:* Conventions for the opening lead govern how the first card to be played will be chosen and what it will mean,* Count signals cover the situation when a defender is following suit (usually to a suit that the declarer has led).", "In such circumstances the order in which a defender plays his spot cards will indicate whether an even or odd number of cards was originally held in that suit.", "This can help the other defender count out the entire original distribution of the cards in that suit.", "It is sometimes critical to know this when defending.", "* Discards cover the situation when a defender cannot follow suit and therefore has free choice what card to play or throw away.", "In such circumstances the thrown-away card can be used to indicate some aspect of the hand, or a desire for a specific suit to be played.", "* Signals indicate how cards played within a suit are chosen – for example, playing a noticeably high card when this is unexpected can signal encouragement to continue playing the suit, and a low card can signal discouragement and a desire for partner to choose some other suit.", "(Some partnerships use \"reverse\" signals, meaning that a noticeably high card ''discourages'' that suit and a noticeably low card ''encourages'' that suit, thus not \"wasting\" a potentially useful intermediate card in the suit of interest.", ")* Suit preference signals cover the situation where a defender is returning a suit which will be ruffed by his partner.", "If he plays a high card he is showing an entry in the higher side suit and vice versa.", "There are some other situations where this tool may be used.", "* Surrogate signals cover the situation when it is critical to show length in a side suit and it will be too late if defenders wait until that suit is played.", "Then, the play in the first declarer played suit is a count signal regarding the critical suit and not the trump suit itself.", "In fact, any signal made about a suit in another suit might be called as such.====Advanced techniques====Every call (including \"pass\", also sometimes called \"no bid\") serves two purposes.", "It confirms or passes some information to a partner, and, by implication, denies any other kind of hand which would have tended to support an alternative call.", "For example, a bid of 2NT immediately after partner's 1NT not only shows a balanced hand of a certain point range, but also almost always denies possession of a five-card major suit (otherwise the player would have bid it) or even a four card major suit (in that case, the player should use the Stayman convention).Likewise, in some partnerships the bid of 2 in the sequence 1NT–2–2–2 between partners (opponents passing throughout) explicitly shows five hearts but also confirms four cards in spades: the bidder must hold at least five hearts to make it worth looking for a heart fit after 2 denied a four card major, and with at least five hearts, a Stayman bid must have been justified by having exactly four spades, the other major (since Stayman (as used by this partnership) is not useful with anything except a four card major suit).", "Thus an astute partner can read much more than the surface meaning into the bidding.", "Alternatively, many partnerships play this same bidding sequence as \"Crawling Stayman\" by which the responder shows a weak hand (less than eight high card points) with shortness in diamonds but at least four hearts and four spades; the opening bidder may correct to spades if that appears to be the better contract.The situations detailed here are extremely simple examples; many instances of advanced bidding involve specific agreements related to very specific situations and subtle inferences regarding entire sequences of calls.===Play techniques===Terence Reese, a prolific author of bridge books, points out that there are only four ways of taking a trick by force, two of which are very easy:* establishing long suits (the last cards in a suit will take tricks if the opponents don't have the suit and are unable to trump)* playing a high card that no one else can beat* playing for the opponents' high cards to be in a particular position (if their ace is to the right of your king, your king may be able to take a trick, especially if, when that suit is led, the player to your right has to play their card before you do)* trumping an opponent's high cardNearly all trick-taking techniques in bridge can be reduced to one of these four methods.", "The optimum play of the cards can require much thought and experience and is the subject of whole books on bridge." ], [ "Example", "The cards are dealt as shown in the bridge hand diagram; North is the dealer and starts the auction which proceeds as shown in the bidding table.WestNorthEastSouth PassPass11223Pass4PassPassPass As neither North nor East have sufficient strength to ''open'' the bidding, they each pass, denying such strength.", "South, next in turn, opens with the bid of 1, which denotes a reasonable heart suit (at least 4 or 5 cards long, depending on the bidding system) and at least 12 high card points.", "On this hand, South has 14 high card points.", "West ''overcalls'' with 1, since he has a long spade suit of reasonable quality and 10 high card points (an overcall can be made on a hand that is not quite strong enough for an opening bid).", "North ''supports'' partner's suit with 2, showing heart support and about points.", "East supports spades with 2.South inserts a ''game try'' of 3, ''inviting'' the partner to bid the ''game'' of 4 with good club support and overall values.", "North complies, as North is at the higher end of the range for his 2 bid, and has a fourth trump (the 2 bid promised only three), and the ''doubleton'' queen of clubs to fit with partner's strength there.", "(North could instead have bid 3, indicating not enough strength for game, asking South to pass and so play 3.", ")In the auction, north–south are trying to investigate whether their cards are sufficient to make a '''game''' (nine tricks at notrump, ten tricks in hearts or spades, 11 tricks in clubs or diamonds), which yields bonus points if bid and made.", "East-West are ''competing'' in spades, hoping to play a contract in spades at a low level.", "4 is the final contract, 10 tricks being required for to make with hearts as trump.South is the ''declarer'', having been first to bid hearts, and the player to South's left, West, has to choose the first card in the play, known as the ''opening lead''.", "West chooses the spade king because spades is the suit the partnership has shown strength in, and because they have agreed that when they hold two ''touching honors'' (or ''adjacent honors'') they will play the higher one first.", "West plays the card face down, to give their partner and the declarer (but not dummy) a chance to ask any last questions about the bidding or to object if they believe West is not the correct hand to lead.", "After that, North's cards are laid on the table and North becomes ''dummy'', as both the North and South hands will be controlled by the declarer.", "West turns the lead card face up, and the declarer studies the two hands to make a plan for the play.", "On this hand, the trump ace, a spade, and a diamond trick must be lost, so declarer must not lose a trick in clubs.If the K is held by West, South will find it very hard to prevent it from making a trick (unless West leads a club).", "There is an almost equal chance that it is held by East, in which case it can be trapped against the ace, and will be beaten, using a tactic known as a ''finesse''.After considering the cards, the declarer directs dummy (North) to play a small spade.", "East plays ''low'' (small card) and South takes the A, gaining the ''lead''.", "(South may also elect to ''duck'', but for the purpose of this example, let us assume South wins the A at trick 1).", "South proceeds by ''drawing trump'', leading the K. West decides there is no benefit to holding back, and so wins the trick with the ace, and then cashes the Q.", "For fear of conceding a ''ruff and discard'', West plays the 2 instead of another spade.", "Declarer plays low from the table, and East scores the Q.", "Not having anything better to do, East returns the remaining trump, taken in South's hand.", "The trumps now accounted for, South can now execute the finesse, perhaps trapping the king as planned.", "South ''enters'' the dummy (i.e.", "wins a trick in the dummy's hand) by leading a low diamond, using dummy's A to win the trick, and leads the Q from dummy to the next trick.", "East ''covers'' the queen with the king, and South takes the trick with the ace, and proceeds by ''cashing'' the remaining ''master'' J.", "(If East doesn't play the king, then South will play a low club from South's hand and the queen will win anyway, this being the essence of the finesse).", "The game is now safe: South ''ruffs'' a small club with a dummy's trump, then ruffs a diamond in hand for an ''entry'' back, and ruffs the last club in dummy (sometimes described as a ''crossruff'').", "Finally, South ''claims'' the remaining tricks by showing his or her hand, as it now contains only high trumps and there's no need to play the hand out to prove they are all winners.", "(The trick-by-trick notation used above can be also expressed in tabular form, but a textual explanation is usually preferred in practice, for reader's convenience.", "Plays of small cards or ''discards'' are often omitted from such a description, unless they were important for the outcome).North-South score the required 10 tricks, and their opponents take the remaining three.", "The contract is fulfilled, and North enters the pair numbers, the contract, and the score of +420 for the winning side (North is in charge of bookkeeping in duplicate tournaments) on the traveling sheet.", "North asks East to check the score entered on the traveller.", "All players return their own cards to the board, and the next deal is played.On the prior hand, it is quite possible that the K is held by West.", "For example, by swapping the K and A between the defending hands.", "Then the 4 contract would fail by one trick (unless West had led a club early in the play).", "The failure of the contract would not mean that 4 was a bad contract on this hand.", "The contract depends on the club finesse working, or a defense error.", "The bonus points awarded for making a game contract far outweigh the penalty for going one off, so it is best strategy in the long run to bid game contracts such as this one.Similarly, there is a minuscule chance that the K is in the west hand, but the west hand has no other clubs.", "In that case, declarer can succeed by simply cashing the A, felling the K and setting up the Q as a winner.", "The chance of this is far lower than the chance that East started with the K. Therefore, the superior percentage play is to take the club finesse, as described above." ], [ "Computers", "After many years of little progress, computer bridge made great progress at the end of the 20th century.", "In 1996, the ACBL initiated the official World Championships Computer Bridge, to be held annually along with a major bridge event.", "The first Computer Bridge Championship took place in 1997 at the North American Bridge Championships in Albuquerque, New Mexico.===Stand-alone software===Strong bridge playing programs such as Jack Bridge (World Champion in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013 and 2015) and Wbridge5 (World Champion in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2016, 2017 and 2018), probably rank among the top few thousand human pairs worldwide.", "A series of articles published in 2005 and 2006 in the Dutch bridge magazine IMP describes matches between Jack Bridge and seven top Dutch pairs.", "A total of 196 boards were played.", "Jack Bridge lost, but by a small margin (359 versus 385 IMPs).===Online play===There are several free and subscription-based services available for playing bridge on the internet.", "For example:* Bridge Base Online (BBO) is the most active online bridge club in the world, with more than 100,000 daily connections and 500,000 hands played each day, in part because it is free to play regular games and volunteer-run tournaments.", "* Funbridge is a mobile application where users can play deals against robots.", "The company was started in France and is now owned by Goto-games* OKbridge is the oldest extant internet bridge service: it was established as a commercial enterprise in 1994, but the program started to be used interactively in August 1990 by players of all standards.", "OKbridge is a subscription-based club, with services such as customer support and ethics reviews.", "* RealBridge was founded in November 2020.Its online platform includes built-in audio and video.", "It is primarily used for organised bridge, ranging from club level to national and zonal championships.", "* Sharkbridge founded in 2020 by Milen Milkovski (Canada), Plamen Panayotov (Canada), John Norris ( Denmark) and Michael Woywode (Germany).", "* SWAN Games was founded April 2000.In March 2004, announced a partnership to provide internet services to SBF members and is a competitor in subscription-based online bridge clubs.", "* BridgeClubLive is a subscription based club which was founded in 1994 with the Bridge Player Live Software for Windows.Some national contract bridge organizations now offer online bridge play to their members, including the English Bridge Union, the Dutch Bridge Federation and the Australian Bridge Federation.", "MSN and Yahoo!", "Games have several online rubber bridge rooms.", "In 2001, the WBF issued a special edition of the lawbook adapted for internet and other electronic forms of the game." ], [ "Related card games", "* 500* Bridgette* Euchre* King* Lanterloo* Lost Heir* Nap* Ombre* Quadrille* Rex Bridge* Skat* Spades* Spoil Five* Vint* Whist" ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of contract bridge terms* List of bridge books* List of bridge competitions and awards* List of bridge magazines* List of contract bridge people" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading" ], [ "External links", "* American Contract Bridge League (ACBL)* World Bridge Federation (WBF)* The Bridge Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Boat" ], [ "Introduction", "A recreational motorboat with an outboard motorA '''boat''' is a watercraft of a large range of types and sizes, but generally smaller than a ship, which is distinguished by its larger size, shape, cargo or passenger capacity, or its ability to carry boats.Small boats are typically found on inland waterways such as rivers and lakes, or in protected coastal areas.", "However, some boats, such as the whaleboat, were intended for use in an offshore environment.", "In modern naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard a ship.Boats vary in proportion and construction methods with their intended purpose, available materials, or local traditions.", "Canoes have been used since prehistoric times and remain in use throughout the world for transportation, fishing, and sport.", "Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to match local conditions.", "Pleasure craft used in recreational boating include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats.", "House boats may be used for vacationing or long-term residence.", "Lighters are used to move cargo to and from large ships unable to get close to shore.", "Lifeboats have rescue and safety functions.Boats can be propelled by manpower (e.g.", "rowboats and paddle boats), wind (e.g.", "sailboats), and inboard/outboard motors (including gasoline, diesel, and electric)." ], [ "History", "Silver model of a boat, tomb PG 789, Royal Cemetery of Ur, 2600–2500 BCE===Differentiation from other prehistoric watercraft===The earliest watercraft are considered to have been rafts.", "These would have been used for voyages such as the settlement of Australia sometime between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago.", "A boat differs from a raft by obtaining its buoyancy by having most of its structure exclude water with a waterproof layer, e.g.", "the planks of a wooden hull, the hide covering (or tarred canvas) of a currach.", "In contrast, a raft is buoyant because it joins together components that are themselves buoyant, for example, logs, bamboo poles, bundles of reeds, floats (such as inflated hides, sealed pottery containers or, in a modern context, empty oil drums).", "The key difference between a raft and a boat is that the former is a \"flow through\" structure, with waves able to pass up through it.", "Consequently, except for short river crossings, a raft is not a practical means of transport in colder regions of the world as the users would be at risk of hypothermia.", "Today that climatic limitation restricts rafts to between 40° north and 40° south, with, in the past, similar boundaries that have moved as the world's climate has varied.===Types===The earliest boats may have been either dugouts or hide boats.", "The oldest recovered boat in the world, the Pesse canoe, found in the Netherlands, is a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a ''Pinus sylvestris'' that was constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC.", "This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands.", "Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered.", "Hide boats, made from covering a framework with animal skins, could be equally as old as logboats, but such a structure is much less likely to survive in an archaeological context.Plank-built boats are considered, in most cases, to have developed from the logboat.", "There are examples of logboats that have been expanded: by deforming the hull under the influence of heat, by raising up the sides with added planks, or by splitting down the middle and adding a central plank to make it wider.", "(Some of these methods have been in quite recent usethere is no simple developmental sequence).", "The earliest known plank-built boats are from the Nile, dating to the third millennium BC.", "Outside Egypt, the next earliest are from England.", "The Ferriby boats are dated to the early part of the second millennium BC and the end of the third millennium.", "Plank-built boats require a level of woodworking technology that was first available in the neolithic with more complex versions only becoming achievable in the Bronze Age." ], [ "Types", "Boats with sails in BangladeshBoats can be categorized by their means of propulsion.", "These divide into:# Unpowered.", "This involves drifting with the tide or a river current.# Powered by the crew-members on board, using oars, paddles or a punting pole or quant.# Powered by sail.# Towedeither by humans or animals from a river or canal bank (or in very shallow water, by walking on the sea or river bed) or by another vessel.# Powered by machinery, such as internal combustion engines, steam engines or by batteries and an electric motor.Any one vessel may use more than one of these methods at different times or in combination.A number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats.", "Submarines are a prime example.", "Other types of large vessels which are traditionally called boats include Great Lakes freighters, riverboats, and ferryboats.", "Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, these vessels are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters." ], [ "Terminology", "The hull is the main, and in some cases only, structural component of a boat.", "It provides both capacity and buoyancy.", "The keel is a boat's \"backbone\", a lengthwise structural member to which the perpendicular frames are fixed.", "On some boats a deck covers the hull, in part or whole.", "While a ship often has several decks, a boat is unlikely to have more than one.", "Above the deck are often lifelines connected to stanchions, bulwarks perhaps topped by gunnels, or some combination of the two.", "A cabin may protrude above the deck forward, aft, along the centerline, or covering much of the length of the boat.", "Vertical structures dividing the internal spaces are known as bulkheads.The forward end of a boat is called the bow, the aft end the stern.", "Facing forward the right side is referred to as starboard and the left side as port." ], [ "Building materials", "Traditional Toba Batak boat (), photograph by Kristen FeilbergFishing boats in Visakhapatnam, IndiaUntil the mid-19th century most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although bark and animal skins were also used.", "Early boats include the birch bark canoe, the animal hide-covered kayak and coracle and the dugout canoe made from a single log.By the mid-19th century, some boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood.", "In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name \"ferciment\".", "This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered over with cement.", "Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode.As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common.", "By the 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses and fishing fleets.", "Private recreational boats of steel remain uncommon.", "In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats.Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in the 1920s, but it was not until the mid-20th century that aluminium gained widespread popularity.", "Though much more expensive than steel, aluminum alloys exist that do not corrode in salt water, allowing a similar load carrying capacity to steel at much less weight.Around the mid-1960s, boats made of fiberglass (aka \"glassfibre\") became popular, especially for recreational boats.", "Fiberglass is also known as \"GRP\" (glass-reinforced plastic) in the UK, and \"FRP\" (for fiber-reinforced plastic) in the US.", "Fiberglass boats are strong, and do not rust, corrode, or rot.", "Instead, they are susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan.", "Fiberglass structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the fiberglass encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam.Cold molding is a modern construction method, using wood as the structural component.", "In one cold molding process, very thin strips of wood are layered over a form.", "Each layer is coated with resin, followed by another directionally alternating layer laid on top.", "Subsequent layers may be stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous, or weighted or vacuum bagged to provide compression and stabilization until the resin sets.", "An alternative process uses thin sheets of plywood shaped over a disposable male mold, and coated with epoxy." ], [ "Propulsion", "The most common means of boat propulsion are as follows:* Engine** Inboard motor** Stern drive (Inboard/outboard)** Outboard motor** Paddle wheel** Water jet (jetboat, personal water craft)** Fan (hovercraft, air boat)* Man (rowing, paddling, setting pole etc.", ")* Wind (sailing)" ], [ "Buoyancy", "A boat displaces its weight in water, regardless whether it is made of wood, steel, fiberglass, or even concrete.", "If weight is added to the boat, the volume of the hull drawn below the waterline will increase to keep the balance above and below the surface equal.", "Boats have a natural or designed level of buoyancy.", "Exceeding it will cause the boat first to ride lower in the water, second to take on water more readily than when properly loaded, and ultimately, if overloaded by any combination of structure, cargo, and water, sink.As commercial vessels must be correctly loaded to be safe, and as the sea becomes less buoyant in brackish areas such as the Baltic, the Plimsoll line was introduced to prevent overloading." ], [ "European Union classification", "Since 1998 all new leisure boats and barges built in Europe between 2.5m and 24m must comply with the EU's Recreational Craft Directive (RCD).", "The Directive establishes four categories that permit the allowable wind and wave conditions for vessels in each class:*Class A - the boat may safely navigate any waters.", "*Class B - the boat is limited to offshore navigation.", "(Winds up to Force 8 & waves up to 4 metres) *Class C - the boat is limited to inshore (coastal) navigation.", "(Winds up to Force 6 & waves up to 2 metres) *Class D - the boat is limited to rivers, canals and small lakes.", "(Winds up to Force 4 & waves up to 0.5 metres)Europe is the main producer of recreational boats (the second production in the world is located in Poland).", "European brands are known all over the world - in fact, these are the brands that created RCD and set the standard for shipyards around the world." ], [ "See also", "* Abora* Barge* Cabin cruiser* Car float* Dinghy* Dory* Flatboat* Halkett boat* Inflatable boat* Launch (boat)* Log canoe* Narrowboat* Naval architecture* Panga (boat)* Pirogue* Poveiro* Rescue craft* Sampan* Ship's boat* Skiff* Tour boat* Traditional fishing boats* Tûranor PlanetSolar* Yacht" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Freshwater and Marine Image Bank (enter search term \"vessels\" for images of boats and vessels)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Blood" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blood''' is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.Blood is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.", "Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains proteins, glucose, mineral ions, and hormones.", "The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and (in mammals) platelets (thrombocytes).", "The most abundant cells are red blood cells.", "These contain hemoglobin, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to it, increasing its solubility.", "Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells.", "White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites.", "Platelets are important in the clotting of blood.Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.", "In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.", "Blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated.Medical terms related to blood often begin with ''hemo-'', ''hemato-'', ''haemo-'' or ''haemato-'' from the Greek word ('''') for \"blood\".", "In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen." ], [ "Functions", "Hemoglobin, a globular proteingreen = haem (or heme) groupsred & blue = protein subunitsBlood performs many important functions within the body, including:* Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)* Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids))* Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid* Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies* Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding* Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage* Regulation of core body temperature* Hydraulic functions" ], [ "Constituents", "===In mammals===Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3.The average adult has a blood volume of roughly or 1.3 gallons, which is composed of plasma and ''formed elements''.", "The formed elements are the two types of blood cell or ''corpuscle'' – the red blood cells, (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes), and the cell fragments called platelets that are involved in clotting.", "By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics.File:Krew Frakcjonowana.jpg|Human blood fractioned by centrifugation: Plasma (upper, yellow layer), buffy coat (middle, thin white layer) and erythrocyte layer (bottom, red layer) can be seen.File:Blutkreislauf.png|Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated, blue = deoxygenatedFile:Blausen 0425 Formed Elements.png|Illustration depicting formed elements of bloodFile:Blut-EDTA.jpg|Two tubes of EDTA-anticoagulated blood.", "Left tube: after standing, the RBCs have settled at the bottom of the tube.", "Right tube: Freshly drawn blood====Cells====A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a normal red blood cell (left), a platelet (middle), and a white blood cell (right)One microliter of blood contains:* '''4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female) erythrocytes:''' Red blood cells contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen.", "Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals.", "The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoproteins that define the different blood types.", "The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%.", "The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.", "* '''4,000–11,000 leukocytes:''' White blood cells are part of the body's immune system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances.", "The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia.", "* '''200,000–500,000 thrombocytes:''' Also called platelets, they take part in blood clotting (coagulation).", "Fibrin from the coagulation cascade creates a mesh over the platelet plug.+ Constitution of normal bloodParameterValueRefs.", "Hematocrit 45 ± 7 (38–52%) for males42 ± 5 (37–47%) for females pH 7.35–7.45 base excess −3 to +3 PO2 10–13 kPa (80–100 mm Hg) PCO2 4.8–5.8 kPa (35–45 mm Hg) HCO3− 21–27 mM Oxygen saturation Oxygenated: 98–99%Deoxygenated: 75%====Plasma====About 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color.", "The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human.", "It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials.", "Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.Other important components include:* Serum albumin* Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation)* Immunoglobulins (antibodies)* lipoprotein particles* Various other proteins* Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride)The term '''serum''' refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed.", "Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins.====Acidity====Blood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic (compensation).", "Extra-cellular fluid in blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic.", "A pH below 6.9 or above 7.8 is usually lethal.", "Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), and bicarbonate (HCO3−) are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system to control the acid–base balance and respiration, which is called compensation.", "An arterial blood gas test measures these.", "Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues.", "The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive.===In non-mammals===Vertebrate red blood cell types, measurements in micrometersleftTurtle red blood cells magnified 1000 timesChicken red blood cells magnified 1000 timesHuman red blood cells magnified 1000 timesHuman blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell numbers, size, protein structure, and so on, vary somewhat between species.", "In non-mammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences:* Red blood cells of non-mammalian vertebrates are flattened and ovoid in form, and retain their cell nuclei.", "* There is considerable variation in the types and proportions of white blood cells; for example, acidophils are generally more common than in humans.", "* Platelets are unique to mammals; in other vertebrates, small nucleated, spindle cells called thrombocytes are responsible for blood clotting instead." ], [ "Physiology", "===Circulatory system===Circulation of blood through the human heartBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.", "In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins.", "It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.", "Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again.", "Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled.", "However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood.Additional return flow may be generated by the movement of skeletal muscles, which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium.The blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628.===Cell production and degradation===In vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets.", "During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs.", "In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum, is an important source of T lymphocytes.The proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins) is produced predominantly by the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney.Healthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen, and the Kupffer cells in the liver.", "The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids.", "The kidney actively secretes waste products into the urine.===Oxygen transport===leftAbout 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the hemoglobin.", "About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin.", "The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.", "Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O2 per gram hemoglobin, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen (about 100 mm Hg in arteries).With the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry '''oxygenated blood''' away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries, where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules and veins carry '''deoxygenated blood''' back to the heart.Under normal conditions in adult humans at rest, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98–99% saturated with oxygen, achieving an oxygen delivery between 950 and 1150 ml/min to the body.", "In a healthy adult at rest, oxygen consumption is approximately 200–250 ml/min, and deoxygenated blood returning to the lungs is still roughly 75% (70 to 78%) saturated.", "Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions.", "Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia).", "Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation less than 90%), is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal.A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) to function under these conditions.===Carbon dioxide transport===CO2 is carried in blood in three different ways.", "(The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood).", "Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds.Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide.", "However, the CO2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen.", "Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains.", "However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO2 decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen.", "The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.", "A rise in the partial pressure of CO2 or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.===Transport of hydrogen ions===Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin.", "Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin.===Lymphatic system===In mammals, blood is in equilibrium with lymph, which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration.", "Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct, which drains into the left subclavian vein, where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation.===Thermoregulation===Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation.", "Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss.", "In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.=== Rate of flow ===Rate of blood flow varies greatly between different organs.", "Liver has the most abundant blood supply with an approximate flow of 1350 ml/min.", "Kidney and brain are the second and the third most supplied organs, with 1100 ml/min and ~700 ml/min, respectively.Relative rates of blood flow per 100 g of tissue are different, with kidney, adrenal gland and thyroid being the first, second and third most supplied tissues, respectively.===Hydraulic functions===The restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris.Another example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs." ], [ "Color", "Capillary blood from a bleeding fingerHemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood ('''hemochrome''').", "Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color.", "Arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group.", "Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken.", "This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states.Blood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin.", "In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot use oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness.", "There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue – a symptom called cyanosis.", "If the heme is oxidized, methemoglobin, which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen, is formed.", "In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue.Veins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons.", "However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex, rather than the actual color of the venous blood.Skinks in the genus ''Prasinohaema'' have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin." ], [ "Disorders", "===General medical ===* Disorders of volume** Injury can cause blood loss through bleeding.", "A healthy adult can lose almost 20% of blood volume (1 L) before the first symptom, restlessness, begins, and 40% of volume (2 L) before shock sets in.", "Thrombocytes are important for blood coagulation and the formation of blood clots, which can stop bleeding.", "Trauma to the internal organs or bones can cause internal bleeding, which can sometimes be severe.", "** Dehydration can reduce the blood volume by reducing the water content of the blood.", "This would rarely result in shock (apart from the very severe cases) but may result in orthostatic hypotension and fainting.", "* Disorders of circulation** Shock is the ineffective perfusion of tissues, and can be caused by a variety of conditions including blood loss, infection, poor cardiac output.", "** Atherosclerosis reduces the flow of blood through arteries, because atheroma lines arteries and narrows them.", "Atheroma tends to increase with age, and its progression can be compounded by many causes including smoking, high blood pressure, excess circulating lipids (hyperlipidemia), and diabetes mellitus.", "** Coagulation can form a thrombosis, which can obstruct vessels.", "** Problems with blood composition, the pumping action of the heart, or narrowing of blood vessels can have many consequences including hypoxia (lack of oxygen) of the tissues supplied.", "The term ''ischemia'' refers to tissue that is inadequately perfused with blood, and ''infarction'' refers to tissue death (necrosis), which can occur when the blood supply has been blocked (or is very inadequate).===Hematological ===* Anemia** Insufficient red cell mass (anemia) can be the result of bleeding, blood disorders like thalassemia, or nutritional deficiencies, and may require one or more blood transfusions.", "Anemia can also be due to a genetic disorder in which the red blood cells do not function effectively.", "Anemia can be confirmed by a blood test if the hemoglobin value is less than 13.5 gm/dl in men or less than 12.0 gm/dl in women.", "Several countries have blood banks to fill the demand for transfusable blood.", "A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a blood type compatible with that of the donor.", "** Sickle-cell anemia* Disorders of cell proliferation** Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues and cells.", "** Non-cancerous overproduction of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential thrombocytosis) may be premalignant.", "** Myelodysplastic syndromes involve ineffective production of one or more cell lines.", "* Disorders of coagulation** Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms.", "This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in hemarthrosis, or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling.", "** Ineffective or insufficient platelets can also result in coagulopathy (bleeding disorders).", "** Hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia) results from defects in regulation of platelet or clotting factor function, and can cause thrombosis.", "* Infectious disorders of blood** Blood is an important vector of infection.", "HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is transmitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected person.", "Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood contact.", "Owing to blood-borne infections, bloodstained objects are treated as a biohazard.", "** Bacterial infection of the blood is bacteremia or sepsis.", "Viral Infection is viremia.", "Malaria and trypanosomiasis are blood-borne parasitic infections.===Carbon monoxide poisoning===Substances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases, this can cause irreversible damage to the body.", "Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin is free to bind oxygen, and fewer oxygen molecules can be transported throughout the blood.", "This can cause suffocation insidiously.", "A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air.", "Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco." ], [ "Treatments", "===Transfusion===Venous blood collected during blood donationBlood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank.", "There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important.", "Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused.Other blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates.===Intravenous administration===Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.After severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc.)", "at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma.", "In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion.===Letting===In modern evidence-based medicine, bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia.", "However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine." ], [ "Etymology", "Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into four types (A, B, AB, and O)English ''blood'' (Old English ''blod'') derives from Germanic and has cognates with a similar range of meanings in all other Germanic languages (e.g.", "German ''Blut'', Swedish ''blod'', Gothic ''blōþ'').", "There is no accepted Indo-European etymology." ], [ "History", "===Classical Greek medicine===Robin Fåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism, wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container.", "When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen.", "A dark clot forms at the bottom (the \"black bile\").", "Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the \"blood\").", "Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the \"phlegm\").", "The top layer is clear yellow serum (the \"yellow bile\").===Types===The ABO blood group system was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner.", "Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today.", "In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility.", "The first non-direct transfusion was performed on 27 March 1914.The Rhesus factor was discovered in 1937." ], [ "Culture and religion", "Due to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs.", "One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be \"related by blood\" is to be related by ancestry or descendence, rather than marriage.", "This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as \"blood is thicker than water\" and \"bad blood\", as well as \"Blood brother\".Blood is given particular emphasis in the Islamic, Jewish, and Christian religions, because Leviticus 17:11 says \"the life of a creature is in the blood.\"", "This phrase is part of the Levitical law forbidding the drinking of blood or eating meat with the blood still intact instead of being poured off.Mythic references to blood can sometimes be connected to the life-giving nature of blood, seen in such events as childbirth, as contrasted with the blood of injury or death.===Indigenous Australians===In many indigenous Australian Aboriginal peoples' traditions, ochre (particularly red) and blood, both high in iron content and considered Maban, are applied to the bodies of dancers for ritual.", "As Lawlor states: Lawlor comments that blood employed in this fashion is held by these peoples to attune the dancers to the invisible energetic realm of the Dreamtime.", "Lawlor then connects these invisible energetic realms and magnetic fields, because iron is magnetic.===European paganism===Among the Germanic tribes, blood was used during their sacrifices; the ''Blóts''.", "The blood was considered to have the power of its originator, and, after the butchering, the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods, and on the participants themselves.", "This act of sprinkling blood was called ''blóedsian'' in Old English, and the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming ''to bless'' and ''blessing''.", "The Hittite word for blood, ''ishar'' was a cognate to words for \"oath\" and \"bond\", see Ishara.The Ancient Greeks believed that the blood of the gods, ''ichor'', was a substance that was poisonous to mortals.As a relic of Germanic Law, the cruentation, an ordeal where the corpse of the victim was supposed to start bleeding in the presence of the murderer, was used until the early 17th century.===Christianity===In Genesis 9:4, God prohibited Noah and his sons from eating blood (see Noahide Law).", "This command continued to be observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church.It is also found in the Bible that when the Angel of Death came around to the Hebrew house that the first-born child would not die if the angel saw lamb's blood wiped across the doorway.At the Council of Jerusalem, the apostles prohibited certain Christians from consuming blood – this is documented in Acts 15:20 and 29.This chapter specifies a reason (especially in verses 19–21): It was to avoid offending Jews who had become Christians, because the Mosaic Law Code prohibited the practice.Christ's blood is the means for the atonement of sins.", "Also, \"... the blood of Jesus Christ his God Son cleanseth us from all sin.\"", "(1 John 1:7), \"... Unto him God that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood.\"", "(Revelation 1:5), and \"And they overcame him (Satan) by the blood of the Lamb Jesus the Christ, and by the word of their testimony ...\" (Revelation 12:11).Some Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Assyrian Church of the East teach that, when consecrated, the Eucharistic wine actually becomes the blood of Jesus for worshippers to drink.", "Thus in the consecrated wine, Jesus becomes spiritually and physically present.", "This teaching is rooted in the Last Supper, as written in the four gospels of the Bible, in which Jesus stated to his disciples that the bread that they ate was his body, and the wine was his blood.", "''\"This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.\"", "()''.Most forms of Protestantism, especially those of a Methodist or Presbyterian lineage, teach that the wine is no more than a symbol of the blood of Christ, who is spiritually but not physically present.", "Lutheran theology teaches that the body and blood is present together \"in, with, and under\" the bread and wine of the Eucharistic feast.===Judaism===In Judaism, animal blood may not be consumed even in the smallest quantity (Leviticus 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut).", "Blood is purged from meat by rinsing and soaking in water (to loosen clots), salting and then rinsing with water again several times.", "Eggs must also be checked and any blood spots removed before consumption.", "Although blood from fish is biblically kosher, it is rabbinically forbidden to consume fish blood to avoid the appearance of breaking the Biblical prohibition.Another ritual involving blood involves the covering of the blood of fowl and game after slaughtering (Leviticus 17:13); the reason given by the Torah is: \"Because the life of the animal is in its blood\" (ibid 17:14).", "In relation to human beings, Kabbalah expounds on this verse that the animal soul of a person is in the blood, and that physical desires stem from it.Likewise, the mystical reason for salting temple sacrifices and slaughtered meat is to remove the blood of animal-like passions from the person.", "By removing the animal's blood, the animal energies and life-force contained in the blood are removed, making the meat fit for human consumption.===Islam===Consumption of food containing blood is forbidden by Islamic dietary laws.", "This is derived from the statement in the Qur'an, sura Al-Ma'ida (5:3): \"Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which has been invoked the name of other than Allah.", "\"Blood is considered unclean, hence there are specific methods to obtain physical and ritual status of cleanliness once bleeding has occurred.", "Specific rules and prohibitions apply to menstruation, postnatal bleeding and irregular vaginal bleeding.", "When an animal has been slaughtered, the animal's neck is cut in a way to ensure that the spine is not severed, hence the brain may send commands to the heart to pump blood to it for oxygen.", "In this way, blood is removed from the body, and the meat is generally now safe to cook and eat.", "In modern times, blood transfusions are generally not considered against the rules.===Jehovah's Witnesses===Based on their interpretation of scriptures such as Acts 15:28, 29 (\"Keep abstaining...from blood.", "\"), many Jehovah's Witnesses neither consume blood nor accept transfusions of whole blood or its major components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (thrombocytes), and plasma.", "Members may personally decide whether they will accept medical procedures that involve their own blood or substances that are further fractionated from the four major components.===Vampirism===Vampires are mythical creatures that drink blood directly for sustenance, usually with a preference for human blood.", "Cultures all over the world have myths of this kind; for example the 'Nosferatu' legend, a human who achieves damnation and immortality by drinking the blood of others, originates from Eastern European folklore.", "Ticks, leeches, female mosquitoes, vampire bats, and an assortment of other natural creatures do consume the blood of other animals, but only bats are associated with vampires.", "This has no relation to vampire bats, which are New World creatures discovered well after the origins of the European myths." ], [ "Invertebrates", "In invertebrates, a body fluid analogous to blood called hemolymph is found, the main difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system.", "Hemolymph may function to carry oxygen, although hemoglobin is not necessarily used.", "Crustaceans and mollusks use hemocyanin instead of hemoglobin.", "In most insects, their hemolymph does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen." ], [ "Other uses", "===Forensic and archaeological===Blood residue can help forensic investigators identify weapons, reconstruct a criminal action, and link suspects to the crime.", "Through bloodstain pattern analysis, forensic information can also be gained from the spatial distribution of bloodstains.Blood residue analysis is also a technique used in archeology.===Artistic===Blood is one of the body fluids that has been used in art.", "In particular, the performances of Viennese Actionist Hermann Nitsch, Istvan Kantor, Franko B, Lennie Lee, Ron Athey, Yang Zhichao, Lucas Abela and Kira O'Reilly, along with the photography of Andres Serrano, have incorporated blood as a prominent visual element.", "Marc Quinn has made sculptures using frozen blood, including a cast of his own head made using his own blood.===Genealogical===The term ''blood'' is used in genealogical circles to refer to one's ancestry, origins, and ethnic background as in the word ''bloodline''.", "Other terms where blood is used in a family history sense are ''blue-blood'', ''royal blood'', ''mixed-blood'' and ''blood relative''." ], [ "See also", "* Autotransfusion* Blood as food* Blood pressure* Blood substitutes (\"artificial blood\")* Blood test* Hematology* Hemophobia* Luminol, a visual test for blood left at crime scenes.", "* Oct-1-en-3-one (\"Smell\" of blood)* Taboo food and drink: Blood" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens.", "Free online book at NCBI Bookshelf ID: NBK2261* * Blood Photomicrographs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Benoit Mandelbrot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benoit B.'''", "'''Mandelbrot''' (20 November 1924 – 14 October 2010) was a Polish-born French-American mathematician and polymath with broad interests in the practical sciences, especially regarding what he labeled as \"the art of roughness\" of physical phenomena and \"the uncontrolled element in life\".", "He referred to himself as a \"fractalist\" and is recognized for his contribution to the field of fractal geometry, which included coining the word \"fractal\", as well as developing a theory of \"roughness and self-similarity\" in nature.In 1936, at the age of 11, Mandelbrot and his family emigrated from Warsaw, Poland, to France.", "After World War II ended, Mandelbrot studied mathematics, graduating from universities in Paris and in the United States and receiving a master's degree in aeronautics from the California Institute of Technology.", "He spent most of his career in both the United States and France, having dual French and American citizenship.", "In 1958, he began a 35-year career at IBM, where he became an IBM Fellow, and periodically took leaves of absence to teach at Harvard University.", "At Harvard, following the publication of his study of U.S. commodity markets in relation to cotton futures, he taught economics and applied sciences.Because of his access to IBM's computers, Mandelbrot was one of the first to use computer graphics to create and display fractal geometric images, leading to his discovery of the Mandelbrot set in 1980.He showed how visual complexity can be created from simple rules.", "He said that things typically considered to be \"rough\", a \"mess\", or \"chaotic\", such as clouds or shorelines, actually had a \"degree of order\".", "His math- and geometry-centered research included contributions to such fields as statistical physics, meteorology, hydrology, geomorphology, anatomy, taxonomy, neurology, linguistics, information technology, computer graphics, economics, geology, medicine, physical cosmology, engineering, chaos theory, econophysics, metallurgy, and the social sciences.Toward the end of his career, he was Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences at Yale University, where he was the oldest professor in Yale's history to receive tenure.Mandelbrot also held positions at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Université Lille Nord de France, Institute for Advanced Study and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.", "During his career, he received over 15 honorary doctorates and served on many science journals, along with winning numerous awards.", "His autobiography, ''The Fractalist: Memoir of a Scientific Maverick'', was published posthumously in 2012." ], [ "Early years", "Benedykt Mandelbrot was born in a Lithuanian Jewish family, in Warsaw during the Second Polish Republic.", "His father made his living trading clothing; his mother was a dental surgeon.", "During his first two school years, he was tutored privately by an uncle who despised rote learning: \"Most of my time was spent playing chess, reading maps and learning how to open my eyes to everything around me.\"", "In 1936, when he was 11, the family emigrated from Poland to France.", "The move, World War II, and the influence of his father's brother, the mathematician Szolem Mandelbrojt (who had moved to Paris around 1920), further prevented a standard education.", "\"The fact that my parents, as economic and political refugees, joined Szolem in France saved our lives,\" he writes.Mandelbrot attended the Lycée Rollin (now the Collège-lycée Jacques-Decour) in Paris until the start of World War II, when his family moved to Tulle, France.", "He was helped by Rabbi David Feuerwerker, the Rabbi of Brive-la-Gaillarde, to continue his studies.", "Much of France was occupied by the Nazis at the time, and Mandelbrot recalls this period:In 1944, Mandelbrot returned to Paris, studied at the Lycée du Parc in Lyon, and in 1945 to 1947 attended the École Polytechnique, where he studied under Gaston Julia and Paul Lévy.", "From 1947 to 1949 he studied at California Institute of Technology, where he earned a master's degree in aeronautics.", "Returning to France, he obtained his PhD degree in Mathematical Sciences at the University of Paris in 1952." ], [ "Research career", "From 1949 to 1958, Mandelbrot was a staff member at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.", "During this time he spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, where he was sponsored by John von Neumann.", "In 1955 he married Aliette Kagan and moved to Geneva, Switzerland (to collaborate with Jean Piaget at the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology) and later to the Université Lille Nord de France.", "In 1958 the couple moved to the United States where Mandelbrot joined the research staff at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.", "He remained at IBM for 35 years, becoming an IBM Fellow, and later Fellow Emeritus.From 1951 onward, Mandelbrot worked on problems and published papers not only in mathematics but in applied fields such as information theory, economics, and fluid dynamics.===Randomness and fractals in financial markets===Mandelbrot saw financial markets as an example of \"wild randomness\", characterized by concentration and long-range dependence.", "He developed several original approaches for modelling financial fluctuations.", "In his early work, he found that the price changes in financial markets did not follow a Gaussian distribution, but rather Lévy stable distributions having infinite variance.", "He found, for example, that cotton prices followed a Lévy stable distribution with parameter ''α'' equal to 1.7 rather than 2 as in a Gaussian distribution.", "\"Stable\" distributions have the property that the sum of many instances of a random variable follows the same distribution but with a larger scale parameter.", "The latter work from the early 60s was done with daily data of cotton prices from 1900, long before he introduced the word 'fractal'.", "In later years, after the concept of fractals had matured, the study of financial markets in the context of fractals became possible only after the availability of high frequency data in finance.", "In the late 1980s, Mandelbrot used intra-daily tick data supplied by Olsen & Associates in Zurich to apply fractal theory to market microstructure.", "This cooperation led to the publication of the first comprehensive papers on scaling law in finance.", "This law shows similar properties at different time scales, confirming Mandelbrot's insight of the fractal nature of market microstructure.", "Mandelbrot's own research in this area is presented in his books ''Fractals and Scaling in Finance'' and ''The (Mis)behavior of Markets''.===Developing \"fractal geometry\" and the Mandelbrot set===As a visiting professor at Harvard University, Mandelbrot began to study mathematical objects called Julia sets that were invariant under certain transformations of the complex plane.", "Building on previous work by Gaston Julia and Pierre Fatou, Mandelbrot used a computer to plot images of the Julia sets.", "While investigating the topology of these Julia sets, he studied the Mandelbrot set which was introduced by him in 1979.Mandelbrot speaking about the Mandelbrot set, during his acceptance speech for the Légion d'honneur in 2006In 1975, Mandelbrot coined the term ''fractal'' to describe these structures and first published his ideas in the French book ''Les Objets Fractals: Forme, Hasard et Dimension'', later translated in 1977 as ''Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension''.", "According to computer scientist and physicist Stephen Wolfram, the book was a \"breakthrough\" for Mandelbrot, who until then would typically \"apply fairly straightforward mathematics ... to areas that had barely seen the light of serious mathematics before\".", "Wolfram adds that as a result of this new research, he was no longer a \"wandering scientist\", and later called him \"the father of fractals\":Wolfram briefly describes fractals as a form of geometric repetition, \"in which smaller and smaller copies of a pattern are successively nested inside each other, so that the same intricate shapes appear no matter how much you zoom in to the whole.", "Fern leaves and Romanesque broccoli are two examples from nature.\"", "He points out an unexpected conclusion:Mandelbrot used the term \"fractal\" as it derived from the Latin word \"fractus\", defined as broken or shattered glass.", "Using the newly developed IBM computers at his disposal, Mandelbrot was able to create fractal images using graphics computer code, images that an interviewer described as looking like \"the delirious exuberance of the 1960s psychedelic art with forms hauntingly reminiscent of nature and the human body\".", "He also saw himself as a \"would-be Kepler\", after the 17th-century scientist Johannes Kepler, who calculated and described the orbits of the planets.A Mandelbrot setMandelbrot, however, never felt he was inventing a new idea.", "He described his feelings in a documentary with science writer Arthur C. Clarke:According to Clarke, \"the Mandelbrot set is indeed one of the most astonishing discoveries in the entire history of mathematics.", "Who could have dreamed that such an incredibly simple equation could have generated images of literally ''infinite'' complexity?\"", "Clarke also notes an \"odd coincidence\":the name Mandelbrot, and the word \"mandala\"—for a religious symbol—which I'm sure is a pure coincidence, but indeed the Mandelbrot set does seem to contain an enormous number of mandalas.In 1982, Mandelbrot expanded and updated his ideas in ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''.", "This influential work brought fractals into the mainstream of professional and popular mathematics, as well as silencing critics, who had dismissed fractals as \"program artifacts\".Mandelbrot left IBM in 1987, after 35 years and 12 days, when IBM decided to end pure research in his division.", "He joined the Department of Mathematics at Yale, and obtained his first tenured post in 1999, at the age of 75.At the time of his retirement in 2005, he was Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences.===Fractals and the \"theory of roughness\"===Mandelbrot created the first-ever \"theory of roughness\", and he saw \"roughness\" in the shapes of mountains, coastlines and river basins; the structures of plants, blood vessels and lungs; the clustering of galaxies.", "His personal quest was to create some mathematical formula to measure the overall \"roughness\" of such objects in nature.", "He began by asking himself various kinds of questions related to nature:In his paper \"How Long Is the Coast of Britain?", "Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\", published in ''Science'' in 1967, Mandelbrot discusses self-similar curves that have Hausdorff dimension that are examples of ''fractals'', although Mandelbrot does not use this term in the paper, as he did not coin it until 1975.The paper is one of Mandelbrot's first publications on the topic of fractals.Mandelbrot emphasized the use of fractals as realistic and useful models for describing many \"rough\" phenomena in the real world.", "He concluded that \"real roughness is often fractal and can be measured.\"", "Although Mandelbrot coined the term \"fractal\", some of the mathematical objects he presented in ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'' had been previously described by other mathematicians.", "Before Mandelbrot, however, they were regarded as isolated curiosities with unnatural and non-intuitive properties.", "Mandelbrot brought these objects together for the first time and turned them into essential tools for the long-stalled effort to extend the scope of science to explaining non-smooth, \"rough\" objects in the real world.", "His methods of research were both old and new:Fractals are also found in human pursuits, such as music, painting, architecture, and stock market prices.", "Mandelbrot believed that fractals, far from being unnatural, were in many ways more intuitive and natural than the artificially smooth objects of traditional Euclidean geometry: Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.", "—Mandelbrot, in his introduction to ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''Section of a Mandelbrot setMandelbrot has been called an artist, and a visionary and a maverick.", "His informal and passionate style of writing and his emphasis on visual and geometric intuition (supported by the inclusion of numerous illustrations) made ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'' accessible to non-specialists.", "The book sparked widespread popular interest in fractals and contributed to chaos theory and other fields of science and mathematics.Mandelbrot also put his ideas to work in cosmology.", "He offered in 1974 a new explanation of Olbers' paradox (the \"dark night sky\" riddle), demonstrating the consequences of fractal theory as a sufficient, but not necessary, resolution of the paradox.", "He postulated that if the stars in the universe were fractally distributed (for example, like Cantor dust), it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain the paradox.", "His model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Mandelbrot's awards include the Wolf Prize for Physics in 1993, the Lewis Fry Richardson Prize of the European Geophysical Society in 2000, the Japan Prize in 2003, and the Einstein Lectureship of the American Mathematical Society in 2006.The small asteroid 27500 Mandelbrot was named in his honor.", "In November 1990, he was made a Chevalier in France's Legion of Honour.", "In December 2005, Mandelbrot was appointed to the position of Battelle Fellow at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.", "Mandelbrot was promoted to an Officer of the Legion of Honour in January 2006.An honorary degree from Johns Hopkins University was bestowed on Mandelbrot in the May 2010 commencement exercises.A partial list of awards received by Mandelbrot:* 2004 Best Business Book of the Year Award* AMS Einstein Lectureship* Barnard Medal* Caltech Service* Casimir Funk Natural Sciences Award* Charles Proteus Steinmetz Medal* High School Spelling Bee (1940)* Fellow, American Geophysical Union* Fellow of the American Statistical Association* Fellow of the American Physical Society (1987) * Franklin Medal* Harvey Prize (1989)* Honda Prize* Humboldtpreis* IBM Fellowship* Japan Prize (2003)* John Scott Award* Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour)* Lewis Fry Richardson Medal* Medaglia della Presidenza della Repubblica Italiana* Médaille de Vermeil de la Ville de Paris* Nevada Prize* Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.", "* Member of the American Philosophical Society (2004) * Science for Art* Sven Berggren-Priset* Wacław Sierpiński medal of the Polish Mathematical Society (2005) * Władysław Orlicz Prize* Wolf Foundation Prize for Physics (1993)" ], [ "Death and legacy", "Mandelbrot died from pancreatic cancer at the age of 85 in a hospice in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 14 October 2010.Reacting to news of his death, mathematician Heinz-Otto Peitgen said: \"If we talk about impact inside mathematics, and applications in the sciences, he is one of the most important figures of the last fifty years.", "\"Chris Anderson, TED conference curator, described Mandelbrot as \"an icon who changed how we see the world\".", "Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France at the time of Mandelbrot's death, said Mandelbrot had \"a powerful, original mind that never shied away from innovating and shattering preconceived notions ... his work, developed entirely outside mainstream research, led to modern information theory.\"", "Mandelbrot's obituary in ''The Economist'' points out his fame as \"celebrity beyond the academy\" and lauds him as the \"father of fractal geometry\".Best-selling essayist-author Nassim Nicholas Taleb has remarked that Mandelbrot's book ''The (Mis)Behavior of Markets'' is in his opinion \"The deepest and most realistic finance book ever published\"." ], [ "Bibliography", "===In English===* ''Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension'', 1977, 2020* ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'', 1982* * Mandelbrot, B.", "(1959) Variables et processus stochastiques de Pareto-Levy, et la repartition des revenus.", "Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, 249, 613–615.", "* Mandelbrot, B.", "(1960) The Pareto-Levy law and the distribution of income.", "International Economic Review, 1, 79–106.", "* Mandelbrot, B.", "(1961) Stable Paretian random functions and the multiplicative variation of income.", "Econometrica, 29, 517–543.", "* Mandelbrot, B.", "(1964) Random walks, fire damage amount and other Paretian risk phenomena.", "Operations Research, 12, 582–585.", "* ''Fractals and Scaling in Finance: Discontinuity, Concentration, Risk.", "Selecta Volume E'', 1997 by Benoit B. Mandelbrot and R.E.", "Gomory* Mandelbrot, Benoit B.", "(1997) ''Fractals and Scaling in Finance: Discontinuity, Concentration, Risk'', Springer.", "* ''Fractales, hasard et finance'', 1959–1997, 1 November 1998* ''Multifractals and 1/ƒ Noise: Wild Self-Affinity in Physics (1963–1976)'' (Selecta; V.N) 18 January 1999 by J.M.", "Berger and Benoit B. Mandelbrot* * ''Gaussian Self-Affinity and Fractals: Globality, The Earth, 1/f Noise, and R/S (Selected Works of Benoit B. Mandelbrot)'' 14 December 2001 by Benoit Mandelbrot and F.J. Damerau* Mandelbrot, Benoit B., ''Gaussian Self-Affinity and Fractals'', Springer: 2002.", "* ''Fractals and Chaos: The Mandelbrot Set and Beyond'', 9 January 2004* ''The Misbehavior of Markets: A Fractal View of Financial Turbulence'', 2006 by Benoit Mandelbrot and Richard L. Hudson* Mandelbrot, Benoit B.", "(2010).", "''The Fractalist, Memoir of a Scientific Maverick.''", "New York: Vintage Books, Division of Random House.", "* ''The Fractalist: Memoir of a Scientific Maverick'', 2014* * Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, Dietmar Saupe and Cornelia Zahlten: ''Fractals: An Animated Discussion'' (63 min video film, interviews with Benoît Mandelbrot and Edward Lorenz, computer animations), W.H.", "Freeman and Company, 1990.", "(re-published by Films for the Humanities & Sciences, )* * \"Hunting the Hidden Dimension: mysteriously beautiful fractals are shaking up the world of mathematics and deepening our understanding of nature\", ''NOVA'', WGBH Educational Foundation, Boston for PBS, first aired 28 October 2008." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Mandelbrot's page at Yale* \"Benoît Mandelbrot: Fractals and the art of roughness\" (TED address).", "* Fractals in Science, Engineering and Finance (lecture).", "* FT.com interview on the subject of the financial markets which includes his critique of the \"efficient market\" hypothesis.", "* * Mandelbrot relates his life story (Web of Stories).", "* Interview (1 January 1981, Ithaca, NY) held by the Eugene Dynkin Collection of Mathematics Interviews, Cornell University Library.", "* Video animation of Mandelbrot set, zoom factor 10342.", "* , a three-dimensional Mandelbrot-set projection.", "* * * * Michael Frame, \"Benoit B. Mandelbrot\", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2014)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Benedict of Nursia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benedict of Nursia''' (; ; 2 March AD 480 – 21 March AD 547), often known as '''Saint Benedict''', was an Italian Christian monk, writer, and theologian.", "He is venerated in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion, and Old Catholic Churches.", "In 1964 Pope Paul VI declared Benedict a patron saint of Europe.Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco in present-day Lazio, Italy (about to the east of Rome), before moving further south-east to Monte Cassino in the mountains of central Italy.", "The present-day Order of Saint Benedict emerged later and, moreover, is not an \"order\" as the term is commonly understood, but a confederation of autonomous congregations.Benedict's main achievement, his ''Rule of Saint Benedict'', contains a set of rules for his monks to follow.", "Heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian ( – ), it shows strong affinity with the earlier ''Rule of the Master'', but it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness (, ''epieíkeia''), which persuaded most Christian religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it.", "As a result, Benedict's Rule became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom.", "For this reason, Giuseppe Carletti regarded Benedict as the founder of Western Christian monasticism." ], [ "Biography", "Apart from a short poem attributed to Mark of Monte Cassino, the only ancient account of Benedict is found in the second volume of Pope Gregory I's four-book ''Dialogues'', thought to have been written in 593, although the authenticity of this work is disputed.Gregory's account of Benedict's life, however, is not a biography in the modern sense of the word.", "It provides instead a spiritual portrait of the gentle, disciplined abbot.", "In a letter to Bishop Maximilian of Syracuse, Gregory states his intention for his ''Dialogues'', saying they are a kind of ''floretum'' (an ''anthology'', literally, 'flowers') of the most striking miracles of Italian holy men.Gregory did not set out to write a chronological, historically anchored story of Benedict, but he did base his anecdotes on direct testimony.", "To establish his authority, Gregory explains that his information came from what he considered the best sources: a handful of Benedict's disciples who lived with him and witnessed his various miracles.", "These followers, he says, are Constantinus, who succeeded Benedict as Abbot of Monte Cassino, Honoratus, who was abbot of Subiaco when St. Gregory wrote his ''Dialogues'', Valentinianus, and Simplicius.In Gregory's day, history was not recognised as an independent field of study; it was a branch of grammar or rhetoric, and ''historia'' was an account that summed up the findings of the learned when they wrote what was, at that time, considered history.", "Gregory's ''Dialogues'', Book Two, then, an authentic medieval hagiography cast as a conversation between the Pope and his deacon Peter, is designed to teach spiritual lessons." ], [ "Early life", "He was the son of a Roman noble of Nursia, the modern Norcia, in Umbria.", "If 480 is accepted as the year of his birth, the year of his abandonment of his studies and leaving home would be about 500.Gregory's narrative makes it impossible to suppose him younger than 20 at the time.Benedict was sent to Rome to study, but was disappointed by urban academic life.", "Seeking to escape the great city, he left with his servant and settled in Enfide.", "Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern Affile, is in the Simbruini mountains, about forty miles from Rome and two miles from Subiaco.", "''Saint Benedict orders Saint Maurus to the rescue of Saint Placidus'', by Fra Filippo Lippi, AD 1445A short distance from Enfide is the entrance to a narrow, gloomy valley, penetrating the mountains and leading directly to Subiaco.", "The path continues to ascend, and the side of the ravine on which it runs becomes steeper until a cave is reached, above this point the mountain now rises almost perpendicularly; while on the right, it strikes in a rapid descent down to where, in Benedict's day, below, lay the blue waters of a lake.", "The cave has a large triangular-shaped opening and is about ten feet deep.On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, Romanus of Subiaco, whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave.", "Romanus discussed with Benedict the purpose which had brought him to Subiaco, and gave him the monk's habit.", "By his advice Benedict became a hermit and for three years lived in this cave above the lake." ], [ "Later life", "Gregory tells little of Benedict's later life.", "He now speaks of Benedict no longer as a youth (), but as a man () of God.", "Romanus, Gregory states, served Benedict in every way he could.", "The monk apparently visited him frequently, and on fixed days brought him food.During these three years of solitude, broken only by occasional communications with the outer world and by the visits of Romanus, Benedict matured both in mind and character, in knowledge of himself and of his fellow-man, and at the same time he became not merely known to, but secured the respect of, those about him; so much so that on the death of the abbot of a monastery in the neighbourhood (identified by some with Vicovaro), the community came to him and begged him to become its abbot.", "Benedict was acquainted with the life and discipline of the monastery, and knew that \"their manners were diverse from his and therefore that they would never agree together: yet, at length, overcome with their entreaty, he gave his consent\".", "The experiment failed; the monks tried to poison him.", "The legend goes that they first tried to poison his drink.", "He prayed a blessing over the cup and the cup shattered.", "Thus he left the group and went back to his cave at Subiaco.", "There lived in the neighborhood a priest called Florentius who, moved by envy, tried to ruin him.", "He tried to poison him with poisoned bread.", "When he prayed a blessing over the bread, a raven swept in and took the loaf away.", "From this time his miracles seem to have become frequent, and many people, attracted by his sanctity and character, came to Subiaco to be under his guidance.", "Having failed by sending him poisonous bread, Florentius tried to seduce his monks with some prostitutes.", "To avoid further temptations, in about 530 Benedict left Subiaco.", "He founded 12 monasteries in the vicinity of Subiaco, and, eventually, in 530 he founded the great Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, which lies on a hilltop between Rome and Naples.Totila and Saint Benedict, painted by Spinello Aretino.", "According to Pope Gregory, King Totila ordered a general to wear his kingly robes in order to see whether Benedict would discover the truth.", "Immediately Benedict detected the impersonation, and Totila came to pay him due respect." ], [ "Veneration", "Benedict died of a fever at Monte Cassino not long after his sister, Scholastica, and was buried in the same tomb.", "According to tradition, this occurred on 21 March 547.He was named patron protector of Europe by Pope Paul VI in 1964.In 1980, Pope John Paul II declared him co-patron of Europe, together with Cyril and Methodius.", "Furthermore, he is the patron saint of speleologists.", "On the island of Tenerife (Spain) he is the patron saint of fields and farmers.", "An important romeria (''Romería Regional de San Benito Abad'') is held on this island in his honor, one of the most important in the country.In the pre-1970 General Roman Calendar, his feast is kept on 21 March, the day of his death according to some manuscripts of the ''Martyrologium Hieronymianum'' and that of Bede.", "Because on that date his liturgical memorial would always be impeded by the observance of Lent, the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar moved his memorial to 11 July, the date that appears in some Gallic liturgical books of the end of the 8th century as the feast commemorating his birth (''Natalis S. Benedicti'').", "There is some uncertainty about the origin of this feast.", "Accordingly, on 21 March the Roman Martyrology mentions in a line and a half that it is Benedict's day of death and that his memorial is celebrated on 11 July, while on 11 July it devotes seven lines to speaking of him, and mentions the tradition that he died on 21 March.The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Benedict on 14 March.The Anglican Communion has no single universal calendar, but a provincial calendar of saints is published in each province.", "In almost all of these, Saint Benedict is commemorated on 11 July.Benedict is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 11 July." ], [ "''Rule of Saint Benedict''", "Benedict wrote the ''Rule'' for monks living communally under the authority of an abbot.", "The ''Rule'' comprises seventy-three short chapters.", "Its wisdom is twofold: spiritual (how to live a Christocentric life on earth) and administrative (how to run a monastery efficiently).", "More than half of the chapters describe how to be obedient and humble, and what to do when a member of the community is not.", "About one-fourth regulate the work of God (the \"opus Dei\").", "One-tenth outline how, and by whom, the monastery should be managed.", "Benedictine asceticism is known for its moderation." ], [ "Saint Benedict Medal", "Benedict depicted on a Jubilee Saint Benedict Medal for the 1,400th anniversary of his birth in 1880This devotional medal originally came from a cross in honor of Saint Benedict.", "On one side, the medal has an image of Saint Benedict, holding the Holy Rule in his left hand and a cross in his right.", "There is a raven on one side of him, with a cup on the other side of him.", "Around the medal's outer margin are the words ''\"Eius in obitu nostro praesentia muniamur\"'' (\"May we be strengthened by his presence in the hour of our death\").", "The other side of the medal has a cross with the initials CSSML on the vertical bar which signify ''\"Crux Sacra Sit Mihi Lux\"'' (\"May the Holy Cross be my light\") and on the horizontal bar are the initials NDSMD which stand for ''\"Non-Draco Sit Mihi Dux\"'' (\"Let not the dragon be my guide\").", "The initials CSPB stand for ''\"Crux Sancti Patris Benedicti\"'' (\"The Cross of the Holy Father Benedict\") and are located on the interior angles of the cross.", "Either the inscription ''\"PAX\"'' (Peace) or the Christogram ''\"IHS\"'' may be found at the top of the cross in most cases.", "Around the medal's margin on this side are the ''Vade Retro Satana'' initials VRSNSMV which stand for ''\"Vade Retro Satana, Nonquam Suade Mihi Vana\"'' (\"Begone Satan, do not suggest to me thy vanities\") then a space followed by the initials SMQLIVB which signify ''\"Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas\"'' (\"Evil are the things thou profferest, drink thou thine own poison\").Image of Saint Benedict with a cross (which is inscribed, \"Crux sacra sit mihi lux!", "Non-draco sit mihi dux!\"", "(\"May the holy cross be my light!", "May the dragon never be my guide!\"))", "and a scroll stating \"Vade retro Satana!", "Nunquam suade mihi vana!", "Sunt mala quae libas.", "Ipse venena bibas!", "(\"Begone Satan!", "Never tempt me with your vanities!", "The drink you offer is evil.", "Drink that poison yourself!", "\", or in brief,''Vade Retro Satana'' which is abbreviated on the Saint Benedict Medal.This medal was first struck in 1880 to commemorate the fourteenth centenary of Benedict's birth and is also called the Jubilee Medal; its exact origin, however, is unknown.", "In 1647, during a witchcraft trial at Natternberg near Metten Abbey in Bavaria, the accused women testified they had no power over Metten, which was under the protection of the cross.", "An investigation found a number of painted crosses on the walls of the abbey with the letters now found on St Benedict medals, but their meaning had been forgotten.", "A manuscript written in 1415 was eventually found that had a picture of Benedict holding a scroll in one hand and a staff which ended in a cross in the other.", "On the scroll and staff were written the full words of the initials contained on the crosses.", "Medals then began to be struck in Germany, which then spread throughout Europe.", "This medal was first approved by Pope Benedict XIV in his briefs of 23 December 1741 and 12 March 1742.Benedict has been also the motif of many collector's coins around the world.", "The Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders', issued on 13 March 2002 is one of them." ], [ "Influence", "Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders' commemorative coinThe early Middle Ages have been called \"the Benedictine centuries.\"", "In April 2008, Pope Benedict XVI discussed the influence St Benedict had on Western Europe.", "The pope said that \"with his life and work St Benedict exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture\" and helped Europe to emerge from the \"dark night of history\" that followed the fall of the Roman empire.Benedict contributed more than anyone else to the rise of monasticism in the West.", "His Rule was the foundational document for thousands of religious communities in the Middle Ages.", "To this day, The Rule of St. Benedict is the most common and influential Rule used by monasteries and monks, more than 1,400 years after its writing.A basilica was built upon the birthplace of Benedict and Scholastica in the 1400s.", "Ruins of their familial home were excavated from beneath the church and preserved.", "The earthquake of 30 October 2016 completely devastated the structure of the basilica, leaving only the front facade and altar standing." ], [ "Gallery", ":''See also :Category:Paintings of Benedict of Nursia.", "''File:Melk16.jpg|''Saint Benedict and the cup of poison'' (Melk Abbey, Austria)File:Gold-colored_small_Saint_Benedict_crucifix.jpg|Small gold-coloured Saint Benedict crucifixFile:Saint Benedict Medal.jpg|Both sides of a Saint Benedict MedalFile:Heiligenkreuz.St.", "Benedict.jpg|Portrait (1926) by Herman Nieg (1849–1928); Heiligenkreuz Abbey, AustriaFile:BenedictEpisodeCure.jpg|''St.", "Benedict at the Death of St. Scholastica'' (c. 1250–60), Musée National de l'Age Médiévale, Paris, orig.", "at the Abbatiale of St. DenisFile:Einsiedeln - St. Benedikt 2013-01-26 13-50-02 (P7700).JPG|Statue in Einsiedeln, SwitzerlandFile:Saint Andrew and Saint Benedict with the Archangel Gabriel (left panel) B35301.jpg|Benedict holding a bound bundle of sticks representing the strength of monks who live in community" ], [ "See also", "* Anthony the Great* Scholastica (St. Benedict's sister)* Benedict of Aniane* Benedictine Order* Camaldolese* Hermit* San Beneto* Saint Benedict Medal* Vade retro satana" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* (Institutional website of the Order of Saint Benedict)* === The Rule ===* * , translated by Leonard J. Doyle* === Publications ===* * * * * * * Marett-Crosby, A., ed., ''The Benedictine Handbook'' (Norwich: Canterbury Press, 2003).", "* === Iconography ===* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Battle of Pharsalus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Pharsalus''' was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus in Central Greece.", "Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the Roman Republic under the command of Pompey.", "Pompey had the backing of a majority of Roman senators and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions.Pressured by his officers, Pompey reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen.", "Eventually making his way to Egypt, he was assassinated upon his arrival at the order of Ptolemy XIII." ], [ "Prelude", "Following the start of the Civil War, Caesar had captured Rome, forced Pompey and his allies to withdraw from Italy, and defeated Pompey's legates in Spain.", "In the campaign season for 48 BC, Caesar crossed the Adriatic and advanced on Dyrrachium.", "There, he besieged it, but was defeated.Caesar then withdrew east into Thessaly, partly to relieve one of his legates from attack by Metellus Scipio's forces arriving from Syria.", "He besieged Gomphi after it resisted him.", "Pompey pursued, seeking to spare Italy from invasion by concluding the war on Greek soil, to prevent Caesar from defeating Metellus Scipio's forces arriving from Syria, and under pressure from his overconfident allies who accused him of prolonging the war to extend his command." ], [ "Date", "The decisive battle took place on 9 August 48 BC according to the Republican calendar.", "According to the proleptic Julian calendar however, the date was either 29 June (according to Le Verrier's chronological reconstruction) or possibly 7 June (according to Drumann/Groebe)." ], [ "Location", "The location of the battlefield was for a long time the subject of controversy among scholars.", "Caesar himself, in his ''Commentarii de Bello Civili'', mentions few place-names; and although the battle is called after Pharsalos by modern authors, four ancient writers – the author of the ''Bellum Alexandrinum'' (48.1), Frontinus (''Strategemata'' 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) – place it specifically at ''Palae''pharsalus (\"Old\" Pharsalus).", "Strabo in his ''Geographica'' (''Γεωγραφικά'') mentions both old and new Pharsaloi, and notes that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Scotoussa, was near both.", "In 198 BC, in the Second Macedonian War, Philip V of Macedon sacked Palaepharsalos (Livy, ''Ab Urbe Condita'' 32.13.9), but left new Pharsalos untouched.", "These two details perhaps imply that the two cities were not close neighbours.", "Many scholars, therefore, unsure of the site of Palaepharsalos, followed Appian (2.75) and located the battle of 48 BC south of the Enipeus or close to Pharsalos (today's Pharsala).", "Among the scholars arguing for the south side are Béquignon (1928), Bruère (1951), and Gwatkin (1957).An increasing number of scholars, however, have argued for a location on the north side of the river.", "These include Perrin (1885), Holmes (1908), Lucas (1921), Rambaud (1955), Pelling (1973), Morgan (1983), and Sheppard (2006).", "John D. Morgan in his definitive \"Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town\", shows that Palaepharsalus cannot have been at Palaiokastro, as Béquignon thought (a site abandoned c. 500 BC), nor the hill of Fatih-Dzami within the walls of Pharsalus itself, as Kromayer (1903, 1931) and Gwatkin thought; and Morgan argues that it is probably also not the hill of Khtouri (Koutouri), some 7 miles north-west of Pharsalus on the south bank of the Enipeus, as Lucas and Holmes thought, although that remains a possibility.", "However, Morgan believes it is most likely to have been the hill just east of the village of (Krini Larisas, formerly Driskoli) very close to the ancient highway from Larisa to Pharsalus.", "This site is some north of Pharsalus, and three miles north of the river Enipeus, and not only has remains dating back to neolithic times but also signs of habitation in the 1st century BC and later.", "The identification seems to be confirmed by the location of a place misspelled \"Palfari\" or \"Falaphari\" shown on a medieval route map of the road just north of Pharsalus.", "Morgan places Pompey's camp a mile to the west of Krini, just north of the village of Avra (formerly Sarikayia), and Caesar's camp some four miles to the east-south-east of Pompey's.", "According to this reconstruction, therefore, the battle took place not between Pharsalus and the river, as Appian wrote, but between Old Pharsalus and the river.An interesting side-note on Palaepharsalus is that it was sometimes identified in ancient sources with Phthia, the home of Achilles.", "Near Old and New Pharsalus was a \"Thetideion\", or temple dedicated to Thetis, the mother of Achilles.", "However, Phthia, the kingdom of Achilles and his father Peleus, is more usually identified with the lower valley of the Spercheios river, much further south." ], [ "Name of the battle", "Although it is often called the Battle of Pharsalus by modern historians, this name was rarely used in the ancient sources.", "Caesar merely calls it the ''proelium in Thessaliā'' (\"battle in Thessalia\"); Marcus Tullius Cicero and Hirtius call it the ''Pharsālicum proelium'' (\"Pharsalic battle\") or ''pugna Pharsālia'' (\"Pharsalian battle\"), and similar expressions are also used in other authors.", "But Hirtius (if he is the author of the de Bello Alexandrino) also refers to the battle as having taken place at ''Palaepharsalus'', and this name also occurs in Strabo, Frontinus, Eutropius, and Orosius.", "Lucan in his poem about the Civil War regularly uses the name ''Pharsālia'', and this term is also used by the epitomiser of Livy and by Tacitus.", "The only ancient sources to refer to the battle as being at Pharsalus are a certain calendar known as the Fasti Amiternini and the Greek authors Plutarch, Appian, and Polyaenus.", "It has therefore been argued by some scholars that \"Pharsalia\" would be a more accurate name for the battle than Pharsalus." ], [ "Opposing armies", "The total number of soldiers on each side is unknown because ancient accounts of the battle focused primarily on giving the numbers of Italian legionaries only, regarding allied non-citizen contingents as inferior and inconsequential.", "According to Caesar, his own army included 22,000 Roman legionaries distributed throughout 80 cohorts (8 legions), alongside 1,000 Gallic and Germanic cavalry.", "All of Caesar's legions were understrength; some only had about a thousand men at the time of Pharsalus, due partly to losses at Dyrrhachium and partly to Caesar's wish to rapidly advance with a picked body as opposed to a ponderous movement with a large army.", "Another source adds that he had recruited Greek light infantry from Dolopia, Acarnania and Aetolia; these numbered no more than a few thousand.", "Caesar, Appian and Plutarch give Pompey an army of 45,000 Roman infantry.", "Osorius describes Pompey as having 88 cohorts of Roman infantry, which at full strength would come to 44,000 men, while Brunt and Wylie estimated Pompey's Roman infantry as being as 38,000 men, and Greenhalgh said they contained a maximum of 36,000.It was in his auxiliary troops and in particular his cavalry, all of which vastly outnumbered Caesar's own, that Pompey had his greatest advantage.", "He seems to have had at his disposal anywhere between 5,000 and 7,000 cavalry, and thousands of archers, slingers and light infantrymen in general.", "These all formed a remarkably diverse group, including Gallic and Germanic horsemen alongside all polyglot peoples of the east – namely Greeks, Thracians, and Anatolians from the Balkans and Syrians, Phoenicians and Jews from the Levant.", "To this heterogeneous force Pompey added horsemen conscripted from his own slaves.", "Many of the foreigners were serving under their own rulers, for more than a dozen despots and petty kings under Roman influence in the east were Pompey's personal clients and some elected to attend in person, or send proxies.===Caesarian legions===Caesar had the following legions with him:* the VI legion (later called Ferrata) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the VII legion (later called Claudia Pia Fidelis) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the VIII legion (later called Augusta) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the IX legion (later called Hispania) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the X legion (Equestris, later called Gemina) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the XI legion (later called Paterna and Claudia Pia Fidelis, the same title as the seventh) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the XII legion (later called Fulminata) veterans of his Gallic Wars* the XIII legion (later also called Gemina, the 'twin' to the tenth) veterans of his Gallic WarsThe bulk of Caesar's army at Pharsalus was made up of his veterans from the Gallic Wars; very experienced, battle-hardened troops who were absolutely devoted to their commander." ], [ "Deployment", "Initial deployment of forces at the Battle of Pharsalus, August 48 BCThe two generals deployed their legions in the traditional three lines (''triplex acies''), with Pompey's right and Caesar's left flanks resting on river Enipeus.", "As the stream provided enough protection to that side, Pompey moved almost all of his cavalry, archers, and slingers to the left, to make the most of their numerical strength.", "Only a small force of 500–600 Pontic cavalry and some Cappadocian light infantry was placed on his right flank.", "Pompey stationed his strongest legions in the center and wings of his infantry line, and dispersed some 2,000 re-enlisted veterans throughout the entire line in order to inspire the less experienced.", "The Pompeian cohorts were arrayed in an unusually thick formation, 10 men deep: their task was just to tie down the enemy foot while Pompey's cavalry, his key to victory, swept through Caesar's flank and rear.", "The column of legions was divided under command of three subordinates, with Lentulus in charge of the left, Scipio of the center and Ahenobarbus the right.", "Labienus was entrusted with command of the cavalry charge, while Pompey himself took up a position behind the left wing in order to oversee the course of the battle.Caesar also deployed his men in three lines, but, being outnumbered, had to thin his ranks to a depth of only six men, in order to match the frontage presented by Pompey.", "His left flank, resting on the Enipeus River, consisted of his battle worn IXth legion supplemented by the VIIIth legion, these were commanded by Mark Antony.", "The VI, XII, XI and XIII formed the centre and were commanded by Domitius, then came the VII and upon his right he placed his favored Xth legion, giving Sulla command of this flank – Caesar himself took his stand on the right, across from Pompey.", "Upon seeing the disposition of Pompey's army Caesar grew discomforted, and further thinned his third line in order to form a fourth line on his right: this to counter the onslaught of the enemy cavalry, which he knew his numerically inferior cavalry could not withstand.", "He gave this new line detailed instructions for the role they would play, hinting that upon them would rest the fortunes of the day, and gave strict orders to his third line not to charge until specifically ordered." ], [ "Battle", "There was significant distance between the two armies, according to Caesar.", "Pompey ordered his men not to charge, but to wait until Caesar's legions came into close quarters; Pompey's adviser Gaius Triarius believed that Caesar's infantry would be fatigued and fall into disorder if they were forced to cover twice the expected distance of a battle march.", "Also, stationary troops were expected to be able to defend better against pila throws.", "Seeing that Pompey's army was not advancing, Caesar's infantry under Mark Antony and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus started the advance.", "As Caesar's men neared throwing distance, without orders, they stopped to rest and regroup before continuing the charge; Pompey's right and centre line held as the two armies collided.As Pompey's infantry fought, Labienus ordered the Pompeian cavalry on his left flank to attack Caesar's cavalry; as expected they successfully pushed back Caesar's cavalry.", "Caesar then revealed his hidden fourth line of infantry and surprised Pompey's cavalry charge; Caesar's men were ordered to leap up and use their pila to thrust at Pompey's cavalry instead of throwing them.", "Pompey's cavalry panicked and suffered hundreds of casualties, as Caesar's cavalry came about and charged after them.", "After failing to reform, the rest of Pompey's cavalry retreated to the hills, leaving the left wing of his legions exposed to the hidden troops as Caesar's cavalry wheeled around their flank.", "Caesar then ordered in his third line, containing his most battle-hardened veterans, to attack.", "This broke Pompey's left wing troops, who fled the battlefield.After routing Pompey's cavalry, Caesar threw in his last line of reservesa move which at this point meant that the battle was more or less decided.", "Pompey lost the will to fight as he watched both cavalry and legions under his command break formation and flee from battle, and he retreated to his camp, leaving the rest of his troops at the centre and right flank to their own devices.", "He ordered the garrisoned auxiliaries to defend the camp as he gathered his family, loaded up gold, and threw off his general's cloak to make a quick escape.", "As the rest of Pompey's army were left confused, Caesar urged his men to end the day by routing the rest of Pompey's troops and capturing the Pompeian camp.", "They complied with his wishes; after finishing off the remains of Pompey's men, they furiously attacked the camp walls.", "The Thracians and the other auxiliaries who were left in the Pompeian camp, in total seven cohorts, defended bravely, but were not able to fend off the assault.Caesar had won his greatest victory, claiming to have only lost about 200 soldiers and 30 centurions and assigning the Optimate losses to be 60,000 men.", "These numbers seem suspiciously exaggerated with Appian suggesting the Caesarean losses to be as many as 1,200 men and the Pompeian losses to be 6,000.In his history of the war, Caesar would praise his own men's discipline and experience, and remembered each of his centurions by name.", "He also questioned Pompey's decision not to charge." ], [ "Aftermath", "Pompey, despairing of the defeat, fled with his advisors overseas to Mytilene and thence to Cilicia where he held a council of war; at the same time, Cato and supporters at Dyrrachium attempted first to hand over command to Marcus Tullius Cicero, who refused, deciding instead to return to Italy.", "They then regrouped at Corcyra and went thence to Libya.", "Others, including Marcus Junius Brutus sought Caesar's pardon, travelling over marshlands to Larissa where he was then welcomed graciously by Caesar in his camp.", "Pompey's council of war decided to flee to Egypt, which had in the previous year supplied him with military aid.In the aftermath of the battle, Caesar captured Pompey's camp and burned Pompey's correspondence.", "He then announced that he would forgive all who asked for mercy.", "Pompeian naval forces in the Adriatic and Italy mostly withdrew or surrendered.Hearing of Pompey's flight to Egypt, Caesar remained in hot pursuit, first landing in Asia and reaching Alexandria on 2 October 48 BC, where he learnt of Pompey's murder and then was embroiled in a dynastic dispute between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra." ], [ "Importance", "anachronistic 14th century miniature by Niccolò da Bologna showing Caesar, the victor over Pompey at the Battle of PharsalusPaul K. Davis wrote that \"Caesar's victory took him to the pinnacle of power, effectively ending the Republic.\"", "The battle itself did not end the civil war but it was decisive and gave Caesar a much needed boost in legitimacy.", "Until then much of the Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and his allies due to the extensive list of clients he held in all corners of the Republic.", "After Pompey's defeat former allies began to align themselves with Caesar as some came to believe the gods favored him, while for others it was simple self-preservation.", "The ancients took great stock in success as a sign of favoritism by the gods.", "This is especially true of success in the face of almost certain defeat – as Caesar experienced at Pharsalus.", "This allowed Caesar to parlay this single victory into a huge network of willing clients to better secure his hold over power and force the Optimates into near exile in search for allies to continue the fight against Caesar." ], [ "In popular culture", "The battle gives its name to the following artistic, geographical, and business concerns:* ''Pharsalia'', a poem by Lucan* Pharsalia, New York, U.S.* Pharsalia Technologies, Inc.In Alexander Dumas' ''The Three Musketeers'', the author makes reference to Caesar's purported order that his men try to cut the faces of their opponents – their vanity supposedly being of more value to them than their lives.In Mankiewicz's 1963 film ''Cleopatra'', the immediate aftermath of Pharsalus is used as an opening scene to set the action in motion." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bruère, Richard Treat, (1951).", "\"Palaepharsalus, Pharsalus, Pharsalia\".", "''Classical Philology'', Vol.", "46, No.", "2 (Apr., 1951), pp. 111–115.", "* Gwatkin, William E. (1956).", "\"Some Reflections on the Battle of Pharsalus\", ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol.", "87.", "* James, Steven (2016).", "\"48 BC: The Battle of Pharsalus\".", "* Lucas, Frank Laurence (1921).", "\"The Battlefield of Pharsalos\", ''Annual of the British School at Athens'', No.", "XXIV, 1919–21.", "* Nordling, John G. (2006).", "\"Caesar's Pre-Battle Speech at Pharsalus (B.C.", "3.85.4): ''Ridiculum Acri Fortius ... Secat Res''\".", "''The Classical Journal'', Vol.", "101, No.", "2 (Dec. – Jan., 2005/2006), pp. 183–189.", "* Pelling, C. B. R. (1973).", "\"Pharsalus\".", "''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte''.", "Bd.", "22, H. 2 (2nd Qtr., 1973), pp. 249–259.", "* Perrin, B.", "(1885).", "\"Pharsalia, Pharsalus, Palaepharsalus\".", "''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol.", "6, No.", "2 (1885), pp. 170–189.", "* Postgate, J. P. (1905).", "\"Pharsalia Nostra\".", "''The Classical Review'', Vol.", "19, No.", "5 (Jun., 1905), pp. 257–260.", "* Rambaud, Michel (1955).", "\"Le Soleil de Pharsale\", ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte '', Vol.", "3, No.", "4.", "* Searle, Arthur (1907).", "\"Note on the Battle of Pharsalus\".", "''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Vol.", "18 (1907), pp.", "213–218." ], [ "External links", "* Caesar's account of the battle" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bigfoot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bigfoot''', also commonly referred to as '''Sasquatch''', is a large and hairy human-like mythical creature alleged by some to inhabit forests in North America, particularly in the Pacific Northwest.", "Bigfoot is featured in both American and Canadian folklore, and has become an enduring icon in popular culture.Enthusiasts of the subject, such as those within the pseudoscience of cryptozoology, have offered various forms of dubious evidence to prove Bigfoot's existence, including anecdotal claims of sightings as well as alleged photographs, video and audio recordings, hair samples, and casts of large footprints.", "However, the scientific consensus is that Bigfoot, and alleged evidence, is a combination of folklore, misidentification, and hoax rather than a living animal.", "Folklorists trace the phenomenon of Bigfoot to a combination of factors and sources, including the European wild man figure, folk tales, and indigenous cultures.", "Examples of similar folk tales of wild, hair-covered humanoids exist throughout the world, such as the Skunk ape of the southeastern United States, the Almas, Yeren, and Yeti in Asia, the Australian Yowie, and creatures in the mythologies of indigenous people.", "Wishful thinking, a cultural increase in environmental concerns, and overall societal awareness of the subject have been cited as additional factors." ], [ "Description", "\"Sassy the Sasquatch\" roadside attraction statue in the Garden of the Gods Wilderness within the Shawnee National Forest, Illinois.Bigfoot is often described as a large, muscular, and bipedal human or ape-like creature covered in black, dark brown, or dark reddish hair.", "Anecdotal descriptions estimate a height of roughly , with some descriptions having the creatures standing as tall as .", "Some alleged observations describe Bigfoot as more human than ape, particularly in regard to the face.", "In 1971, multiple people in The Dalles, Oregon, filed a police report describing an \"overgrown ape\", and one of the men claimed to have sighted the creature in the scope of his rifle but could not bring himself to shoot it because \"it looked more human than animal\".Common descriptions include broad shoulders, no visible neck, and long arms, which many skeptics attribute to misidentification of a bear standing upright.", "Some alleged nighttime sightings have stated the creature's eyes \"glowed\" yellow or red.", "However, eyeshine is not present in humans or any other known great apes, and so proposed explanations for observable eyeshine off of the ground in the forest include owls, raccoons, or opossums perched in foliage.Michael Rugg, the owner of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum, claims to have smelled Bigfoot, stating, \"Imagine a skunk that had rolled around in dead animals and had hung around the garbage pits.", "\"The enormous footprints for which the creature is named are claimed to be as large as long and wide.", "Some footprint casts have also contained claw marks, making it likely that they came from known animals such as bears, which have five toes and claws." ], [ "History", "===Folklore and early records ===Painted Rock.Ecologist Robert Pyle argues that most cultures have accounts of human-like giants in their folk history, expressing a need for \"some larger-than-life creature\".", "Each language had its name for the creature featured in the local version of such legends.", "Many names mean something like \"wild man\" or \"hairy man\", although other names described common actions that it was said to perform, such as eating clams or shaking trees.", "European folklore traditionally had many instances of the \"wild man of the woods,\" or \"wild people,\" often described as \"a naked creature covered in hair, with only the face, feet and hands (and in some cases the knees, elbows, or breasts) remaining bare\" These European wild people ranged from human hermits, to human-like monsters.", "Upon migrating to North America, myths of the \"wild people\" persisted, with documented sightings of \"wild people\" reported in what is now New York state and Pennsylvania.", "In a 2007 paper titled \"Images of the Wildman Inside and Outside Europe\" it stated: Many of the indigenous cultures across the North American continent include tales of mysterious hair-covered creatures living in forests, and according to anthropologist David Daegling, these legends existed long before contemporary reports of the creature described as Bigfoot.", "These stories differed in their details regionally and between families in the same community and are particularly prevalent in the Pacific Northwest.", "Chief Mischelle of the Nlaka'pamux at Lytton, British Columbia, told such a story to Charles Hill-Tout in 1898.On the Tule River Indian Reservation, petroglyphs created by a tribe of Yokuts at a site called Painted Rock are alleged by some to depict a group of Bigfoot called \"the Family\".", "The local tribespeople call the largest of the glyphs \"Hairy Man\", and they are estimated to be between 500 and 1,000 years old.", "16th-century Spanish explorers and Mexican settlers told tales of the ''los Vigilantes Oscuros'', or \"Dark Watchers\", large creatures alleged to stalk their camps at night.", "In the region that is now Mississippi, a Jesuit priest was living with the Natchez in 1721 and reported stories of hairy creatures in the forest known to scream loudly and steal livestock.The Sts'ailes people tell stories about ''sasq'ets'', a shape-shifting creature that protects the forest.", "The name \"Sasquatch\" is the anglicized version of ''sasq'ets'' (sas-kets), roughly translating to \"hairy man\" in the Halq'emeylem language.The folklore of the Cherokee includes tales of the ''Tsul 'Kalu'', who were described as \"slant-eyed giants\" that resided in the Appalachian Mountains.", "Members of the Lummi tell tales about creatures known as ''Ts'emekwes''.", "The stories are similar to each other in the general descriptions of ''Ts'emekwes'', but details differed among various family accounts concerning the creature's diet and activities.", "Some regional versions tell of more threatening creatures: the ''stiyaha'' or ''kwi-kwiyai'' were a nocturnal race, and children were warned against saying the names so that the \"monsters\" would not come and carry them off to be killed.", "The Iroquois tell of an aggressive, hair covered giant with rock-hard skin known as the ''Ot ne yar heh'' or \"Stone Giant\", more commonly referred to as the ''Genoskwa''.", "In 1847, Paul Kane reported stories by the natives about ''skoocooms'', a race of cannibalistic wild men living on the peak of Mount St. Helens.", "U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, in his 1893 book, ''The Wilderness Hunter'', writes of a story he was told by an elderly mountain man named Bauman in which a foul-smelling, bipedal creature ransacked his beaver trapping camp, stalked him, and later became hostile when it fatally broke his companion's neck.", "Roosevelt notes that Bauman appeared fearful while telling the story but attributed the trapper's German ancestry to have potentially influenced him.", "The Alutiiq of the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska tell of the ''Nantinaq'', a Bigfoot-like creature.", "This folklore was featured in the Discovery+ television series, ''Alaskan Killer Bigfoot'', which claims the ''Nantinaq'' was responsible for the population decrease of Portlock in the 1940s.Less menacing versions have been recorded, such as one by Reverend Elkanah Walker in 1840.Walker was a Protestant missionary who recorded stories of giants among the natives living near Spokane, Washington.", "These giants were said to live on and around the peaks of the nearby mountains, stealing salmon from the fishermen's nets.==== Ape Canyon incident ====On July 16, 1924, an article in ''The Oregonian'' made national news when a story was published describing a conflict between a group of gold prospectors and a group of \"ape-men\" in a gorge near Mount St. Helens.", "The prospectors reported encountering \"gorilla men\" near their remote cabin.", "One of the men, Fred Beck, indicated that he struck one of the creatures with rifle fire.", "That night, they reported coming under attack by the creatures, who were said to have thrown large rocks at the cabin, damaging the roof and knocking Beck unconscious.", "The men fled the area the following morning.", "The U.S. Forest Service investigated the site of the alleged incident.", "The investigators found no compelling evidence of the event and concluded it was likely a fabrication.", "Stories of large, hair covered bipedal ape-men or \"mountain devils\" had been a persistent piece of folklore in the area for centuries prior to the alleged incident.", "Today, the area is known as Ape Canyon and is cemented within Bigfoot-related folklore.===Origin of the \"Bigfoot\" name=======Jerry Crew and Andrew Genzoli====In 1958, Jerry Crew, bulldozer operator for a logging company in Humboldt County, California, discovered a set of large, human-like footprints sunk deep within the mud in the Six Rivers National Forest.", "Upon informing his coworkers, many claimed to have seen similar tracks on previous job sites as well as telling of odd incidents such as an oil drum weighing having been moved without explanation.", "The logging company men soon began utilizing \"Bigfoot\" to describe the apparent culprit.", "Crew and others initially believed someone was playing a prank on them.", "After observing more of these massive footprints, he contacted reporter Andrew Genzoli of the ''Humboldt Times'' newspaper.", "Genzoli interviewed lumber workers and wrote articles about the mysterious footprints, introducing the name \"Bigfoot\" in relation to the tracks and the local tales of large, hairy wild men.", "A plaster cast was made of the footprints and Crew appeared, holding one of the casts, on the front page of the newspaper on October 6, 1958.The story spread rapidly as Genzoli began to receive correspondence from major media outlets including the ''New York Times'' and ''Los Angeles Times''.", "As a result, the term Bigfoot became widespread as a reference to an apparently large, unknown creature leaving massive footprints in Northern California.", "As a result, Willow Creek and Humboldt County are considered by some to be the \"Bigfoot Capital of the World\".====Ray Wallace and Rant Mullens====In 2002, the family of Jerry Crew's deceased coworker Ray Wallace revealed a collection of large, carved wooden feet stored in his basement.", "They stated that Wallace had been secretly making the footprints and was responsible for the tracks discovered by Crew.", "Wallace was inspired by another hoaxer, Rant Mullens, who revealed information about his hoaxes in 1982.In the 1930s in Toledo, Washington, Mullens and a group of other foresters carved pairs of large feet made of wood and used them to create footprints in the mud to scare huckleberry pickers in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.", "The group would also claim to be responsible for hoaxing the alleged Ape Canyon incident in 1924.Mullens and the group of foresters began referring to themselves as the St. Helens Apes, and would later have a cave dedicated to them.Wallace, also from Toledo, knew Mullens and stated he collaborated with him to obtain a pair of the large wooden feet and subsequently used them to create footprints on the 1958 construction site as a means to scare away potential thieves.===Other historical uses of \"Bigfoot\"===In the 1830s, a Wyandot chief was nicknamed \"Big Foot\" due to his significant size, strength and large feet.", "Potawatomi Chief Maumksuck, known as Chief \"Big Foot\", is today synonymous with the area of Walworth County, Wisconsin, and has a state park and school named for him.", "William A.", "A. Wallace, a famous 19th century Texas Ranger, was nicknamed \"Bigfoot\" due to his large feet and today has a town named for him: Bigfoot, Texas.", "Lakota leader Spotted Elk was also called \"Chief Big Foot\".", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, at least two enormous marauding grizzly bears were widely noted in the press and each nicknamed \"Bigfoot.\"", "The first grizzly bear called \"Bigfoot\" was reportedly killed near Fresno, California, in 1895 after killing sheep for 15 years; his weight was estimated at 2,000 pounds (900 kg).", "The second one was active in Idaho in the 1890s and 1900s between the Snake and Salmon rivers, and supernatural powers were attributed to it.===Regional and other names===\"Bigfoot\" carving at the Crystal Creek Reservoir in Colorado.Many regions have differentiating names for the creatures.", "In Canada, the name ''Sasquatch'' is widely used although often interchangeably with the name ''Bigfoot''.", "The United States uses both of these names but also has numerous names and descriptions of the creatures depending on the region and area in which they are allegedly sighted.", "These include the ''Skunk ape'' in Florida and other southern states, ''Grassman'' in Ohio, ''Fouke Monster'' in Arkansas, ''Wood Booger'' in Virginia, the ''Monster of Whitehall'' in Whitehall, New York, ''Momo'' in Missouri, ''Honey Island Swamp Monster'' in Louisiana, ''Dewey Lake Monster'' in Michigan, ''Mogollon Monster'' in Arizona, the ''Big Muddy Monster'' in southern Illinois, and ''The Old Men of the Mountain'' in West Virginia.", "The term ''Wood Ape'' is also used by some as a means to deviate from the perceived mythical connotation surrounding the name \"Bigfoot\".", "Other names include ''Bushman'', ''Treeman'', and ''Wildman''." ], [ "Proposed explanations", "A black bear showcasing its ability to sit in a human-like fashion.Various explanations have been suggested for sightings and to offer conjecture on what existing animal has been misidentified in supposed sightings of Bigfoot.", "Scientists typically attribute sightings to hoaxes or misidentifications of known animals and their tracks, particularly black bears.===Misidentification=======Bears====Scientists theorize that mistaken identification of American black bears as Bigfoot are a likely explanation for most reported sightings, particularly when observers view a subject from afar, are in dense foliage, or there are poor lighting conditions.", "Additionally, black bears have been observed and recorded walking upright, often as the result of an injury.", "While upright, adult black bears stand roughly , and grizzly bears roughly .According to data scientist Floe Foxon, more people report seeing Bigfoot in areas with documented black bear populations.", "Foxon concludes, \"If bigfoot is there, it may be many bears\".", "Foxon acknowledges that alleged Bigfoot sightings have been reported in areas with minimal or no known black bear populations.", "She states, \"Although this may be interpreted as evidence for the existence of an unknown hominid in North America, it is also explained by misidentification of other animals (including humans), among other possibilities\".====Escaped apes====Some have proposed that sightings of Bigfoot may simply be people observing and misidentifying known great apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans that have escaped from captivity such as zoos, circuses, and exotic pets belonging to private owners.", "This explanation is often proposed in relation to the Skunk ape, as some scientists argue the humid subtropical climate of the southeastern United States could potentially support a population of escaped apes.====Humans====Humans have been mistaken for Bigfoot, with some incidents leading to injuries.", "In 2013, a 21-year-old man in Oklahoma was arrested after he told law enforcement he accidentally shot his friend in the back while their group was allegedly hunting for Bigfoot.", "In 2017, a shamanist wearing clothing made of animal furs was vacationing in a North Carolina forest when local reports of alleged Bigfoot sightings flooded in.", "The Greenville Police Department issued a public notice not to shoot Bigfoot for fear of mistakenly injuring or killing someone in a fur suit.", "In 2018, a person was shot at multiple times by a hunter near Helena, Montana, who claimed he mistook him for a Bigfoot.Additionally, some have attributed feral humans or hermits living in the wilderness as being another explanation for alleged Bigfoot sightings.", "One story, the Wild Man of the Navidad, tells of a wild ape-man who roamed the wilderness of eastern Texas in the mid-19th century, stealing food and goods from residents.", "A search party allegedly captured an escaped African slave attributed to the story.", "During the 1980s, several psychologically damaged American Vietnam veterans were stated by the state of Washington's veterans' affairs director, Randy Fisher, to have been living in remote wooded areas of the state.====Pareidolia====Some have proposed that pareidolia may explain Bigfoot sightings, specifically the tendency to observe human-like faces and figures within the natural environment.", "Photos and videos of poor quality alleged to depict Bigfoots are often attributed to this phenomenon and commonly referred to as \"Blobsquatch\".====Misidentified vocalizations====The majority of mainstream scientists maintain that the source of the sounds often attributed to Bigfoot are either hoaxes, anthropomorphization, or likely misidentified and produced by known animals such as owl, wolf, coyote, and fox.===Hoaxes===Both Bigfoot believers and non-believers agree that many reported sightings are hoaxes.===''Gigantopithecus''===Fossil jaw of the extinct primate ''Gigantopithecus blacki''Bigfoot proponents Grover Krantz and Geoffrey H. Bourne both believed that Bigfoot could be a relict population of the extinct southeast Asian ape species ''Gigantopithecus blacki''.", "According to Bourne, ''G.", "blacki'' may have followed the many other species of animals that migrated across the Bering land bridge to the Americas.", "To date, no ''Gigantopithecus'' fossils have been found in the Americas.", "In Asia, the only recovered fossils have been of mandibles and teeth, leaving uncertainty about ''G.", "blacki''s locomotion.", "Krantz has argued that ''G.", "blacki'' could have been bipedal, based on his extrapolation from the shape of its mandible.", "However, the relevant part of the mandible is not present in any fossils.", "The consensus view is that ''G.", "blacki'' was quadrupedal, as its enormous mass would have made it difficult for it to adopt a bipedal gait.Anthropologist Matt Cartmill criticizes the ''G.", "blacki'' hypothesis:The trouble with this account is that ''Gigantopithecus'' was not a hominin and maybe not even a crown group hominoid; yet the physical evidence implies that Bigfoot is an upright biped with buttocks and a long, stout, permanently adducted hallux.", "These are hominin autapomorphies, not found in other mammals or other bipeds.", "It seems unlikely that ''Gigantopithecus'' would have evolved these uniquely hominin traits in parallel.Paleoanthropologist Bernard G. Campbell writes: \"That ''Gigantopithecus'' is in fact extinct has been questioned by those who believe it survives as the Yeti of the Himalayas and the Sasquatch of the north-west American coast.", "But the evidence for these creatures is not convincing.", "\"===Extinct hominidae===Primatologist John R. Napier and anthropologist Gordon Strasenburg have suggested a species of ''Paranthropus'' as a possible candidate for Bigfoot's identity, such as ''Paranthropus robustus'', with its gorilla-like crested skull and bipedal gait —despite the fact that fossils of ''Paranthropus'' are found only in Africa.Michael Rugg of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum presented a comparison between human, ''Gigantopithecus,'' and ''Meganthropus'' skulls (reconstructions made by Grover Krantz) in episodes 131 and 132 of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum Show.", "Bigfoot enthusiasts that think Bigfoot may be the \"missing link\" between apes and humans have promoted the idea that Bigfoot is a descendant of ''Gigantopithecus blacki'', but that ape diverged from orangutans around 12 million years ago and is not related to humans.Some suggest Neanderthal, ''Homo erectus'', or ''Homo heidelbergensis'' to be the creature, but, like all other great apes, no remains of any of those species have been found in the Americas." ], [ "Scientific view", "Expert consensus is that allegations of the existence of Bigfoot are not credible.", "Belief in the existence of such a large, ape-like creature is more often attributed to hoaxes, confusion, or delusion rather than to sightings of a genuine creature.", "In a 1996 ''USA Today'' article, Washington State zoologist John Crane said, \"There is no such thing as Bigfoot.", "No data other than material that's clearly been fabricated has ever been presented.\"", "The author of one review article states that, in their opinion, it is impossible even to consider cryptozoology a science if it continues to consider Bigfoot seriously.As with other similar beings, climate and food supply issues would make such a creature's survival in reported habitats unlikely.", "Bigfoot is alleged to live in regions unusual for a large, nonhuman primate, i.e., temperate latitudes in the northern hemisphere; all recognized nonhuman apes are found in the tropics of Africa and Asia.", "Great apes have not been found in the fossil record in the Americas, and no Bigfoot remains are known to have been found.", "Phillips Stevens, a cultural anthropologist at the University at Buffalo, summarized the scientific consensus as follows:In the 1970s, when Bigfoot \"experts\" were frequently given high-profile media coverage, McLeod writes that the scientific community generally avoided lending credence to such fringe theories by refusing even to debate them.Primatologist Jane Goodall was asked for her personal opinion of Bigfoot in a 2002 interview on National Public Radio's \"Science Friday\".", "Goodall responded saying, \"Well, now you will be amazed when I tell you that I'm sure that they exist.", "\"She later added, \"Well, I'm a romantic, so I always wanted them to exist,\" and \"Of course, the big, the big criticism of all this is, \"Where is the body?\"", "You know, why isn't there a body?", "I can't answer that, and maybe they don't exist, but I want them to.\"", "In 2012, when asked again by the ''Huffington Post'', Goodall said \"I'm fascinated and would actually love them to exist,\" adding, \"Of course, it's strange that there has never been a single authentic hide or hair of the Bigfoot, but I've read all the accounts.\"", "Paleontologist and author Darren Naish states in a 2016 article for ''Scientific American'' that if \"Bigfoot\" existed, an abundance of evidence would also exist that cannot be found anywhere today, making the existence of such a creature exceedingly unlikely.Naish summarizes the evidence for \"Bigfoot\" that would exist if the creature itself existed: * If \"Bigfoot\" existed, so would consistent reports of uniform vocalizations throughout North America as can be identified for any existing large animal in the region, rather than the scattered and widely varied \"Bigfoot\" sounds haphazardly reported; * If \"Bigfoot\" existed, so would many tracks that would be easy for experts to find, just as they easily find tracks for other rare megafauna in North America, rather than a complete lack of such tracks alongside \"tracks\" that experts agree are fraudulent; * Finally, if \"Bigfoot\" existed, an abundance of \"Bigfoot\" DNA would already have been found, again as it has been found for similar animals, instead of the current state of affairs, where there is no confirmed DNA for such a creature whatsoever.===Researchers===Ivan T. Sanderson and Bernard Heuvelmans, founders of the study of cryptozoology, spent parts of their career searching for Bigfoot.", "Later scientists who researched the topic included Jason Jarvis, Carleton S. Coon, George Allen Agogino and William Charles Osman Hill, though they later stopped their research due to lack of evidence for the alleged creature.John Napier asserts that the scientific community's attitude towards Bigfoot stems primarily from insufficient evidence.", "Other scientists who have shown varying degrees of interest in the creature are Grover Krantz, Jeffrey Meldrum, John Bindernagel, David J. Daegling, George Schaller, Russell Mittermeier, Daris Swindler, Esteban Sarmiento, and Mireya Mayor.===Formal studies===2007 photograph of the Bigfoot trap within the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest.One study was conducted by John Napier and published in his book ''Bigfoot: The Yeti and Sasquatch in Myth and Reality'' in 1973.Napier wrote that if a conclusion is to be reached based on scant extant \"'hard' evidence,\" science must declare \"Bigfoot does not exist.\"", "However, he found it difficult to entirely reject thousands of alleged tracks, \"scattered over 125,000 square miles\" (325,000 km2) or to dismiss all \"the many hundreds\" of eyewitness accounts.", "Napier concluded, \"I am convinced that Sasquatch exists, but whether it is all it is cracked up to be is another matter altogether.", "There must be ''something'' in north-west America that needs explaining, and that something leaves man-like footprints.", "\"In 1974, the National Wildlife Federation funded a field study seeking Bigfoot evidence.", "No formal federation members were involved and the study made no notable discoveries.", "Also in 1974, the now defunct North American Wildlife Research Team constructed a \"Bigfoot trap\" in the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest.", "It was baited with animal carcasses and captured multiple bears, but no Bigfoot.", "Upkeep of the trap ended in the early 1980s, but in 2006 the United States Forest Service repaired the trap, which today is a tourist destination along the Collings Mountain hiking trail.Beginning in the late 1970s, physical anthropologist Grover Krantz published several articles and four book-length treatments of Bigfoot.", "However, his work was found to contain multiple scientific failings including falling for hoaxes.A study published in the ''Journal of Biogeography'' in 2009 by J.D.", "Lozier et al.", "used ecological niche modeling on reported sightings of Bigfoot, using their locations to infer preferred ecological parameters.", "They found a very close match with the ecological parameters of the American black bear.", "They also note that an upright bear looks much like a Bigfoot's purported appearance and consider it highly improbable that two species should have very similar ecological preferences, concluding that Bigfoot sightings are likely misidentified sightings of black bears.In the first systematic genetic analysis of 30 hair samples that were suspected to be from Bigfoot-like creatures, only one was found to be primate in origin, and that was identified as human.", "A joint study by the University of Oxford and Lausanne's Cantonal Museum of Zoology and published in the ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B'' in 2014, the team used a previously published cleaning method to remove all surface contamination and the ribosomal mitochondrial DNA 12S fragment of the sample.", "The sample was sequenced and then compared to GenBank to identify the species origin.", "The samples submitted were from different parts of the world, including the United States, Russia, the Himalayas, and Sumatra.", "Other than one sample of human origin, all but two are from common animals.", "Black and brown bears accounted for most of the samples, other animals include cow, horse, dog/wolf/coyote, sheep, goat, deer, raccoon, porcupine, and tapir.", "The last two samples were thought to match a fossilized genetic sample of a 40,000 year old polar bear of the Pleistocene epoch; a second test identified these hairs as being from a rare type of brown bear.In 2019, the FBI declassified an analysis it conducted on alleged Bigfoot hairs in 1976.Bigfoot researcher Peter Byrne sent the FBI 15 hairs attached to a small skin fragment and asked if the bureau could assist him in identifying it.", "Jay Cochran, Jr., assistant director of the FBI's Scientific and Technical Services division responded in 1977 that the hairs were of deer family origin." ], [ "Claims", "Claims about the origins and characteristics of Bigfoot vary.", "The subject of Bigfoot has crossed over with other paranormal claims, including that Bigfoot, extraterrestrials, and UFOs are related or that Bigfoot are psychic, can shapeshift, are able to cross into different dimensions, or are completely supernatural in origin.", "Additionally, claims regarding Bigfoot have been associated with conspiracy theories including a government cover-up.===Sightings===According to ''Live Science'', there have been over 10,000 reported Bigfoot sightings in the continental United States.", "About one-third of all claims of Bigfoot sightings are located in the Pacific Northwest, with the remaining reports spread throughout the rest of North America.", "Most reports are considered mistakes or hoaxes, even by those researchers who claim Bigfoot exists.Sightings predominantly occur in the northwestern region of Washington state, Oregon, Northern California, and British Columbia.", "According to data collected from the Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization's (BFRO) Bigfoot sightings database in 2019, Washington has over 2,000 reported sightings, California over 1,600, Pennsylvania over 1,300, New York and Oregon over 1,000, and Texas has just over 800.The debate over the legitimacy of Bigfoot sightings reached a peak in the 1970s, and Bigfoot has been regarded as the first widely popularized example of pseudoscience in American culture.====Alleged behavior====Some Bigfoot researchers allege that Bigfoot throws rocks as territorial displays and for communication.", "Other alleged behaviors include audible blows struck against trees or \"wood knocking\", further alleged to be communicative.Skeptics argue that these behaviors are easily hoaxed.Additionally, structures of broken and twisted foliage seemingly placed in specific areas have been attributed by some to Bigfoot behavior.", "In some reports, lodgepole pine and other small trees have been observed bent, uprooted, or stacked in patterns such as weaved and crisscrossed, leading some to theorize that they are potential territorial markings.", "Some instances have also included entire deer skeletons being suspended high in trees.", "Some researchers and enthusiasts believe Bigfoot construct teepee-like structures out of dead trees and foliage.", "In Washington state, a team of amateur Bigfoot researchers called the Olympic Project claimed to have discovered a collection of nests.", "The group brought in primatologists to study them, with the conclusion being that they appear to have been created by a primate.Jeremiah Byron, host of the ''Bigfoot Society Podcast'', believes Bigfoot are omnivores, stating, \"They eat both plants and meat.", "I've seen accounts that they eat everything from berries, leaves, nuts, and fruit to salmon, rabbit, elk, and bear.", "Ronny Le Blanc, host of ''Expedition Bigfoot'' on the Travel Channel indicated he has heard anecdotal reports of Bigfoot allegedly hunting and consuming deer.Some Bigfoot researchers have reported the creatures moving or taking possession of intentional \"gifts\" left by humans such as food and jewelry, and leaving items in their places such as rocks and twigs.Many alleged sightings are reported to occur at night leading some cryptozoologists to hypothesize that Bigfoot may possess nocturnal tendencies.", "However, experts find such behavior untenable in a supposed ape- or human-like creature, as all known apes, including humans, are diurnal, with only lesser primates exhibiting nocturnality.", "Most anecdotal sightings of Bigfoot describe the creatures allegedly observed as solitary, although some reports have described groups being allegedly observed together.====Alleged vocalizations====Alleged vocalizations such as howls, screams, moans, grunts, whistles, and even a form of supposed language have been reported and allegedly recorded.", "Some of these alleged vocalization recordings have been analyzed by individuals such as retired U.S. Navy cryptologic linguist Scott Nelson.", "He analyzed audio recordings from the early 1970s said to be recorded in the Sierra Nevada mountains dubbed the \"Sierra Sounds\" and stated, \"It is definitely a language, it is definitely not human in origin, and it could not have been faked\".", "Les Stroud has spoken of a strange vocalization he heard in the wilderness while filming ''Survivorman'' that he stated sounded primate in origin.", "A number of anecdotal reports of Bigfoot encounters have resulted in witnesses claiming to be disoriented, dizzy and anxious.", "Some Bigfoot researchers, such as paranormal author Nick Redfern, have proposed that Bigfoot may produce infrasound, which could explain reports of this nature.====Alleged encounters====In Fouke, Arkansas, in 1971, a family reported that a large, hair-covered creature startled a woman after reaching through a window.", "This alleged incident caused hysteria in the Fouke area and inspired the horror movie, ''The Legend of Boggy Creek'' (1972).", "The report was later deemed a hoax.In 1974, the ''New York Times'' presented the dubious tale of Albert Ostman, a Canadian prospector, who stated that he was kidnapped and held captive by a family of Bigfoot for six days in 1924.In 1994, former U.S. Forest Service ranger Paul Freeman, a Bigfoot researcher, videotaped an alleged Bigfoot he reportedly encountered in the Blue Mountains in Oregon.", "The tape, often referred to as the ''Freeman footage'', continues to be scrutinized and its authenticity debated.", "Freeman had previously gained media recognition in the 1980s for documenting alleged Bigfoot tracks, claiming they possessed dermal ridges.On May 26, 1996, Lori Pate, who was on a camping trip near the Washington state-Canada border, videotaped a dark subject she reported encountering running across a field and claimed it was Bigfoot.", "The film, dubbed the ''Memorial Day Bigfoot footage'', is often depicted in Bigfoot-related media, most notably in the 2003 documentary, ''Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science''.", "In his research, Daniel Perez of the ''Skeptical Inquirer'' concluded that the footage was likely a hoax perpetuated by a human in a gorilla costume.In 2018, Bigfoot researcher Claudia Ackley garnered international attention after filing a lawsuit with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) for failing to acknowledge the existence of Bigfoot.", "Ackley claimed to have encountered and filmed a Bigfoot in the San Bernardino Mountains in 2017, describing what she saw as a \"Neanderthal man with a lot of hair\".", "Ackley contacted emergency services as well as the CDFW; a state investigator concluded that she encountered a bear.", "Until her death in 2023, Ackley also ran an online support group for individuals claiming to experience psychological trauma as a result of alleged Bigfoot encounters.In October 2023, a woman named Shannon Parker uploaded a video of an alleged Bigfoot to Facebook.", "The footage went viral on social media and was shared via various news publications.", "Shannon Parker reported she and others observed the subject while riding a train on the Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad in the San Juan Mountains in Colorado.", "The authenticity of the video was debated across social media.", "Skeptics on Reddit speculated it was a publicity hoax perpetrated by an RV company located the area, Sasquatch Expedition Campers.", "The company denied the allegations.In the early 1990s, 9-1-1 audio recordings were made public in which a homeowner in Kitsap County, Washington, called law enforcement for assistance with a large subject, described by him as being \"all in black\", having entered his backyard.", "He previously reported to law enforcement that his dog was killed recently when it was thrown over his fence.", "Anthropologist Jeffrey Meldrum notes that any large predatory animal is potentially dangerous, specifically if provoked, but indicates that most anecdotal accounts of Bigfoot encounter result in the creatures hiding or fleeing from people.", "The 2021 Hulu documentary series, ''Sasquatch'', describes marijuana farmers telling stories of Bigfoots harassing and killing people within the Emerald Triangle region in the 1970s through the 1990s; and specifically the alleged murder of three migrant workers in 1993.Investigative journalist David Holthouse attributes the stories to illegal drug operations using the local Bigfoot lore to scare away the competition, specifically superstitious immigrants, and that the high rate of murder and missing persons in the area is attributed to human actions.Skeptics argue that many of these alleged encounters are easily hoaxed, the result of misidentification, or are outright fabrications.===Patterson-Gimlin film===The Patterson-GimlinThe most well-known video of an alleged Bigfoot, the ''Patterson-Gimlin film'', was recorded on October 20, 1967, by Roger Patterson and Robert \"Bob\" Gimlin in an area called Bluff Creek in Northern California.", "The 59.5-second-long video has become an iconic piece of Bigfoot lore, and continues to be a highly scrutinized, analyzed, and debated subject.Academic experts from related fields have typically judged the film as providing no supportive data of any scientific value, with perhaps the most common proposed explanation being that it was a hoax.===Evidence claims===A body print taken in the year 2000 from the Gifford Pinchot National Forest in Washington state dubbed the Skookum cast is also believed by some to have been made by a Bigfoot that sat down in the mud to eat fruit left out by researchers during the filming of an episode of the ''Animal X'' television show.", "Skeptics believe the cast to have been made by a known animal such as an elk.Alleged Bigfoot footprints are often suggested by Bigfoot enthusiasts as evidence for the creature's existence.", "Anthropologist Jeffrey Meldrum, who specializes in the study of primate bipedalism, possesses over 300 footprint casts that he maintains could not be made by wood carvings or human feet based on their anatomy, but instead are evidence of a large, non-human primate present today in North America.", "In 2005, Matt Crowley obtained a copy of an alleged Bigfoot footprint cast, called the \"Onion Mountain Cast\", and was able to painstakingly recreate the dermal ridges.", "Michael Dennett of the ''Skeptical Inquirer'' spoke to police investigator and primate fingerprint expert Jimmy Chilcutt in 2006 for comment on the replica and he stated, \"Matt has shown artifacts can be created, at least under laboratory conditions, and field researchers need to take precautions\".", "Chilcutt had previously stated that some of the alleged Bigfoot footprint plaster casts he examined were genuine due to the presence of \"unique dermal ridges\".", "Dennett states that Chilcutt published nothing to substantiate his claims, nor had anyone else published anything on that topic, with Chilcutt making his statements solely through a posting on the Internet.", "Dennett states further that no reviews on Chilcutt's statements had been performed beyond those by what Dennett states to be, \"other Bigfoot enthusiasts\".2007 photograph alleged by the Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization to depict a juvenile Bigfoot.In 2007, the Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization claimed to have photographs depicting a juvenile Bigfoot allegedly captured on a camera trap in the Allegheny National Forest.", "The Pennsylvania Game Commission, however, stated that the photos were of a bear with mange.", "The Pennsylvania Game Commission unsuccessfully attempted to locate the suspected mangey bear.", "Scientist Vanessa Woods, after estimating that the subject in the photo had approximately long arms and a torso, concluded it was more comparable to a chimpanzee.In 2015, Centralia College professor Michael Townsend claimed to have discovered prey bones with \"human-like\" bite impressions on the southside of Mount St. Helens.", "Townsend claimed the bites were over two times wider than a human bite, and that he and two of his students also found 16-inch footprints in the area.====Melba Ketchum press release====After what ''The Huffington Post'' described as \"a five-year study of purported Bigfoot (also known as Sasquatch) DNA samples\", but prior to peer review of the work, DNA Diagnostics, a veterinary laboratory headed by veterinarian Melba Ketchum issued a press release on November 24, 2012, claiming that they had found proof that the Sasquatch \"is a human relative that arose approximately 15,000 years ago as a hybrid cross of modern ''Homo sapiens'' with an unknown primate species.\"", "Ketchum called for this to be recognized officially, saying that \"Government at all levels must recognize them as an indigenous people and immediately protect their human and Constitutional rights against those who would see in their physical and cultural differences a 'license' to hunt, trap, or kill them.\"", "Failing to find a scientific journal that would publish their results, Ketchum announced on February 13, 2013, that their research had been published in the ''DeNovo Journal of Science''.", "The title \"DeNovo: Journal of Science\" in which the paper was published was found to be a Web site—registered anonymously only nine days before the paper was announced—whose first and only \"journal\" issue contained nothing but the \"Sasquatch\" article.", "Shortly after publication, the paper was analyzed and outlined by Sharon Hill of Doubtful News for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.", "Hill reported on the questionable journal, mismanaged DNA testing and poor quality paper, stating that \"The few experienced geneticists who viewed the paper reported a dismal opinion of it noting it made little sense.\"", "''The Scientist'' magazine also analyzed the paper, reporting that:===Documented hoaxes===*In 1968, the frozen corpse of a supposed hair-covered hominid measuring was paraded around the United States as part of a traveling exhibition.", "Many stories surfaced as to its origin, such as its having been killed by hunters in Minnesota or American soldiers near Da Nang during the Vietnam War.", "It was attributed by some to be proof of Bigfoot-like creatures.", "Primatologist John R. Napier studied the subject and concluded it was a hoax made of latex.", "Others disputed this, claiming Napier did not study the original subject.", "As of 2013, the subject, dubbed the Minnesota Iceman, was on display at the \"Museum of the Weird\" in Austin, Texas.", "*Tom Biscardi, long-time Bigfoot enthusiast and CEO of \"Searching for Bigfoot, Inc.\", appeared on the ''Coast to Coast AM'' paranormal radio show on July 14, 2005, and said that he was \"98% sure that his group will be able to capture a Bigfoot which they had been tracking in the Happy Camp, California, area.\"", "A month later, he announced on the same radio show that he had access to a captured Bigfoot and was arranging a pay-per-view event for people to see it.", "He appeared on ''Coast to Coast AM'' again a few days later to announce that there was no captive Bigfoot.", "He blamed an unnamed woman for misleading him, and said that the show's audience was gullible.", "*On July 9, 2008, Rick Dyer and Matthew Whitton posted a video to YouTube, claiming that they had discovered the body of a dead Bigfoot in a forest in northern Georgia, which they named \"Rickmat\".", "Tom Biscardi was contacted to investigate.", "Dyer and Whitton received $50,000 from \"Searching for Bigfoot, Inc.\" The story was covered by many major news networks, including BBC, CNN, ABC News, and Fox News.", "Soon after a press conference, the alleged Bigfoot body was delivered in a block of ice in a freezer with the Searching for Bigfoot team.", "When the contents were thawed, observers found that the hair was not real, the head was hollow, and the feet were rubber.", "Dyer and Whitton admitted that it was a hoax after being confronted by Steve Kulls, executive director of SquatchDetective.com.", "*In August 2012, a man in Montana was killed by a car while perpetrating a Bigfoot hoax using a ghillie suit.", "*In January 2014, Rick Dyer, perpetrator of a previous Bigfoot hoax, said that he had killed a Bigfoot in September 2012 outside San Antonio, Texas.", "He claimed to have had scientific tests conducted on the body, \"from DNA tests to 3D optical scans to body scans.", "It is the real deal.", "It's Bigfoot, and Bigfoot's here, and I shot it, and now I'm proving it to the world.\"", "He said that he had kept the body in a hidden location, and he intended to take it on tour across North America in 2014.He released photos of the body and a video showing a few individuals' reactions to seeing it, but never released any of the tests or scans.", "He refused to disclose the test results or to provide biological samples.", "He said that the DNA results were done by an undisclosed lab and could not be matched to identify any known animal.", "Dyer said that he would reveal the body and tests on February 9, 2014, at a news conference at Washington University, but he never made the test results available.", "After the tour, the Bigfoot body was taken to Houston, Texas.", "*On March 28, 2014, Dyer admitted on his Facebook page that his \"Bigfoot corpse\" was another hoax.", "He had paid Chris Russel of \"Twisted Toybox\" to manufacture the prop from latex, foam, and camel hair, which he nicknamed \"Hank\".", "Dyer earned approximately US$60,000 from the tour of this second fake Bigfoot corpse.", "He stated that he did kill a Bigfoot, but did not take the real body on tour for fear that it would be stolen.", "*In April 2022, a man in Mobile, Alabama posted photos he claimed were of a Bigfoot to his Facebook page, indicating the Mobile County Sheriff's Office validated their authenticity and the team from ''Finding Bigfoot'' was being dispatched.", "The photos circulated on social media, attracting the attention of NBC 15.The man admitted the photos were an April Fools' Day hoax.", "*On July 7, 2022, wildlife educator and media personality Coyote Peterson released a Facebook post in which he claimed to have excavated a large primate skull in British Columbia and smuggled it into the United States, further claiming to have initially hidden the discovery due to concerns of government intervention.", "The post went viral, garnering the attention of multiple scientists who dismissed the finding as a likely replica gorilla skull.", "Darren Naish, a vertebrate paleontologist, stated, \"I'm told that Coyote Peterson does this sort of thing fairly often as clickbait, and that this is a stunt done to promote an upcoming video.", "Maybe this is meant to be taken as harmless fun.", "But in an age where anti-scientific feelings and conspiracy culture are a serious problem it—again—really isn't a good look.", "I think this stunt has backfired\".", "In a follow-up video, Peterson claimed the situation was staged as a hypothetical example of what not to do in response to such a discovery." ], [ "Organizations and events", "There are several organizations dedicated to the research and investigation of Bigfoot sightings.", "The oldest and largest is the Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization (BFRO).", "The BFRO also provides a free database to individuals and other organizations.", "Their website includes reports from across North America that have been investigated by researchers to determine credibility.", "Other similar organizations exist throughout many U.S. states and their members come from a variety of backgrounds.", "In 2004, David Fahrenthold of ''The Washington Post'' published an article describing a feud between Bigfoot researchers in the eastern and western United States.", "Fahrenthold writes, \"On the one hand, East Coast Bigfooters say they have to fight discrimination from Western counterparts who think the creature does not live east of the Rocky Mountains.", "On the other, they have to deal with reports from a more urban population, which includes some who are unfamiliar with wildlife and apt to mistake a black bear for the missing link\".The North American Wood Ape Conservancy (NAWAC), a nonprofit organization, states its mission is to \"ultimately have the wood ape species documented, protected, and the land they inhabit protected.", "Author Mike Mays of NAWAC states, \"If just anyone hauled in a Bigfoot carcass the blowback from animal rights groups and beyond would be ruinous\".Some organizations, as well as private researchers and enthusiasts own and operate Bigfoot museums.", "In 2019, Bigfoot researcher Cliff Barackman, notable for his role on the Animal Planet series ''Finding Bigfoot'', opened the North American Bigfoot Center in Boring, Oregon.", "In 2022, The Bigfoot Crossroads of America Museum and Research Center in Hastings, Nebraska, was selected for addition into the archives of the U.S. Library of Congress.", "''Ohio Bigfoot Conference'' and other conferences and festivals dedicated to Bigfoot are attended by thousands of people.", "These events commonly include guest speakers, research and lore presentations, and sometimes live music, vendors, food trucks, and other activities such as costume contests and \"Bigfoot howl\" competitions.", "The Chamber of Commerce in Willow Creek, California, has hosted the \"Bigfoot Daze\" festival annually since the 1960s, drawing on the popularity of the local lore.", "Some receive collaboration between local government and corporations, such as the Smoky Mountain Bigfoot Festival in Townsend, Tennessee, which is sponsored by Monster Energy.", "The 2023 Bigfoot Festival in Marion, North Carolina, saw approximately 40,000 people in attendance, resulting in a large economic boost for the small town of less than 8,000 residents.In February 2016, the University of New Mexico at Gallup held a two-day Bigfoot conference at a cost of $7,000 in university funds." ], [ "In popular culture", "A tongue-in-cheek sign warning of Bigfoot crossings on Pikes Peak Highway in Colorado.Bigfoot has a demonstrable impact in popular culture, and has been compared to Michael Jordan as a cultural icon.", "October 20, the anniversary of the Patterson-Gimlin film recording, is considered by some as \"National Sasquatch Awareness Day\".", "In 2018, ''Smithsonian'' magazine declared, \"Interest in the existence of the creature is at an all-time high\".", "A poll in 2020 suggested that about 1 in 10 American adults believe Bigfoot to be \"a real, living creature\".", "According to a May 2023 data study, the terms \"Bigfoot\" and \"Sasquatch\" are inputted via internet search engines over 200,000 times annually in the United States, and over 660,000 times worldwide.The creature has inspired the naming of a medical company, music festival, amusement park ride, monster truck, a Marvel Comics superhero and more.", "Two National Basketball Association teams located in the Pacific Northwest have used Bigfoot as a mascot; Squatch of the now-defunct Seattle SuperSonics from 1993 until 2008, and Douglas Fur of the Portland Trail Blazers.", "Legend the Bigfoot was selected as the official mascot for the 2022 World Athletics Championships being held in Eugene, Oregon.Laws and ordinances exist regarding harming or killing Bigfoot, specifically in the state of Washington.", "In 1969 in Skamania County, a law was passed making killing a Bigfoot punishable by a felony conviction resulting in a monetary fine up to $10,000 or five years imprisonment.", "In 1984, the law was amended to a misdemeanor and the entire county was declared a \"Sasquatch refuge\".", "Whatcom County followed suit in 1991, declaring the county a \"Sasquatch Protection and Refuge Area\".", "In 2022, Grays Harbor County, Washington, passed a similar resolution after a local elementary school in Hoquiam submitted a classroom project asking for a \"Sasquatch Protection and Refuge Area\" to be granted.", "In 2021, U.S. Representative Justin Humphrey, in an effort to bolster tourism, proposed an official Bigfoot hunting season in Oklahoma, indicating that the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation would regulate permits and the state would offer a $3 million bounty if such a creature was captured alive and unharmed.In 2015, World Champion taxidermist Ken Walker completed what he believes to be a lifelike Bigfoot model based on the subject in the Patterson–Gimlin film.", "He entered it into the 2015 World Taxidermy & Fish Carving Championships in Missouri and was the subject of Dan Wayne's 2019 documentary ''Big Fur''.Some have been critical of Bigfoot's rise to fame, arguing that the appearance of the creatures in cartoons, reality shows, and advertisements further reduces the potential validity of serious scientific research.", "Others propose that society's fascination with the concept of Bigfoot stems from human interest in mystery, the paranormal, and loneliness.", "In a 2022 article discussing recent Bigfoot sightings, journalist John Keilman of the ''Chicago Tribune'' states, \"As UFOs have gained newfound respect, becoming the subject of a Pentagon investigative panel, the alleged Bigfoot sighting is a reminder that other paranormal phenomena are still out there, entrancing true believers and amusing skeptics\".In the 2018 podcast ''Wild Thing'', creator and journalist Laura Krantz argues that the concept of Bigfoot can be an important part of environmental interest and protection, stating, \"If you look at it from the angle that Bigfoot is a creature that has eluded capture or hasn't left any concrete evidence behind, then you just have a group of people who are curious about the environment and want to know more about it, which isn't that far off from what naturalists have done for centuries\".", "Bigfoot has been used in official government environmental protection campaigns, albeit comedically, by entities such as the U.S. Forest Service in 2015.The act of searching for or researching the creatures is often referred to as \"Squatching\" or \"Squatch'n\", popularized by the Animal Planet series, ''Finding Bigfoot''.", "Bigfoot researchers and believers are often called \"Squatchers\".During the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, Bigfoot became a part of many North American social distancing promotion campaigns, with the creature being referred to as the \"Social Distancing Champion\" and as the subject of various internet memes related to the pandemic." ], [ "See also", "* ''Bigfoot: The Life and Times of a Legend'' – 2009 book published by University of Chicago Press* ''Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science'' – 2003 film documentary aired on Discovery Channel* ''Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science'' – 2006 book published by Forge; Similar alleged creatures" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * Green, John (2004).", "The Best of Bigfoot/Sasquatch.", "Hancock House Publishers.", "p. 144.", "* Green, John (2006).", "Sasquatch: the Apes Among Us.", "Hancock House Publishers.", "p. 492..* * * Wágner, Karel (2013).", "''Bigfoot Alias Sasquatch''.", "Jonathan Livingston.", "." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bing Crosby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harry Lillis''' \"'''Bing'''\" '''Crosby Jr.''' (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American singer, actor, television producer, television and radio personality and businessman.", "The first multimedia star, he was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century worldwide.", "He was a leader in record sales, network radio ratings, and motion picture grosses from 1926 to 1977.He was one of the first global cultural icons.", "He made over 70 feature films and recorded more than 1,600 songs.His early career coincided with recording innovations that allowed him to develop an intimate singing style that influenced many male singers who followed, such as Frank Sinatra, Perry Como, Dean Martin, Dick Haymes, Elvis Presley, and John Lennon.", "''Yank'' magazine said that he was \"the person who had done the most for the morale of overseas servicemen\" during World War II.", "In 1948, American polls declared him the \"most admired man alive\", ahead of Jackie Robinson and Pope Pius XII.", "In 1948, ''Music Digest'' estimated that his recordings filled more than half of the 80,000 weekly hours allocated to recorded radio music in America.Crosby won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in ''Going My Way'' (1944) and was nominated for its sequel, ''The Bells of St. Mary's'' (1945), opposite Ingrid Bergman, becoming the first of six actors to be nominated twice for playing the same character.", "He was the number one box office attraction for five consecutive years, 1944 to 1948.At his screen apex in 1946, Crosby starred in three of the year's five highest-grossing films: ''The Bells of St. Mary's'', ''Blue Skies'' and ''Road to Utopia''.", "In 1963, Crosby received the first Grammy Global Achievement Award.", "He is one of 33 people to have three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, in the categories of motion pictures, radio, and audio recording.", "He was also known for his collaborations with his friend Bob Hope, starring in the ''Road to ...'' films from 1940 to 1962.Crosby influenced the development of the post–World War II recording industry.", "After seeing a demonstration of a German broadcast quality reel-to-reel tape recorder brought to the United States by John T. Mullin, he invested $50,000 in the California electronics company Ampex to build copies.", "He then persuaded ABC to allow him to tape his shows.", "He became the first performer to prerecord his radio shows and master his commercial recordings onto magnetic tape.", "Crosby has been associated with the Christmas season since Irving Berlin's musical film ''Holiday Inn'', in which he starred and famously sang \"White Christmas\".", "Through audio recordings, he produced his radio programs with the same directorial tools and craftsmanship (editing, retaking, rehearsal, time shifting) used in motion picture production, a practice that became the industry standard.", "In addition to his work with early audio tape recording, he helped finance the development of videotape, bought television stations, bred racehorses, and co-owned the Pittsburgh Pirates baseball team, during which time the team won two World Series (1960 and 1971)." ], [ "Early life", "Crosby aged nineCrosby was born on May 3, 1903, in Tacoma, Washington, in a house his father built at 1112 North J Street.", "In 1906, his family moved to Spokane in Eastern Washington state, where he was raised.", "In 1913, his father built a house at 508 E. Sharp Avenue.", "The house sits on the campus of his alma mater, Gonzaga University, as a museum housing over 200 artifacts from his life and career, including his Oscar.He was the fourth of seven children: brothers Laurence Earl \"Larry\" (1895–1975), Everett Nathaniel (1896–1966), Edward John \"Ted\" (1900–1973), and George Robert \"Bob\" (1913–1993); and two sisters, Catherine Cordelia (1904–1974) and Mary Rose (1906–1990).", "His parents were Harry Lowe Crosby (1870–1950), a bookkeeper, and Catherine Helen \"Kate\" (née Harrigan; 1873–1964).", "His mother was a second-generation Irish-American.", "His father was of Scottish and English descent; an ancestor, Simon Crosby, emigrated from England to New England in the 1630s during the Puritan migration to New England.", "Through another line, also on his father's side, Crosby is descended from ''Mayflower'' passenger William Brewster ( 1567 – 1644).In 1917, Crosby took a summer job as property boy at Spokane's Auditorium, where he witnessed some of the acts of the day, including Al Jolson, who held him spellbound with ad-libbing and parodies of Hawaiian songs.", "He later described Jolson's delivery as \"electric\".Crosby graduated from Gonzaga High School in 1920 and enrolled at Gonzaga University.", "He attended Gonzaga for three years but did not earn a degree.", "As a freshman, he played on the university's baseball team.", "The university granted him an honorary doctorate in 1937.Gonzaga University houses a large collection of photographs, correspondence, and other material related to Crosby.On November 8, 1937, after Lux Radio Theatre's adaptation of ''She Loves Me Not'', Joan Blondell asked Crosby how he got his nickname:As it happens, that story was pure whimsy for dramatic effect; the Associated Press had reported as early as February 1932—as would later be confirmed by both Bing himself and his biographer Charles Thompson—that it was in fact a neighbor—Valentine Hobart, circa 1910—who had named him \"Bingo from Bingville\" after a comic feature in the local paper called ''The Bingville Bugle'' which the young Harry liked.", "In time, Bingo got shortened to Bing." ], [ "Career", "===Early years===In 1923, Crosby was invited to join a new band composed of high-school students a few years younger than himself.", "Al and Miles Rinker (brothers of singer Mildred Bailey), James Heaton, Claire Pritchard and Robert Pritchard, along with drummer Crosby, formed the Musicaladers, who performed at dances both for high school students and club-goers.", "The group performed on Spokane radio station KHQ, but disbanded after two years.", "Crosby and Al Rinker obtained work at the Clemmer Theatre in Spokane (now known as the Bing Crosby Theater).Crosby was initially a member of a vocal trio called The Three Harmony Aces with Al Rinker accompanying on piano from the pit, to entertain between the films.", "Crosby and Al continued at the Clemmer Theatre for several months, often with three other men—Wee Georgie Crittenden, Frank McBride, and Lloyd Grinnell—and they were billed The Clemmer Trio or The Clemmer Entertainers depending who performed.In October 1925, Crosby and Rinker decided to seek fame in California.", "They traveled to Los Angeles, where Bailey introduced them to her show business contacts.", "The Fanchon and Marco Time Agency hired them for thirteen weeks for the revue ''The Syncopation Idea'' starting at the Boulevard Theater in Los Angeles and then on the Loew's circuit.", "They each earned $75 a week.", "As minor parts of ''The Syncopation Idea'' Crosby and Rinker started to develop as entertainers.", "They had a lively style that was popular with college students.", "After ''The Syncopation Idea'' closed, they worked in the Will Morrissey Music Hall Revue.", "They honed their skills with Morrissey.", "When they got a chance to present an independent act, they were spotted by a member of the Paul Whiteman organization.Whiteman needed something different to break up his musical selections, and Crosby and Rinker filled this requirement.", "After less than a year in show business, they were attached to one of the biggest names.", "Hired for $150 a week in 1926, they debuted with Whiteman on December 6 at the Tivoli Theatre in Chicago.", "Their first recording, in October 1926, was \"I've Got the Girl\" with Don Clark's Orchestra, but the Columbia-issued record was inadvertently recorded at a slow speed, which increased the singers' pitch when played at 78 rpm.", "Throughout his career, Crosby often credited Bailey for getting him his first important job in the entertainment business.===The Rhythm Boys===Crosby (middle) with The Rhythm Boys in c. 1929-30Success with Whiteman was followed by disaster when they reached New York.", "Whiteman considered letting them go.", "However, the addition of pianist and aspiring songwriter Harry Barris made the difference, and The Rhythm Boys were born.", "The additional voice meant they could be heard more easily in large New York theaters.", "Crosby gained valuable experience on tour for a year with Whiteman and performing and recording with Bix Beiderbecke, Jack Teagarden, Tommy Dorsey, Jimmy Dorsey, Eddie Lang, and Hoagy Carmichael.", "He matured as a performer and was in demand as a solo singer.Crosby became the star attraction of the Rhythm Boys.", "In 1928, he had his first number one hit, a jazz-influenced rendition of \"Ol' Man River\".", "In 1929, the Rhythm Boys appeared in the film ''King of Jazz'' with Whiteman, but Crosby's growing dissatisfaction with Whiteman led to the Rhythm Boys leaving his organization.", "They joined the Gus Arnheim Orchestra, performing nightly in the Coconut Grove of the Ambassador Hotel.", "Singing with the Arnheim Orchestra, Crosby's solos began to steal the show while the Rhythm Boys' act gradually became redundant.", "Harry Barris wrote several of Crosby's hits, including \"At Your Command\", \"I Surrender Dear\", and \"Wrap Your Troubles in Dreams\".", "When Mack Sennett signed Crosby to a solo film contract in 1931, a break with the Rhythm Boys became almost inevitable.", "Crosby married Dixie Lee in September 1930.After a threat of divorce in March 1931, he applied himself to his career.===Success as a solo singer===Crosby in 1932''15 Minutes with Bing Crosby'', his nationwide solo radio debut, began broadcasting on September 2, 1931.The weekly broadcast made him a hit.", "Before the end of the year, he with both Brunswick Records and CBS Radio.", "\"Out of Nowhere\", \"Just One More Chance\", \"At Your Command\", and \"I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)\" were among the best-selling songs of 1931.Ten of the top 50 songs of 1931 included Crosby with others or as a solo act.", "A \"Battle of the Baritones\" with singer Russ Columbo proved short-lived, replaced with the slogan \"Bing Was King\".", "Crosby played the lead in a series of musical comedy short films for Mack Sennett, signed with Paramount, and starred in his first full-length film, 1932's ''The Big Broadcast'' (1932), the first of 55 films in which he received top billing.", "He would appear in almost 80 pictures.", "He signed a contract with Jack Kapp's new record company, Decca, in late 1934.His first commercial sponsor on radio was Cremo Cigars and his fame spread nationwide.", "After a long run in New York, he went back to Hollywood to film ''The Big Broadcast''.", "His appearances, records, and radio work substantially increased his impact.", "The success of his first film brought him a contract with Paramount, and he began a pattern of making three films a year.", "He led his radio show for Woodbury Soap for two seasons while his live appearances dwindled.", "His records produced hits during the Depression when sales were down.", "Audio engineer Steve Hoffman stated, \"By the way, Bing actually saved the record business in 1934 when he agreed to support Decca founder Jack Kapp's crazy idea of lowering the price of singles from a dollar to 35 cents and getting a royalty for records sold instead of a flat fee.", "Bing's name and his artistry saved the recording industry.", "All the other artists signed to Decca after Bing did.", "Without him, Jack Kapp wouldn't have had a chance in hell of making Decca work and the Great Depression would have wiped out phonograph records for good.", "\"His social life was frantic.", "His first son Gary was born in 1933 with twin boys following in 1934.By 1936, he replaced his former boss, Paul Whiteman, as host of the weekly NBC radio program ''Kraft Music Hall'', where he remained for the next ten years.", "\"Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)\", with his trademark whistling, became his theme song and signature tune.Crosby's vocal style helped take popular singing beyond the \"belting\" associated with Al Jolson and Billy Murray, who had been obligated to reach the back seats in New York theaters without the aid of a microphone.", "As music critic Henry Pleasants noted in ''The Great American Popular Singers'', something new had entered American music, a style that might be called \"singing in American\" with conversational ease.", "This new sound led to the popular epithet ''crooner''.Crosby admired Louis Armstrong for his musical ability, and the trumpet maestro was a formative influence on Crosby's singing style.", "When the two met, they became friends.", "In 1936, Crosby exercised an option in his Paramount contract to regularly star in an out-of-house film.", "Signing an agreement with Columbia for a single motion picture, Crosby wanted Armstrong to appear in a screen adaptation of ''The Peacock Feather'' that eventually became ''Pennies from Heaven''.", "Crosby asked Harry Cohn, but Cohn had no desire to pay for the flight or to meet Armstrong's \"crude, mob-linked but devoted manager, Joe Glaser\".", "Crosby threatened to leave the film and refused to discuss the matter.", "Cohn gave in; Armstrong's musical scenes and comic dialogue extended his influence to the silver screen, creating more opportunities for him and other African Americans to appear in future films.", "Crosby also ensured behind the scenes that Armstrong received equal billing with his white co-stars.", "Armstrong appreciated Crosby's progressive attitudes on race, and often expressed gratitude for the role in later years.During World War II, Crosby made live appearances before American troops who had been fighting in the European Theater.", "He learned how to pronounce German from written scripts and read propaganda broadcasts intended for German forces.", "The nickname \"Der Bingle\" was common among Crosby's German listeners and came to be used by his English-speaking fans.", "In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of World War II, Crosby topped the list as the person who had done the most for G.I.", "morale, ahead of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, General Dwight Eisenhower, and Bob Hope.The June 18, 1945, issue of ''Life'' magazine stated, \"America's number one star, Bing Crosby, has won more fans, made more money than any entertainer in history.", "Today he is a kind of national institution.\"", "\"In all, 60,000,000 Crosby discs have been marketed since he made his first record in 1931.His biggest best seller is \"White Christmas\" 2,000,000 impressions of which have been sold in the U.S. and 250,000 in Great Britain.\"", "\"Nine out of ten singers and bandleaders listen to Crosby's broadcasts each Thursday night and follow his lead.", "The day after he sings a song over the air—any song—some 50,000 copies of it are sold throughout the U.S. Time and again Crosby has taken some new or unknown ballad, has given it what is known in trade circles as the 'big goose' and made it a hit single-handed and overnight...", "Precisely what the future holds for Crosby neither his family nor his friends can conjecture.", "He has achieved greater popularity, made more money, attracted vaster audiences than any other entertainer in history.", "And his star is still in the ascendant.", "His contract with Decca runs until 1955.His contract with Paramount runs until 1954.Records which he made ten years ago are selling better than ever before.", "The nation's appetite for Crosby's voice and personality appears insatiable.", "To soldiers overseas and to foreigners he has become a kind of symbol of America, of the amiable, humorous citizen of a free land.", "Crosby, however, seldom bothers to contemplate his future.", "For one thing, he enjoys hearing himself sing, and if ever a day should dawn when the public wearies of him, he will complacently go right on singing—to himself.", "\"====White Christmas====White Christmas'' (1954)The biggest hit song of Crosby's career was his recording of Irving Berlin's \"White Christmas\", which he introduced on a Christmas Day radio broadcast in 1941.A copy of the recording from the radio program is owned by the estate of Bing Crosby and was loaned to ''CBS Sunday Morning'' for their December 25, 2011, program.", "The song appeared in his films ''Holiday Inn'' (1942), and—a decade later—in ''White Christmas'' (1954).", "His record hit the charts on October 3, 1942, and rose to number 1 on October 31, where it stayed for 11 weeks.", "A holiday perennial, the song was repeatedly re-released by Decca, charting another sixteen times.", "It topped the charts again in 1945 and a third time in January 1947.The song remains the bestselling single of all time.", "His recording of \"White Christmas\" has sold over 50 million copies around the world.", "His recording was so popular that he was obliged to re-record it in 1947 using the same musicians and backup singers; the original 1942 master had become damaged due to its frequent use in pressing additional singles.", "In 1977, after Crosby died, the song was re-released and reached No.", "5 in the UK Singles Chart.", "Crosby was dismissive of his role in the song's success, saying \"a jackdaw with a cleft palate could have sung it successfully\".===Motion pictures===Bob Hope, Marquita Rivera, and Bing Crosby in 1947In the wake of a solid decade of headlining mainly smash hit musical comedy films in the 1930s, Crosby starred with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour in six of the seven ''Road to'' musical comedies between 1940 and 1962 (Lamour was replaced with Joan Collins in ''The Road to Hong Kong'' and limited to a lengthy cameo), cementing Crosby and Hope as an on-and-off duo, despite never declaring themselves a \"team\" in the sense that Laurel and Hardy or Martin and Lewis (Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis) were teams.", "The series consists of ''Road to Singapore'' (1940), ''Road to Zanzibar'' (1941), ''Road to Morocco'' (1942), ''Road to Utopia'' (1946), ''Road to Rio'' (1947), ''Road to Bali'' (1952), and ''The Road to Hong Kong'' (1962).", "When they appeared solo, Crosby and Hope frequently made note of the other in a comically insulting fashion.", "They performed together countless times on stage, radio, film, and television, and made numerous brief and not so brief appearances together in movies aside from the \"Road\" pictures, ''Variety Girl'' (1947) being an example of lengthy scenes and songs together along with billing.In the 1949 Disney animated film ''The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad'', Crosby provided the narration and song vocals for ''The Legend of Sleepy Hollow'' segment.", "In 1960, he starred in ''High Time'', a collegiate comedy with Fabian Forte and Tuesday Weld that predicted the emerging gap between him and the new younger generation of musicians and actors who had begun their careers after World War II.", "The following year, Crosby and Hope reunited for one more ''Road'' movie, ''The Road to Hong Kong'', which teamed them up with the much younger Joan Collins and Peter Sellers.", "Collins was used in place of their longtime partner Dorothy Lamour, whom Crosby felt was getting too old for the role, though Hope refused to do the film without her, and she instead made a lengthy and elaborate cameo appearance.", "Shortly before his death in 1977, he had planned another ''Road'' film in which he, Hope, and Lamour search for the Fountain of Youth.He won an Academy Award for Best Actor for ''Going My Way'' in 1944 and was nominated for the 1945 sequel, ''The Bells of St. Mary's''.", "He received critical acclaim and his third Academy Award nomination for his performance as an alcoholic entertainer in ''The Country Girl''.===Television===Crosby and his family in a Christmas special, 1974''The Fireside Theater'' (1950) was his first television production.", "The series of 26-minute shows was filmed at Hal Roach Studios rather than performed live on the air.", "The \"telefilms\" were syndicated to individual television stations.", "He was a frequent guest on the musical variety shows of the 1950s and 1960s, appearing on various variety shows as well as numerous late-night talk shows and his own highly rated specials.", "Bob Hope memorably devoted one of his monthly NBC specials to his long intermittent partnership with Crosby titled \"On the Road With Bing\".", "Crosby was associated with ABC's ''The Hollywood Palace'' as the show's first and most frequent guest host and appeared annually on its Christmas edition with his wife Kathryn and his younger children, and continued after ''The Hollywood Palace'' was eventually canceled.", "In the early 1970s, he made two late appearances on the ''Flip Wilson Show'', singing duets with the comedian.", "His last TV appearance was a Christmas special, ''Merrie Olde Christmas'', taped in London in September 1977 and aired weeks after his death.", "It was on this special that he recorded a duet of \"The Little Drummer Boy\" and \"Peace on Earth\" with rock musician David Bowie.", "Their duet was released in 1982 as a single 45 rpm record and reached No.", "3 in the UK singles charts.", "It has since become a staple of holiday radio and the final popular hit of Crosby's career.", "At the end of the 20th century, ''TV Guide'' listed the Crosby-Bowie duet one of the 25 most memorable musical moments of 20th-century television.Bing Crosby Productions, affiliated with Desilu Studios and later CBS Television Studios, produced a number of television series, including Crosby's own unsuccessful ABC sitcom ''The Bing Crosby Show'' in the 1964–1965 season (with co-stars Beverly Garland and Frank McHugh).", "The company produced two ABC medical dramas, ''Ben Casey'' (1961–1966) and ''Breaking Point'' (1963–1964), the popular ''Hogan's Heroes'' (1965–1971) military comedy on CBS, as well as the lesser-known show ''Slattery's People'' (1964–1965)." ], [ "Singing style and vocal characteristics", "Crosby in 1931Crosby was one of the first singers to exploit the intimacy of the microphone rather than use the deep, loud vaudeville style associated with Al Jolson.", "He was, by his own definition, a \"phraser\", a singer who placed equal emphasis on both the lyrics and the music.", "Paul Whiteman's hiring of Crosby, with phrasing that echoed jazz, particularly his bandmate Bix Beiderbecke's trumpet, helped bring the genre to a wider audience.", "In the framework of the novelty-singing style of the Rhythm Boys, he bent notes and added off-tune phrasing, an approach that was rooted in jazz.", "He had already been introduced to Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith before his first appearance on record.", "Crosby and Armstrong remained warm acquaintances for decades, occasionally singing together in later years, e.g.", "\"Now You Has Jazz\" in the film ''High Society'' (1956).", "In Crosby's performances, the presence of jazz phrasing, jazz rhythm and jazz improvisation varied depending on the piece of music, but those were elements that Crosby frequently used.", "This can be observed particularly in his straight jazz work during the late 1920s/early 1930s, his recordings with Buddy Cole and His Trio from the mid-1950s, as well as in his numerous collaborations with such jazz musicians as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, Joe Venuti, or Eddie Lang.", "However, while Crosby can be called a jazz singer, he was not strictly only a jazz singer as he modeled the style and techniques to a broad scope of music that he performed, ranging from Jazz to Country to even such material as operetta arias.During the early portion of his solo career (about 1931–1934), Crosby's emotional, often pleading style of crooning was popular.", "But Jack Kapp, manager of Brunswick and later Decca, talked him into dropping many of his jazzier mannerisms in favor of a clear vocal style.", "Crosby credited Kapp for choosing hit songs, working with many other musicians, and most important, diversifying his repertoire into several styles and genres.", "Kapp helped Crosby have number one hits in Christmas music, Hawaiian music, and country music, and top-thirty hits in Irish music, French music, rhythm and blues, and ballads.Crosby elaborated on an idea of Al Jolson's: phrasing, or the art of making a song's lyric ring true.", "\"I used to tell Sinatra over and over,\" said Tommy Dorsey, \"there's only one singer you ought to listen to and his name is Crosby.", "All that matters to him is the words, and that's the only thing that ought to for you, too.", "\"Critic Henry Pleasants wrote in 1985: While the octave B flat to B flat in Bing's voice at that time 1930s is, to my ears, one of the loveliest I have heard in forty-five years of listening to baritones, both classical and popular, it dropped conspicuously in later years.", "From the mid-1950s, Bing was more comfortable in a bass range while maintaining a baritone quality, with the best octave being G to G, or even F to F. In a recording he made of 'Dardanella' with Louis Armstrong in 1960, he attacks lightly and easily on a low E flat.", "This is lower than most opera basses care to venture, and they tend to sound as if they were in the cellar when they get there." ], [ "Career achievements", "With Perry Como and Arthur Godfrey in 1950Crosby's was among the most popular and successful musical acts of the 20th century.", "''Billboard'' magazine used different methodologies during his career.", "But his chart success remains impressive: 396 chart singles, including roughly 41 number 1 hits.", "Crosby had separate charting singles every year between 1931 and 1954; the annual re-release of \"White Christmas\" extended that streak to 1957.He had 24 separate popular singles in 1939 alone.", "Statistician Joel Whitburn at ''Billboard'' determined that Crosby was America's most successful recording act of the 1930s and again in the 1940s.", "In 1960, Crosby was honored as \"First Citizen of Record Industry\" based on having sold 200 million discs.", "Sources differ regarding the number of copies he sold: 300 million or even 500 million.", "The single \"White Christmas\" sold over 50 million copies according to ''Guinness World Records''.For fifteen years (1934, 1937, 1940, 1943–1954), Crosby was among the top ten acts in box-office sales, and for five of those years (1944–1948) he topped the world.", "He sang four Academy Award-winning songs—\"Sweet Leilani\" (1937), \"White Christmas\" (1942), \"Swinging on a Star\" (1944), \"In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening\" (1951)—and won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in ''Going My Way'' (1944).A survey in 2000 found that with 1,077,900,000 movie tickets sold, Crosby was the third-most-popular actor of all time, behind Clark Gable (1,168,300,000) and John Wayne (1,114,000,000).", "The ''International Motion Picture Almanac'' lists him in a tie for second-most years at number one on the All Time Number One Stars List with Clint Eastwood, Tom Hanks, and Burt Reynolds.", "His most popular film, ''White Christmas'', grossed $30 million in 1954 ($ million in current value).He received 23 gold and platinum records, according to the book ''Million Selling Records''.", "The Recording Industry Association of America did not institute its gold record certification program until 1958 when Crosby's record sales were low.", "Before 1958, gold records were awarded by record companies.", "Crosby charted 23 ''Billboard'' hits from 47 recorded songs with the Andrews Sisters, whose Decca record sales were second only to Crosby's throughout the 1940s.", "They were his most frequent collaborators on disc from 1939 to 1952, a partnership that produced four million-selling singles: \"Pistol Packin' Mama\", \"Jingle Bells\", \"Don't Fence Me In\", and \"South America, Take it Away\".", "They made one film appearance together in ''Road to Rio'' singing \"You Don't Have to Know the Language\", and sang together on radio airwaves throughout the 1940s and 1950s.", "They appeared as guests on each other's shows and on Armed Forces Radio Service programming during and after World War II.", "The quartet's additional Top-10 ''Billboard'' hits from 1943 to 1945 include \"The Vict'ry Polka\", \"There'll Be a Hot Time in the Town of Berlin (When the Yanks Go Marching In)\", and \"Is You Is or Is You Ain't (Ma' Baby?)\"", "which helped the morale of the American public.In 1962, Crosby was given the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "He has been inducted into the halls of fame for both radio and popular music.", "In 2007, he was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame and in 2008 the Western Music Hall of Fame." ], [ "Popularity and influence", "Japanese movie poster for ''The Emperor Waltz''Crosby's popularity around the world was such that Dorothy Masuka, the best-selling African recording artist, stated that, \"Only Bing Crosby the famous American crooner sold more records than me in Africa.\"", "His great popularity throughout the continent led other African singers to emulate him, including Masuka, Dolly Rathebe, and Míriam Makeba, known locally as \"The Bing Crosby of Africa.", "\"Presenter Mike Douglas commented in a 1975 interview, \"During my days in the Navy in World War II, I remember walking the streets of Calcutta, India, on the coast; it was a lonely night, so far from my home and from my new wife, Gen.", "I needed something to lift my spirits.", "As I passed a Hindu sitting on the corner of a street, I heard something surprisingly familiar.", "I came back to see the man playing one of those old Vitrolas, like those of RCA with the horn speaker.", "The man was listening to Bing Crosby sing, \"Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate The Positive\".", "I stopped and smiled in grateful acknowledgment.", "The Hindu nodded and smiled back.", "The whole world knew and loved Bing Crosby.\"", "His popularity in India led many Hindu singers to imitate and emulate him, notably Kishore Kumar, considered the \"Bing Crosby of India\".Throughout Europe and Russia, Crosby was also known as \"Der Bingle\", a pseudonym coined in 1944 by Bob Musel, an American journalist based in London, after Crosby had recorded three 15-minute programs with Jack Russin for broadcast to Germany from ABSIE." ], [ "Entrepreneurship", "According to Shoshana Klebanoff, Crosby became one of the richest men in the history of show business.", "He had investments in real estate, mines, oil wells, cattle ranches, race horses, music publishing, baseball teams, and television.", "He made a fortune from the Minute Maid Orange Juice Corporation, in which he was a principal stockholder.===Role in early tape recording===Crosby in 1943During the Golden Age of Radio, performers had to create their shows live, sometimes even redoing the program a second time for the West Coast time zone.", "Crosby had to do two live radio shows on the same day, three hours apart, for the East and West Coasts.", "Crosby's radio career took a significant turn in 1945, when he clashed with NBC over his insistence that he be allowed to pre-record his radio shows.", "(The live production of radio shows was also reinforced by the musicians' union and ASCAP, which wanted to ensure continued work for their members.)", "In ''On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio'', John Dunning wrote about German engineers having developed a tape recorder with a near-professional broadcast quality standard:Crosby's insistence eventually factored into the further development of magnetic tape sound recording and the radio industry's widespread adoption of it.", "He used his clout, both professionally and financially, for innovations in audio.", "But NBC and CBS refused to broadcast prerecorded radio programs.", "Crosby left the network and remained off the air for seven months, creating a legal battle with his sponsor Kraft that was settled out of court.", "He returned to broadcasting for the last 13 weeks of the 1945–1946 season.The Mutual Network, on the other hand, pre-recorded some of its programs as early as 1938 for ''The Shadow'' with Orson Welles.", "ABC was formed from the sale of the NBC Blue Network in 1943 after a federal antitrust suit and was willing to join Mutual in breaking the tradition.", "ABC offered Crosby $30,000 per week to produce a recorded show every Wednesday that would be sponsored by Philco.", "He would get an additional $40,000 from 400 independent stations for the rights to broadcast the 30-minute show, which was sent to them every Monday on three lacquer discs that played ten minutes per side at rpm.Murdo MacKenzie of Bing Crosby Enterprises had seen a demonstration of the German Magnetophon in June 1947—the same device that Jack Mullin had brought back from Radio Frankfurt with 50 reels of tape, at the end of the war.", "It was one of the magnetic tape recorders that BASF and AEG had built in Germany starting in 1935.The 6.5 mm ferric-oxide-coated tape could record 20 minutes per reel of high-quality sound.", "Alexander M. Poniatoff ordered Ampex, which he founded in 1944, to manufacture an improved version of the Magnetophone.Crosby hired Mullin to start recording his ''Philco Radio Time'' show on his German-made machine in August 1947 using the same 50 reels of I.G.", "Farben magnetic tape that Mullin had found at a radio station at Bad Nauheim near Frankfurt while working for the U.S. Army Signal Corps.", "The advantage was editing.", "As Crosby wrote in his autobiography:Mullin's 1976 memoir of these early days of experimental recording agrees with Crosby's account:Crosby invested $50,000 in Ampex with the intent to produce more machines.", "In 1948, the second season of Philco shows was recorded with the Ampex Model 200A and Scotch 111 tape from 3M.", "Mullin explained how one new broadcasting technique was invented on the Crosby show with these machines:Crosby started the tape recorder revolution in America.", "In his 1950 film ''Mr.", "Music'', he is seen singing into an Ampex tape recorder that reproduced his voice better than anything else.", "Also quick to adopt tape recording was his friend Bob Hope.", "He gave one of the first Ampex Model 300 recorders to his friend, guitarist Les Paul, which led to Paul's invention of multitrack recording.", "His organization, the Crosby Research Foundation, held tape recording patents and developed equipment and recording techniques such as the laugh track that are still in use.With Frank Sinatra, Crosby was one of the principal backers for the United Western Recorders studio complex in Los Angeles.===Videotape development===Mullin continued to work for Crosby to develop a videotape recorder (VTR).", "Television production was mostly live television in its early years, but Crosby wanted the same ability to record that he had achieved in radio.", "''The Fireside Theater'' (1950) sponsored by Procter & Gamble, was his first television production.", "Mullin had not yet succeeded with videotape, so Crosby filmed the series of 26-minute shows at the Hal Roach Studios, and the \"telefilms\" were syndicated to individual television stations.Crosby continued to finance the development of videotape.", "Bing Crosby Enterprises gave the world's first demonstration of videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951.Developed by John T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device aired what were described as \"blurred and indistinct\" images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (6.3 mm) audio tape moving at per second.===Television station ownership===A Crosby-led group purchased station KCOP-TV, in Los Angeles, California, in 1954.NAFI Corporation and Crosby purchased television station KPTV in Portland, Oregon, for $4 million on September 1, 1959.In 1960, NAFI purchased KCOP from Crosby's group.", "In the early 1950s, Crosby helped establish the CBS television affiliate in his hometown of Spokane, Washington.", "He partnered with Ed Craney, who owned the CBS radio affiliate KXLY (AM) and built a television studio west of Crosby's alma mater, Gonzaga University.", "After it began broadcasting, the station was sold within a year to Northern Pacific Radio and Television Corporation.===Thoroughbred horse racing===Crosby was a fan of thoroughbred horse racing and bought his first racehorse in 1935.In 1937, he became a founding partner of the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club and a member of its board of directors.", "Operating from the Del Mar Racetrack at Del Mar, California, the group included millionaire businessman Charles S. Howard, who owned a successful racing stable that included Seabiscuit.", "Charles' son, Lindsay C. Howard, became one of Crosby's closest friends; Crosby named his son Lindsay after him, and would purchase his 40-room Hillsborough, California estate from Lindsay in 1965.Crosby and Lindsay Howard formed Binglin Stable to race and breed thoroughbred horses at a ranch in Moorpark in Ventura County, California.", "They also established the Binglin Stock Farm in Argentina, where they raced horses at Hipódromo de Palermo in Palermo, Buenos Aires.", "A number of Argentine-bred horses were purchased and shipped to race in the United States.", "On August 12, 1938, the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club hosted a $25,000 winner-take-all match race won by Charles S. Howard's Seabiscuit over Binglin's horse Ligaroti.", "In 1943, Binglin's horse Don Bingo won the Suburban Handicap at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York.", "The Binglin Stable partnership came to an end in 1953 as a result of a liquidation of assets by Crosby, who needed to raise enough funds to pay the hefty federal and state inheritance taxes on his deceased wife's estate.", "The Bing Crosby Breeders' Cup Handicap at Del Mar Racetrack is named in his honor." ], [ "Sports", "Crosby had a keen interest in sports.", "In the 1930s, his friend and former college classmate, Gonzaga head coach Mike Pecarovich, appointed Crosby as an assistant football coach.", "From 1946 until his death, he owned a 25% share of the Pittsburgh Pirates.", "Although he was passionate about the team, he was too nervous to watch the deciding game 7 of the 1960 World Series, choosing to go to Paris with Kathryn and listen to its radio broadcast.", "Crosby had arranged for Ampex, another of his financial investments, to record the NBC telecast on kinescope.", "The game was one of the most famous in baseball history, capped off by Bill Mazeroski's walk-off home run that won the game for Pittsburgh.", "He apparently viewed the complete film just once, and then stored it in his wine cellar, where it remained undisturbed until it was discovered in December 2009.The restored broadcast was shown on MLB Network in December 2010.Additionally, Crosby was an early investor in Bob Cobb's Billings Mustangs baseball club in 1948, joining other Hollywood stars Cecil B. DeMille, Robert Taylor, and Barbara Stanwyck who were also shareholders in the club.", "Crosby was also the honorary chairman of the club's board of directors.Crosby was also an avid golfer.", "He first took up golf at age 12 as a caddy.", "He was already spending much time on the golf course while touring the country in a vaudeville act or with Paul Whiteman's orchestra in the mid to late 1920s.", "Eventually, Crosby became accomplished at the sport, at his best reaching a two handicap.", "He competed in both the British and U.S.", "Amateur championships, was a five-time club champion at Lakeside Golf Club in Hollywood, and once made a hole-in-one on the 16th hole at Cypress Point.In 1937, Crosby hosted the first 'Crosby Clambake', a pro-am tournament at Rancho Santa Fe Golf Club in Rancho Santa Fe, California, the event's location prior to World War II.", "After the war, the event resumed play in 1947 on golf courses in Pebble Beach, where it has been played ever since.", "Now the AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am, the tournament is a staple of the PGA Tour, having featured Hollywood stars and other celebrities.In 1950, Crosby became the third person to win the William D. Richardson award, which is given to a non-professional golfer \"who has consistently made an outstanding contribution to golf\".", "In 1978, he and Bob Hope were voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship.", "He is a member of the World Golf Hall of Fame, having been inducted in 1978.Crosby also was a keen fisherman.", "In the summer of 1966, he spent a week as the guest of Lord Egremont, staying in Cockermouth and fishing on the River Derwent.", "His trip was filmed for ''The American Sportsman'' on ABC, although all did not go well at first as the salmon were not running.", "He did make up for it at the end of the week by catching a number of sea trout.In Front Royal, Virginia, a baseball stadium was named in his honor.", "The Front Royal Cardinals of the Valley Baseball League play their home games here.", "The Bing is also home to both of the county's high schools baseball teams." ], [ "Personal life", "Dennis, Gary, Lindsay, and Phillip in 1959Crosby reportedly had an alcohol problem between the late 1920s and early 1930s, but he got a handle on his drinking in 1931.Crosby told Barbara Walters in a 1977 televised interview that he thought marijuana should be legalized because he figured it would make it much easier for the authorities to have a proper legal control over the market.In December 1999, the New York Post published an article by Bill Hoffmann and Murray Weiss called ''Bing Crosby's Single Life'' which claimed that \"recently published\" FBI files revealed connections with figures in the Mafia \"since his youth\".", "However, Crosby's FBI files had already been published in 1992 and provide no indication that Crosby had ties to the Mafia except for one major, but accidental encounter in Chicago in 1929 which is not mentioned in the files, but is told by Crosby himself in his as-told-to autobiography ''Call Me Lucky''.", "In the over 280 pages of Crosby's FBI files, there is only one reference to organized crime or gambling dens, the content of a some of the many threats that Bing Crosby received throughout his life.", "The comments made by FBI investigators in the memos discredited the claims made in the letters.", "In all the files there is only one single reference to a person associated with the Mafia.", "In a memorandum dated January 16, 1959, it is said: \"The Salt Lake City Office has developed information indicating that Moe Dalitz received an invitation to join a deer hunting party at Bing Crosby's Elko, Nevada, ranch, together with the crooner, his Las Vegas dentist and several business associates.\"", "However, Crosby had already sold his Elko ranch a year earlier, in 1958, and it is doubtful how much he was really involved in that meeting.===Romantic relationships===Crosby was married twice.", "His first wife was actress and nightclub singer Dixie Lee, who he was married to from 1930 until her death from ovarian cancer in 1952.They had four sons: Gary, twins Dennis and Phillip, and Lindsay.", "''Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman'' (1947) is said to be based on Lee's life.", "The Crosby family lived at 10500 Camarillo Street in North Hollywood for more than five years.", "After his wife died, Crosby had relationships with model Pat Sheehan (who married his son Dennis in 1958) and actresses Inger Stevens and Grace Kelly before marrying actress Kathryn Grant, who converted to Catholicism, in 1957.They had three children: Harry Lillis III (who played Bill in ''Friday the 13th''), Mary Frances (best known for portraying Kristin Shepard on TV's ''Dallas''), and Nathaniel (the 1981 U.S.", "Amateur champion in golf).Particularly during the late 1930s and the 1940s, Crosby's domestic life was dominated by his wife's excessive drinking.", "His efforts to cure her with the help of specialists failed.", "Tired of Dixie's drinking, he even asked her for a divorce in January 1941.During the 1940s, Crosby consistently had difficulties trying to stay away from home while also trying to be there as much as possible for his children.Crosby had one confirmed extramarital affair between 1945 and the late 1940s, while married to his first wife Dixie.", "Actress Patricia Neal (who herself at the time was having an affair with the married Gary Cooper) wrote in her 1988 autobiography ''As I Am'' about a cruise to England with actress Joan Caulfield in 1948:In the Crosby biography ''Bing Crosby: Swinging on a Star; the War Years, 1940-1946'', published in 2018, there are excerpts from an original diary of two sisters, Violet and Mary Barsa, who, as young women, used to stalk Crosby in New York City during December 1945 and January 1946 and who detailed their observations in the diary.", "The document reveals that, during that time, Crosby was indeed taking Caulfield out to dinner, visited theaters and opera houses with her, and Caulfield and a person in her company entered the Waldorf Hotel where Crosby was staying.", "However, the document also clearly indicates that at their meetings a third person, in most instances, Caulfield's mother, was present.", "In 1954, Caulfield admitted to a relationship with a \"top film star\" who was a married man with children, who, in the end, chose his wife and children over her.", "Caulfield's sister Betty Caulfield confirmed the romantic relationship between Caulfield and Crosby.", "Despite being a Catholic, Crosby was seriously considering divorce in order to marry Caulfield.", "Either in December 1945 or January 1946, Crosby approached Cardinal Francis Spellman with his difficulties with dealing with his wife's alcoholism, his love for Caulfield and his plan to file for divorce.", "According to Betty Caulfield, Spellman told Crosby: \"Bing, you are Father O'Malley and under no circumstances can Father O'Malley get a divorce.\"", "Around the same time, Crosby talked to his mother about his intentions and she protested.", "Ultimately, Crosby chose to end the relationship and to stay with his wife.", "Crosby and Dixie reconciled and he continued trying to help her overcome her alcohol issues.Harry, and Nathan Crosby, 1975After his death, his widow Kathryn Crosby dabbled in local theater productions intermittently and appeared in television tributes to her late husband.===Homes===In November 1958, Crosby purchased the 1,350-acre Rising River Ranch in Cassel, California after renting a portion of it for several years.", "Attorney Ira Shadwell declined to disclose the purchase price.", "In October 1978, actor Clint Eastwood purchased the ranch under the name of his business manager Roy Kaufman for $1.5 million.Crosby and his family lived in the San Francisco area for many years.", "In 1963, he and his wife Kathryn moved with their three young children from Los Angeles to a $175,000 ten-bedroom Tudor estate in Hillsborough (formerly owned by fellow horseman Lindsay C. Howard, one of Crosby's closest friends) because they did not want to raise their children in Hollywood, according to son Nathaniel.", "This house went up for sale by its current owners in 2021 for $13.75 million.In 1965, the Crosbys moved to a larger, 40-room French chateau-style house on nearby Jackling Drive, where Kathryn Crosby continued to reside after Bing's death.", "This house served as a setting for some of the family's Minute Maid orange juice television commercials.===Children===After Crosby's death, his eldest son, Gary, wrote a highly critical memoir, ''Going My Own Way'' (1983), depicting his father as cruel, cold, remote, and physically and psychologically abusive.While acknowledging that corporal punishments took place, there were reports of all of Gary's immediate siblings distancing themselves from the abuse claims, either in public or in private.Crosby's younger son Phillip disputed his brother Gary's claims about their father.", "Around the time Gary published his claims, Phillip stated to the press that \"Gary is a whining, bitching crybaby, walking around with a two-by-four on his shoulder and just daring people to nudge it off.\"", "Nevertheless, Phillip did not deny that Crosby believed in corporal punishment.", "In an interview with ''People'' magazine, Phillip stated that \"we never got an extra whack or a cuff we didn't deserve\".Shortly before Gary's book was actually published, Lindsay said, \"I'm glad Gary did it.", "I hope it clears up a lot of the old lies and rumors.\"", "Unlike Gary, Lindsay stated that he preferred to remember \"all the good things I did with my dad and forget the times that were rough\".", "\"Lindsay Crosby supported his brother (Gary) at the time of its publication but had a tempered view of its revelations.", "'I never expected affection from my father so it didn't bother me,' he once told an interviewer.'\"", "However, after the book was published, Lindsay addressed the abuse claims and what the media had made out of them:Dennis Crosby reportedly \"said his older brother (Gary) was the most severely treated of the four boys.", "'He got the first licking, and we got the second.", "'\"Gary's first wife of 19 years, Barbara Cosentino, of whom Gary wrote in his book, \"I could confide in her about Mom and Dad and my childhood\", and with whom Gary stayed friendly after the divorce, stated:Gary Crosby's adopted son, Steven Crosby, said in a 2003 interview:Bing's younger brother, singer and jazz bandleader Bob Crosby, recalled at the time of Gary's revelations that Bing was a \"disciplinarian\", as their mother and father had been.", "He added, \"We were brought up that way.", "\"In an interview for the same article, Gary clarified that Bing \"was like a lot of fathers of that time.", "He was not out to be vicious, to beat children for his kicks.", "\"The author of the 2018 biography on Bing Crosby, Gary Giddins, claims that Gary Crosby's memoir is not reliable on many instances and cannot be trusted on the abuse stories.Crosby's will established a blind trust in which none of the sons received an inheritance until they reached the age of 65, intended by Crosby to keep them out of trouble.", "They instead received several thousand dollars per month from a trust left in 1952 by their mother, Dixie Lee.", "The trust, tied to high-performing oil stocks, folded in December 1989 following the 1980s oil glut.Lindsay Crosby died in 1989 at age 51, and Dennis Crosby died in 1991 at age 56, both by suicide from self-inflicted gunshot wounds.", "Gary Crosby died of lung cancer in 1995 at age 62, and Phillip Crosby died of a heart attack in 2004 at age 69.Bing Crosby and Kathryn Grant in 1960Nathaniel Crosby, Crosby's younger son from his second marriage, is a former high-level golfer who won the U.S.", "Amateur in 1981 at age 19, becoming the youngest winner in the history of that event at the time.", "Harry Crosby is an investment banker who occasionally makes singing appearances.Denise Crosby, Dennis Crosby's daughter, is also an actress and is known for her role as Tasha Yar on ''Star Trek: The Next Generation''.", "She also appeared in the 1989 film adaptation of Stephen King's novel ''Pet Sematary''.In 2006, Crosby's niece through his sister Mary Rose, Carolyn Schneider, published the laudatory book ''Me and Uncle Bing''.Disputes between Crosby's two families began in the late 1990s.", "When Dixie died in 1952, her will provided that her share of the community property be distributed in trust to her sons.", "After Crosby's death in 1977, he left the residue of his estate to a marital trust for the benefit of his widow, Kathryn, and HLC Properties, Ltd., was formed for the purpose of managing his interests, including his right of publicity.", "In 1996, Dixie's trust sued HLC and Kathryn for declaratory relief as to the trust's entitlement to interest, dividends, royalties, and other income derived from the community property of Crosby and Dixie.", "In 1999, the parties settled for approximately $1.5 million.", "Relying on a retroactive amendment to the California Civil Code, Dixie's trust brought suit again, in 2010, alleging that Crosby's right of publicity was community property, and that Dixie's trust was entitled to a share of the revenue it produced.", "The trial court granted Dixie's trust's claim.", "The California Court of Appeals reversed it, however, holding that the 1999 settlement barred the claim.", "In light of the court's ruling, it was unnecessary for the court to decide whether a right of publicity can be characterized as community property under California law." ], [ "Health and death", "Commemorative plaque in the Brighton Centre foyerFollowing his recovery from a life-threatening fungal infection in his right lung in January 1974, Crosby emerged from semi-retirement to start a new spate of albums and concerts.", "On March 20, 1977, after videotaping a CBS concert special, \"Bing – 50th Anniversary Gala\", at the Ambassador Auditorium with Bob Hope looking on, Crosby fell off the stage into an orchestra pit, rupturing a disc in his back requiring a month-long stay in the hospital.", "His first performance after the accident was his last American concert, on August 16, 1977, the day Elvis Presley died, at the Concord Pavilion in Concord, California.", "When the electric power failed during his performance, he continued singing without amplification.On August 27, Crosby gave a televised concert in Norway.In September, Crosby, his family and singer Rosemary Clooney began a concert tour of Britain that included two weeks at the London Palladium.", "While in the UK, Crosby recorded his final album, ''Seasons'', and his final TV Christmas special with guest David Bowie on September 11 (which aired a little over a month after Crosby's death).", "His last concert was in the Brighton Centre on October 10, four days before his death, with British entertainer Gracie Fields in attendance.", "The following day he made his final appearance in a recording studio and sang eight songs at the BBC's Maida Vale Studios for a radio program, which also included an interview with Alan Dell.", "Accompanied by the Gordon Rose Orchestra, Crosby's last recorded performance was of the song \"Once in a While\".", "Later that afternoon, he met with Chris Harding to take photographs for the ''Seasons'' album jacket.Crosby's grave at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California (marked with an incorrect birth year)On October 13, 1977, Crosby flew alone to Spain to play golf and hunt partridge.", "On October 14, at the La Moraleja Golf Course near Madrid, Crosby played 18 holes of golf.", "His partner was World Cup champion Manuel Piñero; their opponents were club president César de Zulueta and Valentín Barrios.", "According to Barrios, Crosby was in good spirits throughout the day, and was photographed several times during the round.", "At the ninth hole, construction workers building a house nearby recognized him, and when asked for a song, Crosby sang \"Strangers in the Night\".", "Crosby, who had a 13 handicap, won with his partner by one stroke.", "At about 6:30 pm, as Crosby and his party headed back to the clubhouse, Crosby said, \"That was a great game of golf, fellas.", "Let's go have a Coca-Cola.\"", "These were his last words.", "About from the clubhouse entrance, Crosby collapsed and died instantly from a massive heart attack.", "At the clubhouse and later in the ambulance, house physician Dr. Laiseca tried to revive him, but was unsuccessful.", "At Reina Victoria Hospital he was administered the last rites of the Catholic Church and was pronounced dead at the age of 74.On October 18, 1977, following a private funeral Mass at St. Paul's Catholic Church in Westwood, Crosby was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California." ], [ "Legacy", "One of Crosby's three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, 6769 Hollywood Blvd.", "Crosby is a member of the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame in the radio division.The family created an official website on October 14, 2007, the 30th anniversary of Crosby's death.In his autobiography ''Don't Shoot, It's Only Me!''", "(1990), Bob Hope wrote, \"Dear old Bing, as we called him, the ''Economy-sized Sinatra''.", "And what a voice.", "God I miss that voice.", "I can't even turn on the radio around Christmas time without crying anymore.", "\"Calypso musician Roaring Lion wrote a tribute song in 1939 titled \"Bing Crosby\", in which he wrote: \"Bing has a way of singing with his very heart and soul / Which captivates the world / His millions of listeners never fail to rejoice / At his golden voice....\"Bing Crosby Stadium in Front Royal, Virginia, was named after Crosby in honor of his fundraising and cash contributions for its construction from 1948 to 1950.In 2006, the former Metropolitan Theater of Performing Arts ('The Met') in Spokane, Washington, was renamed to The Bing Crosby Theater.Crosby has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "One each for radio, recording, and motion pictures." ], [ "Compositions", "Crosby wrote or co-wrote lyrics to 22 songs.", "His composition \"At Your Command\" was number 1 for three weeks on the U.S. pop singles chart beginning on August 8, 1931.", "\"I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance With You\" was his most successful composition, recorded by Duke Ellington, Frank Sinatra, Thelonious Monk, Billie Holiday, and Mildred Bailey, among others.", "Songs co-written by Crosby include:# \"That's Grandma\" (1927), with Harry Barris and James Cavanaugh# \"From Monday On\" (1928), with Harry Barris and recorded with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra featuring Bix Beiderbecke on cornet, number 14 on US pop singles charts# \"What Price Lyrics?\"", "(1928), with Harry Barris and Matty Malneck# \"Ev'rything's Agreed Upon\" (1930), with Harry Barris# \"At Your Command\" (1931), with Harry Barris and Harry Tobias, US, number 1 (3 weeks)# \"Believe Me\" (1931), with James Cavanaugh and Frank Weldon# \"Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)\" (1931), with Roy Turk and Fred Ahlert, US, no.", "4; US, 1940 re-recording, no.", "27# \"You Taught Me How to Love\" (1931), with H. C. LeBlang and Don Herman# \"I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance with You\" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington, US, no.", "5# \"My Woman\" (1932), with Irving Wallman and Max Wartell# \"Cutesie Pie\" (1932), with Red Standex and Chummy MacGregor# \"I Was So Alone, Suddenly You Were There (1932), with Leigh Harline, Jack Stern and George Hamilton# \"Love Me Tonight\" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington, US, no.", "4# \"Waltzing in a Dream\" (1932), with Victor Young and Ned Washington, US, no.6# \"You're Just a Beautiful Melody of Love\" (1932), lyrics by Bing Crosby, music by Babe Goldberg# \"Where Are You, Girl of My Dreams?\"", "(1932), written by Bing Crosby, Irving Bibo, and Paul McVey, featured in the 1932 Universal film ''The Cohens and Kellys in Hollywood''# \"I Would If I Could But I Can't\" (1933), with Mitchell Parish and Alan Grey# \"Where the Turf Meets the Surf\" (1941) with Johnny Burke and James V. Monaco.# \"Tenderfoot\" (1953) with Bob Bowen and Perry Botkin, originally issued using the pseudonym of \"Bill Brill\" for Bing Crosby.# \"Domenica\" (1961) with Pietro Garinei / Gorni Kramer / Sandro Giovannini# \"That's What Life is All About\" (1975), with Ken Barnes, Peter Dacre, and Les Reed, US, AC chart, no.", "35; UK, no.", "41# \"Sail Away from Norway\" (1977) – Crosby wrote lyrics to go with a traditional song." ], [ "Grammy Hall of Fame", "Four performances by Bing Crosby have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have \"qualitative or historical significance\".", "'''Bing Crosby: Grammy Hall of Fame''' Year Recorded Title Genre Label Year Inducted Notes 1942 \"White Christmas\" Traditional Pop (single) Decca 1974With the Ken Darby Singers 1944 \"Swinging on a Star\" Traditional Pop (single) Decca 2002With the Williams Brothers Quartet 1936 \"Pennies from Heaven\" Traditional Pop (single) Decca 2004With the Jimmy Dorsey Orchestra 1944 \"Don't Fence Me In\" Traditional Pop (single) Decca 1998With the Andrews Sisters" ], [ "Discography" ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Television appearances" ], [ "Radio", "* ''15 Minutes with Bing Crosby'' (1931, CBS), Unsponsored.", "6 nights a week, 15 minutes.", "* ''The Cremo Singer'' (1931–1932, CBS), 6 nights a week, 15 minutes.", "* ''15 Minutes with Bing Crosby'' (1932, CBS), initially 3 nights a week, then twice a week, 15 minutes.", "* ''Chesterfield Cigarettes Presents Music that Satisfies'' (1933, CBS), broadcast two nights a week, 15 minutes.", "* ''Bing Crosby Entertains'' (1933–1935, CBS), weekly, 30 minutes.", "* ''Kraft Music Hall'' (1935–1946, NBC), Thursday nights, 60 minutes until January 1943, then 30 minutes.", "* ''Bing Crosby on Armed Forces Radio in World War II'' (1941–1945; World War II).", "* ''Philco Radio Time'' (1946–1949, ABC), 30 minutes weekly.", "* ''This Is Bing Crosby'' (The Minute Maid Show) (1948–1950, CBS), 15 minutes each weekday morning; Bing as disc jockey.", "* ''The Bing Crosby – Chesterfield Show'' (1949–1952, CBS), 30 minutes weekly.", "* ''The Bing Crosby Show for General Electric'' (1952–1954, CBS), 30 minutes weekly.", "* ''The Bing Crosby Show (1954–1956)'' (CBS), 15 minutes, 5 nights a week.", "* ''A Christmas Sing with Bing (1955–1962)'', (CBS, VOA and AFRS), 1 hour each year, sponsored by the Insurance Company of North America.", "* ''The Ford Road Show Featuring Bing Crosby'' (1957–1958, CBS), 5 minutes, 5 days a week.", "* ''The Bing Crosby – Rosemary Clooney Show'' (1960–1962, CBS), 20 minutes, 5 mornings a week, with Rosemary Clooney." ], [ "RIAA certification", "'''Album''''''RIAA'''''Merry Christmas'' (1945)Gold''White Christmas (re-issue of album above)'' (1995)4× Platinum''Bing Sings'' (1977)2× Platinum" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Category/Status Project/Team Result 1944 New York Film Critics Circle Awards Best Actor ''Going My Way'' 1944 Photoplay Awards Most Popular Male Star — 1945 — 1945 Academy Awards Best Actor in a Leading Role ''Going My Way'' 1946 Photoplay Awards Most Popular Male Star — 1946 Academy Awards Best Actor in a Leading Role ''The Bells of St. Mary's'' 1947 Photoplay Awards Most Popular Male Star — 1948 — 1952 Golden Globes Best Motion Picture Actor ''Here Comes the Groom'' 1954 National Board of Review Best Actor ''The Country Girl'' 1955 Academy Awards Best Actor in a Leading Role 1958 Laurel Awards Golden Laurel Top Male Star — 1959 — 1960 Golden Laurel Top Male Performance ''Say One for Me'' 1960 Golden Globe Awards Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award — 1960 Hollywood Walk of Fame Radio 6769 Hollywood Blvd.", "1960 Recording 6751 Hollywood Blvd.", "1960 Motion Picture 1611 Vine Street.", "1960 1960 World Series Co-owner Pittsburgh Pirates 1961 Laurel Awards Golden Laurel Top Male Star — 1962 Golden Laurel Special Award — 1963 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award 1970 Peabody Awards Personal Award — 1971 1971 World Series Co-owner Pittsburgh Pirates <!-- commenting this out until/unless this template becomes active again" ], [ "See also", "-->" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * Fisher, J.", "(2012).", "\"Bing Crosby: Through the years, volumes one-nine (1954–56).\"", "''ARSC Journal'', 43(1), 127–130.", "* Crosby interviewed 1971 July 8.", "* * Klebanoff, Shoshana.", "\"Crosby, Bing\" ''American National Biography'' (2000) online* * Osterholm, J. Roger.", "''Bing Crosby: A Bio-Bibliography''.", "Greenwood Press, 1994.", "* Prigozy, R. & Raubicheck, W., ed.", "''Going My Way: Bing Crosby and American Culture''.", "The Boydell Press, 2007.", "* ===Primary sources===* Crosby, Bing.", "''Call Me Lucky'' (1953)* Crosby, Bing.", "''Bing: The Authorized Biography'' (1975), written with Charles Thompson." ], [ "Further reading", "* Bookbinder, Robert.", "''The Films of Bing Crosby'' (Lyle Stuart, 1977)* Giddins, Gary.", "''Bing Crosby: A Pocketful of Dreams-The Early Years 1903-1940'' (Back Bay Books, 2009) excerpt.", "** Giddins, Gary.", "''Bing Crosby: Swinging on a Star: The War Years, 1940-1946'' (Little, Brown, 2018) excerpt.", "* Gilbert, Roger.", "\"Beloved and Notorious: A Theory of American Stardom, with Special Reference to Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra.\"", "''Southwest Review'' 95.1/2 (2010): 167–184.online* Morgereth, Timothy A.", "''Bing Crosby: a discography, radio program list, and filmography'' (McFarland & Co Inc Pub, 1987).", "* Pitts, Michael, et al.", "''The Rise of the Crooners: Gene Austin, Russ Columbo, Bing Crosby, Nick Lucas, Johnny Marvin and Rudy Vallee'' (Scarecrow Press, 2001).", "* Prigozy, Ruth, and Walter Raubicheck, eds.", "''Going My Way: Bing Crosby and American Culture'' (University of Rochester Press, 2007), essays by scholars.", "* Includes a chapter on Crosby's involvement in the making of \"White Christmas\" and an interview with record producer Ken Barnes.", "* Schofield, Mary Anne.", "\"Marketing Iron Pigs, Patriotism, and Peace: Bing Crosby and World War II—A Discourse.\"", "''Journal of Popular Culture'' 40.5 (2007): 867–881.", "* Smith, Anthony B.", "\"Entertaining Catholics: Bing Crosby, Religion and Cultural Pluralism in 1940s America.\"", "''American Catholic Studies'' (2003) 11#4: 1-19 online.", "* Teachout, Terry.", "\"The Swinging Star: Why is Bing Crosby forgotten?'", "''Commentary'' (Nov 2018), Vol.", "146 Issue 4, pp 51–54.", "* Includes an interview" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Base" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Base''' or '''BASE''' may refer to:" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "*Base (mobile telephony provider), a Belgian mobile telecommunications operator*Base CRM, an enterprise software company founded in 2009 with offices in Mountain View and Kraków, Poland*Base Design, an international design, communications, audiovisual, copywriting and publishing firm*Base FX, a visual effects and animation company founded in 2006 with studios in Beijing, Wuxi and Xiamen, China*Budapest Aircraft Services, callsign BASE" ], [ "Computing", "*BASE (search engine), Bielefeld Academic Search Engine*, an HTML element*Basically Available, Soft state, Eventual consistency (BASE), a consistency model*Google Base, an online database provided by Google*LibreOffice Base, LibreOffice's database module*OpenOffice.org Base, OpenOffice.org's database module, also known as ooBase" ], [ "Mathematics", "*Base of computation, commonly called ''radix'', the number of distinct digits in a positional numeral system*Base of a logarithm, the number whose logarithm is *Base (exponentiation), the number in an expression of the form *Base (geometry), a side of a plane figure (for example a triangle) or face of a solid*Base (group theory), a sequence of elements not jointly stabilized by any nontrivial group element.", "*Base (topology), a type of generating set for a topological space" ], [ "Organizations", "*Backward Society Education, a Nepali non-governmental organization*BASE (social centre), a self-managed social centre in Bristol, UK*Beaverton Academy of Science and Engineering, part of Beaverton School District in Hillsboro, Oregon, US*Bible Archaeology Search and Exploration Institute*British Association for Screen Entertainment*Brooklyn Academy of Science and the Environment, a high school in New York, US" ], [ "Science and technology", "*Base (chemistry), a substance that can accept hydrogen ions (protons)*Base, an attribute to medication in pure form, for example erythromycin base*Base, one of the three terminals of a Bipolar junction transistor*BASE experiment, an antiproton experiment at CERN*Base pair, a pair of connected nucleotides on complementary DNA and RNA strands*Beta-alumina solid electrolyte, a fast ion conductor material*Nucleobase, in genetics, the parts of DNA and RNA involved in forming base pairs" ], [ "Social science", "*Base (politics), a group of voters who almost always support a single party's candidates*Base (social class), a lower social class*Base and superstructure (Marxism), parts of society in Marxist theory" ], [ "Sports", "*Base (baseball), a station that must be touched by a runner*Base, a position in some cheerleading stunts*BASE jumping, parachuting or wingsuit flying from a fixed structure or cliff*Base, a variant name for the children's game darebase" ], [ "Other uses", "*Base (character), character in Marvel Comics*''Base'' (EP), an album by South Korean singer Kim Jonghyun*Base, Maharashtra, a village in India*Rob Base, American rapper*Base, or binder (material), a material that holds paint or other materials together*Base, or foundation (architecture), the lowest and supporting layer of a structure*Base, or foundation (cosmetics), a cosmetic applied to the face*Base, in heraldry, the lower part of the shield*Base, or pedestal, a supporting feature of a statue or other item*Cooking base, a concentrated flavouring compound*Military base, or non-military base camp, a bivouac which provides shelter, military equipment and personnel" ], [ "See also", "*Base camp (disambiguation)*Bases (disambiguation)*Basis (disambiguation)*Bass (disambiguation)*Bottom (disambiguation)*Radix (disambiguation)*The Base (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Basel Convention" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal''', usually known as the '''Basel Convention''', is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries.", "It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste.", "The convention is also intended to minimize the rate and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist developing countries in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate.Parties to the ConventionThe convention was opened for signature on 21 March 1989, and entered into force on 5 May 1992.As of June 2023, there are 191 parties to the convention.", "In addition, Haiti and the United States have signed the convention but not ratified it.Following a petition urging action on the issue signed by more than a million people around the world, most of the world's countries, but not the United States, agreed in May 2019 to an amendment of the Basel Convention to include plastic waste as regulated material.", "Although the United States is not a party to the treaty, export shipments of plastic waste from the United States are now \"criminal traffic as soon as the ships get on the high seas,\" according to the Basel Action Network (BAN), and carriers of such shipments may face liability, because the transportation of plastic waste is prohibited in just about every other country." ], [ "History", "With the tightening of environmental laws (for example, RCRA) in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically.", "At the same time, the globalization of shipping made cross-border movement of waste easier, and many less developed countries were desperate for foreign currency.", "Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to poorer countries, grew rapidly.", "In 1990, OECD countries exported around 1.8 million tons of hazardous waste.", "Although most of this waste was shipped to other developed countries, a number of high-profile incidents of hazardous waste-dumping led to calls for regulation.One of the incidents which led to the creation of the Basel Convention was the ''Khian Sea'' waste disposal incident, in which a ship carrying incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in the United States dumped half of its load on a beach in Haiti before being forced away.", "It sailed for many months, changing its name several times.", "Unable to unload the cargo in any port, the crew was believed to have dumped much of it at sea.Another incident was a 1988 case in which five ships transported 8,000 barrels of hazardous waste from Italy to the small Nigerian town of Koko in exchange for $100 monthly rent which was paid to a Nigerian for the use of his farmland.At its meeting that took place from 27 November to 1 December 2006, the parties of the Basel Agreement focused on issues of electronic waste and the dismantling of ships.Increased trade in recyclable materials has led to an increase in a market for used products such as computers.", "This market is valued in billions of dollars.", "At issue is the distinction when used computers stop being a \"commodity\" and become a \"waste\".As of June 2023, there are 191 parties to the treaty, which includes 188 UN member states, the Cook Islands, the European Union, and the State of Palestine.", "The five UN member states that are not party to the treaty are East Timor, Fiji, Haiti, South Sudan, and United States." ], [ "Definition of ''hazardous waste''", "Waste falls under the scope of the convention if it is within the category of wastes listed in Annex I of the convention and it exhibits one of the hazardous characteristics contained in Annex III.In other words, it must both be listed and possess a characteristic such as being explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive.", "The other way that a waste may fall under the scope of the convention is if it is defined as or considered to be a hazardous waste under the laws of either the exporting country, the importing country, or any of the countries of transit.The definition of the term disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV, which gives a list of operations which are understood as disposal or recovery.", "Examples of disposal are broad, including recovery and recycling.Alternatively, to fall under the scope of the convention, it is sufficient for waste to be included in Annex II, which lists other wastes, such as household wastes and residue that comes from incinerating household waste.Radioactive waste that is covered under other international control systems and wastes from the normal operation of ships are not covered.Annex IX attempts to define wastes which are not considered hazardous wastes and which would be excluded from the scope of the Basel Convention.", "If these wastes however are contaminated with hazardous materials to an extent causing them to exhibit an Annex III characteristic, they are not excluded." ], [ "Obligations", "In addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries.", "The convention places a general prohibition on the exportation or importation of wastes between parties and non-parties.", "The exception to this rule is where the waste is subject to another treaty that does not take away from the Basel Convention.", "The United States is a notable non-party to the convention and has a number of such agreements for allowing the shipping of hazardous wastes to Basel Party countries.The OECD Council also has its own control system that governs the transboundary movement of hazardous materials between OECD member countries.", "This allows, among other things, the OECD countries to continue trading in wastes with countries like the United States that have not ratified the Basel Convention.Parties to the convention must honor import bans of other parties.Article 4 of the Basel Convention calls for an overall reduction of waste generation.", "By encouraging countries to keep wastes within their boundaries and as close as possible to its source of generation, the internal pressures should provide incentives for waste reduction and pollution prevention.", "Parties are generally prohibited from exporting covered wastes to, or importing covered waste from, non-parties to the convention.The convention states that illegal hazardous waste traffic is criminal but contains no enforcement provisions.According to Article 12, parties are directed to adopt a protocol that establishes liability rules and procedures that are appropriate for damage that comes from the movement of hazardous waste across borders.The current consensus is that as space is not classed as a \"country\" under the specific definition, export of e-waste to non-terrestrial locations would not be covered." ], [ "Basel Ban Amendment", "After the initial adoption of the convention, some least developed countries and environmental organizations argued that it did not go far enough.", "Many nations and NGOs argued for a total ban on shipment of all hazardous waste to developing countries.", "In particular, the original convention did not prohibit waste exports to any location except Antarctica but merely required a notification and consent system known as \"prior informed consent\" or PIC.", "Further, many waste traders sought to exploit the good name of recycling and begin to justify all exports as moving to recycling destinations.", "Many believed a full ban was needed including exports for recycling.", "These concerns led to several regional waste trade bans, including the Bamako Convention.Lobbying at 1995 Basel conference by developing countries, Greenpeace and several European countries such as Denmark, led to the adoption of an amendment to the convention in 1995 termed the Basel Ban Amendment to the Basel Convention.", "The amendment has been accepted by 86 countries and the European Union, but has not entered into force (as that requires ratification by three-fourths of the member states to the convention).", "On 6 September 2019, Croatia became the 97th country to ratify the amendment which will enter into force after 90 days on 5 December 2019.The amendment prohibits the export of hazardous waste from a list of developed (mostly OECD) countries to developing countries.", "The Basel Ban applies to export for any reason, including recycling.", "An area of special concern for advocates of the amendment was the sale of ships for salvage, shipbreaking.", "The Ban Amendment was strenuously opposed by a number of industry groups as well as nations including Australia and Canada.", "The number of ratification for the entry-into force of the Ban Amendment is under debate: Amendments to the convention enter into force after ratification of \"three-fourths of the Parties who accepted them\" Art.", "17.5; so far, the parties of the Basel Convention could not yet agree whether this would be three-fourths of the parties that were party to the Basel Convention when the ban was adopted, or three-fourths of the current parties of the convention see Report of COP 9 of the Basel Convention.", "The status of the amendment ratifications can be found on the Basel Secretariat's web page.", "The European Union fully implemented the Basel Ban in its Waste Shipment Regulation (EWSR), making it legally binding in all EU member states.", "Norway and Switzerland have similarly fully implemented the Basel Ban in their legislation.In the light of the blockage concerning the entry into force of the Ban Amendment, Switzerland and Indonesia have launched a \"Country-led Initiative\" (CLI) to discuss in an informal manner a way forward to ensure that the trans boundary movements of hazardous wastes, especially to developing countries and countries with economies in the transition, do not lead to an unsound management of hazardous wastes.", "This discussion aims at identifying and finding solutions to the reasons why hazardous wastes are still brought to countries that are not able to treat them in a safe manner.", "It is hoped that the CLI will contribute to the realization of the objectives of the Ban Amendment.", "The Basel Convention's website informs about the progress of this initiative." ], [ "Regulation of plastic waste", "In the wake of popular outcry, in May 2019 most of the world's countries, but not the United States, agreed to amend the Basel Convention to include plastic waste as a regulated material.", "The world's oceans are estimated to contain 100 million metric tons of plastic, with up to 90% of this quantity originating in land-based sources.", "The United States, which produces an annual 42 million metric tons of plastic waste, more than any other country in the world, opposed the amendment, but since it is not a party to the treaty it did not have an opportunity to vote on it to try to block it.", "Information about, and visual images of, wildlife, such as seabirds, ingesting plastic, and scientific findings that nanoparticles do penetrate through the blood–brain barrier were reported to have fueled public sentiment for coordinated international legally binding action.", "Over a million people worldwide signed a petition demanding official action.", "Although the United States is not a party to the treaty, export shipments of plastic waste from the United States are now \"criminal traffic as soon as the ships get on the high seas,\" according to the Basel Action Network (BAN), and carriers of such shipments may face liability, because the Basel Convention as amended in May 2019 prohibits the transportation of plastic waste to just about every other country.The Basel Convention contains three main entries on plastic wastes in Annex II, VIII and IX of the Convention.", "The Plastic Waste Amendments of the convention are now binding on 186 States.", "In addition to ensuring the trade in plastic waste is more transparent and better regulated, under the Basel Convention governments must take steps not only to ensure the environmentally sound management of plastic waste, but also to tackle plastic waste at its source." ], [ "Basel watchdog", "The Basel Action Network (BAN) is a charitable civil society non-governmental organization that works as a consumer watchdog for implementation of the Basel Convention.", "BAN's principal aims is fighting exportation of toxic waste, including plastic waste, from industrialized societies to developing countries.", "BAN is based in Seattle, Washington, United States, with a partner office in the Philippines.", "BAN works to curb trans-border trade in hazardous electronic waste, land dumping, incineration, and the use of prison labor." ], [ "See also", "* Asbestos and the law* Bamako Convention* Electronic waste by country* Rotterdam Convention* Stockholm Convention" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Toxic Exports'', Jennifer Clapp, Cornell University Press, 2001.", "* ''Challenging the Chip: Labor Rights and Environmental Justice in the Global Electronics Industry'', Ted Smith, David A. Sonnenfeld, and David Naguib Pellow, eds., Temple University Press link, .", "* \"Toxic Trade: International Knowledge Networks & the Development of the Basel Convention,\" Jason Lloyd, ''International Public Policy Review'', UCL." ], [ "External links", "* ** Text of the Convention** \"A Simplified Guide to the Basel Convention\"* Text of the regulation no.1013/2006 of the European Union on shipments of waste* Flow of Waste among Basel Parties* Introductory note to the Basel Convention by Dr. Katharina Kummer Peiry, Executive Secretary of the Basel Convention, UNEP on the website of the UN Audiovisual Library of International Law* Basel Convention, Treaty available in ECOLEX-the gateway to environmental law (English);Organisations* Basel Action Network* Africa Institute for the Environmentally Sound Management of Hazardous and other Wastes a.k.a.", "Basel Convention Regional Centre Pretoria* Page on the Basel Convention at Greenpeace* Basel Convention Coordinating Centre for Asia and the Pacific" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bar Kokhba (album)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Bar Kokhba''''' is a double album by John Zorn, recorded between 1994 and 1996.It features music from Zorn's ''Masada'' project, rearranged for small ensembles.", "It also features the original soundtrack from '' The Art of Remembrance – Simon Wiesenthal'', a film by Hannah Heer and Werner Schmiedel (1994–95)." ], [ "Reception", "The AllMusic review by Marc Gilman noted: \"While some compositions retain their original structure and sound, some are expanded and probed by Zorn's arrangements, and resemble avant-garde classical music more than jazz.", "But this is the beauty of the album; the ensembles provide a forum for Zorn to expand his compositions.", "The album consistently impresses.\"" ], [ "Track listing", "''All compositions by John Zorn'';Disc One# \"Gevurah\" – 6:55# \"Nezikin\" – 1:51# \"Mahshav\" – 4:33# \"Rokhev\" – 3:10# \"Abidan\" – 5:19# \"Sheloshim\" – 5:03# \"Hath-Arob\" – 2:25# \"Paran\" – 4:48# \"Mahlah\" – 7:48# \"Socoh\" – 4:07# \"Yechida\" – 8:24# \"Bikkurim\" – 3:25# \"Idalah-Abal\" – 5:04;Disc Two# \"Tannaim\" – 4:38# \"Nefesh\" – 3:33# \"Abidan\" – 3:13# \"Mo'ed\" – 4:59# \"Maskil\" – 4:41# \"Mishpatim\" – 6:46# \"Sansanah\" – 6:56# \"Shear-Jashub\" – 2:06# \"Mahshav\" – 4:50# \"Sheloshim\" – 6:45# \"Mochin\" – 13:11# \"Karaim\" – 3:39*Recorded at Baby Monster Studios, New York City in August 1994, December 1995 and March 1996" ], [ "Personnel", "* John Zorn – Producer* Mark Feldman (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,20,21,25) – violin* Erik Friedlander (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,21,25) – cello* Greg Cohen (2,4,6,9,10,12,14,16,18,21,25) – bass* Marc Ribot (9,18,24) – guitar* Anthony Coleman (1,3,11,17,19) – piano* David Krakauer (3,8) – clarinets* John Medeski (5,7,8,13,15,17,20,22,23) – organ, piano* Mark Dresser (1,15,19) – bass* Kenny Wollesen (1,2,15,19,23) – drums* Chris Speed (5,13,20,23) – clarinet* Dave Douglas (23) – trumpet" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "BASIC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BASIC''' ('''Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code''') is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages designed for ease of use.", "The original version was created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College in 1963.They wanted to enable students in non-scientific fields to use computers.", "At the time, nearly all computers required writing custom software, which only scientists and mathematicians tended to learn.In addition to the programming language, Kemeny and Kurtz developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS), which allowed multiple users to edit and run BASIC programs simultaneously on remote terminals.", "This general model became popular on minicomputer systems like the PDP-11 and Data General Nova in the late 1960s and early 1970s.", "Hewlett-Packard produced an entire computer line for this method of operation, introducing the HP2000 series in the late 1960s and continuing sales into the 1980s.", "Many early video games trace their history to one of these versions of BASIC.The emergence of microcomputers in the mid-1970s led to the development of multiple BASIC dialects, including Microsoft BASIC in 1975.Due to the tiny main memory available on these machines, often 4 KB, a variety of Tiny BASIC dialects were also created.", "BASIC was available for almost any system of the era, and became the ''de facto'' programming language for home computer systems that emerged in the late 1970s.", "These PCs almost always had a BASIC interpreter installed by default, often in the machine's firmware or sometimes on a ROM cartridge.BASIC declined in popularity in the 1990s, as more powerful microcomputers came to market and programming languages with advanced features (such as Pascal and C) became tenable on such computers.", "In 1991, Microsoft released Visual Basic, combining an updated version of BASIC with a visual forms builder.", "This reignited use of the language and \"VB\" remains a major programming language in the form of VB.NET, while a hobbyist scene for BASIC more broadly continues to exist." ], [ "Origin", "John G. Kemeny was the chairman of the Dartmouth College Mathematics Department.", "Based largely on his reputation as an innovator in math teaching, in 1959 the College won an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation award for $500,000 to build a new department building.", "Thomas E. Kurtz had joined the department in 1956, and from the 1960s Kemeny and Kurtz agreed on the need for programming literacy among students outside the traditional STEM fields.", "Kemeny later noted that \"Our vision was that every student on campus should have access to a computer, and any faculty member should be able to use a computer in the classroom whenever appropriate.", "It was as simple as that.", "\"Kemeny and Kurtz had made two previous experiments with simplified languages, DARSIMCO (Dartmouth Simplified Code) and DOPE (Dartmouth Oversimplified Programming Experiment).", "These did not progress past a single freshman class.", "New experiments using Fortran and ALGOL followed, but Kurtz concluded these languages were too tricky for what they desired.", "As Kurtz noted, Fortran had numerous oddly-formed commands, notably an \"almost impossible-to-memorize convention for specifying a loop: .", "Is it '1, 10, 2' or '1, 2, 10', and is the comma after the line number required or not?", "\"Moreover, the lack of any sort of immediate feedback was a key problem; the machines of the era used batch processing and took a long time to complete a run of a program.", "While Kurtz was visiting MIT, John McCarthy suggested that time-sharing offered a solution; a single machine could divide up its processing time among many users, giving them the illusion of having a (slow) computer to themselves.", "Small programs would return results in a few seconds.", "This led to increasing interest in a system using time-sharing and a new language specifically for use by non-STEM students.Kemeny wrote the first version of BASIC.", "The acronym ''BASIC'' comes from the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz.", "The new language was heavily patterned on FORTRAN II; statements were one-to-a-line, numbers were used to indicate the target of loops and branches, and many of the commands were similar or identical to Fortran.", "However, the syntax was changed wherever it could be improved.", "For instance, the difficult to remember DO loop was replaced by the much easier to remember , and the line number used in the DO was instead indicated by the NEXT I.", "Likewise, the cryptic IF statement of Fortran, whose syntax matched a particular instruction of the machine on which it was originally written, became the simpler .", "These changes made the language much less idiosyncratic while still having an overall structure and feel similar to the original FORTRAN.The project received a $300,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, which was used to purchase a GE-225 computer for processing, and a Datanet-30 realtime processor to handle the Teletype Model 33 teleprinters used for input and output.", "A team of a dozen undergraduates worked on the project for about a year, writing both the DTSS system and the BASIC compiler.", "The first version BASIC language was released on 1 May 1964.Initially, BASIC concentrated on supporting straightforward mathematical work, with matrix arithmetic support from its initial implementation as a batch language, and character string functionality being added by 1965.Usage in the university rapidly expanded, requiring the main CPU to be replaced by a GE-235, and still later by a GE-635.By the early 1970s there were hundreds of terminals connected to the machines at Dartmouth, some of them remotely.Wanting use of the language to become widespread, its designers made the compiler available free of charge.", "In the 1960s, software became a chargeable commodity; until then, it was provided without charge as a service with expensive computers, usually available only to lease.", "They also made it available to high schools in the Hanover, New Hampshire, area and regionally throughout New England on Teletype Model 33 and Model 35 teleprinter terminals connected to Dartmouth via dial-up phone lines, and they put considerable effort into promoting the language.", "In the following years, as other dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny and Kurtz's original BASIC dialect became known as ''Dartmouth BASIC''.New Hampshire recognized the accomplishment in 2019 when it erected a highway historical marker in Hanover describing the creation of \"the first user-friendly programming language\"." ], [ "Spread on time-sharing services", "The emergence of BASIC took place as part of a wider movement towards time-sharing systems.", "First conceptualized during the late 1950s, the idea became so dominant in the computer industry by the early 1960s that its proponents were speaking of a future in which users would \"buy time on the computer much the same way that the average household buys power and water from utility companies\".General Electric, having worked on the Dartmouth project, wrote their own underlying operating system and launched an online time-sharing system known as Mark I.", "It featured BASIC as one of its primary selling points.", "Other companies in the emerging field quickly followed suit; Tymshare introduced SUPER BASIC in 1968, CompuServe had a version on the DEC-10 at their launch in 1969, and by the early 1970s BASIC was largely universal on general-purpose mainframe computers.", "Even IBM eventually joined the club with the introduction of VS-BASIC in 1973.Although time-sharing services with BASIC were successful for a time, the widespread success predicted earlier was not to be.", "The emergence of minicomputers during the same period, and especially low-cost microcomputers in the mid-1970s, allowed anyone to purchase and run their own systems rather than buy online time which was typically billed at dollars per minute." ], [ "Spread on minicomputers", "The HP 2000 system was designed to run time-shared BASIC as its primary task.BASIC, by its very nature of being small, was naturally suited to porting to the minicomputer market, which was emerging at the same time as the time-sharing services.", "These machines had small main memory, perhaps as little as 4 KB in modern terminology, and lacked high-performance storage like hard drives that make compilers practical.", "On these systems, BASIC was normally implemented as an interpreter rather than a compiler due to its lower requirement for working memory.A particularly important example was HP Time-Shared BASIC, which, like the original Dartmouth system, used two computers working together to implement a time-sharing system.", "The first, a low-end machine in the HP 2100 series, was used to control user input and save and load their programs to tape or disk.", "The other, a high-end version of the same underlying machine, ran the programs and generated output.", "For a cost of about $100,000, one could own a machine capable of running between 16 and 32 users at the same time.", "The system, bundled as the HP 2000, was the first mini platform to offer time-sharing and was an immediate runaway success, catapulting HP to become the third-largest vendor in the minicomputer space, behind DEC and Data General (DG).DEC, the leader in the minicomputer space since the mid-1960s, had initially ignored BASIC.", "This was due to their work with RAND Corporation, who had purchased a PDP-6 to run their JOSS language, which was conceptually very similar to BASIC.", "This led DEC to introduce a smaller, cleaned up version of JOSS known as FOCAL, which they heavily promoted in the late 1960s.", "However, with timesharing systems widely offering BASIC, and all of their competition in the minicomputer space doing the same, DEC's customers were clamoring for BASIC.", "After management repeatedly ignored their pleas, David H. Ahl took it upon himself to buy a BASIC for the PDP-8, which was a major success in the education market.", "By the early 1970s, FOCAL and JOSS had been forgotten and BASIC had become almost universal in the minicomputer market.", "DEC would go on to introduce their updated version, BASIC-PLUS, for use on the RSTS/E time-sharing operating system.During this period a number of simple text-based games were written in BASIC, most notably Mike Mayfield's ''Star Trek''.", "David Ahl collected these, some ported from FOCAL, and published them in an educational newsletter he compiled.", "He later collected a number of these into book form, ''101 BASIC Computer Games'', published in 1973.During the same period, Ahl was involved in the creation of a small computer for education use, an early personal computer.", "When management refused to support the concept, Ahl left DEC in 1974 to found the seminal computer magazine, ''Creative Computing''.", "The book remained popular, and was re-published on several occasions." ], [ "Explosive growth: the home computer era", "Commodore BASIC v2.0 on the Commodore 64 MSX BASIC version 3.0\"Train Basic every day!", "\"—reads a poster (bottom center) in a Russian school (c. 1985–1986)The introduction of the first microcomputers in the mid-1970s was the start of explosive growth for BASIC.", "It had the advantage that it was fairly well known to the young designers and computer hobbyists who took an interest in microcomputers, many of whom had seen BASIC on minis or mainframes.", "Despite Dijkstra's famous judgement in 1975, \"It is practically impossible to teach good programming to students that have had a prior exposure to BASIC: as potential programmers they are mentally mutilated beyond hope of regeneration\", BASIC was one of the few languages that was both high-level enough to be usable by those without training and small enough to fit into the microcomputers of the day, making it the ''de facto'' standard programming language on early microcomputers.The first microcomputer version of BASIC was co-written by Bill Gates, Paul Allen and Monte Davidoff for their newly formed company, Micro-Soft.", "This was released by MITS in punch tape format for the Altair 8800 shortly after the machine itself, immediately cementing BASIC as the primary language of early microcomputers.", "Members of the Homebrew Computer Club began circulating copies of the program, causing Gates to write his Open Letter to Hobbyists, complaining about this early example of software piracy.Partially in response to Gates's letter, and partially to make an even smaller BASIC that would run usefully on 4 KB machines, Bob Albrecht urged Dennis Allison to write their own variation of the language.", "How to design and implement a stripped-down version of an interpreter for the BASIC language was covered in articles by Allison in the first three quarterly issues of the ''People's Computer Company'' newsletter published in 1975 and implementations with source code published in ''Dr.", "Dobb's Journal of Tiny BASIC Calisthenics & Orthodontia: Running Light Without Overbyte''.", "This led to a wide variety of Tiny BASICs with added features or other improvements, with versions from Tom Pittman and Li-Chen Wang becoming particularly well known.Micro-Soft, by this time Microsoft, ported their interpreter for the MOS 6502, which quickly become one of the most popular microprocessors of the 8-bit era.", "When new microcomputers began to appear, notably the \"1977 trinity\" of the TRS-80, Commodore PET and Apple II, they either included a version of the MS code, or quickly introduced new models with it.", "Ohio Scientific's personal computers also joined this trend at that time.", "By 1978, MS BASIC was a ''de facto'' standard and practically every home computer of the 1980s included it in ROM.", "Upon boot, a BASIC interpreter in direct mode was presented.Commodore Business Machines included Commodore BASIC, based on Microsoft BASIC.", "The Apple II and TRS-80 each had two versions of BASIC, a smaller introductory version introduced with the initial releases of the machines and an MS-based version introduced as interest in the platforms increased.", "As new companies entered the field, additional versions were added that subtly changed the BASIC family.", "The Atari 8-bit family had its own Atari BASIC that was modified in order to fit on an 8 KB ROM cartridge.", "Sinclair BASIC was introduced in 1980 with the Sinclair ZX80, and was later extended for the Sinclair ZX81 and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum.", "The BBC published BBC BASIC, developed by Acorn Computers Ltd, incorporating many extra structured programming keywords and advanced floating-point operation features.As the popularity of BASIC grew in this period, computer magazines published complete source code in BASIC for video games, utilities, and other programs.", "Given BASIC's straightforward nature, it was a simple matter to type in the code from the magazine and execute the program.", "Different magazines were published featuring programs for specific computers, though some BASIC programs were considered universal and could be used in machines running any variant of BASIC (sometimes with minor adaptations).", "Many books of type-in programs were also available, and in particular, Ahl published versions of the original 101 BASIC games converted into the Microsoft dialect and published it from ''Creative Computing'' as ''BASIC Computer Games''.", "This book, and its sequels, provided hundreds of ready-to-go programs that could be easily converted to practically any BASIC-running platform.", "The book reached the stores in 1978, just as the home computer market was starting off, and it became the first million-selling computer book.", "Later packages, such as Learn to Program BASIC would also have gaming as an introductory focus.", "On the business-focused CP/M computers which soon became widespread in small business environments, Microsoft BASIC (MBASIC) was one of the leading applications.In 1978, David Lien published the first edition of ''The BASIC Handbook: An Encyclopedia of the BASIC Computer Language'', documenting keywords across over 78 different computers.", "By 1981, the second edition documented keywords from over 250 different computers, showcasing the explosive growth of the microcomputer era." ], [ "IBM PC and compatibles", "IBM Cassette BASIC 1.10When IBM was designing the IBM PC, they followed the paradigm of existing home computers in having a built-in BASIC interpreter.", "They sourced this from Microsoft – IBM Cassette BASIC – but Microsoft also produced several other versions of BASIC for MS-DOS/PC DOS including IBM Disk BASIC (BASIC D), IBM BASICA (BASIC A), GW-BASIC (a BASICA-compatible version that did not need IBM's ROM) and QBasic, all typically bundled with the machine.", "In addition they produced the Microsoft BASIC Compiler aimed at professional programmers.", "Turbo Pascal-publisher Borland published Turbo Basic 1.0 in 1985 (successor versions are still being marketed under the name PowerBASIC).", "On Unix-like systems, specialized implementations were created such as XBasic and X11-Basic.", "XBasic was ported to Microsoft Windows as XBLite, and cross-platform variants such as SmallBasic, yabasic, Bywater BASIC, nuBasic, MyBasic, Logic Basic, Liberty BASIC, and wxBasic emerged.", "FutureBASIC and Chipmunk Basic meanwhile targeted the Apple Macintosh.These later variations introduced many extensions, such as improved string manipulation and graphics support, access to the file system and additional data types.", "More important were the facilities for structured programming, including additional control structures and proper subroutines supporting local variables.", "However, by the latter half of the 1980s, users were increasingly using pre-made applications written by others rather than learning programming themselves; while professional programmers now had a wide range of more advanced languages available on small computers.", "C and later C++ became the languages of choice for professional \"shrink wrap\" application development.A niche that BASIC continued to fill was for hobbyist video game development, as game creation systems and readily available game engines were still in their infancy.", "The Atari ST had STOS BASIC while the Amiga had AMOS BASIC for this purpose.", "Microsoft first exhibited BASIC for game development with DONKEY.BAS for GW-BASIC, and later GORILLA.BAS and NIBBLES.BAS for Quick Basic.", "QBasic maintained an active game development community, which helped later spawn the QB64 and FreeBASIC implementations.", "In 2013 a game written in QBasic and compiled with QB64 for modern computers entitled ''Black Annex'' was released on Steam.", "Blitz Basic, Dark Basic, SdlBasic, Super Game System Basic, RCBasic, PlayBASIC, CoolBasic, AllegroBASIC, ethosBASIC, NaaLaa, GLBasic and Basic4GL further filled this demand, right up to the modern AppGameKit, Monkey 2 and Cerberus-X." ], [ "Visual Basic", "In 1991, Microsoft introduced Visual Basic, an evolutionary development of QuickBASIC.", "It included constructs from that language such as block-structured control statements, parameterized subroutines and optional static typing as well as object-oriented constructs from other languages such as \"With\" and \"For Each\".", "The language retained some compatibility with its predecessors, such as the Dim keyword for declarations, \"Gosub\"/Return statements and optional line numbers which could be used to locate errors.", "An important driver for the development of Visual Basic was as the new macro language for Microsoft Excel, a spreadsheet program.", "To the surprise of many at Microsoft who still initially marketed it as a language for hobbyists, the language came into widespread use for small custom business applications shortly after the release of VB version 3.0, which is widely considered the first relatively stable version.", "Microsoft also spun it off as Visual Basic for Applications and Embedded Visual Basic.", "While many advanced programmers still scoffed at its use, VB met the needs of small businesses efficiently as by that time, computers running Windows 3.1 had become fast enough that many business-related processes could be completed \"in the blink of an eye\" even using a \"slow\" language, as long as large amounts of data were not involved.", "Many small business owners found they could create their own small, yet useful applications in a few evenings to meet their own specialized needs.", "Eventually, during the lengthy lifetime of VB3, knowledge of Visual Basic had become a marketable job skill.", "Microsoft also produced VBScript in 1996 and Visual Basic .NET in 2001.The latter has essentially the same power as C# and Java but with syntax that reflects the original Basic language, and also features some cross-platform capability through implementations such as Mono-Basic.", "The IDE, with its event-driven GUI builder, was also influential on other tools, most notably Borland Software's Delphi for Object Pascal and its own descendants such as Lazarus.", "Mainstream support for the final version 6.0 of the original Visual Basic ended on March 31, 2005, followed by extended support in March 2008.Owing to its persistent remaining popularity, third-party attempts to further support it, such as Rubberduck and ModernVB, exist.", "On February 2, 2017 Microsoft announced that development on VB.NET would no longer be in parallel with that of C#, and on March 11, 2020 it was announced that evolution of the VB.NET language had also concluded.", "Even so, the language was still supported and the third-party Mercury extension has since been produced.", "Meanwhile, competitors exist such as B4X, RAD Basic, twinBASIC, VisualFBEditor, InForm, Xojo, and Gambas.Mono Basic, OpenOffice.org Basic and Gambas" ], [ "Post-1990 versions and dialects", "Many other BASIC dialects have also sprung up since 1990, including the open source QB64 and FreeBASIC, inspired by QBasic, and the Visual Basic-styled RapidQ, HBasic, Basic For Qt and Gambas.", "Modern commercial incarnations include PureBasic, PowerBASIC, Xojo, Monkey X and True BASIC (the direct successor to Dartmouth BASIC from a company controlled by Kurtz).Several web-based simple BASIC interpreters also now exist, including Microsoft's Small Basic and Google's wwwBASIC.", "A number of compilers also exist that convert BASIC into JavaScript, such as JSBasic which re-implements Applesoft BASIC, Spider BASIC, and NS Basic.Building from earlier efforts such as Mobile Basic and CellularBASIC, many dialects are now available for smartphones and tablets.", "Through the Apple App Store for iOS options include Hand BASIC, Learn BASIC, Smart Basic based on Minimal BASIC, Basic!", "bymiSoft, and BASIC by Anastasia Kovba.", "The Google Play store for Android meanwhile has the touchscreen focused Touch Basic, B4A, the RFO BASIC!", "interpreter based on Dartmouth Basic, and adaptations of SmallBasic, BBC Basic, Tiny Basic, X11-Basic, and NS Basic.On game consoles, an application for the Nintendo 3DS and Nintendo DSi called ''Petit Computer'' allows for programming in a slightly modified version of BASIC with DS button support.", "A version has also been released for Nintendo Switch, which has also been supplied a version of the Fuze Code System, a BASIC variant first implemented as a custom Raspberry Pi machine.", "Previously BASIC was made available on consoles as Family BASIC (for the Nintendo Famicom) and PSX Chipmunk Basic (for the original PlayStation), while yabasic was ported to the PlayStation 2 and FreeBASIC to the original Xbox, with Dragon BASIC created for homebrew on the Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS." ], [ "Calculators", "Variants of BASIC are available on graphing and otherwise programmable calculators made by Texas Instruments (TI-BASIC), HP (HP BASIC), Casio (Casio BASIC), and others." ], [ "Windows command-line", "QBasic, a version of Microsoft QuickBASIC without the linker to make EXE files, is present in the Windows NT and DOS-Windows 95 streams of operating systems and can be obtained for more recent releases like Windows 7 which do not have them.", "Prior to DOS 5, the Basic interpreter was GW-Basic.", "QuickBasic is part of a series of three languages issued by Microsoft for the home and office power user and small-scale professional development; QuickC and QuickPascal are the other two.", "For Windows 95 and 98, which do not have QBasic installed by default, they can be copied from the installation disc, which will have a set of directories for old and optional software; other missing commands like Exe2Bin and others are in these same directories." ], [ "Other", "Famicom.The various Microsoft, Lotus, and Corel office suites and related products are programmable with Visual Basic in one form or another, including LotusScript, which is very similar to VBA 6.The Host Explorer terminal emulator uses WWB as a macro language; or more recently the programme and the suite in which it is contained is programmable in an in-house Basic variant known as Hummingbird Basic.", "The VBScript variant is used for programming web content, Outlook 97, Internet Explorer, and the Windows Script Host.", "WSH also has a Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) engine installed as the third of the default engines along with VBScript, JScript, and the numerous proprietary or open source engines which can be installed like PerlScript, a couple of Rexx-based engines, Python, Ruby, Tcl, Delphi, XLNT, PHP, and others; meaning that the two versions of Basic can be used along with the other mentioned languages, as well as LotusScript, in a WSF file, through the component object model, and other WSH and VBA constructions.", "VBScript is one of the languages that can be accessed by the 4Dos, 4NT, and Take Command enhanced shells.", "SaxBasic and WWB are also very similar to the Visual Basic line of Basic implementations.", "The pre-Office 97 macro language for Microsoft Word is known as WordBASIC.", "Excel 4 and 5 use Visual Basic itself as a macro language.", "Chipmunk Basic, an old-school interpreter similar to BASICs of the 1970s, is available for Linux, Microsoft Windows and macOS." ], [ "Legacy", "The ubiquity of BASIC interpreters on personal computers was such that textbooks once included simple \"Try It In BASIC\" exercises that encouraged students to experiment with mathematical and computational concepts on classroom or home computers.", "Popular computer magazines of the day typically included type-in programs.Futurist and sci-fi writer David Brin mourned the loss of ubiquitous BASIC in a 2006 ''Salon'' article as have others who first used computers during this era.", "In turn, the article prompted Microsoft to develop and release Small Basic; it also inspired similar projects like Basic-256.Dartmouth held a 50th anniversary celebration for BASIC on 1 May 2014, as did other organisations; at least one organisation of VBA programmers organised a 35th anniversary observance in 1999.Dartmouth College celebrated the 50th anniversary of the BASIC language with a day of events on April 30, 2014.A short documentary film was produced for the event." ], [ "Syntax", "=== Typical BASIC keywords ======= Data manipulation ====; LET : assigns a value (which may be the result of an expression) to a variable.", "In most dialects of BASIC, LET is optional, and a line with no other identifiable keyword will assume the keyword to be LET.", "; DATA : holds a list of values which are assigned sequentially using the READ command.", "; READ : reads a value from a DATA statement and assigns it to a variable.", "An internal pointer keeps track of the last DATA element that was read and moves it one position forward with each READ.", "Most dialects allow multiple variables as parameters, reading several values in a single operation.", "; RESTORE : resets the internal pointer to the first DATA statement, allowing the program to begin READing from the first value.", "Many dialects allow an optional line number or ordinal value to allow the pointer to be reset to a selected location.", "; DIM : Sets up an array.==== Program flow control ====; IF ... THEN ... {ELSE} : used to perform comparisons or make decisions.", "Early dialects only allowed a line number after the THEN, but later versions allowed any valid statement to follow.", "ELSE was not widely supported, especially in earlier versions.", "; FOR ... TO ... {STEP} ... NEXT : repeat a section of code a given number of times.", "A variable that acts as a counter, the \"index\", is available within the loop.", "; WHILE ... WEND and REPEAT ... UNTIL : repeat a section of code while the specified condition is true.", "The condition may be evaluated before each iteration of the loop, or after.", "Both of these commands are found mostly in later dialects.", "; DO ... LOOP {WHILE} or {UNTIL} : repeat a section of code indefinitely or while/until the specified condition is true.", "The condition may be evaluated before each iteration of the loop, or after.", "Similar to WHILE, these keywords are mostly found in later dialects.", "; GOTO : jumps to a numbered or labelled line in the program.", "Most dialects also allowed the form .", "; GOSUB ... RETURN : jumps to a numbered or labelled line, executes the code it finds there until it reaches a RETURN command, on which it jumps back to the statement following the GOSUB, either after a colon, or on the next line.", "This is used to implement subroutines.", "; ON ... GOTO/GOSUB : chooses where to jump based on the specified conditions.", "See Switch statement for other forms.", "; DEF FN : a pair of keywords introduced in the early 1960s to define functions.", "The original BASIC functions were modelled on FORTRAN single-line functions.", "BASIC functions were one expression with variable arguments, rather than subroutines, with a syntax on the model of DEF FND(x) = x*x at the beginning of a program.", "Function names were originally restricted to FN, plus one letter, ''i.e.", "'', FNA, FNB ...==== Input and output ====; LIST : displays the full source code of the current program.", "; PRINT : displays a message on the screen or other output device.", "; INPUT : asks the user to enter the value of a variable.", "The statement may include a prompt message.", "; TAB : used with PRINT to set the position where the next character will be shown on the screen or printed on paper.", "AT is an alternative form.", "; SPC : prints out a number of space characters.", "Similar in concept to TAB but moves by a number of additional spaces from the current column rather than moving to a specified column.==== Mathematical functions ====; ABS : Absolute value; ATN : Arctangent (result in radians); COS : Cosine (argument in radians); EXP : Exponential function; INT : Integer part (typically floor function); LOG : Natural logarithm; RND : Random number generation; SIN : Sine (argument in radians); SQR : Square root; TAN : Tangent (argument in radians)==== Miscellaneous ====; REM : holds a programmer's comment or REMark; often used to give a title to the program and to help identify the purpose of a given section of code.", "; USR (\"User Serviceable Routine\"): transfers program control to a machine language subroutine, usually entered as an alphanumeric string or in a list of DATA statements.", "; CALL : alternative form of USR found in some dialects.", "Does not require an artificial parameter to complete the function-like syntax of USR, and has a clearly defined method of calling different routines in memory.", "; TRON / TROFF: turns on display of each line number as it is run (\"TRace ON\").", "This was useful for debugging or correcting of problems in a program.", "TROFF turns it back off again.", "; ASM : some compilers such as Freebasic, Purebasic, and Powerbasic also support inline assembly language, allowing the programmer to intermix high-level and low-level code, typically prefixed with \"ASM\" or \"!\"", "statements.=== Data types and variables ===Minimal versions of BASIC had only integer variables and one- or two-letter variable names, which minimized requirements of limited and expensive memory (RAM).", "More powerful versions had floating-point arithmetic, and variables could be labelled with names six or more characters long.", "There were some problems and restrictions in early implementations; for example, Applesoft BASIC allowed variable names to be several characters long, but only the first two were significant, thus it was possible to inadvertently write a program with variables \"LOSS\" and \"LOAN\", which would be treated as being the same; assigning a value to \"LOAN\" would silently overwrite the value intended as \"LOSS\".", "Keywords could not be used in variables in many early BASICs; \"SCORE\" would be interpreted as \"SC\" OR \"E\", where OR was a keyword.", "String variables are usually distinguished in many microcomputer dialects by having $ suffixed to their name as a sigil, and values are often identified as strings by being delimited by \"double quotation marks\".", "Arrays in BASIC could contain integers, floating point or string variables.Some dialects of BASIC supported matrices and matrix operations, which can be used to solve sets of simultaneous linear algebraic equations.", "These dialects would directly support matrix operations such as assignment, addition, multiplication (of compatible matrix types), and evaluation of a determinant.", "Many microcomputer BASICs did not support this data type; matrix operations were still possible, but had to be programmed explicitly on array elements.=== Examples ===A simple game implemented in BASIC==== Unstructured BASIC ====New BASIC programmers on a home computer might start with a simple program, perhaps using the language's PRINT statement to display a message on the screen; a well-known and often-replicated example is Kernighan and Ritchie's \"Hello, World!\"", "program:10 PRINT \"Hello, World!", "\"20 ENDAn infinite loop could be used to fill the display with the message:10 PRINT \"Hello, World!", "\"20 GOTO 10Note that the END statement is optional and has no action in most dialects of BASIC.", "It was not always included, as is the case in this example.", "This same program can be modified to print a fixed number of messages using the common FOR...NEXT statement:10 LET N=1020 FOR I=1 TO N30 PRINT \"Hello, World!", "\"40 NEXT IMost home computers BASIC versions, such as MSX BASIC and GW-BASIC, supported simple data types, loop cycles, and arrays.", "The following example is written for GW-BASIC, but will work in most versions of BASIC with minimal changes:10 INPUT \"What is your name: \"; U$20 PRINT \"Hello \"; U$30 INPUT \"How many stars do you want: \"; N40 S$ = \"\"50 FOR I = 1 TO N60 S$ = S$ + \"*\"70 NEXT I80 PRINT S$90 INPUT \"Do you want more stars?", "\"; A$100 IF LEN(A$) = 0 THEN GOTO 90110 A$ = LEFT$(A$, 1)120 IF A$ = \"Y\" OR A$ = \"y\" THEN GOTO 30130 PRINT \"Goodbye \"; U$140 ENDThe resulting dialog might resemble: What is your name: Mike Hello Mike How many stars do you want: 7 ******* Do you want more stars?", "yes How many stars do you want: 3 *** Do you want more stars?", "no Goodbye MikeThe original Dartmouth Basic was unusual in having a matrix keyword, MAT.", "Although not implemented by most later microprocessor derivatives, it is used in this example from the 1968 manual which averages the numbers that are input:5 LET S = 010 MAT INPUT V 20 LET N = NUM 30 IF N = 0 THEN 99 40 FOR I = 1 TO N 45 LET S = S + V(I) 50 NEXT I 60 PRINT S/N 70 GO TO 5 99 END==== Structured BASIC ====Second-generation BASICs (for example, VAX Basic, SuperBASIC, True BASIC, QuickBASIC, BBC BASIC, Pick BASIC, PowerBASIC, Liberty BASIC, QB64 and (arguably) COMAL) introduced a number of features into the language, primarily related to structured and procedure-oriented programming.", "Usually, line numbering is omitted from the language and replaced with labels (for GOTO) and procedures to encourage easier and more flexible design.", "In addition keywords and structures to support repetition, selection and procedures with local variables were introduced.The following example is in Microsoft QuickBASIC:REM QuickBASIC exampleREM Forward declaration - allows the main code to call aREM subroutine that is defined later in the source codeDECLARE SUB PrintSomeStars (StarCount!", ")REM Main program followsINPUT \"What is your name: \", UserName$PRINT \"Hello \"; UserName$DO INPUT \"How many stars do you want: \", NumStars CALL PrintSomeStars(NumStars) DO INPUT \"Do you want more stars?", "\", Answer$ LOOP UNTIL Answer$ \"\" Answer$ = LEFT$(Answer$, 1)LOOP WHILE UCASE$(Answer$) = \"Y\"PRINT \"Goodbye \"; UserName$ENDREM subroutine definitionSUB PrintSomeStars (StarCount) REM This procedure uses a local variable called Stars$ Stars$ = STRING$(StarCount, \"*\") PRINT Stars$END SUB==== Object-oriented BASIC ====Third-generation BASIC dialects such as Visual Basic, Xojo, Gambas, StarOffice Basic, BlitzMax and PureBasic introduced features to support object-oriented and event-driven programming paradigm.", "Most built-in procedures and functions are now represented as ''methods'' of standard objects rather than ''operators''.", "Also, the operating system became increasingly accessible to the BASIC language.The following example is in Visual Basic .NET:Public Module StarsProgram Private Function Ask(prompt As String) As String Console.Write(prompt) Return Console.ReadLine() End Function Public Sub Main() Dim userName = Ask(\"What is your name: \") Console.WriteLine(\"Hello {0}\", userName) Dim answer As String Do Dim numStars = CInt(Ask(\"How many stars do you want: \")) Dim stars As New String(\"*\"c, numStars) Console.WriteLine(stars) Do answer = Ask(\"Do you want more stars? \")", "Loop Until answer \"\" Loop While answer.StartsWith(\"Y\", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) Console.WriteLine(\"Goodbye {0}\", userName) End SubEnd Module" ], [ "Standards", "* ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard for Minimal BASIC:** ANSI X3.60-1978 \"For minimal BASIC\"** ISO/IEC 6373:1984 \"Data Processing—Programming Languages—Minimal BASIC\"* ECMA-55 Minimal BASIC ''(withdrawn, similar to ANSI X3.60-1978)''* ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard for Full BASIC:** ANSI X3.113-1987 \"Programming Languages Full BASIC\"** INCITS/ISO/IEC 10279-1991 (R2005) \"Information Technology – Programming Languages – Full BASIC\"* ANSI/ISO/IEC Addendum Defining Modules:** ANSI X3.113 Interpretations-1992 \"BASIC Technical Information Bulletin # 1 Interpretations of ANSI 03.113-1987\"** ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 \"Modules and Single Character Input Enhancement\"* ECMA-116 BASIC ''(withdrawn, similar to ANSI X3.113-1987)''" ], [ "Compilers and interpreters" ], [ "See also", "* List of BASIC dialects" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== General references ===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * gotBASIC.com - For all people interested in the continued usage and evolution of the BASIC programming language.", "* The Basics' page (Since 2001) - Comprehensive listing of dialects." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of Byzantine emperors" ], [ "Introduction", "The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD.", "Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised sovereign authority are included, to the exclusion of junior co-emperors (''symbasileis'') who never attained the status of sole or senior ruler, as well as of the various usurpers or rebels who claimed the imperial title.The following list starts with Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, who rebuilt the city of Byzantium as an imperial capital, Constantinople, and who was regarded by the later emperors as the model ruler.", "Modern historians distinguish this later phase of the Roman Empire as Byzantine due to the imperial seat moving from Rome to Byzantium, the Empire's integration of Christianity, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin.The Byzantine Empire was the direct legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire following the division of the Roman Empire in 395.Emperors listed below up to Theodosius I in 395 were sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire.", "The Western Roman Empire continued until 476.Byzantine emperors considered themselves to be Roman emperors in direct succession from Augustus; the term \"Byzantine\" became convention in Western historiography in the 19th century.", "The use of the title \"Roman Emperor\" by those ruling from Constantinople was not contested until after the papal coronation of the Frankish Charlemagne as Holy Roman emperor (25 December 800).In practice, according to the Hellenistic political system, the Byzantine emperor had been given total power through God to shape the state and its subjects, he was the last authority and legislator of the empire and all his work was in imitation of the sacred kingdom of God, also according to the Christian principles, he was the ultimate benefecator and protector of his people.The title of all Emperors preceding Heraclius was officially \"''Augustus''\", although other titles such as ''Dominus'' were also used.", "Their names were preceded by ''Imperator Caesar'' and followed by ''Augustus''.", "Following Heraclius, the title commonly became the Greek ''Basileus'' (Gr.", "Βασιλεύς), which had formerly meant sovereign, though ''Augustus'' continued to be used in a reduced capacity.", "Following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, the title \"''Autokrator''\" (Gr.", "Αὐτοκράτωρ) was increasingly used.", "In later centuries, the Emperor could be referred to by Western Christians as the \"Emperor of the Greeks\".", "Towards the end of the Empire, the standard imperial formula of the Byzantine ruler was \"Emperor's name in Christ, Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans\" (cf.", "Ῥωμαῖοι and Rûm).Dynasties were a common tradition and structure for rulers and government systems in the medieval period.", "The principle or formal requirements for hereditary succession, however, was not a formal part of the Empire's governance, hereditary succession was a custom and tradition, carried on as habit and benefitted from some sense of legitimacy, but not as a \"rule\" or inviolable or unchallengeable requirement of for office at the time.__TOC__ Portrait Name Reign Notes" ], [ "Constantinian dynasty (306–363)", " 126x126px '''Constantine I'''\"the Great\" 25 July 306 –22 May 337(30 years, 9 months and 27 days) Born at Naissus 272 as the son of the ''Augustus'' Constantius and Helena.", "Proclaimed ''Augustus'' of the western empire upon the death of his father on 25 July 306, he became sole ruler of the western empire after the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312.In 324, he defeated the eastern ''Augustus'' Licinius and re-united the empire under his rule, reigning as sole emperor until his death.", "Constantine completed the administrative and military reforms begun under Diocletian, who had begun ushering in the Dominate period.", "Actively interested in Christianity, he played a crucial role in its development and the Christianization of the Roman world, through his convocation of the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea.", "He is said to have received baptism on his deathbed.", "He also reformed coinage through the introduction of the gold ''solidus'', and initiated a large-scale building program, crowned by the re-foundation the city of Byzantium as \"New Rome\", popularly known as Constantinople.", "He was regarded as the model of all subsequent Byzantine emperors.", "85x85px '''Constantius II''' 22 May 337 –3 November 361(24 years, 1 month and 25 days) Born on 7 August 317, as the second surviving son of Constantine I, he inherited the eastern third of Roman Empire upon his father's death, sole Roman Emperor from 353, after the overthrow of the western usurper Magnentius.", "Constantius' reign saw military activity on all frontiers, and dissension between Arianism, favoured by the emperor, and the \"Orthodox\" supporters of the Nicene Creed.", "In his reign, Constantinople was accorded equal status to Rome, and the original Hagia Sophia was built.", "Constantius appointed Constantius Gallus and Julian as ''Caesares'', and died on his way to confront Julian, who had risen up against him.", "85x85px '''Julian''' \"the Apostate\" 3 November 361 –26 June 363(1 year, 7 months and 23 days) Born in May 332, grandson of Constantius Chlorus and cousin of Constantius II.", "Proclaimed by his army in Gaul, became legitimate Emperor upon the death of Constantius.", "Killed on campaign against Sassanid Persia." ], [ "Non-dynastic (363–364)", " 85x85px '''Jovian''' 27 June 363 –17 February 364(7 months and 21 days) Born .", "Captain of the guards under Julian, elected by the army upon Julian's death.", "Died on journey back to Constantinople." ], [ "Valentinianic dynasty (364–379)", " 108x108px '''Valentinian I''' 26 February –28 March 364(1 month and 2 days) Born in 321.An officer under Julian and Jovian, he was elected by the army upon Jovian's death.", "He soon appointed his younger brother Valens as Emperor of the East, while he himself ruled in the West.", "Died of cerebral haemorrhage in 375.85x85px '''Valens''' 28 March 364 –9 August 378(14 years, 4 months and 12 days) Born in 328.A soldier of the Roman army, he was appointed Emperor of the East by his elder brother Valentinian I.", "Killed at the Battle of Adrianople.", "113x113px '''Gratian''' 9 August 378 –19 January 379(5 months and 10 days) Born on 18 April/23 May 359, the son of Valentinian I. Emperor of the West, he inherited rule of the East upon the death of Valens and appointed Theodosius I as Emperor of the East.", "Assassinated on 25 August 383 during the rebellion of Magnus Maximus." ], [ "Theodosian dynasty (379–457)", " 116x116px '''Theodosius I'''\"the Great\" 19 January 379 –17 January 395(15 years, 11 months and 29 days) Born on 11 January 347, in Spain.", "Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East.", "He reunited the whole Empire after defeating Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus, on 6 September 394.The last emperor to rule both halves of the Empire.", "113x113px '''Arcadius''' 17 January 395 –1 May 408(13 years, 3 months and 14 days) Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I; proclaimed ''Augustus'' on 16 January 383.On the death of Theodosius I in 395, the Roman Empire was permanently divided between the Eastern Roman Empire, later referred to as the Byzantine Empire, and the Western Roman Empire.", "Theodosius' eldest son Arcadius became emperor in the East while his younger son Honorius became emperor in the West.", "113x113px '''Theodosius II''' 1 May 408 –28 July 450(42 years, 2 months and 27 days) Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius; proclaimed Augustus on 10 January 402.Succeeded upon the death of his father.", "As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414.He died in a riding accident.", "85x85px '''Marcian''' 25 August 450 –27 January 457(6 years, 5 months and 2 days) Born in 396.A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the ''Augusta'' Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius II, following the latter's death.", "Died of gangrene." ], [ "Leonid dynasty (457–518)", " 113x113px '''Leo I''' \"the Great\" and \"the Butcher\" 7 February 457 –18 January 474(16 years, 11 months and 11 days) Born in Dacia 400, and of Bessian origin, Leo became a low-ranking officer and served as an attendant of the Gothic ''magister militum'', Aspar, who chose him as emperor on Marcian's death.", "He was the first emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the first one to legislate in Greek.", "His reign was marked by the pacification of the Danube and peace with Persia, which allowed him to intervene in the affairs of the West, supporting candidates for the throne and dispatching an expedition to recover Carthage from the Vandals in 468.Initially a puppet of Aspar, Leo began promoting the Isaurians as a counterweight to Aspar's Goths, marrying his daughter Ariadne to the Isaurian leader Tarasicodissa (Zeno).", "With their support, in 471 Aspar was murdered and Gothic power over the army was broken.", "85x85px '''Leo II''' \"the Little\" 18 January –November 474(10 months) Born 468, he was the grandson of Leo I by Leo's daughter Ariadne and her Isaurian husband, Zeno.", "He was raised to ''Augustus'' on 17 November 473.Leo ascended the throne after the death of his grandfather on 18 January 474.He crowned his father as co-emperor and effective regent on 29 January, dying shortly after.", "85x85px '''Zeno''' 29 January 474 –9 January 475(11 months and 11 days)August 476 –9 April 491(14 years and 8 months) Born 425 in Isauria, originally named Tarasicodissa.", "As the leader of Leo I's Isaurian soldiers, he rose to ''comes domesticorum'', married the emperor's daughter Ariadne and took the name Zeno, and played a crucial role in the elimination of Aspar and his Goths.", "He was named co-emperor by his son on 29 January 474 and became sole ruler upon the latter's death, but had to flee to his native country before Basiliscus in 475, regaining control of the capital in 476.Zeno concluded peace with the Vandals, saw off challenges against him by Illus and Verina, and secured peace in the Balkans by enticing the Ostrogoths under Theodoric the Great to migrate to Italy.", "Zeno's reign also saw the end of the western line of emperors.", "His pro-Monophysite stance made him unpopular and his promulgation of the Henotikon resulted in the Acacian Schism with the papacy.", "85x85px '''Basiliscus''' 9 January 475 –August 476(1 year and 7 months) General and brother-in-law of Leo I, seized power from Zeno and crowned himself emperor on 12 January.", "Zeno was restored soon after.", "Died in 476/477 85x85px '''Anastasius I''' \"Dicorus\" 11 April 491 –9 July 518(27 years, 2 months and 28 days) Born 430 at Dyrrhachium, he was a palace official (''silentiarius'') when he was chosen as her husband and Emperor by Empress-dowager Ariadne.", "He was nicknamed \"''Dikoros''\" (Latin: Dicorus), because of his heterochromia.", "Anastasius reformed the tax system and the Byzantine coinage and proved a frugal ruler, so that by the end of his reign he left a substantial surplus.", "His Monophysite sympathies led to widespread opposition, most notably the Revolt of Vitalian and the Acacian Schism.", "His reign was also marked by the first Bulgar raids into the Balkans and by a war with Persia over the foundation of Dara.", "He died childless." ], [ "Justinian dynasty (518–602)", " 85x85px '''Justin I''' 9 July 518 –1 August 527(9 years and 23 days) Born at Bederiana (Justiniana Prima), Dardania.", "Officer and commander of the Excubitors bodyguard under Anastasius I, he was elected by army and people upon the death of Anastasius I.", "114x114px '''Justinian I''' \"the Great\" 1 August 527 –14 November 565(38 years, 7 months and 13 days) Born in 482/483 at Tauresium (Taor), Macedonia.", "Nephew of Justin I, raised to co-emperor on 1 April 527.Succeeded on Justin I's death.", "Attempted to restore the western territories of the Empire, reconquering Italy, North Africa and parts of Spain.", "Also responsible for the , or the \"body of civil law,\" which is the foundation of law for many modern European nations.", "85x85px '''Justin II''' 14 November 565 –5 October 578(12 years, 10 months and 21 days) Born .", "Nephew of Justinian I, he seized the throne on the death of Justinian I with support of army and Senate.", "Became insane, hence in 573–574 under the regency of his wife Sophia, and in 574–578 under the regency of Tiberius Constantine.", "85x85px '''Tiberius II''' Constantine 5 October 578 –14 August 582(3 years, 10 months and 19 days) Born , commander of the Excubitors, friend and adoptive son of Justin.", "Was named ''Caesar'' and regent in 574.Succeeded on Justin II's death.", "85x85px '''Maurice''' 14 August 582 –27 November 602(20 years, 3 months and 14 days) Born in 539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia.", "Became an official and later a general.", "Married the daughter of Tiberius II and was proclaimed emperor on 13 August 582.Named his son Theodosius as co-emperor in 590.Deposed by Phocas and executed on 27 November 602 at Chalcedon." ], [ "Non-dynastic (602–610)", " 106x106px '''Phocas''' 23 November 602 –5 October 610(7 years, 10 months and 12 days) Subaltern in the Balkan army, he led a rebellion that deposed Maurice.", "Increasingly unpopular and tyrannical, he was deposed and executed by Heraclius." ], [ "Heraclian dynasty (610–695)", " 85x85px '''Heraclius''' 5 October 610 –11 February 641(30 years, 4 months and 6 days) Born as the eldest son of the Exarch of Africa, Heraclius the Elder.", "Began a revolt against Phocas in 609 and deposed him in October 610.Brought the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628 to successful conclusion but was unable to stop the Muslim conquest of Syria.", "Replaced Latin with Greek as the official language of administration in the East.", "85x85px '''Heraclius Constantine''' 11 February –25 May 641(3 months and 14 days) Born on 3 May 612 as the eldest son of Heraclius by his first wife Fabia Eudokia.", "Named co-emperor on 22 January 613, he succeeded to throne with his younger brother Heraklonas following the death of Heraclius.", "Died of tuberculosis, allegedly poisoned by Empress-dowager Martina.", "85x85px '''Heraclonas''' 11 February – 5 November 641(8 months and 25 days) Born in 626 to Heraclius' second wife Martina, named co-emperor on 4 July 638.Succeeded to throne with Constantine III following the death of Heraclius.", "Sole emperor after the death of Constantine III, under the regency of Martina, but was forced to name Constans II co-emperor by the army, and was deposed by the Senate in September 641 (or early 642).", "85x85px '''Constans II'''\"the Bearded\" 5 November 641 –15 July 668(26 years and 10 months) Born on 7 November 630, the son of Constantine III.", "Raised to co-emperor in summer 641 after his father's death due to army pressure, he became sole emperor after the forced abdication of his uncle Heraklonas.", "Baptized Heraclius, he reigned as Constantine.", "\"Constans\" is his nickname.", "Moved his seat to Syracuse, where he was assassinated, possibly on the orders of Mizizios.", "110x110px '''Constantine IV'''\"the Younger\" September 668 – 10 July 685(16 years and 10 months) Born in 652, co-emperor since 13 April 654, he succeeded following the murder of his father Constans II.", "Erroneously called \"Constantine the Bearded\" by historians through confusion with his father.", "He called the Third Council of Constantinople which condemned the heresy of Monothelitism, repelled the First Arab Siege of Constantinople, and died of dysentery.", "109x109px '''Justinian II'''\"the Slit-nosed\"(first reign) 10 July 685 – 695(10 years) Born in 669, son of Constantine IV, he was named co-emperor in 681 and became sole emperor upon Constantine IV's death.", "Deposed by military revolt in 695, mutilated (hence his surname) and exiled to Cherson, whence he recovered his throne in 705." ], [ "Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)", " 85x85px '''Leontius''' 695 – 698(3 years) General from Isauria, he deposed Justinian II and was overthrown in another revolt in 698.He was executed in February 706.85x85px '''Tiberius III''' (Apsimarus) 698 – 705(7 years) Admiral of Germanic origin, originally named Apsimar.", "He rebelled against Leontius after a failed expedition.", "Reigned under the name of Tiberius until deposed by Justinian II in 705.Executed in February 706.84x84px '''Justinian II''' \"the Slit-nosed\"(second reign) 21 August 705 –4 November 711(6 years, 2 months and 14 days) Returned on the throne with Bulgar support.", "Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706.Deposed and killed by military revolt.", "85x85px '''Philippicus''' (Bardanes) 4 November 711 –3 June 713(1 year, 6 months and 30 days) A general of Armenian origin, he deposed Justinian II and was in turn overthrown by a revolt of the Opsician troops.", "85x85px '''Anastasius II''' 4 June 713 –late 715(less than 2 years) Originally named Artemios.", "A bureaucrat and secretary under Philippicus, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers who overthrew Philippicus.", "Deposed by another military revolt, he led an abortive attempt to regain the throne in 718 and was killed.", "85x85px '''Theodosius III''' late 715 –25 March 717(less than 2 years) A fiscal official, he was proclaimed emperor by the rebellious Opsician troops.", "Entered Constantinople in November 715.Abdicated following the revolt of Leo the Isaurian and became a monk." ], [ "Isaurian dynasty (717–802)", " 85x85px '''Leo III''' \"the Isaurian\" 25 March 717 –18 June 741(24 years, 2 months and 24 days) Born in Germanikeia, Commagene, he became a general.", "Rose in rebellion and secured the throne in spring 717.Repelled the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople and initiated the Byzantine Iconoclasm.", "85x85px '''Constantine V'''\"the Dung-named\" 18 June 741 –14 September 775(34 years, 2 months and 27 days) Born in July 718, the only son of Leo III.", "Co-emperor since 720, he succeeded upon his father's death.", "After overcoming the usurpation of Artabasdos, he continued his father's iconoclastic policies and won several victories against the Arabs and the Bulgars.", "He is given the surname \"the Dung-named\" by hostile later chroniclers.", "85x85px '''Artabasdos''' June 741 –2 November 743(2 years and 5 months) General and son-in-law of Leo III, Count of the Opsician Theme.", "Led a revolt that secured Constantinople, but was defeated and deposed by Constantine V, who blinded and tonsured him.", "85x85px '''Leo IV''' \"the Khazar\" 14 September 775 –8 September 780(4 years, 11 months and 25 days) Born on 25 January 750 as the eldest son of Constantine V. Co-emperor since 751, he succeeded upon his father's death.", "85x85px '''Constantine VI''' 8 September 780 –19 August 797(16 years, 11 months and 11 days) Born in 771, the only child of Leo IV.", "Co-emperor since 14 April 776, sole emperor upon Leo's death in 780, until 790 under the regency of his mother, Irene of Athens.", "He was overthrown on Irene's orders, blinded and imprisoned, probably dying of his wounds shortly after.", "85x85px '''Irene''' 19 August 797 –31 October 802(5 years, 2 months and 12 days) Born in Athens, she married Leo IV on 3 November 768 and was crowned empress on 17 December.", "Regent for her son Constantine VI in 780–790, she overthrew him in 797 and became empress-regnant.", "In 787 she called the Second Council of Nicaea which condemned the practice of iconoclasm and restored the veneration of icons to Christian practice.", "Deposed in a palace coup in 802, she was exiled and died on 9 August 803." ], [ "Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)", " 85x85px '''Nikephoros I''' \"Genikos\" or \"the Logothete\" 31 October 802 –26 July 811(8 years, 8 months and 26 days) ''Logothetes tou genikou'' (general finance minister) under Irene, led initially successful campaigns against the Bulgars but was killed at the Battle of Pliska.", "85x85px '''Staurakios''' 26 July 811 –2 October 811(2 months and 4 days) Only son of Nikephoros I, crowned co-emperor in December 803.Succeeded on his father's death; however, he had been heavily wounded at Pliska and left paralyzed.", "He was forced to abdicate, and retired to a monastery where he died soon after.", "85x85px '''Michael I''' Rangabe 2 October 811 –11 July 813(1 year, 9 months and 9 days) Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, he succeeded Staurakios on his abdication.", "Resigned after the revolt under Leo the Armenian and retired to a monastery, where he died on 11 January 844.Reigned with eldest son Theophylact as co-emperor." ], [ "Non-dynastic (813–820)", " 103x103px '''Leo V''' \"the Armenian\" 11 July 813 –25 December 820(7 years, 5 months and 14 days) General of Armenian origin, born .", "He rebelled against Michael I and became emperor.", "Appointed his son Symbatios co-emperor under the name of Constantine in 813.Revived Byzantine Iconoclasm.", "Murdered by a conspiracy led by Michael the Amorian." ], [ "Amorian dynasty (820–867)", " 114x114px '''Michael II''' \"the Amorian\" 25 December 820 –2 October 829(8 years, 9 months and 7 days) Born in 770 at Amorium, he became an army officer.", "A friend of Leo V, he was raised to high office but led the conspiracy that murdered him.", "Survived the rebellion of Thomas the Slav, lost Crete to the Arabs and faced the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, reinforced iconoclasm.", "109x109px '''Theophilos''' 2 October 829 –20 January 842(12 years, 3 months and 18 days) Born in 813, as the only son of Michael II.", "Crowned co-emperor on 12 May 821, he succeeded on his father's death.", "114x114px '''Michael III''' \"the Drunkard\" 20 January 842 –24 September 867(25 years, 8 months and 4 days) His precise date of birth is uncertain, but the balance of available evidence supports a birthdate in January 840.The son of Theophilos, he succeeded on Theophilos' death.", "Under the regency of his mother Theodora until 856, and under the effective control of his uncle Bardas in 862–866.Ended iconoclasm.", "Murdered by Basil the Macedonian.", "A pleasure-loving ruler, he was nicknamed \"the Drunkard\" by later, pro-Basil chroniclers." ], [ "Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)", " 132x132px '''Basil I''' \"the Macedonian\" 24 September 867 –29 August 886(18 years, 11 months and 5 days) Born in the Theme of Macedonia 811, he rose in prominence through palace service, becoming a favourite of Michael III, who crowned him co-emperor on 26 May 866.He overthrew Michael and established the Macedonian dynasty.", "He led successful wars in the East against the Arabs and the Paulicians, and recovered southern Italy for the Empire.", "113x113px '''Leo VI''' \"the Wise\" 29 August 886 –11 May 912(25 years, 8 months and 12 days)Born on 19 September 866, either the legitimate son of Basil I or the illegitimate son of Michael III.", "Co-emperor since 6 January 870.Leo was known for his erudition.", "His reign saw a height in Saracen (Muslim) naval raids, culminating in the Sack of Thessalonica, and was marked by unsuccessful wars against the Bulgarians under Simeon I.", "108x108px '''Alexander''' 11 May 912 –6 June 913(1 year and 26 days) Son of Basil I, Alexander was born in 870 and raised to co-emperor in 879.Sidelined by Leo VI, Alexander dismissed his brother's principal aides on his accession.", "He died of exhaustion after a polo game.", "116x116px '''Constantine VII'''Porphyrogenitus 6 June 913 –9 November 959(46 years, 5 months and 3 days) Son of Leo VI, he was born on 17/18 May 905 and raised to co-emperor on 15 May 908.His early reign was dominated by successive regencies, first by his mother, Zoe Karbonopsina, and Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, and from 919 by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who wedded his daughter to Constantine and was crowned senior emperor in 920.Constantine re-asserted his control by deposing Romanos's sons on 27 January 945.His reign was marked by struggles with Sayf al-Dawla in the East and an unsuccessful campaign against Crete, and pro-aristocratic policies that saw a partial reversal of Lekapenos' legislation against the ''dynatoi''.", "He is notable for his promotion of the \"Macedonian Renaissance\", sponsoring encyclopaedic works and histories.", "He was a prolific writer himself, best remembered for the manuals on statecraft () and ceremonies (''De ceremoniis'') he compiled for his son.", "113x113px '''Romanos I''' Lekapenos 17 December 920 –20 December 944(24 years and 3 days) An admiral of lowly origin, Romanos rose to power as a protector of the young Constantine VII against the general Leo Phokas the Elder.", "After becoming the emperor's father-in-law, he successively assumed higher offices until he crowned himself senior emperor.", "His reign was marked by the end of warfare with Bulgaria and the great conquests of John Kourkouas in the East.", "Romanos promoted his sons Stephen and Constantine (alongside Christopher, who died soon after) as co-emperors over Constantine VII, but was himself overthrown by them and confined to an island as a monk.", "He died there on 15 June 948.113x113px '''Romanos II'''\"the Purple-born\" 9 November 959 –15 March 963(3 years, 4 months and 6 days) The only surviving son of Constantine VII, he was born on 15 March 938 and succeeded his father on the latter's death.", "He ruled until his own death, although the government was led mostly by the eunuch Joseph Bringas.", "His reign was marked by successful warfare in the East against Sayf al-Dawla and the recovery of Crete by general Nikephoros Phokas.", "122x122px '''Nikephoros II''' Phokas 16 August 963 –11 December 969(6 years, 3 months and 25 days) The most successful general of his generation, Nikephoros II was born 912 to the powerful Phokas clan.", "After the death of Romanos II, he rose to the throne with the support of the army and people as regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII, marrying the empress-dowager Theophano.", "Throughout his reign he led campaigns in the East, conquering much of Syria.", "He was murdered by his nephew and one-time associate John Tzimiskes.", "85px '''John I''' Tzimiskes 11 December 969 –10 January 976(6 years and 30 days) Nephew of Nikephoros Phokas, Tzimiskes was born 925.A successful general, he fell out with his uncle and led a conspiracy of disgruntled generals who murdered him.", "Tzimiskes succeeded Nikephoros as emperor and regent for the young sons of Romanos II.", "As ruler, Tzimiskes crushed the Rus' in Bulgaria and ended the Bulgarian tsardom before going on to campaign in the East, where he died.", "123x123px '''Basil II'''\"the Bulgar-Slayer\" 10 January 976 –15 December 1025(49 years, 11 months and 5 days) Eldest son of Romanos II, Basil was born in 958.The first decade of his reign was marked by rivalry with the powerful Basil Lekapenos, an unsuccessful war against Bulgaria, and rebellions by generals in Asia Minor.", "Basil solidified his position through a marriage alliance with Vladimir I of Kiev, and after suppressing the revolts, he embarked on his conquest of Bulgaria.", "Bulgaria was finally subdued in 1018 after over 20 years of war, interrupted only by sporadic warfare in Syria against the Fatimid Caliphate.", "Basil also expanded Byzantine control over most of Armenia.", "His reign is widely considered as the apogee of medieval Byzantium.", "109x109px '''Constantine VIII''' 15 December 1025– 12 November 1028(2 years, 10 months and 28 days) The second son of Romanos II, Constantine was born in 960 and raised to co-emperor on 30 March 962.During the rule of Basil II, he spent his time in idle pleasure.", "During his short reign he was an indifferent ruler, easily influenced by his courtiers and suspicious of plots to depose him, especially among the military aristocracy, many of whom were blinded and exiled.", "107x107px '''Romanos III''' Argyros 15 November 1028 –11 April 1034(5 years, 4 months and 30 days) Born in 968, the elderly aristocrat Romanos was chosen by Constantine VIII on his deathbed as Zoe's husband and succeeded on the throne after Constantine's death a few days later.", "99x99px '''Michael IV'''\"the Paphlagonian\" 11 April 1034 –10 December 1041(7 years, 7 months and 28 days) Born in 1010, he became a lover of Zoe even while Romanos III was alive, and succeeded him upon his death as her husband and emperor.", "Aided by his older brother, the eunuch John the Orphanotrophos, his reign was moderately successful against internal rebellions, but his attempt to recover Sicily failed.", "He died after a long illness.", "90x90px '''Michael V''' \"the Caulker\" 10 December 1041 –20 April 1042(4 months and 8 days) Born in 1015, he was the nephew and adopted son of Michael IV.", "During his reign he tried to sideline Zoe, but a popular revolt forced him to restore her as empress on 19 April 1042, along with her sister Theodora.", "He was deposed the next day, castrated and tonsured, dying on 24 August 1042.125x125px '''Zoe''' \"the Purple-born\" 21 April – 12 June 1042(1 month and 22 days) The daughter of Constantine VIII, she succeeded on her father's death, as the only surviving member of the Macedonian dynasty, along with her sister Theodora.", "Her three husbands, Romanos III (1028–1034), Michael IV (1034–1041) and Constantine IX (1042–1050) ruled alongside her.", "110x110px '''Theodora'''\"the Purple-born\" 21 April –12 June 1042(1 month and 22 days)11 January 1055 –31 August 1056(1 year, 7 months, 20 days) The younger sister of Zoe, born in 984, she was raised as co-ruler on 19 April 1042.After Zoe married her third husband, Constantine IX, in June 1042, Theodora was again sidelined.", "After Zoe died in 1050 and Constantine in 1055, Theodora assumed full governance of the Empire and reigned until her death.", "She nominated Michael VI as her successor.", "127x127px '''Constantine IX''' Monomachos 12 June 1042 –11 January 1055(12 years, 6 months and 30 days) Born 1000 of noble origin, he had an undistinguished life but was exiled to Lesbos by Michael IV, returning when he was chosen as Zoe's third husband.", "Constantine supported the mercantile classes and favoured the company of intellectuals, thereby alienating the military aristocracy.", "A pleasure-loving ruler, he lived an extravagant life with his favourite mistresses and endowed a number of monasteries, chiefly the Nea Moni of Chios and the Mangana Monastery.", "His reign was marked by invasions by the Pechenegs in the Balkans and the Seljuk Turks in the East, the revolts of George Maniakes and Leo Tornikios, and the Great Schism between the patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople." ], [ "Non-dynastic (1056–1057)", " 105x105px '''Michael VI''' Bringas\"Stratiotikos\" / \"the Old\" 31 August 1056 –30/31 August 1057(1 year and 8 days) A court bureaucrat and ''stratiotikos logothetes'' (hence his first sobriquet).", "Crowned emperor by Theodora on 22 August 1056.Deposed by military revolt under Isaac Komnenos, he retired to a monastery where he died in 1059." ], [ "Komnenid dynasty (1057–1059)", " 85px '''Isaac I''' Komnenos 1 September 1057 –22 November 1059(2 years, 2 months and 21 days) Born .", "A successful general, he rose in revolt leading the eastern armies and was declared emperor on 8 June 1057; he was recognized after the abdication of Michael.", "He resigned in 1059 and died ." ], [ "Doukid dynasty (1059–1081)", " 112x112px '''Constantine X''' Doukas 23 November 1059 –23 May 1067(7 years and 6 months) Born in 1006, he became a general and close ally of Isaac Komnenos, and succeeded him as emperor on his abdication.", "Named his sons Michael, Andronikos and Konstantios as co-emperors.", "After his death his widow was regent until the accession of Romanus IV.", "100x100px '''Romanos IV''' Diogenes 1 January 1068 –1 October 1071(3 years and 9 months) Born in 1032, a successful general he married empress-dowager Eudokia Makrembolitissa and became senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X.", "Deposed by the Doukas partisans after the Battle of Manzikert, blinded in June 1072 and exiled.", "He died soon after.", "112x112px '''Michael VII''' Doukas \"Parapinakes\" 1 October 1071 –24 March 1078(6 years, 5 months and 23 days) Born in 1050 as the eldest son of Constantine X. Co-emperor since 1059, he succeeded on his father's death.", "Due to his minority he was under the regency of his mother, Eudokia Makrembolitissa, in 1067–1068, and relegated to junior emperor under her second husband Romanos IV Diogenes in 1068–71.Senior emperor in 1071–78, he named his son Constantine co-emperor alongside his brothers.", "He abdicated before the revolt of Nikephoros Botaneiates, retired to a monastery and died .", "His reign saw the devaluation of the Byzantine currency by 25%, hence his nickname \"minus-a-quarter\".", "114x114px '''Nikephoros III''' Botaneiates 27 March 1078 –1 April 1081(2 years, 11 months and 29 days) Born in 1001, he was the ''strategos'' of the Anatolic Theme.", "He was proclaimed emperor on 7 January and crowned on 27 March or 3 April.", "He weathered several revolts, but was overthrown by the Komnenos clan.", "He retired to a monastery where he died in the same year." ], [ "Komnenid dynasty (1081–1185)", " 128x128px '''Alexios I''' Komnenos 1 April 1081 –15 August 1118(37 years, 4 months and 14 days) Born in 1056, a nephew of Isaac I Komnenos.", "A distinguished general, he overthrew Nikephoros III.", "His reign was dominated by wars against the Normans and the Seljuk Turks, as well as the arrival of the First Crusade and the establishment of independent Crusader states.", "He retained Constantine Doukas as co-emperor until 1087 and named his eldest son John co-emperor in 1092.135x135px '''John II''' Komnenos 15 August 1118 –8 April 1143(24 years, 7 months and 24 days) Born on 13 September 1087 as the eldest son of Alexios I. Co-emperor since 1092, he succeeded upon his father's death.", "His reign was focused on wars with the Turks.", "A popular, pious and frugal ruler, he was known as \"John the Good\".", "Named his eldest son Alexios co-emperor in 1122, but the son predeceased his father.", "85px '''Manuel I''' Komnenos 8 April 1143 –24 September 1180(37 years, 5 months and 16 days) Born on 28 November 1118 as the fourth and youngest son of John II, he was chosen as emperor over his elder brother Isaac by his father on his deathbed.", "An energetic ruler, he launched campaigns against the Turks, humbled Hungary, achieved supremacy over the Crusader states, and tried unsuccessfully to recover Italy and Egypt.", "His extravagance and constant campaigning, however, depleted the Empire's resources.", "85px '''Alexios II''' Komnenos 24 September 1180 – September 1183(3 years) Born on 14 September 1169 as the only son of Manuel I.", "In 1180–1182 under the regency of his mother, Maria of Antioch.", "She was overthrown by Andronikos I Komnenos, who became co-emperor and finally had Alexios II deposed and killed.", "85px '''Andronikos I''' Komnenos September 1183 –12 September 1185(2 years) Born , a nephew of John II by his brother Isaac.", "A general, he was imprisoned for conspiring against John II, but escaped and spent 15 years in exile in various courts in eastern Europe and the Middle East.", "He seized the regency from Maria of Antioch in 1182 and subsequently throne from his nephew Alexios II.", "An unpopular ruler, he was overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising." ], [ "Angelid dynasty (1185–1204)", " 85px '''Isaac II''' Angelos 12 September 1185 –8 April 1195(9 years, 6 months and 27 days)1 August 1203 –27 January 1204(6 months and 8 days) Born in September 1156, Isaac came to the throne at the head of a popular revolt against Andronikos I.", "His reign was marked by revolts and wars in the Balkans, especially against a resurgent Bulgaria.", "He was deposed, blinded and imprisoned by his elder brother, Alexios III.", "He was later restored to the throne by the Crusaders and Alexios IV.", "Due to their failure to deal with the Crusaders' demands, he was deposed by Alexios V Doukas in January 1204 and died in January 1204, perhaps of poison.", "117x117px '''Alexios III''' Angelos 8 April 1195 –18 July 1203(8 years, 3 months and 10 days) Born in 1153, Alexios was the elder brother of Isaac II.", "His reign was marked by misgovernment and the increasing autonomy of provincial magnates.", "He was deposed by the Fourth Crusade and fled Constantinople, roaming Greece and Asia Minor, searching for support to regain his throne.", "He died in Nicaean captivity (confined to a monastery) in 1211.105x105px '''Alexios IV''' Angelos 19 July 1203 –27 January 1204(6 months and 8 days) Born in 1182, the son of Isaac II.", "He enlisted the Fourth Crusade to return his father to the throne, and reigned alongside his restored father from 19 July 1203.Due to their failure to deal with the Crusaders' demands, he was deposed by Alexios V Doukas in January 1204, and was strangled on 8 February.", "113x113px '''Alexios V''' Doukas \"Mourtzouphlos\" 27 January 1204 –12 April 1204(2 months and 16 days) Born in 1140, the son-in-law of Alexios III and a prominent aristocrat, he deposed Isaac II and Alexios IV in a palace coup.", "He tried to repel the Crusaders, but they captured Constantinople forcing Mourtzouphlos to flee.", "He joined the exiled Alexios III, but was later blinded by the latter.", "Captured by the Crusaders, he was executed in December 1205." ], [ "Laskarid dynasty (Empire of Nicaea, 1204–1261)", " 114x114px '''Theodore I''' Laskaris May 1205 –November 1221(16 years and 6 months) Born , he rose to prominence as a son-in-law of Alexios III.", "His brother Constantine Laskaris (or Theodore himself, it is uncertain) was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day before the city fell to the Crusaders; Constantine only remained for a few hours before the sack of the city and later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins.", "Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in Easter 1208.He managed to stop the Latin advance in Asia and to repel Seljuk attacks, establishing the Empire of Nicaea as the strongest of the Greek successor states.", "98x98px '''John III''' Vatatzes December 1221 –3 November 1254(32 years and 11 months) Born , he became the son-in-law and successor of Theodore I in 1212.A capable ruler and soldier, he expanded his state in Bithynia, Thrace and Macedonia at the expense of the Latin Empire, Bulgaria and the rival Greek state of Epirus.", "103x103px '''Theodore II''' Laskaris 3 November 1254 –16 August 1258(3 years, 9 months and 13 days) Born in 1221/1222 as the only son of John III, he succeeded on his father's death.", "His reign was marked by his hostility towards the major houses of the aristocracy, and by his victory against Bulgaria and the subsequent expansion into and Albania.", "113x113px '''John IV''' Laskaris 16 August 1258 –25 December 1261(3 years, 4 months and 9 days) Born on 25 December 1250 as the only son of Theodore II, he succeeded on his father's death.", "Due to his minority, the regency was exercised at first by George Mouzalon until his assassination, and then by Michael Palaiologos, who within months was crowned senior emperor.", "After the recovery of Constantinople in August 1261, Palaiologos sidelined John IV completely, had him blinded and imprisoned.", "John IV died ." ], [ "Palaiologan dynasty (restored to Constantinople, 1261–1453)", " 113x113px '''Michael VIII''' Palaiologos 1 January 1259 –11 December 1282(23 years, 11 months and 10 days) Born in 1223, great-grandson of Alexios III, grandnephew of John III by marriage.", "Senior emperor alongside John IV in 1259.His forces reconquered Constantinople on 25 July 1261, thus restoring the Empire.", "He entered the city and was crowned on 15 August.", "Became sole emperor after deposing John IV on 25 December 1261.119x119px '''Andronikos II''' Palaiologos 11 December 1282 –24 May 1328(45 years, 5 months and 13 days) Son of Michael VIII, born on 25 March 1259.Named co-emperor in 1261, crowned in 1272, he succeeded as sole emperor on Michael's death.", "Favouring monks and intellectuals, he neglected the army, and his reign saw the collapse of the Byzantine position in Asia Minor.", "He named his son Michael IX co-emperor.", "In a protracted civil war, he was first forced to recognize his grandson Andronikos III as co-emperor and was then deposed outright.", "He died on 13 February 1332.alt=miniature portrait '''Michael IX''' Palaiologos 21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320(26 years, 4 months and 21 days) Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281 but not crowned until 21 May 1294.Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son.", "113x113px '''Andronikos III''' Palaiologos 24 May 1328 –15 June 1341(13 years and 22 days) Son of Michael IX, he was born on 25 March 1297 and named co-emperor in 1316.Rival emperor since July 1321, he deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and ruled as sole emperor until his death.", "Supported by John Kantakouzenos, his reign saw defeats against the Ottoman emirate but successes in Europe, where Epirus and Thessaly were recovered.", "111x111px '''John V''' Palaiologos 15 July 1341 –12 August 1376(35 years, 1 month and 28 days) Only son of Andronikos III, he had not been crowned or declared heir at his father's death, a fact which led to the outbreak of a destructive civil war between his regents and his father's closest aide, John VI Kantakouzenos, who was crowned co-emperor.", "The conflict ended in 1347 with Kantakouzenos recognized as senior emperor, but he was deposed by John V in 1354, during another civil war.", "Matthew Kantakouzenos, raised by John VI to co-emperor, was also deposed in 1357.John V appealed to the West for aid against the Ottomans, but in 1371 he was forced to recognize Ottoman suzerainty.", "107x107px '''John VI''' Kantakouzenos 8 February 1347– 10 December 1354(7 years, 10 months and 2 days) A maternal relative of the Palaiologoi, he was declared co-emperor on 26 October 1341, and was recognized as senior emperor for ten years after the end of the civil war on 8 February 1347.Deposed by John V in 1354, he became a monk, dying on 15 June 1383.101x101px '''Andronikos IV''' Palaiologos 12 August 1376 –1 July 1379(2 years, 10 months and 19 days) Son of John V and grandson of John VI, he was born on 2 April 1348 and raised to co-emperor .", "He deposed his father on 12 August 1376 and ruled until overthrown in turn in 1379.He was again recognized as co-emperor in 1381 and given Selymbria as an appanage, dying there on 28 June 1385.104x104px John V Palaiologos(second reign) 1 July 1379 –14 April 1390(10 years, 9 months and 13 days) Restored to senior emperor, he was reconciled with Andronikos IV in 1381, re-appointing him co-emperor.", "He was overthrown again in 1390 by his grandson, John VII.", "112x112px '''John VII''' Palaiologos 14 April 1390 –17 September 1390(5 months and 3 days) Son of Andronikos IV, he was born in 1370, and named co-emperor under his father in 1377–79.He usurped the throne from his grandfather John V for five months in 1390, but with Ottoman mediation he was reconciled with John V and his uncle, Manuel II.", "As regent, he held Constantinople against the Ottomans in 1399–1402, and was then given Thessalonica as an appanage, which he governed until his death on 22 September 1408.104x104px John V Palaiologos(third reign) 17 September 1390 –16 February 1391(4 months and 30 days) Restored to senior emperor, he ruled until his death in February 1391.114x114px '''Manuel II''' Palaiologos 16 February 1391 –21 July 1425(34 years, 4 months and 5 days) Second son of John V, he was born on 27 June 1350.Raised to co-emperor in 1373, he became senior emperor on John V's death and ruled until his death.", "He journeyed to the West European courts seeking aid against the Turks, and was able to use the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Ankara to regain some territories and throw off his vassalage to them.", "117x117px '''John VIII''' Palaiologos 21 July 1425 –31 October 1448(23 years, 4 months and 10 days) Eldest surviving son of Manuel II, he was born on 18 December 1392.Raised to co-emperor around 1416 and named full ''autokrator'' on 19 January 1421, he succeeded his father on his death.", "Seeking aid against the resurgent Ottomans, he ratified the Union of the Churches in 1439.113x113px '''Constantine XI'''Dragases Palaiologos 6 January 1449 –29 May 1453(4 years, 4 months and 23 days) The fourth son of Manuel II and Serbian princess Helena Dragaš, he was born on 8 February 1405.As Despot of the Morea since 1428, he distinguished himself in campaigns that annexed the Principality of Achaea and brought the Duchy of Athens under temporary Byzantine suzerainty, but was unable to repel Turkish attacks under Turahan Bey.", "As the eldest surviving brother, he succeeded John VIII after the latter's death.", "Facing the designs of the new sultan, Mehmed II, on Constantinople, Constantine acknowledged the Union of the Churches and made repeated appeals for help to the West, but in vain.", "Refusing to surrender the city, he was killed during the final Ottoman attack on 29 May 1453." ], [ "See also", "* Family tree of Byzantine emperors* List of Roman emperors* List of Trapezuntine emperors* List of Roman usurpers* List of Byzantine usurpers* Succession to the Byzantine Empire* List of Roman and Byzantine empresses* List of Byzantine emperors of Armenian origin* Family tree of Roman emperors* History of the Byzantine Empire" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Butterfly effect" ], [ "Introduction", "A plot of Lorenz's strange attractor for values ρ=28, σ = 10, β = 8/3.The butterfly effect or sensitive dependence on initial conditions is the property of a dynamical system that, starting from any of various arbitrarily close alternative initial conditions on the attractor, the iterated points will become arbitrarily spread out from each other.Experimental demonstration of the butterfly effect with six recordings of the same double pendulum.", "In each recording, the pendulum starts with almost the same initial condition.", "Over time, the differences in the dynamics grow from almost unnoticeable to drastic.In chaos theory, the '''butterfly effect''' is the sensitive dependence on initial conditions in which a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state.The term is closely associated with the work of mathematician and meteorologist Edward Norton Lorenz.", "He noted that the butterfly effect is derived from the metaphorical example of the details of a tornado (the exact time of formation, the exact path taken) being influenced by minor perturbations such as a distant butterfly flapping its wings several weeks earlier.", "Lorenz originally used a seagull causing a storm but was persuaded to make it more poetic with the use of a butterfly and tornado by 1972.He discovered the effect when he observed runs of his weather model with initial condition data that were rounded in a seemingly inconsequential manner.", "He noted that the weather model would fail to reproduce the results of runs with the unrounded initial condition data.", "A very small change in initial conditions had created a significantly different outcome.The idea that small causes may have large effects in weather was earlier acknowledged by French mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré.", "American mathematician and philosopher Norbert Wiener also contributed to this theory.", "Lorenz's work placed the concept of ''instability'' of the Earth's atmosphere onto a quantitative base and linked the concept of instability to the properties of large classes of dynamic systems which are undergoing nonlinear dynamics and deterministic chaos.The butterfly effect concept has since been used outside the context of weather science as a broad term for any situation where a small change is supposed to be the cause of larger consequences." ], [ "History", "In ''The Vocation of Man'' (1800), Johann Gottlieb Fichte says \"you could not remove a single grain of sand from its place without thereby ... changing something throughout all parts of the immeasurable whole\".Chaos theory and the sensitive dependence on initial conditions were described in numerous forms of literature.", "This is evidenced by the case of the three-body problem by Poincaré in 1890.He later proposed that such phenomena could be common, for example, in meteorology.In 1898, Jacques Hadamard noted general divergence of trajectories in spaces of negative curvature.", "Pierre Duhem discussed the possible general significance of this in 1908.In 1950, Alan Turing noted: \"The displacement of a single electron by a billionth of a centimetre at one moment might make the difference between a man being killed by an avalanche a year later, or escaping.", "\"The idea that the death of one butterfly could eventually have a far-reaching ripple effect on subsequent historical events made its earliest known appearance in \"A Sound of Thunder\", a 1952 short story by Ray Bradbury.", "\"A Sound of Thunder\" features time travel.More precisely, though, almost the exact idea and the exact phrasing —of a tiny insect's wing affecting the entire atmosphere's winds— was published in a children's book which became extremely successful and well-known globally in 1962, the year before Lorenz published:In 1961, Lorenz was running a numerical computer model to redo a weather prediction from the middle of the previous run as a shortcut.", "He entered the initial condition 0.506 from the printout instead of entering the full precision 0.506127 value.", "The result was a completely different weather scenario.Lorenz wrote:In 1963, Lorenz published a theoretical study of this effect in a highly cited, seminal paper called ''Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow'' (the calculations were performed on a Royal McBee LGP-30 computer).", "Elsewhere he stated:Following proposals from colleagues, in later speeches and papers, Lorenz used the more poetic butterfly.", "According to Lorenz, when he failed to provide a title for a talk he was to present at the 139th meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972, Philip Merilees concocted ''Does the flap of a butterfly's wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?''", "as a title.", "Although a butterfly flapping its wings has remained constant in the expression of this concept, the location of the butterfly, the consequences, and the location of the consequences have varied widely.The phrase refers to the idea that a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere that may ultimately alter the path of a tornado or delay, accelerate, or even prevent the occurrence of a tornado in another location.", "The butterfly does not power or directly create the tornado, but the term is intended to imply that the flap of the butterfly's wings can ''cause'' the tornado: in the sense that the flap of the wings is a part of the initial conditions of an interconnected complex web; one set of conditions leads to a tornado, while the other set of conditions doesn't.", "The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which cascades to large-scale alterations of events (compare: domino effect).", "Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different—but it's also equally possible that the set of conditions without the butterfly flapping its wings is the set that leads to a tornado.The butterfly effect presents an obvious challenge to prediction, since initial conditions for a system such as the weather can never be known to complete accuracy.", "This problem motivated the development of ensemble forecasting, in which a number of forecasts are made from perturbed initial conditions.Some scientists have since argued that the weather system is not as sensitive to initial conditions as previously believed.", "David Orrell argues that the major contributor to weather forecast error is model error, with sensitivity to initial conditions playing a relatively small role.", "Stephen Wolfram also notes that the Lorenz equations are highly simplified and do not contain terms that represent viscous effects; he believes that these terms would tend to damp out small perturbations.", "Recent studies using generalized Lorenz models that included additional dissipative terms and nonlinearity suggested that a larger heating parameter is required for the onset of chaos.While the \"butterfly effect\" is often explained as being synonymous with sensitive dependence on initial conditions of the kind described by Lorenz in his 1963 paper (and previously observed by Poincaré), the butterfly metaphor was originally applied to work he published in 1969 which took the idea a step further.", "Lorenz proposed a mathematical model for how tiny motions in the atmosphere scale up to affect larger systems.", "He found that the systems in that model could only be predicted up to a specific point in the future, and beyond that, reducing the error in the initial conditions would not increase the predictability (as long as the error is not zero).", "This demonstrated that a deterministic system could be \"observationally indistinguishable\" from a non-deterministic one in terms of predictability.", "Recent re-examinations of this paper suggest that it offered a significant challenge to the idea that our universe is deterministic, comparable to the challenges offered by quantum physics.In the book entitled ''The Essence of Chaos'' published in 1993, Lorenz defined butterfly effect as: \"The phenomenon that a small alteration in the state of a dynamical system will cause subsequent states to differ greatly from the states that would have followed without the alteration.\"", "This feature is the same as sensitive dependence of solutions on initial conditions (SDIC) in .", "In the same book, Lorenz applied the activity of skiing and developed an idealized skiing model for revealing the sensitivity of time-varying paths to initial positions.", "A predictability horizon is determined before the onset of SDIC." ], [ "Illustrations", ":The butterfly effect in the Lorenz attractor time 0 ≤ ''t'' ≤ 30 (larger) ''z'' coordinate (larger)300px300px These figures show two segments of the three-dimensional evolution of two trajectories (one in blue, and the other in yellow) for the same period of time in the Lorenz attractor starting at two initial points that differ by only 10−5 in the x-coordinate.", "Initially, the two trajectories seem coincident, as indicated by the small difference between the ''z'' coordinate of the blue and yellow trajectories, but for ''t'' > 23 the difference is as large as the value of the trajectory.", "The final position of the cones indicates that the two trajectories are no longer coincident at ''t'' = 30.An animation of the Lorenz attractor shows the continuous evolution." ], [ "Theory and mathematical definition", "Recurrence, the approximate return of a system toward its initial conditions, together with sensitive dependence on initial conditions, are the two main ingredients for chaotic motion.", "They have the practical consequence of making complex systems, such as the weather, difficult to predict past a certain time range (approximately a week in the case of weather) since it is impossible to measure the starting atmospheric conditions completely accurately.A dynamical system displays sensitive dependence on initial conditions if points arbitrarily close together separate over time at an exponential rate.", "The definition is not topological, but essentially metrical.", "Lorenz defined sensitive dependence as follows:''The property characterizing an orbit (i.e., a solution) if most other orbits that pass close to it at some point do not remain close to it as time advances.", "''If ''M'' is the state space for the map , then displays sensitive dependence to initial conditions if for any x in ''M'' and any δ > 0, there are y in ''M'', with distance such that and such that:for some positive parameter ''a''.", "The definition does not require that all points from a neighborhood separate from the base point ''x'', but it requires one positive Lyapunov exponent.", "In addition to a positive Lyapunov exponent, boundedness is another major feature within chaotic systems.The simplest mathematical framework exhibiting sensitive dependence on initial conditions is provided by a particular parametrization of the logistic map::which, unlike most chaotic maps, has a closed-form solution::where the initial condition parameter is given by .", "For rational , after a finite number of iterations maps into a periodic sequence.", "But almost all are irrational, and, for irrational , never repeats itself – it is non-periodic.", "This solution equation clearly demonstrates the two key features of chaos – stretching and folding: the factor 2''n'' shows the exponential growth of stretching, which results in sensitive dependence on initial conditions (the butterfly effect), while the squared sine function keeps folded within the range 0, 1." ], [ "In physical systems", "===In weather===The butterfly effect is most familiar in terms of weather; it can easily be demonstrated in standard weather prediction models, for example.", "The climate scientists James Annan and William Connolley explain that chaos is important in the development of weather prediction methods; models are sensitive to initial conditions.", "They add the caveat: \"Of course the existence of an unknown butterfly flapping its wings has no direct bearing on weather forecasts, since it will take far too long for such a small perturbation to grow to a significant size, and we have many more immediate uncertainties to worry about.", "So the direct impact of this phenomenon on weather prediction is often somewhat wrong.\"", "The two kinds of butterfly effects, including the sensitive dependence on initial conditions, and the ability of a tiny perturbation to create an organized circulation at large distances, are not exactly the same.", "A comparison of the two kinds of butterfly effects and the third kind of butterfly effect has been documented.", "In recent studies, it was reported that both meteorological and non-meteorological linear models have shown that instability plays a role in producing a butterfly effect, which is characterized by brief but significant exponential growth resulting from a small disturbance.According to Lighthill (1986), the presence of SDIC (commonly known as the butterfly effect) implies that chaotic systems have a finite predictability limit.", "In a literature review, it was found that Lorenz's perspective on the predictability limit can be condensed into the following statement:* (A).", "The Lorenz 1963 model qualitatively revealed the essence of a finite predictability within a chaotic system such as the atmosphere.", "However, it did not determine a precise limit for the predictability of the atmosphere.", "* (B).", "In the 1960s, the two-week predictability limit was originally estimated based on a doubling time of five days in real-world models.", "Since then, this finding has been documented in Charney et al.", "(1966) and has become a consensus.Recently, a short video has been created to present Lorenz's perspective on predictability limit.By revealing coexisting chaotic and non-chaotic attractors within Lorenz models, Shen and his colleagues proposed a revised view that \"weather possesses chaos and order\", in contrast to the conventional view of \"weather is chaotic\".", "As a result, sensitive dependence on initial conditions (SDIC) does not always appear.", "Namely, SDIC appears when two orbits (i.e., solutions) become the chaotic attractor; it does not appear when two orbits move toward the same point attractor.", "The above animation for double pendulum motion provides an analogy.", "For large angles of swing the motion of the pendulum is often chaotic.", "By comparison, for small angles of swing, motions are non-chaotic.Multistability is defined when a system (e.g., the double pendulum system) contains more than one bounded attractor that depends only on initial conditions.", "The multistability was illustrated using kayaking in Figure on the right side (i.e., Figure 1 of ) where the appearance of strong currents and a stagnant area suggests instability and local stability, respectively.", "As a result, when two kayaks move along strong currents, their paths display SDIC.", "On the other hand, when two kayaks move into a stagnant area, they become trapped, showing no typical SDIC (although a chaotic transient may occur).", "Such features of SDIC or no SDIC suggest two types of solutions and illustrate the nature of multistability.By taking into consideration time-varying multistability that is associated with the modulation of large-scale processes (e.g., seasonal forcing) and aggregated feedback of small-scale processes (e.g., convection), the above revised view is refined as follows:\"The atmosphere possesses chaos and order; it includes, as examples, emerging organized systems (such as tornadoes) and time varying forcing from recurrent seasons.", "\"===In quantum mechanics===The potential for sensitive dependence on initial conditions (the butterfly effect) has been studied in a number of cases in semiclassical and quantum physics including atoms in strong fields and the anisotropic Kepler problem.", "Some authors have argued that extreme (exponential) dependence on initial conditions is not expected in pure quantum treatments; however, the sensitive dependence on initial conditions demonstrated in classical motion is included in the semiclassical treatments developed by Martin Gutzwiller and John B. Delos and co-workers.", "The random matrix theory and simulations with quantum computers prove that some versions of the butterfly effect in quantum mechanics do not exist.Other authors suggest that the butterfly effect can be observed in quantum systems.", "Zbyszek P. Karkuszewski et al.", "consider the time evolution of quantum systems which have slightly different Hamiltonians.", "They investigate the level of sensitivity of quantum systems to small changes in their given Hamiltonians.", "David Poulin et al.", "presented a quantum algorithm to measure fidelity decay, which \"measures the rate at which identical initial states diverge when subjected to slightly different dynamics\".", "They consider fidelity decay to be \"the closest quantum analog to the (purely classical) butterfly effect\".", "Whereas the classical butterfly effect considers the effect of a small change in the position and/or velocity of an object in a given Hamiltonian system, the quantum butterfly effect considers the effect of a small change in the Hamiltonian system with a given initial position and velocity.", "This quantum butterfly effect has been demonstrated experimentally.", "Quantum and semiclassical treatments of system sensitivity to initial conditions are known as quantum chaos." ], [ "In popular culture" ], [ "See also", "* Avalanche effect* Behavioral cusp* Cascading failure* Catastrophe theory* Causality* Chain reaction* Clapotis* Determinism* Domino effect* Dynamical system* Fractal* Great Stirrup Controversy* Innovation butterfly* Kessler syndrome* Norton's dome* Numerical analysis* Point of divergence* Positive feedback* Potentiality and actuality* Representativeness heuristic* Ripple effect* Snowball effect* Traffic congestion* Tropical cyclogenesis* Unintended consequences" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* James Gleick, ''Chaos: Making a New Science'', New York: Viking, 1987.368 pp.", "* * * Bradbury, Ray.", "\"A Sound of Thunder.\"", "Collier's.", "28 June 1952" ], [ "External links", "* Weather and Chaos: The Work of Edward N. Lorenz.", "A short documentary that explains the \"butterfly effect\" in context of Lorenz's work.", "* The Chaos Hypertextbook.", "An introductory primer on chaos and fractals* * New England Complex Systems Institute - Concepts: Butterfly Effect* ChaosBook.org.", "Advanced graduate textbook on chaos (no fractals)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Borland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Borland Software Corporation''' was a computer technology company founded in 1983 by Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, Mogens Glad, and Philippe Kahn.", "Its main business was the development and sale of software development and software deployment products.", "Borland was first headquartered in Scotts Valley, California, then in Cupertino, California, and then in Austin, Texas.", "In 2009, the company became a full subsidiary of the British firm Micro Focus International plc.", "In 2023, Micro Focus (including Borland) was acquired by Canadian firm OpenText, which later absorbed Borland portfolio into its application delivery management division." ], [ "History", "===The 1980s: Foundations===Borland Ltd. was founded in August 1981 by three Danish citizens Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, and Mogens Glad to develop products like Word Index for the CP/M operating system using an off-the-shelf company.", "However, the response to the company's products at the CP/M-82 show in San Francisco showed that a U.S. company would be needed to reach the American market.", "They met Philippe Kahn, who had just moved to Silicon Valley and had been a key developer of the Micral.", "The three Danes had embarked, at first successfully, on marketing software first from Denmark, and later from Ireland, before running into some challenges when they met Philippe Kahn.", "Kahn was chairman, president, and CEO of Borland Inc. from its beginning in 1983 until 1995.The company name \"Borland\" was a creation of Kahn's, taking inspiration from the name of an American Astronaut and then-Eastern Air Lines chairperson Frank Borman.", "The main shareholders at the incorporation of Borland were Niels Jensen (250,000 shares), Ole Henriksen (160,000), Mogens Glad (100,000), and Kahn (80,000).===Borland International, Inc. era===Borland developed various software development tools.", "Its first product was Turbo Pascal in 1983, developed by Anders Hejlsberg (who later developed .NET and C# for Microsoft) and before Borland acquired the product which was sold in Scandinavia under the name of Compas Pascal.", "1984 saw the launch of Borland Sidekick, a time organization, notebook, and calculator utility that was an early terminate-and-stay-resident program (TSR) for MS-DOS compatible operating systems.By the mid-1980s, the company had an exhibit at the 1985 West Coast Computer Faire along with IBM and AT&T.", "Bruce Webster reported that \"the legend of Turbo Pascal has by now reached mythic proportions, as evidenced by the number of firms that, in marketing meetings, make plans to become 'the next Borland'\".", "After Turbo Pascal and Sidekick, the company launched other applications such as SuperKey and Lightning, all developed in Denmark.", "While the Danes remained majority shareholders, board members included Kahn, Tim Berry, John Nash, and David Heller.", "With the assistance of John Nash and David Heller, both British members of the Borland Board, the company was taken public on London's Unlisted Securities Market (USM) in 1986.Schroders was the lead investment banker.", "According to the London IPO filings, the management team was Philippe Kahn as president, Spencer Ozawa as VP of Operations, Marie Bourget as CFO, and Spencer Leyton as VP of sales and business development.", "While all software development continued to take place in Denmark and later London as the Danish co-founders moved there.", "A first US IPO followed in 1989 after Ben Rosen joined the Borland board with Goldman Sachs as the lead banker and a second offering in 1991 with Lazard as the lead banker.In 1985, Borland acquired Analytica and its Reflex database product.", "The engineering team of Analytica, managed by Brad Silverberg and including Reflex co-founder Adam Bosworth, became the core of Borland's engineering team in the US.", "Brad Silverberg was VP of engineering until he left in early 1990 to head up the Personal Systems division at Microsoft.", "Adam Bosworth initiated and headed up the Quattro project until moving to Microsoft later in 1990 to take over the project which eventually became Access.In 1987, Borland purchased Wizard Systems and incorporated portions of the Wizard C technology into Turbo C. Bob Jervis, the author of Wizard C became a Borland employee.", "Turbo C was released on May 18, 1987.This drove a wedge between Borland and Niels Jensen and the other members of his team who had been working on a brand-new series of compilers at their London development center.", "They reached an agreement and spun off a company called Jensen & Partners International (JPI), later TopSpeed.", "JPI first launched an MS-DOS compiler named JPI Modula-2, which later became TopSpeed Modula-2, and followed up with TopSpeed C, TopSpeed C++, and TopSpeed Pascal compilers for both the MS-DOS and OS/2 operating systems.", "The TopSpeed compiler technology still exists as the underlying technology of the Clarion 4GL programming language, a Windows development tool.In September 1987, Borland purchased Ansa-Software, including their Paradox (version 2.0) database management tool.", "Richard Schwartz, a cofounder of Ansa, became Borland's CTO and Ben Rosen joined the Borland board.The Quattro Pro spreadsheet was launched in 1989, with an improvement and charting capabilities at the time.", "Lotus Development, under the leadership of Jim Manzi, sued Borland for copyright infringement (see Look and feel).", "The litigation, ''Lotus Dev.", "Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc.'', brought forward Borland's open standards position as opposed to Lotus' closed approach.", "Borland, under Kahn's leadership, took a position of principle and announced that they would defend against Lotus' legal position and \"fight for programmer's rights\".", "After a decision in favor of Borland by the First Circuit Court of Appeals, the case went to the United States Supreme Court.", "Because Justice John Paul Stevens had recused himself, only eight justices heard the case, and concluded in a 4–4 tie.", "The result of the First Circuit Court decision remained standing since the Supreme Court result, since it was a tie, did not bind any other court and set no national precedent.Additionally, Borland's approach towards software piracy and intellectual property (IP) included its \"Borland no-nonsense license agreement\"; allowing the developer/user to utilize its products \"just like a book\".", "The user was allowed to make multiple copies of a program, as long as it was the only copy in use at any point in time.=== The 1990s: Rise and change ===In September 1991, Borland purchased Ashton-Tate, bringing the dBASE and InterBase databases to the house, in an all-stock transaction.", "However, competition with Microsoft was fierce.", "Microsoft launched the competing database Microsoft Access and bought the dBASE clone FoxPro in 1992, undercutting Borland's prices.", "During the early 1990s, Borland's implementation of C and C++ outsold Microsoft's.", "Borland survived as a company, but no longer dominated the software tools that it once had.", "It went through a radical transition in products, financing, and staff, and became a very different company from the one which challenged Microsoft and Lotus in the early 1990s.The internal problems that arose with the Ashton-Tate merger were a large part of the downfall.", "Ashton-Tate's product portfolio proved to be weak, with no provision for evolution into the GUI environment of Windows.", "Almost all product lines were discontinued.", "The consolidation of duplicate support and development offices was costly and disruptive.", "Worst of all, the highest revenue earner of the combined company was dBASE with no Windows version ready.", "Borland had an internal project to clone dBASE which was intended to run on Windows and was part of the strategy of the acquisition, but by late 1992 this was abandoned due to technical flaws and the company had to constitute a replacement team (the ObjectVision team, redeployed) headed by Bill Turpin to redo the job.", "Borland lacked the financial strength to project its marketing and move internal resources off other products to shore up the dBASE/W effort.", "Layoffs occurred in 1993 to keep the company afloat, the third instance of this was in five years.", "By the time dBASE for Windows eventually shipped, the developer community had moved on to other products such as Clipper or FoxBase, and dBASE never regained a significant share of Ashton-Tate's former market.", "This happened against the backdrop of the rise in Microsoft's combined Office product marketing.A change in market conditions also contributed to Borland's fall from prominence.", "In the 1980s, companies had few people who understood the growing personal computer phenomenon and so most technical people were given free rein to purchase whatever software they thought they needed.", "Borland had done an excellent job marketing to those with a highly technical bent.", "By the mid-1990s, however, companies were beginning to ask what the return was on the investment they had made in this loosely controlled PC software buying spree.", "Company executives were starting to ask questions that were hard for technically minded staff to answer, and so corporate standards began to be created.", "This required new kinds of marketing and support materials from software vendors, but Borland remained focused on the technical side of its products.In 1993 Borland explored ties with WordPerfect as a possible way to form a suite of programs to rival Microsoft's nascent integration strategy.", "WordPerfect itself was struggling with a late and troubled transition to Windows.", "The eventual joint company effort, named Borland Office for Windows (a combination of the WordPerfect word processor, Quattro Pro spreadsheet, and Paradox database) was introduced at the 1993 Comdex computer show.", "Borland Office never made significant inroads against Microsoft Office.", "WordPerfect was then bought by Novell.", "In October 1994, Borland sold Quattro Pro and rights to sell up to million copies of Paradox to Novell for $140 million in cash, repositioning the company on its core software development tools and the Interbase database engine and shifting toward client-server scenarios in corporate applications.", "This later proved a good foundation for the shift to web development tools.Philippe Kahn and the Borland board disagreed on how to focus the company, and Kahn resigned as chairman, CEO and president, after 12 years, in January 1995.Kahn remained on the board until November 7, 1996.Borland named Gary Wetsel as CEO, but he resigned in July 1996.William F. Miller was interim CEO until September of that year, when Whitney G. Lynn became interim president and CEO (along with other executive changes), followed by a succession of CEOs including Dale Fuller and Tod Nielsen.The Delphi 1 rapid application development (RAD) environment was launched in 1995, under the leadership of Anders Hejlsberg.In 1996 Borland acquired Open Environment Corporation, a Cambridge-based company founded by John J. Donovan.On November 25, 1996, Del Yocam was hired as Borland CEO and chairman.In 1997, Borland sold Paradox to Corel, but retained all development rights for the core BDE.", "In November 1997, Borland acquired Visigenic, a middleware company that was focused on implementations of CORBA.===Inprise Corporation Era===In April 1998, Borland International, Inc. announced it had become Inprise Corporation.For several years (both before and during the Inprise name) Borland suffered from serious financial losses and poor public image.", "When the name was changed to Inprise, many thought Borland had gone out of business.", "In March 1999, dBase was sold to KSoft, Inc. which was soon renamed dBASE Inc. (In 2004 dBASE Inc. was renamed to DataBased Intelligence, Inc.).In 1999, Dale L. Fuller replaced Yocam.", "At this time Fuller's title was \"interim president and CEO\".", "The \"interim\" was dropped in December 2000.Keith Gottfried served in senior executive positions with the company from 2000 to 2004.A proposed merger between Inprise and Corel was announced in February 2000, aimed at producing Linux-based products.", "The scheme was abandoned when Corel's shares fell and it became clear that there was no strategic fit.InterBase 6.0 was made available as open-source software in July 2000.In November 2000, Inprise Corporation announced the company intended to officially change its name to Borland Software Corporation.", "The legal name of the company would continue to be Inprise Corporation until the completion of the renaming process during the first quarter of 2001.Once the name change was completed, the company would also expect to change its Nasdaq market symbol from \"INPR\" to \"BORL\".===Borland Software Corporation Era===On January 2, 2001, Borland Software Corporation announced it has completed its name change from Inprise Corporation.", "Effective at the open of trading on Nasdaq, the company's Nasdaq market symbol would also be changed from \"INPR\" to \"BORL\".Under the Borland name and a new management team headed by president and CEO Dale L. Fuller, a now-smaller and profitable Borland refocused on Delphi and created a version of Delphi and C++ Builder for Linux, both under the name Kylix.", "This brought Borland's expertise in integrated development environments to the Linux platform for the first time.", "Kylix was launched in 2001.Plans to spin off the InterBase division as a separate company were abandoned after Borland and the people who were to run the new company could not agree on terms for the separation.", "Borland stopped open-source releases of InterBase and has developed and sold new versions at a fast pace.In 2001, Delphi 6 became the first integrated development environment to support web services.", "All of the company's development platforms now support web services.C#Builder was released in 2003 as a native C# development tool, competing with Visual Studio .NET.", "By the 2005 release, C#Builder, Delphi for Win32, and Delphi for .NET were combined into a single IDE called \"Borland Developer Studio\" (though the combined IDE is still popularly known as \"Delphi\").", "In late 2002 Borland purchased design tool vendor TogetherSoft and tool publisher Starbase, makers of the StarTeam configuration management tool and the CaliberRM requirements management tool (eventually, CaliberRM was renamed as \"Caliber\").", "The latest releases of JBuilder and Delphi integrate these tools to give developers a broader set of tools for development.Former CEO Dale Fuller quit in July 2005, but remained on the board of directors.", "Former COO Scott Arnold took the title of interim president and chief executive officer until November 8, 2005, when it was announced that Tod Nielsen would take over as CEO effective November 9, 2005.Nielsen remained with the company until January 2009, when he accepted the position of chief operating officer at VMware; CFO Erik Prusch then took over as acting president and CEO.In early 2007 Borland announced new branding for its focus around open application life-cycle management.", "In April 2007 Borland announced that it would relocate its headquarters and development facilities to Austin, Texas.", "It also has development centers at Singapore, Santa Ana, California, and Linz, Austria.On May 6, 2009, the company announced it was to be acquired by Micro Focus for $75 million.", "The transaction was approved by Borland shareholders on July 22, 2009, with Micro Focus acquiring the company for $1.50 per share.", "Following Micro Focus shareholder approval and the required corporate filings, the transaction was completed in late July 2009.It was estimated to have 750 employees at the time.On April 5, 2015, Micro Focus announced the completion of integrating Attachmate Group of companies that was merged on November 20, 2014.During the integration period, the affected companies were merged into a single organization.", "In the announced reorganization, Borland products would be part of Micro Focus portfolio." ], [ "Subsidiaries", "*Leaders: In October 2005, Borland acquired Leaders, to add its IT management and governance suite, called Tempo, to the Borland product line.", "*CodeGear: On February 8, 2006, Borland announced the divestiture of their IDE division, including Delphi, JBuilder, and InterBase.", "At the same time, they announced the planned acquisition of Segue Software, a maker of software test and quality tools, to concentrate on application life-cycle management (ALM).", "On March 20, 2006, Borland announced its acquisition of Gauntlet Systems, a provider of technology that screens software under development for quality and security.", "On November 14, 2006, Borland announced its decision to separate the developer tools group into a wholly-owned subsidiary.", "The newly formed operation, CodeGear, was responsible for four IDE product lines.", "On May 7, 2008, Borland announced the sale of the CodeGear division to Embarcadero Technologies for an expected price and in CodeGear accounts receivables retained by Borland." ], [ "Products", "===Recent===The products acquired from Segue Software include Silk Central, Silk Performer, and Silk Test.", "The Silk line was first announced in 1997.Other programs are:===Historical products======Unreleased software===* Turbo Modula-2: Later sold by TopSpeed as TopSpeed Modula-2." ], [ "Marketing", "* ''CB Magazine'': It is an official magazine by Borland Japan.", "The magazine was republished on April 3, 1997.===Renaming to Inprise Corporation===Along with renaming from Borland International, Inc. to Inprise Corporation, the company refocused its efforts on targeting enterprise applications development.", "Borland hired a marketing firm Lexicon Branding to come up with a new name for the company.", "Yocam explained that the new name, Inprise, was meant to evoke \"integrating the enterprise\".", "The idea was to integrate Borland's tools, Delphi, C++ Builder, and JBuilder with enterprise environment software, including Visigenic's implementations of CORBA, Visibroker for C++ and Java, and the new product, Application Server.===Frank Borland===Frank Borland is a mascot character for Borland products.", "According to Philippe Kahn, the mascot first appeared in advertisements and cover of Borland Sidekick 1.0 manual, which was in 1984 during Borland International, Inc. era.", "Frank Borland also appeared in Turbo Tutor - A Turbo Pascal Tutorial, Borland JBuilder 2.A live action version of Frank Borland was made after Micro Focus plc had acquired Borland Software Corporation.", "This version was created by True Agency Limited.", "An introductory film was also made about the mascot." ], [ "See also", "* List of file formats (alphabetical)* ''Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland International, Inc.''" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Borland International, Inc.* Inprise Corporation* Borland Software Corporation* Micro Focus Borland site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Buckminster Fuller" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Richard Buckminster Fuller''' (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, writer, designer, inventor, philosopher, and futurist.", "He styled his name as '''R.", "Buckminster Fuller''' in his writings, publishing more than 30 books and coining or popularizing such terms as \"Spaceship Earth\", \"Dymaxion\" (e.g., Dymaxion house, Dymaxion car, Dymaxion map), \"ephemeralization\", \"synergetics\", and \"tensegrity\".Fuller developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome; carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres.", "He also served as the second World President of Mensa International from 1974 to 1983.Fuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates.", "In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute.", "He was elected an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1967, on the occasion of the 50-year reunion of his Harvard class of 1917 (from which he was expelled in his first year).", "He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968.The same year, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member.", "He became a full Academician in 1970, and he received the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects the same year.", "Also in 1970, Fuller received the title of Master Architect from Alpha Rho Chi (APX), the national fraternity for architecture and the allied arts.In 1976, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates.", "In 1977, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "He also received numerous other awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, presented to him on February 23, 1983, by President Ronald Reagan." ], [ "Life and work", "Fuller Fuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews, and grand-nephew of Margaret Fuller, an American journalist, critic, and women's rights advocate associated with the American transcendentalism movement.", "The unusual middle name, Buckminster, was an ancestral family name.", "As a child, Richard Buckminster Fuller tried numerous variations of his name.", "He used to sign his name differently each year in the guest register of his family summer vacation home at Bear Island, Maine.", "He finally settled on R. Buckminster Fuller.Fuller spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine.", "He attended Froebelian Kindergarten.", "He was dissatisfied with the way geometry was taught in school, disagreeing with the notions that a chalk dot on the blackboard represented an \"empty\" mathematical point, or that a line could stretch off to infinity.", "To him these were illogical, and led to his work on synergetics.", "He often made items from materials he found in the woods, and sometimes made his own tools.", "He experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats.", "By age 12, he had invented a 'push pull' system for propelling a rowboat by use of an inverted umbrella connected to the transom with a simple oar lock which allowed the user to face forward to point the boat toward its destination.", "Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term \"invention\".Years later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but also a habit of being familiar with and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require.", "Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade.=== Education ===Fuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that began studying at Harvard College, where he was affiliated with Adams House.", "He was expelled from Harvard twice: first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, and then, after having been readmitted, for his \"irresponsibility and lack of interest\".", "By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment.=== Wartime experience ===Between his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry.", "He also served in the U.S. Navy in World War I, as a shipboard radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as commander of the crash rescue boat USS ''Inca''.", "After discharge, he worked again in the meat-packing industry, acquiring management experience.", "In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett.", "During the early 1920s, he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing lightweight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing—although the company would ultimately fail in 1927.=== Depression and epiphany ===Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life.", "His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio and spinal meningitis just before her fourth birthday.", "Barry Katz, a Stanford University scholar who wrote about Fuller, found signs that around this time in his life Fuller had developed depression and anxiety.", "Fuller dwelled on his daughter's death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers' damp and drafty living conditions.", "This provided motivation for Fuller's involvement in Stockade Building Systems, a business which aimed to provide affordable, efficient housing.In 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade.", "The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges.", "Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon the solution to his family's struggles on long walks around Chicago.", "During the autumn of 1927, Fuller contemplated suicide by drowning in Lake Michigan, so that his family could benefit from a life insurance payment.Fuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and purpose for his life.", "He felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in a white sphere of light.", "A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared:Fuller stated that this experience led to a profound re-examination of his life.", "He ultimately chose to embark on \"an experiment, to find what a single individual could contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity\".Speaking to audiences later in life, Fuller would frequently recount the story of his Lake Michigan experience, and its transformative impact on his life.=== Recovery ===In 1927, Fuller resolved to think independently which included a commitment to \"the search for the principles governing the universe and help advance the evolution of humanity in accordance with them ... finding ways of ''doing more with less'' to the end that all people everywhere can have more and more\".", "By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending much of his time at the popular café Romany Marie's, See also: where he had spent an evening in conversation with Marie and Eugene O'Neill several years earlier.", "Fuller accepted a job decorating the interior of the café in exchange for meals, giving informal lectures several times a week, and models of the Dymaxion house were exhibited at the café.", "Isamu Noguchi arrived during 1929—Constantin Brâncuși, an old friend of Marie's, had directed him there—and Noguchi and Fuller were soon collaborating on several projects, including the modeling of the Dymaxion car based on recent work by Aurel Persu.", "It was the beginning of their lifelong friendship.=== Geodesic domes ===Fuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949.Fuller had been shy and withdrawn, but he was persuaded to participate in a theatrical performance of Erik Satie's ''Le piège de Méduse'' produced by John Cage, who was also teaching at Black Mountain.", "During rehearsals, under the tutelage of Arthur Penn, then a student at Black Mountain, Fuller broke through his inhibitions to become confident as a performer and speaker.At Black Mountain, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome.", "Although the geodesic dome had been created, built and awarded a German patent on June 19, 1925, by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld, Fuller was awarded United States patents.", "Fuller's patent application made no mention of Bauersfeld's self-supporting dome built some 26 years prior.", "Although Fuller undoubtedly popularized this type of structure he is mistakenly given credit for its design.One of his early models was first constructed in 1945 at Bennington College in Vermont, where he lectured often.", "Although Bauersfeld's dome could support a full skin of concrete it was not until 1949 that Fuller erected a geodesic dome building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits.", "It was in diameter and constructed of aluminium aircraft tubing and a vinyl-plastic skin, in the form of an icosahedron.", "To prove his design, Fuller suspended from the structure's framework several students who had helped him build it.", "The U.S. government recognized the importance of this work, and employed his firm Geodesics, Inc. in Raleigh, North Carolina to make small domes for the Marines.", "Within a few years, there were thousands of such domes around the world.Fuller's first \"continuous tension – discontinuous compression\" geodesic dome (full sphere in this case) was constructed at the University of Oregon Architecture School in 1959 with the help of students.", "These continuous tension – discontinuous compression structures featured single force compression members (no flexure or bending moments) that did not touch each other and were 'suspended' by the tensional members.=== Dymaxion Chronofile ===A 1933 Dymaxion prototypeFor half of a century, Fuller developed many ideas, designs, and inventions, particularly regarding practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation.", "He documented his life, philosophy, and ideas scrupulously by a daily diary (later called the ''Dymaxion Chronofile''), and by twenty-eight publications.", "Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited funds, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion car project.=== World stage ===The Montreal Biosphère by Buckminster Fuller, 1967Fuller's home in Carbondale, IllinoisInternational recognition began with the success of huge geodesic domes during the 1950s.", "Fuller lectured at North Carolina State University in Raleigh in 1949, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague.", "Fitzgibbon was director of Geodesics, Inc. and Synergetics, Inc. the first licensees to design geodesic domes.", "Thomas C. Howard was lead designer, architect, and engineer for both companies.", "Richard Lewontin, a new faculty member in population genetics at North Carolina State University, provided Fuller with computer calculations for the lengths of the domes' edges.Fuller began working with architect Shoji Sadao in 1954, together designing a hypothetical Dome over Manhattan in 1960, and in 1964 they co-founded the architectural firm Fuller & Sadao Inc., whose first project was to design the large geodesic dome for the U.S. Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal.", "This building is now the \"Montreal Biosphère\".In 1962, the artist and searcher John McHale wrote the first monograph on Fuller, published by George Braziller in New York.After employing several Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIU) graduate students to rebuild his models following an apartment fire in the summer of 1959, Fuller was recruited by longtime friend Harold Cohen to serve as a research professor of \"design science exploration\" at the institution's School of Art and Design.", "According to SIU architecture professor Jon Davey, the position was \"unlike most faculty appointments ... more a celebrity role than a teaching job\" in which Fuller offered few courses and was only stipulated to spend two months per year on campus.", "Nevertheless, his time in Carbondale was \"extremely productive\", and Fuller was promoted to university professor in 1968 and distinguished university professor in 1972.Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, he continued to lecture for many years around the world.", "He collaborated at SIU with John McHale.", "In 1965, they inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris, which was, in Fuller's own words, devoted to \"applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity.", "\"From 1972 until retiring as university professor emeritus in 1975, Fuller held a joint appointment at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, where he had designed the dome for the campus Religious Center in 1971.During this period, he also held a joint fellowship at a consortium of Philadelphia-area institutions, including the University of Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr College, Haverford College, Swarthmore College, and the University City Science Center; as a result of this affiliation, the University of Pennsylvania appointed him university professor emeritus in 1975.Fuller believed human societies would soon rely mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity.", "He hoped for an age of \"omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity\".", "Fuller referred to himself as \"the property of universe\" and during one radio interview he gave later in life, declared himself and his work \"the property of all humanity\".", "For his lifetime of work, the American Humanist Association named him the 1969 Humanist of the Year.In 1976, Fuller was a key participant at UN Habitat I, the first UN forum on human settlements.=== Last filmed appearance ===Fuller's last filmed interview took place on June 21, 1983, in which he spoke at Norman Foster's Royal Gold Medal for architecture ceremony.", "His speech can be watched in the archives of the AA School of Architecture, in which he spoke after Sir Robert Sainsbury's introductory speech and Foster's keynote address.=== Death ===Trim tab)In the year of his death, Fuller described himself as follows:Fuller died on July 1, 1983, 11 days before his 88th birthday.", "During the period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital, dying of cancer.", "It was while visiting her there that he exclaimed, at a certain point: \"She is squeezing my hand!\"", "He then stood up, had a heart attack, and died an hour later, at age 87.His wife of 66 years died 36 hours later.", "They are buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts." ], [ "Philosophy", "Buckminster Fuller was a Unitarian, and, like his grandfather Arthur Buckminster Fuller (brother of Margaret Fuller), a Unitarian minister.", "Fuller was also an early environmental activist, aware of Earth's finite resources, and promoted a principle he termed \"ephemeralization\", which, according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand, was defined as \"doing more with less\".", "Resources and waste from crude, inefficient products could be recycled into making more valuable products, thus increasing the efficiency of the entire process.", "Fuller also coined the word synergetics, a catch-all term used broadly for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, and more specifically, the empirical study of systems in transformation; his focus was on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components.Fuller was a pioneer in thinking globally, and explored energy and material efficiency in the fields of architecture, engineering, and design.", "In his book ''Critical Path'' (1981) he cited the opinion of François de Chadenèdes (1920-1999) that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost in our current energy \"budget\" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux), had cost nature \"over a million dollars\" per U.S. gallon ($300,000 per litre) to produce.", "From this point of view, its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their actual earnings.", "An encapsulation quotation of his views might best be summed up as: \"There is no energy crisis, only a crisis of ignorance.", "\"Though Fuller was concerned about sustainability and human survival under the existing socioeconomic system, he remained optimistic about humanity's future.", "Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the \"technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life\", his analysis of the condition of \"Spaceship Earth\" caused him to conclude that at a certain time during the 1970s, humanity had attained an unprecedented state.", "He was convinced that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of major recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had attained a critical level, such that competition for necessities had become unnecessary.", "Cooperation had become the optimum survival strategy.", "He declared: \"selfishness is unnecessary and hence-forth unrationalizable ... War is obsolete.\"", "He criticized previous utopian schemes as too exclusive, and thought this was a major source of their failure.", "To work, he thought that a utopia needed to include everyone.Fuller was influenced by Alfred Korzybski's idea of general semantics.", "In the 1950s, Fuller attended seminars and workshops organized by the Institute of General Semantics, and he delivered the annual Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture in 1955.Korzybski is mentioned in the Introduction of his book ''Synergetics''.", "The two shared a remarkable amount of similarity in their formulations of general semantics.In his 1970 book ''I Seem To Be a Verb'', he wrote: \"I live on Earth at present, and I don't know what I am.", "I know that I am not a category.", "I am not a thing—a noun.", "I seem to be a verb, an evolutionary process—an integral function of the universe.", "\"Fuller wrote that the natural analytic geometry of the universe was based on arrays of tetrahedra.", "He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space.", "One confirming result was that the strongest possible homogeneous truss is cyclically tetrahedral.He had become a guru of the design, architecture, and \"alternative\" communities, such as Drop City, the community of experimental artists to whom he awarded the 1966 \"Dymaxion Award\" for \"poetically economic\" domed living structures." ], [ "Major design projects", "A geodesic sphere=== The geodesic dome ===Fuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures – geodesic domes, which have been used as parts of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps, and exhibition attractions.", "An examination of the geodesic design by Walther Bauersfeld for the Zeiss-Planetarium, built some 28 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that Fuller's Geodesic Dome patent (U.S. 2,682,235; awarded in 1954) is the same design as Bauersfeld's.Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple \"tensegrity\" structures (tetrahedron, octahedron, and the closest packing of spheres), making them lightweight and stable.", "The geodesic dome was a result of Fuller's exploration of nature's constructing principles to find design solutions.", "The Fuller Dome is referenced in the Hugo Award-winning novel ''Stand on Zanzibar'' by John Brunner, in which a geodesic dome is said to cover the entire island of Manhattan, and it floats on air due to the hot-air balloon effect of the large air-mass under the dome (and perhaps its construction of lightweight materials).=== Transportation ===The Dymaxion car, c. 1933, artist Diego Rivera shown entering the car, carrying coatThe Dymaxion car was a vehicle designed by Fuller, featured prominently at Chicago's 1933-1934 Century of Progress World's Fair.", "During the Great Depression, Fuller formed the ''Dymaxion Corporation'' and built three prototypes with noted naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen — using donated money as well as a family inheritance.Fuller associated the word ''Dymaxion'', a blend of the words '''''dy'''namic'', '''''max'''imum'', and ''tens'''ion''''' to sum up the goal of his study, \"maximum gain of advantage from minimal energy input\".The Dymaxion was not an automobile but rather the 'ground-taxying mode' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive — an \"Omni-Medium Transport\" for air, land and water.", "Fuller focused on the landing and taxiing qualities, and noted severe limitations in its handling.", "The team made improvements and refinements to the platform, and Fuller noted the Dymaxion \"was an invention that could not be made available to the general public without considerable improvements\".The bodywork was aerodynamically designed for increased fuel efficiency and its platform featured a lightweight cromoly-steel hinged chassis, rear-mounted V8 engine, front-drive, and three-wheels.", "The vehicle was steered via the third wheel at the rear, capable of 90° steering lock.", "Able to steer in a tight circle, the Dymaxion often caused a sensation, bringing nearby traffic to a halt.Shortly after launch, a prototype rolled over and crashed, killing the Dymaxion's driver and seriously injuring its passengers.", "Fuller blamed the accident on a second car that collided with the Dymaxion.", "Eyewitnesses reported, however, that the other car hit the Dymaxion only after it had begun to roll over.Despite courting the interest of important figures from the auto industry, Fuller used his family inheritance to finish the second and third prototypes — eventually selling all three, dissolving ''Dymaxion Corporation'' and maintaining the Dymaxion was never intended as a commercial venture.", "One of the three original prototypes survives.=== Housing ===A Dymaxion house at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, MichiganFuller's energy-efficient and inexpensive Dymaxion house garnered much interest, but only two prototypes were ever produced.", "Here the term \"Dymaxion\" is used in effect to signify a \"radically strong and light tensegrity structure\".", "One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.", "Designed and developed during the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened \"bell\" of certain jellyfish.", "It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption.", "According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two cylindrical packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers.", "A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to use natural winds for cooling and air circulation.Conceived nearly two decades earlier, and developed in Wichita, Kansas, the house was designed to be lightweight, adapted to windy climates, cheap to produce and easy to assemble.", "Because of its light weight and portability, the Dymaxion House was intended to be the ideal housing for individuals and families who wanted the option of easy mobility.", "The design included a \"Go-Ahead-With-Life Room\" stocked with maps, charts, and helpful tools for travel \"through time and space\".", "It was to be produced using factories, workers, and technologies that had produced World War II aircraft.", "It looked ultramodern at the time, built of metal, and sheathed in polished aluminum.", "The basic model enclosed of floor area.", "Due to publicity, there were many orders during the early Post-War years, but the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to management problems.In 1967, Fuller developed a concept for an offshore floating city named Triton City and published a report on the design the following year.", "Models of the city aroused the interest of President Lyndon B. Johnson who, after leaving office, had them placed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum.In 1969, Fuller began the Otisco Project, named after its location in Otisco, New York.", "The project developed and demonstrated concrete spray with mesh-covered wireforms for producing large-scale, load-bearing spanning structures built on-site, without the use of pouring molds, other adjacent surfaces, or hoisting.", "The initial method used a circular concrete footing in which anchor posts were set.", "Tubes cut to length and with ends flattened were then bolted together to form a duodeca-rhombicahedron (22-sided hemisphere) geodesic structure with spans ranging to .", "The form was then draped with layers of ¼-inch wire mesh attached by twist ties.", "Concrete was sprayed onto the structure, building up a solid layer which, when cured, would support additional concrete to be added by a variety of traditional means.", "Fuller referred to these buildings as monolithic ferroconcrete geodesic domes.", "However, the tubular frame form proved problematic for setting windows and doors.", "It was replaced by an iron rebar set vertically in the concrete footing and then bent inward and welded in place to create the dome's wireform structure and performed satisfactorily.", "Domes up to three stories tall built with this method proved to be remarkably strong.", "Other shapes such as cones, pyramids, and arches proved equally adaptable.The project was enabled by a grant underwritten by Syracuse University and sponsored by U.S. Steel (rebar), the Johnson Wire Corp (mesh), and Portland Cement Company (concrete).", "The ability to build large complex load bearing concrete spanning structures in free space would open many possibilities in architecture, and is considered one of Fuller's greatest contributions.=== Dymaxion map and World Game ===Fuller, along with co-cartographer Shoji Sadao, also designed an alternative projection map, called the Dymaxion map.", "This was designed to show Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.In the 1960s, Fuller developed the World Game, a collaborative simulation game played on a 70-by-35-foot Dymaxion map, in which players attempt to solve world problems.", "The object of the simulation game is, in Fuller's words, to \"make the world work, for 100% of humanity, in the shortest possible time, through spontaneous cooperation, without ecological offense or the disadvantage of anyone\"." ], [ "Appearance and style", "Buckminster Fuller wore thick-lensed spectacles to correct his extreme hyperopia, a condition that went undiagnosed for the first five years of his life.", "Fuller's hearing was damaged during his naval service in World War I and deteriorated during the 1960s.", "After experimenting with bullhorns as hearing aids during the mid-1960s, Fuller adopted electronic hearing aids from the 1970s onward.In public appearances, Fuller always wore dark-colored suits, appearing like \"an alert little clergyman\".", "Previously, he had experimented with unconventional clothing immediately after his 1927 epiphany, but found that breaking social fashion customs made others devalue or dismiss his ideas.", "Fuller learned the importance of physical appearance as part of one's credibility, and decided to become \"the invisible man\" by dressing in clothes that would not draw attention to himself.", "With self-deprecating humor, Fuller described this black-suited appearance as resembling a \"second-rate bank clerk\".Writer Guy Davenport met him in 1965 and described him thus:" ], [ "Lifestyle", "Following his global prominence from the 1960s onward, Fuller became a frequent flier, often crossing time zones to lecture.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, he wore three watches simultaneously; one for the time zone of his office at Southern Illinois University, one for the time zone of the location he would next visit, and one for the time zone he was currently in.", "In the 1970s, Fuller was only in 'homely' locations (his personal home in Carbondale, Illinois; his holiday retreat in Bear Island, Maine; and his daughter's home in Pacific Palisades, California) roughly 65 nights per year—the other 300 nights were spent in hotel beds in the locations he visited on his lecturing and consulting circuits.In the 1920s, Fuller experimented with polyphasic sleep, which he called ''Dymaxion sleep''.", "Inspired by the sleep habits of animals such as dogs and cats, Fuller worked until he was tired, and then slept short naps.", "This generally resulted in Fuller sleeping 30-minute naps every 6 hours.", "This allowed him \"twenty-two thinking hours a day\", which aided his work productivity.", "Fuller reportedly kept this Dymaxion sleep habit for two years, before quitting the routine because it conflicted with his business associates' sleep habits.", "Despite no longer personally partaking in the habit, in 1943 Fuller suggested Dymaxion sleep as a strategy that the United States could adopt to win World War II.Despite only practicing true polyphasic sleep for a period during the 1920s, Fuller was known for his stamina throughout his life.", "He was described as \"tireless\" by Barry Farrell in ''Life'' magazine, who noted that Fuller stayed up all night replying to mail during Farrell's 1970 trip to Bear Island.", "In his seventies, Fuller generally slept for 5–8 hours per night.Fuller documented his life copiously from 1915 to 1983, approximately of papers in a collection called the Dymaxion Chronofile.", "He also kept copies of all incoming and outgoing correspondence.", "The enormous R. Buckminster Fuller Collection is currently housed at Stanford University." ], [ "Language and neologisms", "Buckminster Fuller spoke and wrote in a unique style and said it was important to describe the world as accurately as possible.", "Fuller often created long run-on sentences and used unusual compound words (omniwell-informed, intertransformative, omni-interaccommodative, omniself-regenerative), as well as terms he himself invented.", "His style of speech was characterized by progressively rapid and breathless delivery and rambling digressions of thought, which Fuller described as \"thinking out loud\".", "The effect, combined with Fuller's dry voice and non-rhotic New England accent, was varyingly considered \"hypnotic\" or \"overwhelming\".Fuller used the word ''Universe'' without the definite or indefinite article (''the'' or ''a'') and always capitalized the word.", "Fuller wrote that \"by Universe I mean: the aggregate of all humanity's consciously apprehended and communicated (to self or others) Experiences\".The words \"down\" and \"up\", according to Fuller, are awkward in that they refer to a planar concept of direction inconsistent with human experience.", "The words \"in\" and \"out\" should be used instead, he argued, because they better describe an object's relation to a gravitational center, the Earth.", "\"I suggest to audiences that they say, 'I'm going \"outstairs\" and \"instairs.\"'", "At first that sounds strange to them; They all laugh about it.", "But if they try saying in and out for a few days in fun, they find themselves beginning to realize that they are indeed going inward and outward in respect to the center of Earth, which is our Spaceship Earth.", "And for the first time they begin to feel real 'reality.", "'\"\"World-around\" was Fuller's preferred term to replace \"worldwide\".", "The general belief in a flat Earth died out in classical antiquity, so using \"wide\" is an anachronism when referring to the surface of the Earth—a spheroidal surface has area and encloses a volume but has no width.", "Fuller held that unthinking use of obsolete scientific ideas detracts from and misleads intuition.", "Other neologisms collectively invented by the Fuller family, according to Allegra Fuller Snyder, are the terms \"sunsight\" and \"sunclipse\", replacing \"sunrise\" and \"sunset\" to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-Copernican celestial mechanics.Fuller also invented the word \"livingry\", as opposed to weaponry (or \"killingry\"), to mean that which is in support of all human, plant, and Earth life.", "\"The architectural profession—civil, naval, aeronautical, and astronautical—has always been the place where the most competent thinking is conducted regarding livingry, as opposed to weaponry.", "\"As well as contributing significantly to the development of tensegrity technology, Fuller invented the term \"tensegrity\", a portmanteau of \"tensional integrity\".", "\"Tensegrity describes a structural-relationship principle in which structural shape is guaranteed by the finitely closed, comprehensively continuous, tensional behaviors of the system and not by the discontinuous and exclusively local compressional member behaviors.", "Tensegrity provides the ability to yield increasingly without ultimately breaking or coming asunder.", "\"\"Dymaxion\" is a portmanteau of \"dynamic maximum tension\".", "It was invented around 1929 by two admen at Marshall Field's department store in Chicago to describe Fuller's concept house, which was shown as part of a house of the future store display.", "They created the term using three words that Fuller used repeatedly to describe his design – dynamic, maximum, and tension.Fuller also helped to popularize the concept of Spaceship Earth: \"The most important fact about Spaceship Earth: an instruction manual didn't come with it.", "\"In the preface for his \"cosmic fairy tale\" ''Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears'', Fuller stated that his distinctive speaking style grew out of years of embellishing the classic tale for the benefit of his daughter, allowing him to explore both his new theories and how to present them.", "The ''Tetrascroll'' narrative was eventually transcribed onto a set of tetrahedral lithographs (hence the name), as well as being published as a traditional book.Fuller's language posed problems for his credibility.", "John Julius Norwich recalled commissioning a 600-word introduction for a planned history of world architecture from him, and receiving a 3500-word proposal which ended: Norwich commented: \"On reflection, I asked Dr. Nikolaus Pevsner instead.\"" ], [ "Concepts and buildings", "His concepts and buildings include:* Dymaxion house (1928)* R. Buckminster Fuller and Anne Hewlett Dome Home* Aerodynamic Dymaxion car (1933)* Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937)* Dymaxion deployment unit (1940)* Dymaxion map of the world (1946)* Tensegrity structures (1949)* Geodesic dome for Ford Motor Company (1953* Patent on geodesic domes (1954)* Tokyo Tower (1958) (unselected design)* Tokyo Olympic Stadium (1958) (unselected design)* The World Game (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972)* Patent on octet truss (1961)* Montreal Biosphere (1967), United States pavilion at Expo 67* Fly's Eye Dome* Dewan Tunku Geodesic Dome, KOMTAR, Penang, Malaysia (proposed 1974, completed 1985)* Comprehensive anticipatory design science" ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Buckminsterfullerene is a type of fullerene with the formula C60.The names are homages to Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic domes they resemble.Among the many people who were influenced by Buckminster Fuller are:Constance Abernathy,Ruth Asawa,J.", "Baldwin,Michael Ben-Eli, Pierre Cabrol,John Cage,Joseph Clinton,Peter Floyd,Norman Foster,Medard Gabel,Michael Hays,Ted Nelson,David Johnston,Peter Jon Pearce,Shoji Sadao,Edwin Schlossberg,Kenneth Snelson,Robert Anton Wilson, Stewart Brand, Jason McLennan, and John Denver.", "An allotrope of carbon, fullerene—and a particular molecule of that allotrope C60 (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him.", "The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome.", "The 1996 Nobel prize in chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene.On July 12, 2004, the United States Post Office released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and by the occasion of his 109th birthday.", "The stamp's design replicated the January 10, 1964, cover of ''Time'' magazine.Fuller was the subject of two documentary films: ''The World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1971) and ''Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud'' (1996).", "Additionally, filmmaker Sam Green and the band Yo La Tengo collaborated on a 2012 \"live documentary\" about Fuller, ''The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller''.In June 2008, the Whitney Museum of American Art presented \"Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe\", the most comprehensive retrospective to date of his work and ideas.", "The exhibition traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago in 2009.It presented a combination of models, sketches, and other artifacts, representing six decades of the artist's integrated approach to housing, transportation, communication, and cartography.", "It also featured the extensive connections with Chicago from his years spent living, teaching, and working in the city.In 2009, a number of US companies decided to repackage spherical magnets and sell them as toys.", "One company, Maxfield & Oberton, told ''The New York Times'' that they saw the product on YouTube and decided to repackage them as ''\"Buckyballs''\", because the magnets could self-form and hold together in shapes reminiscent of the Fuller inspired buckyballs.", "The buckyball toy launched at New York International Gift Fair in 2009 and sold in the hundreds of thousands, but by 2010 began to experience problems with toy safety issues and the company was forced to recall the packages that were labelled as toys.In 2012, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art hosted \"The Utopian Impulse\" – a show about Buckminster Fuller's influence in the Bay Area.", "Featured were concepts, inventions and designs for creating \"free energy\" from natural forces, and for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere.", "The show ran January through July." ], [ "In popular culture", "Fuller is quoted in \"The Tower of Babble\" from the musical ''Godspell'': \"Man is a complex of patterns and processes.", "\"Belgian rock band dEUS released the song ''The Architect'', inspired by Fuller, on their 2008 album ''Vantage Point''.Indie band Driftless Pony Club titled their 2011 album ''Buckminster'' after Fuller.", "Each of the album's songs is based upon his life and works.The design podcast ''99% Invisible'' (2010–present) takes its title from a Fuller quote: \"Ninety-nine percent of who you are is invisible and untouchable.", "\"Fuller is briefly mentioned in ''X-Men: Days of Future Past'' (2014) when Kitty Pryde is giving a lecture to a group of students regarding utopian architecture.Robert Kiyosaki's 2015 book ''Second Chance'' concerns Kiyosaki's interactions with Fuller as well as Fuller's unusual final book, ''Grunch of Giants''.In ''The House of Tomorrow'' (2017), based on Peter Bognanni's 2010 novel of the same name, Ellen Burstyn's character is obsessed with Fuller and provides retro-futurist tours of her geodesic home that include videos of Fuller sailing and talking with Burstyn, who had in real life befriended Fuller." ], [ "Patents", "(from the Table of Contents of ''Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983) )* 1927 Stockade: building structure* 1927 Stockade: pneumatic forming process* 1928 (Application Abandoned) 4D house* 1937 Dymaxion car* 1940 Dymaxion bathroom* 1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (sheet)* 1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (frame)* 1946 Dymaxion map* 1946 (No Patent) Dymaxion house (Wichita)* 1954 Geodesic dome* 1959 Paperboard dome* 1959 Plydome* 1959 Catenary (geodesic tent)* 1961 Octet truss* 1962 Tensegrity* 1963 Submarisle (undersea island)* 1964 Aspension (suspension building)* 1965 Monohex (geodesic structures)* 1965 Laminar dome* 1965 (Filed – No Patent) Octa spinner* 1967 Star tensegrity (octahedral truss)* 1970 Rowing needles (watercraft)* 1974 Geodesic hexa-pent* 1975 Floatable breakwater* 1975 Non-symmetrical tensegrity* 1979 Floating breakwater* 1980 Tensegrity truss* 1983 Hanging storage shelf unit" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''4d Timelock'' (1928)* ''Nine Chains to the Moon'' (1938)* ''Untitled Epic Poem on the History of Industrialization'' (1962)* ''Ideas and Integrities, a Spontaneous Autobiographical Disclosure'' (1963) * ''No More Secondhand God and Other Writings'' (1963)* ''Education Automation: Freeing the Scholar to Return'' (1963)* ''What I Have Learned: A Collection of 20 Autobiographical Essays'', Chapter \"How Little I Know\", (1968)* ''Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth'' (1968) * ''Utopia or Oblivion'' (1969) * ''Approaching the Benign Environment'' (1970) (with Eric A. Walker and James R. Killian, Jr.)* ''I Seem to Be a Verb'' (1970) coauthors Jerome Agel, Quentin Fiore, * ''Intuition'' (1970)* ''Buckminster Fuller to Children of Earth'' (1972) compiled and photographed by Cam Smith, * ''The Buckminster Fuller Reader'' (1972) editor James Meller, * ''The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1960, 1973) coauthor Robert Marks, * ''Earth, Inc'' (1973) * '' Synergetics: Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1975) in collaboration with E.J.", "Applewhite with a preface and contribution by Arthur L. Loeb, * ''Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears, A Cosmic Fairy Tale'' (1975)* ''And It Came to Pass — Not to Stay'' (1976) * ''R.", "Buckminster Fuller on Education'' (1979) * '' Synergetics 2: Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1979) in collaboration with E.J.", "Applewhite* ''Buckminster Fuller – Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario'' (1980) page 54, R. Buckminster Fuller, documented and edited by Robert Snyder, St. Martin's Press, Inc., * ''Buckminster Fuller Sketchbook'' (1981)* ''Critical Path'' (1981) * ''Grunch of Giants'' (1983) * ''Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983) * ''Humans in Universe'' (1983) coauthor Anwar Dil, * ''Cosmography: A Posthumous Scenario for the Future of Humanity'' (1992) coauthor Kiyoshi Kuromiya," ], [ "Discography", "* ''R.", "Buckminster Fuller Thinks Aloud (Part 1)'' (1966) Credo - credo 2* ''Thinks Aloud'' (1967) Society Of Typographic Arts – 919S-7200* ''R.", "Buckminster Fuller Speaks His Mind On Records'' (1967) Cook – COOK05025* '' The Clock Is Stopping! ''", "(1976) Cook – 6061* '' Dymaxion Ditties - The Greatest Hits Of Buckminster Fuller '' (1976) Not on Label - Cherry Tree Folk Club - Philadelphia, PA* '' Tunings '' (1979) Tanam Press – 7902* '' A Primer Conversation '' (1988) New Dimensions Productions – C010" ], [ "See also", "* Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station* The Buckminster Fuller Challenge* Bucky Ball* Cloud Nine (tensegrity sphere)* Design science revolution* Drop City* Emissions Reduction Currency System* Kārlis Johansons, tensegrity innovator* Kenneth Snelson, tensegrity sculptor* Noosphere* Old Man River's City project* Space frame* Spome* ''Whole Earth Catalog''* Post-scarcity economy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Ward, James, ed., ''The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One.", "The Dymaxion Experiment, 1926–1943; Volume Two.", "Dymaxion Deployment, 1927–1946; Volume Three.", "The Geodesic Revolution, Part 1, 1947–1959; Volume Four.", "The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960–1983'': Edited with descriptions by James Ward.", "Garland Publishing, New York.", "1984 ( vol.", "1, vol.", "2, vol.", "3, vol.", "4)* *" ], [ "External links", "* The Estate of R. Buckminster Fullerk* Buckminster Fuller Institute" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bill Watterson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Boyd Watterson II''' (born July 5, 1958) is an American cartoonist who authored the comic strip ''Calvin and Hobbes''.", "The strip was syndicated from 1985 to 1995.Watterson concluded ''Calvin and Hobbes'' with a short statement to newspaper editors and his readers that he felt he had achieved all he could in the medium.", "Watterson is known for his negative views on comic syndication and licensing, his efforts to expand and elevate the newspaper comic as an art form, and his move back into private life after ''Calvin and Hobbes'' ended.", "Watterson was born in Washington, D.C., and grew up in Chagrin Falls, Ohio.", "The suburban Midwestern United States setting of Ohio was part of the inspiration for ''Calvin and Hobbes''.", "Watterson lives in Cleveland Heights as of January 2024." ], [ "Early life", "Bill Watterson was born on July 5, 1958, in Washington, D.C., to Kathryn Watterson (1933-2022) and James Godfrey Watterson (1932-2016).", "His father worked as a patent attorney.", "In 1965, six-year-old Watterson and his family moved to Chagrin Falls, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland.", "Watterson has a younger brother, Thomas Watterson.Watterson drew his first cartoon at age eight, and spent much time in childhood alone, drawing and cartooning.", "This continued through his school years, during which time he discovered comic strips such as Walt Kelly's ''Pogo'', George Herriman's ''Krazy Kat'', and Charles M. Schulz's ''Peanuts'' which subsequently inspired and influenced his desire to become a professional cartoonist.", "On one occasion when he was in fourth grade, he wrote a letter to Schulz, who responded, much to Watterson's surprise.", "This made a big impression on him at the time.", "His parents encouraged him in his artistic pursuits.", "Later, they recalled him as a \"conservative child\" — imaginative, but \"not in a fantasy way\", and certainly nothing like the character of Calvin that he later created.", "Watterson found avenues for his cartooning talents throughout primary and secondary school, creating high school-themed super hero comics with his friends and contributing cartoons and art to the school newspaper and yearbook.After high school, Watterson attended Kenyon College, where he majored in political science.", "He had already decided on a career in cartooning, but he felt studying political science would help him move into editorial cartooning.", "He continued to develop his art skills, and during his sophomore year he painted Michelangelo's ''Creation of Adam'' on the ceiling of his dormitory room.", "He also contributed cartoons to the college newspaper, some of which included the original \"Spaceman Spiff\" cartoons.", "Watterson graduated from Kenyon in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts degree.Later, when Watterson was creating names for the characters in his comic strip, he decided on Calvin (after the Protestant reformer John Calvin) and Hobbes (after the social philosopher Thomas Hobbes), allegedly as a \"tip of the hat\" to Kenyon's political science department.", "In ''The Complete Calvin and Hobbes'', Watterson stated that Calvin was named for \"a 16th-century theologian who believed in predestination,\" and Hobbes for \"a 17th-century philosopher with a dim view of human nature.\"" ], [ "Career", "===Early work===Watterson was inspired by the work of ''The Cincinnati Enquirer'' political cartoonist Jim Borgman, a 1976 graduate of Kenyon College, and decided to try to follow the same career path as Borgman, who in turn offered support and encouragement to the aspiring artist.", "Watterson graduated in 1980 and was hired on a trial basis at the ''Cincinnati Post'', a competing paper of the ''Enquirer''.", "Watterson quickly discovered that the job was full of unexpected challenges which prevented him from performing his duties to the standards set for him.", "Not the least of these challenges was his unfamiliarity with the Cincinnati political scene, as he had never resided in or near the city, having grown up in the Cleveland area and attending college in central Ohio.", "The ''Post'' fired Watterson before his contract was up.He then joined a small advertising agency and worked there for four years as a designer, creating grocery advertisements while also working on his own projects, including development of his own cartoon strip and contributions to ''Target: The Political Cartoon Quarterly''.As a freelance artist, Watterson has drawn other works for various merchandise, including album art for his brother's band, calendars, clothing graphics, educational books, magazine covers, posters, and post cards.===''Calvin and Hobbes'' and rise to success===Watterson has said that he works for personal fulfillment.", "As he told the graduating class of 1990 at Kenyon College, \"It's surprising how hard we'll work when the work is done just for ourselves.\"", "''Calvin and Hobbes'' was first published on November 18, 1985.In ''Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book'', he wrote that his influences included ''Peanuts'', ''Pogo'', and ''Krazy Kat''.", "Watterson wrote the introduction to the first volume of ''The Komplete Kolor Krazy Kat''.", "Watterson's style also reflects the influence of Winsor McCay's ''Little Nemo in Slumberland''.Like many artists, Watterson incorporated elements of his life, interests, beliefs, and values into his work—for example, his hobby as a cyclist, memories of his own father's speeches about \"building character\", and his views on merchandising and corporations.", "Watterson's cat Sprite very much inspired the personality and physical features of Hobbes.Watterson spent much of his career trying to change the climate of newspaper comics.", "He believed that the artistic value of comics was being undermined, and that the space that they occupied in newspapers continually decreased, subject to arbitrary whims of shortsighted publishers.", "Furthermore, he opined that art should not be judged by the medium for which it is created (i.e., there is no \"high\" art or \"low\" art—just art).Watterson wrote forewords for ''FoxTrot'' and ''For Better or For Worse''.===Fight against merchandising his characters===For years, Watterson battled against pressure from publishers to merchandise his work, something that he felt would cheapen his comic through compromising the act of creation or reading.He refused to merchandise his creations on the grounds that displaying ''Calvin and Hobbes'' images on commercially sold mugs, stickers, and T-shirts would devalue the characters and their personalities.", "Watterson said that Universal kept putting pressure on him and that he had signed his contract without fully perusing it because, as a new artist, he was happy just to find a syndicate willing to give him a chance (two other syndicates had previously turned him down).", "He added that the contract was so one-sided that, if Universal really wanted to, they could license his characters against his will, and could even fire him and continue ''Calvin and Hobbes'' with a new artist.", "Watterson's position eventually won out and he was able to renegotiate his contract so that he would receive all rights to his work, but later added that the licensing fight exhausted him and contributed to the need for a nine-month sabbatical in 1991.Despite Watterson's efforts, many unofficial knockoffs have been found, including items that depict Calvin and Hobbes consuming alcohol or Calvin urinating on a logo.", "Watterson has said, \"Only thieves and vandals have made money on ''Calvin and Hobbes'' merchandise.", "\"===Changing the format of the Sunday strip===Watterson was critical of the prevailing format for the Sunday comic strip that was in place when he began drawing (and remained so, to varying degrees).", "The typical layout consists of three rows with eight total squares, which take up half a page if published with its normal size.", "(In this context, half-page is an absolute sizeapproximately half a nominal page sizeand not related to the actual page size on which a cartoon might eventually be printed for distribution.)", "Some newspapers are restricted with space for their Sunday features and reduce the size of the strip.", "One of the more common ways is to cut out the top two panels, which Watterson believed forced him to waste the space on throwaway jokes that did not always fit the strip.", "While he was set to return from his first sabbatical (a second took place during 1994), Watterson discussed with his syndicate a new format for ''Calvin and Hobbes'' that would enable him to use his space more efficiently and would almost require the papers to publish it as a half-page.", "Universal agreed that they would sell the strip as the half-page and nothing else, which garnered anger from papers and criticism for Watterson from both editors and some of his fellow cartoonists (whom he described as \"unnecessarily hot-tempered\").", "Eventually, Universal compromised and agreed to offer papers a choice between the full half-page or a reduced-sized version to alleviate concerns about the size issue.", "Watterson conceded that this caused him to lose space in many papers, but he said that, in the end, it was a benefit because he felt that he was giving the papers' readers a better strip for their money and editors were free not to run ''Calvin and Hobbes'' at their own risk.", "He added that he was not going to apologize for drawing a popular feature.===End of ''Calvin and Hobbes''===On November 9, 1995, Watterson announced the end of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' with the following letter to newspaper editors:The last strip of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' was published on December 31, 1995." ], [ "After ''Calvin and Hobbes''", "In the years since ''Calvin and Hobbes'' was ended, many attempts have been made to contact Watterson.", "Both ''The Plain Dealer'' and the ''Cleveland Scene'' sent reporters, in 1998 and 2003 respectively, but neither were able to make contact with the media-shy Watterson.", "Since 1995, Watterson has taken up painting, at one point drawing landscapes of the woods with his father.", "He has kept away from the public eye and shown no interest in resuming the strip, creating new works based on the strip's characters, or embarking on new commercial projects, though he has published several ''Calvin and Hobbes'' \"treasury collection\" anthologies.", "He does not sign autographs or license his characters.", "Watterson was once known to sneak autographed copies of his books onto the shelves of the Fireside Bookshop, a family-owned bookstore in his hometown of Chagrin Falls, Ohio.", "He ended this practice after discovering that some of the autographed books were being sold online for high prices.Watterson rarely gives interviews or makes public appearances.", "His lengthiest interviews include the cover story in ''The Comics Journal'' No.", "127 in February 1989, an interview that appeared in a 1987 issue of ''Honk Magazine'', and one in a 2015 Watterson exhibition catalogue.On December 21, 1999, a short piece was published in the ''Los Angeles Times'', written by Watterson to mark the forthcoming retirement of ''Peanuts'' creator Charles M. Schulz.Circa 2003, Gene Weingarten of ''The Washington Post'' sent Watterson the first edition of the ''Barnaby'' book as an incentive, hoping to land an interview.", "Weingarten passed the book to Watterson's parents, along with a message, and declared that he would wait in his hotel for as long as it took Watterson to contact him.", "Watterson's editor Lee Salem called the next day to tell Weingarten that the cartoonist would not be coming.In 2004, Watterson and his wife Melissa bought a home in the Cleveland suburb of Cleveland Heights, Ohio.", "In 2005, they completed the move from their home in Chagrin Falls to their new residence.In October 2005, Watterson answered 15 questions submitted by readers.", "In October 2007, he wrote a review of ''Schulz and Peanuts'', a biography of Charles M. Schulz, in ''The Wall Street Journal''.In 2008, he provided a foreword for the first book collection of Richard Thompson's ''Cul de Sac'' comic strip.", "In April 2011, a representative for Andrews McMeel received a package from a \"William Watterson in Cleveland Heights, Ohio\" which contained a oil-on-board painting of ''Cul de Sac'' character Petey Otterloop, done by Watterson for the ''Team Cul de Sac'' fundraising project for Parkinson's disease in honor of Richard Thompson, who was diagnosed in 2009.Watterson's syndicate (which ultimately became Universal Uclick) revealed that the painting was the first new artwork of his that the syndicate has seen since ''Calvin and Hobbes'' ended in 1995.In October 2009, Nevin Martell published a book called ''Looking for Calvin and Hobbes,'' which included a story about the author seeking an interview with Watterson.", "In his search he interviews friends, co-workers and family but never gets to meet the artist himself.In early 2010, Watterson was interviewed by ''The Plain Dealer'' on the 15th anniversary of the end of ''Calvin and Hobbes''.", "Explaining his decision to discontinue the strip, he said,In October 2013, the magazine ''Mental Floss'' published an interview with Watterson, only the second since the strip ended.", "Watterson again confirmed that he would not be revisiting ''Calvin and Hobbes'', and that he was satisfied with his decision.", "He also gave his opinion on the changes in the comic-strip industry and where it would be headed in the future:In 2013 the documentary ''Dear Mr. Watterson'', exploring the cultural impact of ''Calvin and Hobbes'', was released.", "Watterson himself did not appear in the film.On February 26, 2014, Watterson published his first cartoon since the end of ''Calvin and Hobbes'': a poster for the documentary ''Stripped''.In 2014, Watterson co-authored ''The Art of Richard Thompson'' with ''Washington Post'' cartoonist Nick Galifianakis and David Apatoff.In June 2014, three strips of ''Pearls Before Swine'' (published June 4, June 5, and June 6, 2014) featured guest illustrations by Watterson after mutual friend Nick Galifianakis connected him and cartoonist Stephan Pastis, who communicated via e-mail.", "Pastis likened this unexpected collaboration to getting \"a glimpse of Bigfoot\".", "\"I thought maybe Stephan and I could do this goofy collaboration and then use the result to raise some money for Parkinson's research in honor of Richard Thompson.", "It seemed like a perfect convergence\", Watterson told ''The Washington Post''.", "The day that Stephan Pastis returned to his own strip, he paid tribute to Watterson by alluding to the final strip of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' from December 31, 1995.On November 5, 2014, a poster was unveiled, drawn by Watterson for the 2015 Angoulême International Comics Festival where he was awarded the Grand Prix in 2014.On April 1, 2016, for April Fools' Day, Berkeley Breathed posted on Facebook that Watterson had signed \"the franchise over to my 'administration'\".", "He then posted a comic with Calvin, Hobbes, and Opus all featured.", "The comic is signed by Watterson, though the degree of his involvement was speculative.", "Breathed posted another \"Calvin County\" strip featuring Calvin and Hobbes, also \"signed\" by Watterson on April 1, 2017, along with a fake ''New York Times'' story ostensibly detailing the \"merger\" of the two strips.", "Berkeley Breathed included Hobbes in a November 27, 2017, strip as a stand-in for the character Steve Dallas.", "Hobbes has also returned in the June 9, 11, and 12, 2021, strips as a stand-in for Bill The Cat.===Exhibitions===In 2001, the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University mounted an exhibition of Watterson's Sunday strips.", "He chose thirty-six of his favorites, displaying them with both the original drawing and the colored finished product, with most pieces featuring personal annotations.", "Watterson also wrote an accompanying essay that served as the foreword for the exhibit, called \"Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985–1995\", which opened on September 10, 2001.It was taken down in January 2002.The accompanying published catalog had the same title.From March 22 to August 3, 2014, Watterson exhibited again at the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University.", "In conjunction with this exhibition, Watterson also participated in an interview with the school.", "An exhibition catalog named ''Exploring Calvin and Hobbes'' was released with the exhibit.", "The book contained a lengthy interview with Bill Watterson, conducted by Jenny Robb, the curator of the museum.===''The Mysteries''===Watterson released his first published work in 28 years on October 10, 2023, called ''The Mysteries''.", "It was an illustrated \"fable for grown ups\" about \"what lies beyond human understanding.\"", "The work was a collaboration with the illustrator and caricaturist John Kascht." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Watterson was awarded the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in both 1986 and 1988.Watterson's second Reuben win made him the youngest cartoonist to be so honored, and only the sixth person to win twice, following Milton Caniff, Charles M. Schulz, Dik Browne, Chester Gould, and Jeff MacNelly.", "(Gary Larson is the only cartoonist to win a second Reuben since Watterson.)", "In 2014, Watterson was awarded the Grand Prix at the Angoulême International Comics Festival for his body of work, becoming just the fourth non-European cartoonist to be so honored in the first 41 years of the event.", "*1986: Reuben Award, Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year*1988: Reuben Award, Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year*1988: National Cartoonists Society, Newspaper Comic Strips Humor Award*1988: Sproing Award, for ''Tommy og Tigern'' (''Calvin and Hobbes'')*1989: Harvey Award, Special Award for Humor, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1990: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1990: Max & Moritz Prize, Best Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1991: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1991: Adamson Award, for ''Kalle och Hobbe'' (''Calvin and Hobbes'')*1992: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1992: Eisner Award, Best Comic Strip Collection, for ''The Revenge of the Baby-Sat''*1992: Angoulême International Comics Festival, Prize for Best Foreign Comic Book, for ''En avant tête de thon!", "''*1993: Eisner Award, Best Comic Strip Collection, for ''Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons''*1993: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1994: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1995: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1996: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for ''Calvin and Hobbes''*2014: Grand Prix, Angoulême International Comics Festival*2020: Inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame" ], [ "Bibliography", "*1987: ''Calvin and Hobbes''*1988: ''Something Under the Bed is Drooling''*1988: ''Yukon Ho!", "''*1990: ''Weirdos from Another Planet''*1991: ''The Revenge of the Baby-Sat''*1991: ''Scientific Progress Goes \"Boink\"''*1992: ''Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons''*1993: ''The Days are Just Packed''*1994: ''Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat: A Calvin and Hobbes Collection''*1995: ''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book''*1996: ''There's Treasure Everywhere''*1996: ''It's a Magical World''*2023: ''The Mysteries'''''Treasury collections'''*1988: ''The Essential Calvin and Hobbes''*1989: ''The Lazy Sunday Book''*1990: ''The Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes''*1992: ''The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes''*2002: ''Calvin and Hobbes Sunday Pages 1985–1995''*2005: ''The Complete Calvin and Hobbes''*2019: ''The Complete Calvin and Hobbes'' (reprint)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * .", "* * , Bill Watterson's Commencement Address to Kenyon College.", "* ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Black" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Black''' is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light.", "It is an achromatic color, without hue, like white and grey.", "It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness.", "Black and white have often been used to describe opposites such as good and evil, the Dark Ages versus Age of Enlightenment, and night versus day.", "Since the Middle Ages, black has been the symbolic color of solemnity and authority, and for this reason it is still commonly worn by judges and magistrates.Black was one of the first colors used by artists in Neolithic cave paintings.", "It was used in ancient Egypt and Greece as the color of the underworld.", "In the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death, evil, witches, and magic.", "In the 14th century, it was worn by royalty, clergy, judges, and government officials in much of Europe.", "It became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century.", "According to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, fear, evil, and elegance.Black is the most common ink color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus is the easiest color to read.", "Similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens.", "the darkest material is made by MIT engineers from vertically aligned carbon nanotubes." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''black'' comes from Old English ''blæc'' (\"black, dark\", ''also'', \"ink\"), from Proto-Germanic *''blakkaz'' (\"burned\"), from Proto-Indo-European *''bhleg-'' (\"to burn, gleam, shine, flash\"), from base *''bhel-'' (\"to shine\"), related to Old Saxon ''blak'' (\"ink\"), Old High German ''blach'' (\"black\"), Old Norse ''blakkr'' (\"dark\"), Dutch ''blaken'' (\"to burn\"), and Swedish ''bläck'' (\"ink\").", "More distant cognates include Latin ''flagrare'' (\"to blaze, glow, burn\"), and Ancient Greek ''phlegein'' (\"to burn, scorch\").", "The Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity.", "''Kuanos''' could mean both dark blue and black.", "The Ancient Romans had two words for black: ''ater'' was a flat, dull black, while ''niger'' was a brilliant, saturated black.", "''Ater'' has vanished from the vocabulary, but ''niger'' was the source of the country name ''Nigeria,'' the English word ''Negro'', and the word for \"black\" in most modern Romance languages (French: ''noir''; Spanish and Portuguese: ''negro''; Italian: ''nero''; Romanian: ''negru'').Old High German also had two words for black: ''swartz'' for dull black and ''blach'' for a luminous black.", "These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms ''swart'' for dull black and ''blaek'' for luminous black.", "''Swart'' still survives as the word ''swarthy'', while ''blaek'' became the modern English ''black''.", "The former is cognate with the words used for black in most modern Germanic languages aside from English (German: ''schwarz'', Dutch: ''zwart'', Swedish: ''svart'', Danish: ''sort'', Icelandic: ''svartr'').", "In heraldry, the word used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable, an animal." ], [ "Art", "===Prehistoric===Megaloceros cave art at LascauxBlack was one of the first colors used in art.", "The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago.", "They began by using charcoal, and later achieved darker pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide.===Ancient===For the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations; being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile.", "It was the color of Anubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a black jackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead.", "To ancient Greeks, black represented the underworld, separated from the living by the river Acheron, whose water ran black.", "Those who had committed the worst sins were sent to Tartarus, the deepest and darkest level.", "In the center was the palace of Hades, the king of the underworld, where he was seated upon a black ebony throne.", "Black was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists.", "In the 6th century BC, they began making black-figure pottery and later red figure pottery, using a highly original technique.", "In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a glossy clay slip on a red clay pot.", "When the pot was fired, the figures painted with the slip would turn black, against a red background.", "Later they reversed the process, painting the spaces between the figures with slip.", "This created magnificent red figures against a glossy black background.In the social hierarchy of ancient Rome, purple was the color reserved for the Emperor; red was the color worn by soldiers (red cloaks for the officers, red tunics for the soldiers); white the color worn by the priests, and black was worn by craftsmen and artisans.", "The black they wore was not deep and rich; the vegetable dyes used to make black were not solid or lasting, so the blacks often faded to gray or brown.In Latin, the word for black, ''ater'' and to darken, ''atere'', were associated with cruelty, brutality and evil.", "They were the root of the English words \"atrocious\" and \"atrocity\".", "Black was also the Roman color of death and mourning.", "In the 2nd century BC Roman magistrates began to wear a dark toga, called a ''toga pulla'', to funeral ceremonies.", "Later, under the Empire, the family of the deceased also wore dark colors for a long period; then, after a banquet to mark the end of mourning, exchanged the black for a white toga.", "In Roman poetry, death was called the ''hora nigra'', the black hour.The German and Scandinavian peoples worshipped their own goddess of the night, Nótt, who crossed the sky in a chariot drawn by a black horse.", "They also feared Hel, the goddess of the kingdom of the dead, whose skin was black on one side and red on the other.", "They also held sacred the raven.", "They believed that Odin, the king of the Nordic pantheon, had two black ravens, Huginn and Muninn, who served as his agents, traveling the world for him, watching and listening.File:Tutanhkamun jackal.jpg|Statue of Anubis, guardian of the underworld, from the tomb of Tutankhamun.File:Akhilleus Aias MGEt 16757.jpg|Greek black-figure pottery.", "Ajax and Achilles playing a game, about 540–530 BC.", "(Vatican Museums).File:Pyxis Peleus Thetis Louvre L55 by Wedding Painter.jpg|Red-figure pottery with black background.", "Portrait of Thetis, about 470–480 BC.", "(The Louvre)===Postclassical===In the early Middle Ages, black was commonly associated with darkness and evil.", "In Medieval paintings, the devil was usually depicted as having human form, but with wings and black skin or hair.====12th and 13th centuries====In fashion, black did not have the prestige of red, the color of the nobility.", "It was worn by Benedictine monks as a sign of humility and penitence.", "In the 12th century a famous theological dispute broke out between the Cistercian monks, who wore white, and the Benedictines, who wore black.", "A Benedictine abbot, Pierre the Venerable, accused the Cistercians of excessive pride in wearing white instead of black.", "Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the founder of the Cistercians responded that black was the color of the devil, hell, \"of death and sin\", while white represented \"purity, innocence and all the virtues\".Black symbolized both power and secrecy in the medieval world.", "The emblem of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany was a black eagle.", "The black knight in the poetry of the Middle Ages was an enigmatic figure, hiding his identity, usually wrapped in secrecy.Black ink, invented in China, was traditionally used in the Middle Ages for writing, for the simple reason that black was the darkest color and therefore provided the greatest contrast with white paper or parchment, making it the easiest color to read.", "It became even more important in the 15th century, with the invention of printing.", "A new kind of ink, printer's ink, was created out of soot, turpentine and walnut oil.", "The new ink made it possible to spread ideas to a mass audience through printed books, and to popularize art through black and white engravings and prints.", "Because of its contrast and clarity, black ink on white paper continued to be the standard for printing books, newspapers and documents; and for the same reason black text on a white background is the most common format used on computer screens.File:Duccio - The Temptation on the Mount.jpg|The Italian painter Duccio di Buoninsegna showed Christ expelling the Devil, shown covered with bristly black hair (1308–11).File:Fra Angelico 010.jpg|The 15th-century painting of the ''Last Judgement'' by Fra Angelico (1395–1455) depicted hell with a vivid black devil devouring sinners.File:Portretbenedykty324skiegomnich.jpg|Portrait of a monk of the Benedictine Order (1484)File:Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris1.jpg|The black knight in a miniature painting of a medieval romance,''Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris'' (about 1460)File:Gutenberg bible Old Testament Epistle of St Jerome.jpg|Gutenberg Bible (1451–1452).", "Black ink was used for printing books, because it provided the greatest contrast with the white paper and was the clearest and easiest color to read.====14th and 15th centuries====In the early Middle Ages, princes, nobles and the wealthy usually wore bright colors, particularly scarlet cloaks from Italy.", "Black was rarely part of the wardrobe of a noble family.", "The one exception was the fur of the sable.", "This glossy black fur, from an animal of the marten family, was the finest and most expensive fur in Europe.", "It was imported from Russia and Poland and used to trim the robes and gowns of royalty.In the 14th century, the status of black began to change.", "First, high-quality black dyes began to arrive on the market, allowing garments of a deep, rich black.", "Magistrates and government officials began to wear black robes, as a sign of the importance and seriousness of their positions.", "A third reason was the passage of sumptuary laws in some parts of Europe which prohibited the wearing of costly clothes and certain colors by anyone except members of the nobility.", "The famous bright scarlet cloaks from Venice and the peacock blue fabrics from Florence were restricted to the nobility.", "The wealthy bankers and merchants of northern Italy responded by changing to black robes and gowns, made with the most expensive fabrics.The change to the more austere but elegant black was quickly picked up by the kings and nobility.", "It began in northern Italy, where the Duke of Milan and the Count of Savoy and the rulers of Mantua, Ferrara, Rimini and Urbino began to dress in black.", "It then spread to France, led by Louis I, Duke of Orleans, younger brother of King Charles VI of France.", "It moved to England at the end of the reign of King Richard II (1377–1399), where all the court began to wear black.", "In 1419–20, black became the color of the powerful Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good.", "It moved to Spain, where it became the color of the Spanish Habsburgs, of Charles V and of his son, Philip II of Spain (1527–1598).", "European rulers saw it as the color of power, dignity, humility and temperance.", "By the end of the 16th century, it was the color worn by almost all the monarchs of Europe and their courts.File:Philip the good.jpg|Philip the Good in about 1450, by Rogier van der WeydenFile:Petrus Christus - Portrait of a Young Woman - Google Art Project.jpg|''Portrait of a Young Woman'' by Petrus Christus (about 1470)File:Titian - Portrait of Charles V Seated - WGA22964.jpg|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558), by TitianFile:Portrait of Philip II of Spain by Sofonisba Anguissola - 002b.jpg|Portrait of Philip II of Spain (1527–1598)===Modern=======16th and 17th centuries====While black was the color worn by the Catholic rulers of Europe, it was also the emblematic color of the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the Puritans in England and America.", "John Calvin, Philip Melanchthon and other Protestant theologians denounced the richly colored and decorated interiors of Roman Catholic churches.", "They saw the color red, worn by the Pope and his Cardinals, as the color of luxury, sin, and human folly.", "In some northern European cities, mobs attacked churches and cathedrals, smashed the stained glass windows and defaced the statues and decoration.", "In Protestant doctrine, clothing was required to be sober, simple and discreet.", "Bright colors were banished and replaced by blacks, browns and grays; women and children were recommended to wear white.In the Protestant Netherlands, Rembrandt used this sober new palette of blacks and browns to create portraits whose faces emerged from the shadows expressing the deepest human emotions.", "The Catholic painters of the Counter-Reformation, like Rubens, went in the opposite direction; they filled their paintings with bright and rich colors.", "The new Baroque churches of the Counter-Reformation were usually shining white inside and filled with statues, frescoes, marble, gold and colorful paintings, to appeal to the public.", "But European Catholics of all classes, like Protestants, eventually adopted a sober wardrobe that was mostly black, brown and gray.File:John Calvin 11.jpg|Swiss theologian John Calvin denounced the bright colors worn by Roman Catholic priests, and colorful decoration of churches.File:Increase Mather.jpg|Increase Mather, an American Puritan clergyman (1688).File:Rembrandt van Rijn - Self-Portrait - Google Art Project.jpg|Rembrandt, ''Self-portrait'' (1659)File:Portrait of John, Duke of Braganza c. 1630 (The Royal Castle in Warsaw).png|John, Duke of Braganza, later King John IV of Portugal (1628)File:Infantry Armor MET DP277181.jpg|Black painted suit of German armor crafted circa 1600.As with many outfits, black in the piece is used to contrast against lighter colors.In the second part of the 17th century, Europe and America experienced an epidemic of fear of witchcraft.", "People widely believed that the devil appeared at midnight in a ceremony called a Black Mass or black sabbath, usually in the form of a black animal, often a goat, a dog, a wolf, a bear, a deer or a rooster, accompanied by their familiar spirits, black cats, serpents and other black creatures.", "This was the origin of the widespread superstition about black cats and other black animals.", "In medieval Flanders, in a ceremony called ''Kattenstoet,'' black cats were thrown from the belfry of the Cloth Hall of Ypres to ward off witchcraft.Witch trials were common in both Europe and America during this period.", "During the notorious Salem witch trials in New England in 1692–93, one of those on trial was accused of being able turn into a \"black thing with a blue cap,\" and others of having familiars in the form of a black dog, a black cat and a black bird.", "Nineteen women and men were hanged as witches.File:Matthewhopkins.png|An English manual on witch-hunting (1647), showing a witch with her familiar spiritsFile:Black cat eyes.jpg|Black cats have been accused for centuries of being the familiar spirits of witches or of bringing bad luck.====18th and 19th centuries====In the 18th century, during the European Age of Enlightenment, black receded as a fashion color.", "Paris became the fashion capital, and pastels, blues, greens, yellow and white became the colors of the nobility and upper classes.", "But after the French Revolution, black again became the dominant color.Black was the color of the industrial revolution, largely fueled by coal, and later by oil.", "Thanks to coal smoke, the buildings of the large cities of Europe and America gradually turned black.", "By 1846 the industrial area of the West Midlands of England was \"commonly called 'the Black Country'”.", "Charles Dickens and other writers described the dark streets and smoky skies of London, and they were vividly illustrated in the engravings of French artist Gustave Doré.A different kind of black was an important part of the romantic movement in literature.", "Black was the color of melancholy, the dominant theme of romanticism.", "The novels of the period were filled with castles, ruins, dungeons, storms, and meetings at midnight.", "The leading poets of the movement were usually portrayed dressed in black, usually with a white shirt and open collar, and a scarf carelessly over their shoulder, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron helped create the enduring stereotype of the romantic poet.The invention of inexpensive synthetic black dyes and the industrialization of the textile industry meant that high-quality black clothes were available for the first time to the general population.", "In the 19th century black gradually became the most popular color of business dress of the upper and middle classes in England, the Continent, and America.Black dominated literature and fashion in the 19th century, and played a large role in painting.", "James McNeill Whistler made the color the subject of his most famous painting, ''Arrangement in grey and black number one'' (1871), better known as ''Whistler's Mother''.Some 19th-century French painters had a low opinion of black: \"Reject black,\" Paul Gauguin said, \"and that mix of black and white they call gray.", "Nothing is black, nothing is gray.\"", "But Édouard Manet used blacks for their strength and dramatic effect.", "Manet's portrait of painter Berthe Morisot was a study in black which perfectly captured her spirit of independence.", "The black gave the painting power and immediacy; he even changed her eyes, which were green, to black to strengthen the effect.", "Henri Matisse quoted the French impressionist Pissarro telling him, \"Manet is stronger than us all – he made light with black.", "\"Pierre-Auguste Renoir used luminous blacks, especially in his portraits.", "When someone told him that black was not a color, Renoir replied: \"What makes you think that?", "Black is the queen of colors.", "I always detested Prussian blue.", "I tried to replace black with a mixture of red and blue, I tried using cobalt blue or ultramarine, but I always came back to ivory black.", "\"Vincent van Gogh used black lines to outline many of the objects in his paintings, such as the bed in the famous painting of his bedroom.", "making them stand apart.", "His painting of black crows over a cornfield, painted shortly before he died, was particularly agitated and haunting.", "In the late 19th century, black also became the color of anarchism.", "(See the section political movements.", ")File:George-Henry-Boughton-Pilgrims-Going-To-Church.jpg|American Pilgrims in New England going to church (painting by George Henry Boughton, 1867)File:Carneiro e Gaspar, J. Courtois - Imperatriz Teresa Cristina.jpg|Portrait of Empress Teresa Cristina of Brazil (circa 1870)File:Whistlers Mother high res.jpg|''Arrangement in Grey and Black Number 1'' (1871) by James McNeill Whistler better known as ''Whistler's Mother''.File:Edouard Manet - Berthe Morisot With a Bouquet of Violets - Google Art Project.jpg|''Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets'', by Édouard Manet (1872).File:Edouard Manet 093.jpg|''Le Bal de l'Opera'' (1873) by Édouard Manet, shows the dominance of black in Parisian evening dress.File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''The Theater Box'' (1874) by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, captured the luminosity of black fabric in the light.File:Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) - Wheat Field with Crows (1890).jpg| ''Wheat Field with Crows'' (1890), one of the last paintings of Vincent van Gogh, captures his agitated state of mind.====20th and 21st centuries====In the 20th century, black was the color of Italian and German fascism.", "(See the section political movements.", ")In art, black regained some of the territory that it had lost during the 19th century.", "The Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, a member of the Suprematist movement, created the ''Black Square'' in 1915, is widely considered the first purely abstract painting.", "He wrote, \"The painted work is no longer simply the imitation of reality, but is this very reality ...", "It is not a demonstration of ability, but the materialization of an idea.", "\"Black was also appreciated by Henri Matisse.", "\"When I didn't know what color to put down, I put down black,\" he said in 1945.", "\"Black is a force: I used black as ballast to simplify the construction ...", "Since the impressionists it seems to have made continuous progress, taking a more and more important part in color orchestration, comparable to that of the double bass as a solo instrument.", "\"In the 1950s, black came to be a symbol of individuality and intellectual and social rebellion, the color of those who did not accept established norms and values.", "In Paris, it was worn by Left-Bank intellectuals and performers such as Juliette Gréco, and by some members of the Beat Movement in New York and San Francisco.", "Black leather jackets were worn by motorcycle gangs such as the Hells Angels and street gangs on the fringes of society in the United States.", "Black as a color of rebellion was celebrated in such films as ''The Wild One'', with Marlon Brando.", "By the end of the 20th century, black was the emblematic color of the punk subculture punk fashion, and the goth subculture.", "Goth fashion, which emerged in England in the 1980s, was inspired by Victorian era mourning dress.In men's fashion, black gradually ceded its dominance to navy blue, particularly in business suits.", "Black evening dress and formal dress in general were worn less and less.", "In 1960, John F. Kennedy was the last American President to be inaugurated wearing formal dress; President Lyndon Johnson and all his successors were inaugurated wearing business suits.Women's fashion was revolutionized and simplified in 1926 by the French designer Coco Chanel, who published a drawing of a simple black dress in ''Vogue'' magazine.", "She famously said, \"A woman needs just three things; a black dress, a black sweater, and, on her arm, a man she loves.\"", "French designer Jean Patou also followed suit by creating a black collection in 1929.Other designers contributed to the trend of the little black dress.", "The Italian designer Gianni Versace said, \"Black is the quintessence of simplicity and elegance,\" and French designer Yves Saint Laurent said, \"black is the liaison which connects art and fashion.", "One of the most famous black dresses of the century was designed by Hubert de Givenchy and was worn by Audrey Hepburn in the 1961 film ''Breakfast at Tiffany's''.The American civil rights movement in the 1950s was a struggle for the political equality of African Americans.", "It developed into the Black Power movement in the early 1960s until the late 1980s, and the Black Lives Matter movement in the 2010s and 2020s.", "It also popularized the slogan \"Black is Beautiful\".File:Malevich.black-square.jpg|The ''Black Square'' (1915) by Kazimir Malevich is considered the first purely abstract painting (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow).File:Constantin Pascali - Regina Maria.jpg|Queen Marie of Romania (early 1920s) by Constantin PascaliFile:Lady Amaranth.jpg|The goth fashion model Lady Amaranth.", "Goth fashion was inspired by British Victorian mourning costumes." ], [ "Science", "===Physics===In the visible spectrum, black is the result of the absorption of all light wavelengths.", "Black can be defined as the visual impression (or color) experienced when no visible light reaches the eye.", "Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye look black.", "A black pigment can, however, result from a combination of several pigments that collectively absorb all wavelengths of visible light.", "If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called black.", "This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black.", "Black is the color produced by the absorption of all wavelengths of visible light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.Vantablack was the blackest substance known until 2019.In physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter.", "Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well.", "In elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called \"black light\" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances to fluoresce.Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively.", "A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material.", "Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat.", "This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector).As of September 2019, the darkest material is made from vertically aligned carbon nanotubes.", "The material was grown by MIT engineers and was reported to have a 99.995% absorption rate of any incoming light.", "This surpasses any former darkest materials including Vantablack, which has a peak absorption rate of 99.965% in the visible spectrum.===Chemistry=======Pigments====The earliest pigments used by Neolithic man were charcoal, red ocher and yellow ocher.", "The black lines of cave art were drawn with the tips of burnt torches made of a wood with resin.", "Different charcoal pigments were made by burning different woods and animal products, each of which produced a different tone.", "The charcoal would be ground and then mixed with animal fat to make the pigment.", "* ''Vine black'' was produced in Roman times by burning the cut branches of grapevines.", "It could also be produced by burning the remains of the crushed grapes, which were collected and dried in an oven.", "According to the historian Vitruvius, the deepness and richness of the black produced corresponded to the quality of the wine.", "The finest wines produced a black with a bluish tinge the color of indigo.The 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described how this pigment was made during the Renaissance in his famous handbook for artists: \"...there is a black which is made from the tendrils of vines.", "And these tendrils need to be burned.", "And when they have been burned, throw some water onto them and put them out and then mull them in the same way as the other black.", "And this is a lean and black pigment and is one of the perfect pigments that we use.", "\"Cennini also noted that \"There is another black which is made from burnt almond shells or peaches and this is a perfect, fine black.\"", "Similar fine blacks were made by burning the pits of the peach, cherry or apricot.", "The powdered charcoal was then mixed with gum arabic or the yellow of an egg to make a paint.Different civilizations burned different plants to produce their charcoal pigments.", "The Inuit of Alaska used wood charcoal mixed with the blood of seals to paint masks and wooden objects.", "The Polynesians burned coconuts to produce their pigment.", "* ''Lamp black'' was used as a pigment for painting and frescoes, as a dye for fabrics, and in some societies for making tattoos.", "The 15th century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini described how it was made during the Renaissance: \"... take a lamp full of linseed oil and fill the lamp with the oil and light the lamp.", "Then place it, lit, under a thoroughly clean pan and make sure that the flame from the lamp is two or three fingers from the bottom of the pan.", "The smoke that comes off the flame will hit the bottom of the pan and gather, becoming thick.", "Wait a bit.", "take the pan and brush this pigment (that is, this smoke) onto paper or into a pot with something.", "And it is not necessary to mull or grind it because it is a very fine pigment.", "Re-fill the lamp with the oil and put it under the pan like this several times and, in this way, make as much of it as is necessary.\"", "This same pigment was used by Indian artists to paint the Ajanta Caves, and as dye in ancient Japan.", "* ''Ivory black'', also known as bone char, was originally produced by burning ivory and mixing the resulting charcoal powder with oil.", "The color is still made today, but ordinary animal bones are substituted for ivory.", "* ''Mars black'' is a black pigment made of synthetic iron oxides.", "It is commonly used in water-colors and oil painting.", "It takes its name from Mars, the god of war and patron of iron.====Dyes====Good-quality black dyes were not known until the middle of the 14th century.", "The most common early dyes were made from bark, roots or fruits of different trees; usually walnuts, chestnuts, or certain oak trees.", "The blacks produced were often more gray, brown or bluish.", "The cloth had to be dyed several times to darken the color.", "One solution used by dyers was add to the dye some iron filings, rich in iron oxide, which gave a deeper black.", "Another was to first dye the fabric dark blue, and then to dye it black.A much richer and deeper black dye was eventually found made from the oak apple or \"gall-nut\".", "The gall-nut is a small round tumor which grows on oak and other varieties of trees.", "They range in size from 2–5 cm, and are caused by chemicals injected by the larva of certain kinds of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae.", "The dye was very expensive; a great quantity of gall-nuts were needed for a very small amount of dye.", "The gall-nuts which made the best dye came from Poland, eastern Europe, the near east and North Africa.", "Beginning in about the 14th century, dye from gall-nuts was used for clothes of the kings and princes of Europe.Another important source of natural black dyes from the 17th century onwards was the logwood tree, or Haematoxylum campechianum, which also produced reddish and bluish dyes.", "It is a species of flowering tree in the legume family, Fabaceae, that is native to southern Mexico and northern Central America.", "The modern nation of Belize grew from 17th century English logwood logging camps.Since the mid-19th century, synthetic black dyes have largely replaced natural dyes.", "One of the important synthetic blacks is Nigrosin, a mixture of synthetic black dyes (CI 50415, Solvent black 5) made by heating a mixture of nitrobenzene, aniline and aniline hydrochloride in the presence of a copper or iron catalyst.", "Its main industrial uses are as a colorant for lacquers and varnishes and in marker-pen inks.====Inks====The first known inks were made by the Chinese, and date back to the 23rd century B.C.", "They used natural plant dyes and minerals such as graphite ground with water and applied with an ink brush.", "Early Chinese inks similar to the modern inkstick have been found dating to about 256 BC at the end of the Warring States period.", "They were produced from soot, usually produced by burning pine wood, mixed with animal glue.", "To make ink from an inkstick, the stick is continuously ground against an inkstone with a small quantity of water to produce a dark liquid which is then applied with an ink brush.", "Artists and calligraphists could vary the thickness of the resulting ink by reducing or increasing the intensity and time of ink grinding.", "These inks produced the delicate shading and subtle or dramatic effects of Chinese brush painting.India ink (or \"Indian ink\" in British English) is a black ink once widely used for writing and printing and now more commonly used for drawing, especially when inking comic books and comic strips.", "The technique of making it probably came from China.", "India ink has been in use in India since at least the 4th century BC, where it was called ''masi''.", "In India, the black color of the ink came from bone char, tar, pitch and other substances.The ancient Romans had a black writing ink they called ''atramentum librarium''.", "Its name came from the Latin word ''atrare'', which meant to make something black.", "(This was the same root as the English word ''atrocious''.)", "It was usually made, like India ink, from soot, although one variety, called ''atramentum elephantinum'', was made by burning the ivory of elephants.Gall-nuts were also used for making fine black writing ink.", "Iron gall ink (also known as iron gall nut ink or oak gall ink) was a purple-black or brown-black ink made from iron salts and tannic acids from gall nut.", "It was the standard writing and drawing ink in Europe, from about the 12th century to the 19th century, and remained in use well into the 20th century.File:Charcoal sticks 051907.jpg|Sticks of vine charcoal and compressed charcoal.", "Charcoal, along with red and yellow ochre, was one of the first pigments used by Paleolithic man.File:Inkstick.jpg|A Chinese inkstick, in the form of lotus flowers and blossoms.", "Inksticks are used in Chinese calligraphy and brush painting.File:Živočišné uhlí (Carbocit).jpg|Ivory black or bone char, a natural black pigment made by burning animal bones.File:Oak apple.jpg|The oak apple or gall-nut, a tumor growing on oak trees, was the main source of black dye and black writing ink from the 14th century until the 19th century.File:Noir de fumee.jpg|The industrial production of lamp black, made by producing, collecting and refining soot, in 1906.===Astronomy===* A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity prevents anything, including light, from escaping.", "The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole.", "Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined boundary called an event horizon that marks the point of no return.", "It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics.", "Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle.", "After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings.", "By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form.", "There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.", "Although a black hole itself is black, infalling material forms an accretion disk, one of the brightest types of object in the universe.", "* Black-body radiation refers to the radiation coming from a body at a given temperature where all incoming energy (light) is converted to heat.", "* Black sky refers to the appearance of space as one emerges from Earth's atmosphere.File:NGC 406 Hubble WikiSky.jpg|Image of the NGC 406 galaxy from the Hubble Space TelescopeFile:Spirit Rover-Mars Night Sky.jpg|The night sky seen from Mars, with the two moons of Mars visible, taken by the NASA Spirit Rover.File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|Outside Earth's atmosphere, the sky is black day and night.File:Olber's Paradox - All Points.gif|An illustration of Olbers' paradox (see below)File:Black hole - Messier 87 crop max res.jpg|Image of the central black hole of Messier 87 taken by the Event Horizon Telescope.====Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox====The fact that outer space is black is sometimes called Olbers' paradox.", "In theory, because the universe is full of stars, and is believed to be infinitely large, it would be expected that the light of an infinite number of stars would be enough to brilliantly light the whole universe all the time.", "However, the background color of outer space is black.", "This contradiction was first noted in 1823 by German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers, who posed the question of why the night sky was black.The current accepted answer is that, although the universe may be infinitely large, it is not infinitely old.", "It is thought to be about 13.8 billion years old, so we can only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years.", "Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright.", "Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth.", "As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible.", "As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions.", "Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue.", "This is known as Rayleigh scattering.The nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity.", "Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue.", "On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is virtually no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night.", "This also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere, such as Mercury.===Biology===File:Corvus brachyrhynchos 30196.JPG|The American crow is one of the most intelligent of all animals.File:01 Schwarzbär.jpg|American black bear (Ursus americanus) near Riding Mountain Park, Manitoba, CanadaFile:Dendroaspis polylepis by Bill Love.jpg|The black mamba of Africa is one of the most venomous snakes, as well as the fastest-moving snake in the world.", "File:Black Widow 11-06.jpg |The black widow spider, or latrodectus, The females frequently eat their male partners after mating.", "The female's venom is at least three times more potent than that of the males, making a male's self-defense bite ineffective.File:Blackleopard.JPG|A black panther is actually a melanistic leopard or jaguar, the result of an excess of melanin in their skin caused by a recessive gene." ], [ "Culture", "In China, the color black is associated with water, one of the five fundamental elements believed to compose all things; and with winter, cold, and the direction north, usually symbolized by a black tortoise.", "It is also associated with disorder, including the positive disorder which leads to change and new life.", "When the first Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang seized power from the Zhou Dynasty, he changed the Imperial color from red to black, saying that black extinguished red.", "Only when the Han Dynasty appeared in 206 BC was red restored as the imperial color.", "Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding dayIn Japan, black is associated with mystery, the night, the unknown, the supernatural, the invisible and death.", "Combined with white, it can symbolize intuition.", "In 10th and 11th century Japan, it was believed that wearing black could bring misfortune.", "It was worn at court by those who wanted to set themselves apart from the established powers or who had renounced material possessions.In Japan black can also symbolize experience, as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté.", "The black belt in martial arts symbolizes experience, while a white belt is worn by novices.", "Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day.In Indonesia black is associated with depth, the subterranean world, demons, disaster, and the left hand.", "When black is combined with white, however, it symbolizes harmony and equilibrium.===Political movements======= Anarchism ====Anarchism is a political philosophy, most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which holds that governments and capitalism are harmful and undesirable.", "The symbols of anarchism was usually either a black flag or a black letter A.", "More recently it is usually represented with a bisected red and black flag, to emphasise the movement's socialist roots in the First International.", "Anarchism was most popular in Spain, France, Italy, Ukraine and Argentina.", "There were also small but influential movements in the United States, Russia and many other countries all around the world.==== Fascism ====The Blackshirts () were Fascist paramilitary groups in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II.", "The Blackshirts were officially known as the Voluntary Militia for National Security (''Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'', or MVSN).Inspired by the black uniforms of the Arditi, Italy's elite storm troops of World War I, the Fascist Blackshirts were organized by Benito Mussolini as the military tool of his political movement.", "They used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents.", "The emblem of the Italian fascists was a black flag with fasces, an axe in a bundle of sticks, an ancient Roman symbol of authority.", "Mussolini came to power in 1922 through his March on Rome with the blackshirts.Black was also adopted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany.", "Red, white and black were the colors of the flag of the German Empire from 1870 to 1918.In ''Mein Kampf'', Hitler explained that they were \"revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past.\"", "Hitler also wrote that \"the new flag ... should prove effective as a large poster\" because \"in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement.\"", "The black swastika was meant to symbolize the Aryan race, which, according to the Nazis, \"was always anti-Semitic and will always be anti-Semitic.\"", "Several designs by a number of different authors were considered, but the one adopted in the end was Hitler's personal design.", "Black became the color of the uniform of the SS, the ''Schutzstaffel'' or \"defense corps\", the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, and was worn by SS officers from 1932 until the end of World War II.The Nazis used a black triangle to symbolize anti-social elements.", "The symbol originates from Nazi concentration camps, where every prisoner had to wear one of the Nazi concentration camp badges on their jacket, the color of which categorized them according to \"their kind\".", "Many Black Triangle prisoners were either mentally disabled or mentally ill.", "The homeless were also included, as were alcoholics, the Romani people, the habitually \"work-shy\", prostitutes, draft dodgers and pacifists.", "More recently the black triangle has been adopted as a symbol in lesbian culture and by disabled activists.Black shirts were also worn by the British Union of Fascists before World War II, and members of fascist movements in the Netherlands.==== Patriotic resistance ====The Lützow Free Corps, composed of volunteer German students and academics fighting against Napoleon in 1813, could not afford to make special uniforms and therefore adopted black, as the only color that could be used to dye their civilian clothing without the original color showing.", "In 1815 the students began to carry a red, black and gold flag, which they believed (incorrectly) had been the colors of the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial flag had actually been gold and black).", "In 1848, this banner became the flag of the German confederation.", "In 1866, Prussia unified Germany under its rule, and imposed the red, white and black of its own flag, which remained the colors of the German flag until the end of the Second World War.", "In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany returned to the original flag and colors of the students and professors of 1815, which is the flag of Germany today.File:Махновское знамя.svg|A flag used by the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine during the Russian Civil War.", "It says, \"Power begets parasites.", "Long live Anarchy!", "\"File:March on Rome.jpg|Benito Mussolini and his blackshirt followers during his March on Rome in 1922.File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R99621, Heinrich Himmler.jpg|Black uniform of Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, the military wing of the Nazi Party (1938).=== Military ===Hussar from Husaren-Regiment Nr.5 (von Ruesch) in 1744 with the Totenkopf on the mirliton (ger.", "Flügelmütze).Black has been a traditional color of cavalry and armoured or mechanized troops.", "German armoured troops (Panzerwaffe) traditionally wore black uniforms, and even in others, a black beret is common.", "In Finland, black is the symbolic color for both armoured troops and combat engineers, and military units of these specialities have black flags and unit insignia.The black beret and the color black is also a symbol of special forces in many countries.", "Soviet and Russian OMON special police and Russian naval infantry wear a black beret.", "A black beret is also worn by military police in the Canadian, Czech, Croatian, Portuguese, Spanish and Serbian armies.The silver-on-black skull and crossbones symbol or Totenkopf and a black uniform were used by Hussars and Black Brunswickers, the German Panzerwaffe and the Nazi Schutzstaffel, and U.S. 400th Missile Squadron (crossed missiles), and continues in use with the Estonian Kuperjanov Battalion.===Religion===In Christian theology, black was the color of the universe before God created light.", "In many religious cultures, from Mesoamerica to Oceania to India and Japan, the world was created out of a primordial darkness.", "In the Bible the light of faith and Christianity is often contrasted with the darkness of ignorance and paganism.Modern-day monks of the Order of Saint Benedict in New JerseyIn Christianity, the devil is often called the \"prince of darkness\".", "The term was used in John Milton's poem ''Paradise Lost'', published in 1667, referring to Satan, who is viewed as the embodiment of evil.", "It is an English translation of the Latin phrase ''princeps tenebrarum'', which occurs in the ''Acts of Pilate'', written in the fourth century, in the 11th-century hymn ''Rhythmus de die mortis'' by Pietro Damiani, and in a sermon by Bernard of Clairvaux from the 12th century.", "The phrase also occurs in ''King Lear'' by William Shakespeare (), Act III, Scene IV, l. 14:'The prince of darkness is a gentleman.", "\"Priests and pastors of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches commonly wear black, as do monks of the Benedictine Order, who consider it the color of humility and penitence.", "* In Islam, black, along with green, plays an important symbolic role.", "It is the color of the Black Standard, the banner that is said to have been carried by the soldiers of Muhammad.", "It is also used as a symbol in Shi'a Islam (heralding the advent of the Mahdi), and the flag of followers of Islamism and Jihadism.", "* In Hinduism, the goddess Kali, goddess of time and change, is portrayed with black or dark blue skin.", "wearing a necklace adorned with severed heads and hands.", "Her name means \"The black one\".", "She destroys anger and passion according to Hindu mythology and her devotees are supposed to abstain from meat or intoxication.", "Kali does not eat meat, but it is the śāstra's injunction that those who are unable to give up meat-eating, they may sacrifice one goat, not cow, one small animal before the goddess Kali, on amāvāsya (new moon) day, night, not day, and they can eat it.", "*In Paganism, black represents dignity, force, stability, and protection.", "The color is often used to banish and release negative energies, or binding.", "An athame is a ceremonial blade often having a black handle, which is used in some forms of witchcraft.===Sports===* The national rugby union team of New Zealand is called the ''All Blacks'', in reference to their black outfits, and the color is also shared by other New Zealand national teams such as the Black Caps (cricket) and the Kiwis (rugby league).", "* Association football (soccer) referees traditionally wear all-black uniforms, however nowadays other uniform colors may also be worn.", "* In auto racing, a black flag signals a driver to go into the pits.", "* In baseball, \"the black\" refers to the batter's eye, a blacked out area around the center-field bleachers, painted black to give hitters a decent background for pitched balls.", "* A large number of teams have uniforms designed with black colors even when the team does not normally feature that color.", "Many feel the color sometimes imparts a psychological advantage in its wearers.", "Black is used by numerous professional and collegiate sports teams===Idioms and expressions===Namesake of the idiom \"black sheep\"* In general, the Negro race of African origin is called \"Black\", while the Caucasian race of European origin is called \"White\".", "* In the United States, \"Black Friday\" (the day after Thanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in November) is traditionally the busiest shopping day of the year.", "Many Americans are on holiday because of Thanksgiving, and many retailers open earlier and close later than normal, and offer special prices.", "The day's name originated in Philadelphia sometime before 1961, and originally was used to describe the heavy and disruptive downtown pedestrian and vehicle traffic which would occur on that day.", "Later an alternative explanation began to be offered: that \"Black Friday\" indicates the point in the year that retailers begin to turn a profit, or are \"in the black\", because of the large volume of sales on that day.", "* \"In the black\" means profitable.", "Accountants originally used black ink in ledgers to indicate profit, and red ink to indicate a loss.", "* Black Friday also refers to any particularly disastrous day on financial markets.", "The first Black Friday (1869), September 24, 1869, was caused by the efforts of two speculators, Jay Gould and James Fisk, to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange.", "* A blacklist is a list of undesirable persons or entities (to be placed on the list is to be \"blacklisted\").", "* Black comedy is a form of comedy dealing with morbid and serious topics.", "The expression is similar to black humor or black humour.", "* A black mark against a person relates to something bad they have done.", "* A black mood is a bad one (cf Winston Churchill's clinical depression, which he called \"my black dog\").", "* Black market is used to denote the trade of illegal goods, or alternatively the illegal trade of otherwise legal items at considerably higher prices, e.g.", "to evade rationing.", "* Black propaganda is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent.", "* Blackmail is the act of threatening someone to do something that would hurt them in some way, such as by revealing sensitive information about them, in order to force the threatened party to fulfill certain demands.", "Ordinarily, such a threat is illegal.", "* If the black eight-ball, in billiards, is sunk before all others are out of play, the player loses.", "* The black sheep of the family is the ne'er-do-well.", "* To blackball someone is to block their entry into a club or some such institution.", "In the traditional English gentlemen's club, members vote on the admission of a candidate by secretly placing a white or black ball in a hat.", "If upon the completion of voting, there was even one black ball amongst the white, the candidate would be denied membership, and he would never know who had \"blackballed\" him.", "* Black tea in the Western culture is known as \"crimson tea\" in Chinese and culturally influenced languages (紅 茶, Mandarin Chinese ''hóngchá''; Japanese ''kōcha''; Korean ''hongcha'').", "* \"The black\" is a wildfire suppression term referring to a burned area on a wildfire capable of acting as a safety zone.", "* Black coffee refers to coffee without sugar or cream." ], [ "Associations and symbolism", "===Mourning===In the West, black is commonly associated with mourning and bereavement, and usually worn at funerals and memorial services.", "In some traditional societies, for example in Greece and Italy, some widows wear black for the rest of their lives.", "In contrast, across much of Africa and parts of Asia like Vietnam, white is a color of mourning.In Victorian England, the colors and fabrics of mourning were specified in an unofficial dress code: \"non-reflective black paramatta and crape for the first year of deepest mourning, followed by nine months of dullish black silk, heavily trimmed with crape, and then three months when crape was discarded.", "Paramatta was a fabric of combined silk and wool or cotton; crape was a harsh black silk fabric with a crimped appearance produced by heat.", "Widows were allowed to change into the colors of half-mourning, such as gray and lavender, black and white, for the final six months.", "\"A \"black day\" (or week or month) usually refers to tragic date.", "The Romans marked ''fasti'' days with white stones and ''nefasti'' days with black.", "The term is often used to remember massacres.", "Black months include the Black September in Jordan, when large numbers of Palestinians were killed, and Black July in Sri Lanka, the killing of members of the Tamil population by the Sinhalese government.In the financial world, the term often refers to a dramatic drop in the stock market.", "For example, the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the stock market crash on October 29, 1929, which marked the start of the Great Depression, is nicknamed Black Tuesday, and was preceded by Black Thursday, a downturn on October 24 the previous week.File:The Dowager Electress Palatine in mourning.jpg|The Dowager Electress of Palatinate in mourning (1717)File:Pedro II of Brazil and his sisters.jpg|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his sisters wearing mourning clothes due to their father's death (1834)File:Queen Victoria by Heinrich von Angeli.jpg|Queen Victoria wore black in mourning for her husband Prince Albert (1899)===Darkness and evil===In western popular culture, black has long been associated with evil and darkness.", "It is the traditional color of witchcraft and black magic.In the Book of Revelation, the last book in the New Testament of the Bible, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are supposed to announce the Apocalypse before the Last Judgment.", "The horseman representing famine rides a black horse.", "The vampire of literature and films, such as Count Dracula of the Bram Stoker novel, dressed in black, and could only move at night.", "The Wicked Witch of the West in the 1939 film ''The Wizard of Oz'' became the archetype of witches for generations of children.", "Whereas witches and sorcerers inspired real fear in the 17th century, in the 21st century children and adults dressed as witches for Halloween parties and parades.File:Apocalypse vasnetsov.jpg|The biblical Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, including famine riding a black horse (painting by Viktor Vasnetsov, 1887)File:Bela lugosi dracula.jpg|Count Dracula as portrayed by Bela Lugosi in the 1931 film versionFile:The Goblins' Christmas, 28.JPG|Drawing of a witch from the illustrated book ''The Goblins' Christmas'' by Elizabeth Anderson (1908)File:NOLAHalloween2007CtinaWitchClarinet.jpg|Clarinet-playing witch in a New Orleans Halloween parade===Power, authority and solemnity===Black is frequently used as a color of power, law and authority.", "In many countries judges and magistrates wear black robes.", "That custom began in Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries.", "Jurists, magistrates and certain other court officials in France began to wear long black robes during the reign of Philip IV of France (1285–1314), and in England from the time of Edward I (1271–1307).", "The custom spread to the cities of Italy at about the same time, between 1300 and 1320.The robes of judges resembled those worn by the clergy, and represented the law and authority of the King, while those of the clergy represented the law of God and authority of the church.Until the 20th century most police uniforms were black, until they were largely replaced by a less menacing blue in France, the U.S. and other countries.", "In the United States, police cars are frequently Black and white.", "The riot control units of the Basque Autonomous Police in Spain are known as ''beltzak'' (\"blacks\") after their uniform.Black today is the most common color for limousines and the official cars of government officials.Black formal attire is still worn at many solemn occasions or ceremonies, from graduations to formal balls.", "Graduation gowns are copied from the gowns worn by university professors in the Middle Ages, which in turn were copied from the robes worn by judges and priests, who often taught at the early universities.", "The mortarboard hat worn by graduates is adapted from a square cap called a biretta worn by Medieval professors and clerics.File:Supreme Court US 2009.jpg|The United States Supreme Court (2009)File:ICJ-CJI hearing 1.jpg|Judges at the International Court of Justice in the HagueFile:LAPD Police Car.jpg|A Black and white police car of the Los Angeles Police DepartmentFile:Jacob1207b.JPG|American academic dress for a bachelor's degree===Functionality===In the 19th and 20th centuries, many machines and devices, large and small, were painted black, to stress their functionality.", "These included telephones, sewing machines, steamships, railroad locomotives, and automobiles.", "The Ford Model T, the first mass-produced car, was available only in black from 1914 to 1926.Of means of transportation, only airplanes were rarely ever painted black.File:Alt Telefon.jpg|Olivetti telephone from the 1940sFile:1920 Ford Model T Centerdoor Sedan 2.jpg|A 1920 Ford Model TFile:Collection of old phones and PDA-BlackBerry.jpg|The first model BlackBerry (2000)Black house paint is becoming more popular with Sherwin-Williams reporting that the color, Tricorn Black, was the 6th most popular exterior house paint color in Canada and the 12th most popular paint in the United States in 2018.===Ethnography===* The term \"black\" is often used in the West to describe people whose skin is darker.", "In the United States, it is particularly used to describe African Americans.", "The terms for African Americans have changed over the years, as shown by the categories in the United States Census, taken every ten years.", "* In the first U.S. Census, taken in 1790, just four categories were used: Free White males, Free White females, other free persons, and slaves.", "* In the 1820 census the new category \"colored\" was added.", "* In the 1850 census, slaves were listed by owner, and a B indicated black, while an M indicated \"mulatto\".", "* In the 1890 census, the categories for race were white, black, mulatto, quadroon (a person one-quarter black); octoroon (a person one-eighth black), Chinese, Japanese, or American Indian.", "* In the 1930 census, anyone with any black blood was supposed to be listed as \"Negro\".", "* In the 1970 census, the category \"Negro or black\" was used for the first time.", "* In the 2000 and 2012 census, the category \"Black or African-American\" was used, defined as \"a person having their origin in any of the racial groups in Africa.\"", "In the 2012 Census 12.1 percent of Americans identified themselves as Black or African-American.Black is also commonly used as a racial description in the United Kingdom, since ethnicity was first measured in the 2001 census.", "The 2011 British census asked residents to describe themselves, and categories offered included Black, African, Caribbean, or Black British.", "Other possible categories were African British, African Scottish, Caribbean British and Caribbean Scottish.", "Of the total UK population in 2001, 1.0 percent identified themselves as Black Caribbean, 0.8 percent as Black African, and 0.2 percent as Black (others).In Canada, census respondents can identify themselves as Black.", "In the 2006 census, 2.5 percent of the population identified themselves as black.In Australia, the term black is not used in the census.", "In the 2006 census, 2.3 percent of Australians identified themselves as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islanders.In Brazil, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) asks people to identify themselves as ''branco'' (white), ''pardo'' (brown), ''preto'' (black), or ''amarelo'' (yellow).", "In 2008 6.8 percent of the population identified themselves as \"preto\".===Opposite of white===Heroes in American westerns, like the Lone Ranger, traditionally wore a white hat, while the villains wore black hats.", "* Black and white have often been used to describe opposites; particularly light and darkness and good and evil.", "In Medieval literature, the white knight usually represented virtue, the black knight something mysterious and sinister.", "In American westerns, the hero often wore a white hat, the villain a black hat.", "* In the original game of chess invented in Persia or India, the colors of the two sides were varied; a 12th-century Iranian chess set in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, has red and green pieces.", "But when the game was imported into Europe, the colors, corresponding to European culture, usually became black and white.", "* Studies have shown that something printed in black letters on white has more authority with readers than any other color of printing.", "* In philosophy and arguments, the issue is often described as black-and-white, meaning that the issue at hand is dichotomized (having two clear, opposing sides with no middle ground).===Conspiracy===Black is commonly associated with secrecy.", "* The Black Chamber was a term given to an office which secretly opened and read diplomatic mail and broke codes.", "Queen Elizabeth I had such an office, headed by her Secretary, Sir Francis Walsingham, which successfully broke the Spanish codes and broke up several plots against the Queen.", "In France a ''cabinet noir'' was established inside the French post office by Louis XIII to open diplomatic mail.", "It was closed during the French Revolution but re-opened under Napoleon I.", "The Habsburg Empire and Dutch Republic had similar black chambers.", "* The United States created a secret peacetime Black Chamber, called the Cipher Bureau, in 1919.It was funded by the State Department and Army and disguised as a commercial company in New York.", "It successfully broke a number of diplomatic codes, including the code of the Japanese government.", "It was closed down in 1929 after the State Department withdrew funding, when the new Secretary of State, Henry Stimson, stated that \"Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.\"", "The Cipher Bureau was the ancestor of the U.S. National Security Agency.", "* A black project is a secret unacknowledged military project, such as Enigma Decryption during World War II, or a secret counter-narcotics or police sting operation.", "* Black ops are covert operations carried out by a government, government agency or military.", "* A black budget is a government budget that is allocated for classified or other secret operations of a nation.", "The black budget is an account expenses and spending related to military research and covert operations.", "The black budget is mostly classified due to security reasons.===Elegant fashion===Black is the color most commonly associated with elegance in Europe and the United States, followed by silver, gold, and white.Black first became a fashionable color for men in Europe in the 17th century, in the courts of Italy and Spain.", "(See history above.)", "In the 19th century, it was the fashion for men both in business and for evening wear, in the form of a black coat whose tails came down the knees.", "In the evening it was the custom of the men to leave the women after dinner to go to a special smoking room to enjoy cigars or cigarettes.", "This meant that their tailcoats eventually smelled of tobacco.", "According to the legend, in 1865 Edward VII, then the Prince of Wales, had his tailor make a special short smoking jacket.", "The smoking jacket then evolved into the dinner jacket.", "Again according to legend, the first Americans to wear the jacket were members of the Tuxedo Club in New York State.", "Thereafter the jacket became known as a tuxedo in the U.S.", "The term \"smoking\" is still used today in Russia and other countries.The tuxedo was always black until the 1930s, when the Duke of Windsor began to wear a tuxedo that was a very dark midnight blue.", "He did so because a black tuxedo looked greenish in artificial light, while a dark blue tuxedo looked blacker than black itself.For women's fashion, the defining moment was the invention of the simple black dress by Coco Chanel in 1926.", "(See history.)", "Thereafter, a long black gown was used for formal occasions, while the simple black dress could be used for everything else.", "The designer Karl Lagerfeld, explaining why black was so popular, said: \"Black is the color that goes with everything.", "If you're wearing black, you're on sure ground.\"", "Skirts have gone up and down and fashions have changed, but the black dress has not lost its position as the essential element of a woman's wardrobe.", "The fashion designer Christian Dior said, \"elegance is a combination of distinction, naturalness, care and simplicity,\" and black exemplified elegance.The expression \"X is the new black\" is a reference to the latest trend or fad that is considered a wardrobe basic for the duration of the trend, on the basis that black is always fashionable.", "The phrase has taken on a life of its own and has become a cliché.Many performers of both popular and European classical music, including French singers Edith Piaf and Juliette Gréco, and violinist Joshua Bell have traditionally worn black on stage during performances.", "A black costume was usually chosen as part of their image or stage persona, or because it did not distract from the music, or sometimes for a political reason.", "Country-western singer Johnny Cash always wore black on stage.", "In 1971, Cash wrote the song \"Man in Black\" to explain why he dressed in that color: \"We're doing mighty fine I do suppose / In our streak of lightning cars and fancy clothes / But just so we're reminded of the ones who are held back / Up front there ought to be a man in black.", "\"File:Anneke Grönloh 1964 Eurovision dress.jpg|A little black dress from 1964File:The Duke of Windsor (1970).jpg|The Duke of Windsor was the first to wear midnight blue rather than black evening dress, which looked blacker than black in artificial light.File:Edith Piaf zingt in ons land, Bestanddeelnr 914-6438 (cropped).jpg|French singer Edith Piaf always wore black on stage.File:Johnny-Cash 1972 (cropped).jpg|Country-western singer Johnny Cash called himself \"the man in black\".", "Image of his performance in Bremen, Northern Germany, in September 1972.File:Joshua Bell Indiana University cropped.jpg|American violinist Joshua Bell wears black on stage.File:Fabiana Semprebom1.jpg|Model Fabiana Semprebom at New York Fashion Week, 2006" ], [ "See also", "* Black Rose (disambiguation)* Lists of colors* Rich black, which is different from using black ink alone, in printing.", "* Shades of black" ], [ "References", "=== Notes and citations ======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Black Flag" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Black Flag''' or '''black flag''' may refer to:" ], [ "Flags", "* The Black Standard, a legendary flag in Islamic tradition* The Anarchist black flag* The Jolly Roger, flag associated with piracy* The Pan-African flag, a trans-national unity symbol* Black flag (racing)" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "* Black Flag (band), an American hardcore punk band* Black Flag (comics), a comic book superhero team from Maximum Press* ''Black Flag'' (Ektomorf album), a 2012 album by Ektomorf* ''Black Flag'' (Machine Gun Kelly mixtape), 2013* \"Black Flag\" (song), a 1992 song by King's X* ''Black Flag'' (newspaper), a publication in Britain* ''Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag'', 2013 videogame by Ubisoft* ''Black Flags: The Rise of ISIS'', a 2015 Pulitzer prize-winning book by Joby Warrick" ], [ "Places", "* Black Flag, Western Australia, an abandoned town named after the Black Flag gold mine and farm" ], [ "Other uses", "* Ali Charaf Damache, a terror suspect with the ''nom de guerre'' \"the Black Flag\"* Black Flag (insecticide)* Black Flag Army, a militia in Vietnam and southern China, 1860s-1885* Chernoe Znamia, a 20th-century Russian anarchist organisation* ''Ferraria crispa'', a plant also known as black flag" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bletchley Park" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bletchley Park''' is an English country house and estate in Bletchley, Milton Keynes (Buckinghamshire), that became the principal centre of Allied code-breaking during the Second World War.", "The mansion was constructed during the years following 1883 for the financier and politician Herbert Leon in the Victorian Gothic, Tudor and Dutch Baroque styles, on the site of older buildings of the same name.During World War II, the estate housed the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), which regularly penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powers most importantly the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers.", "The GC&CS team of codebreakers included Alan Turing, Harry Golombek, Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander, Bill Tutte and Stuart Milner-Barry.According to the official historian of British Intelligence, the \"Ultra\" intelligence produced at Bletchley shortened the war by two to four years, and without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain.", "The team at Bletchley Park devised automatic machinery to help with decryption, culminating in the development of Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer.", "Codebreaking operations at Bletchley Park came to an end in 1946 and all information about the wartime operations was classified until the mid-1970s.After the war it had various uses including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters.", "By 1990 the huts in which the codebreakers worked were being considered for demolition and redevelopment.", "The Bletchley Park Trust was formed in February 1992 to save large portions of the site from development.More recently, Bletchley Park has been open to the public, featuring interpretive exhibits and huts that have been rebuilt to appear as they did during their wartime operations.", "It receives hundreds of thousands of visitors annually.", "The separate National Museum of Computing, which includes a working replica Bombe machine and a rebuilt Colossus computer, is housed in Block H on the site." ], [ "History", "The site appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as part of the Manor of Eaton.", "Browne Willis built a mansion there in 1711, but after Thomas Harrison purchased the property in 1793 this was pulled down.", "It was first known as Bletchley Park after its purchase by the architect Samuel Lipscomb Seckham in 1877, who built a house there.", "The estate of was bought in 1883 by Sir Herbert Samuel Leon, who expanded the then-existing house into what architect Landis Gores called a \"maudlin and monstrous pile\" combining Victorian Gothic, Tudor, and Dutch Baroque styles.", "At his Christmas family gatherings there was a fox hunting meet on Boxing Day with glasses of sloe gin from the butler, and the house was always \"humming with servants\".", "With 40 gardeners, a flower bed of yellow daffodils could become a sea of red tulips overnight.", "After the death of Herbert Leon in 1926, the estate continued to be occupied by his widow Fanny Leon (née Higham) until her death in 1937.In 1938, the mansion and much of the site was bought by a builder for a housing estate, but in May 1938 Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair, head of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6), bought the mansion and of land for £6,000 (£ today) for use by GC&CS and SIS in the event of war.", "He used his own money as the Government said they did not have the budget to do so.A key advantage seen by Sinclair and his colleagues (inspecting the site under the cover of \"Captain Ridley's shooting party\") was Bletchley's geographical centrality.", "It was almost immediately adjacent to Bletchley railway station, where the \"Varsity Line\" between Oxford and Cambridgewhose universities were expected to supply many of the code-breakersmet the main West Coast railway line connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Edinburgh.", "Watling Street, the main road linking London to the north-west (subsequently the A5) was close by, and high-volume communication links were available at the telegraph and telephone repeater station in nearby Fenny Stratford.Bletchley Park was known as \"B.P.\"", "to those who worked there.", "\"Station X\" (X = Roman numeral ten), \"London Signals Intelligence Centre\", and \"Government Communications Headquarters\" were all cover names used during the war.The formal posting of the many \"Wrens\"members of the Women's Royal Naval Serviceworking there, was to HMS ''Pembroke V''.", "Royal Air Force names of Bletchley Park and its outstations included RAF Eastcote, RAF Lime Grove and RAF Church Green.", "The postal address that staff had to use was \"Room 47, Foreign Office\".After the war, the Government Code & Cypher School became the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), moving to Eastcote in 1946 and to Cheltenham in the 1950s.", "The site was used by various government agencies, including the GPO and the Civil Aviation Authority.", "One large building, block F, was demolished in 1987 by which time the site was being run down with tenants leaving.In 1990 the site was at risk of being sold for housing development.", "However, Milton Keynes Council made it into a conservation area.", "Bletchley Park Trust was set up in 1991 by a group of people who recognised the site's importance.", "The initial trustees included Roger Bristow, Ted Enever, Peter Wescombe, Dr Peter Jarvis of the Bletchley Archaeological & Historical Society, and Tony Sale who in 1994 became the first director of the Bletchley Park Museums." ], [ "Personnel", "Stephen Kettle's 2007 ''Alan Turing'' statueAdmiral Hugh Sinclair was the founder and head of GC&CS between 1919 and 1938 with Commander Alastair Denniston being operational head of the organization from 1919 to 1942, beginning with its formation from the Admiralty's Room 40 (NID25) and the War Office's MI1b.", "Key GC&CS cryptanalysts who moved from London to Bletchley Park included John Tiltman, Dillwyn \"Dilly\" Knox, Josh Cooper, Oliver Strachey and Nigel de Grey.", "These people had a variety of backgroundslinguists and chess champions were common, and Knox's field was papyrology.", "The British War Office recruited top solvers of cryptic crossword puzzles, as these individuals had strong lateral thinking skills.On the day Britain declared war on Germany, Denniston wrote to the Foreign Office about recruiting \"men of the professor type\".", "Personal networking drove early recruitments, particularly of men from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford.", "Trustworthy women were similarly recruited for administrative and clerical jobs.", "In one 1941 recruiting stratagem, ''The Daily Telegraph'' was asked to organise a crossword competition, after which promising contestants were discreetly approached about \"a particular type of work as a contribution to the war effort\".Denniston recognised, however, that the enemy's use of electromechanical cipher machines meant that formally trained mathematicians would also be needed; Oxford's Peter Twinn joined GC&CS in February 1939; Cambridge's Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman began training in 1938 and reported to Bletchley the day after war was declared, along with John Jeffreys.", "Later-recruited cryptanalysts included the mathematicians Derek Taunt, Jack Good, Bill Tutte, and Max Newman; historian Harry Hinsley, and chess champions Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry.", "Joan Clarke was one of the few women employed at Bletchley as a full-fledged cryptanalyst.When seeking to recruit more suitably advanced linguists, John Tiltman turned to Patrick Wilkinson of the Italian section for advice, and he suggested asking Lord Lindsay of Birker, of Balliol College, Oxford, S. W. Grose, and Martin Charlesworth, of St John's College, Cambridge, to recommend classical scholars or applicants to their colleges.This eclectic staff of \"Boffins and Debs\" (scientists and debutantes, young women of high society) caused GC&CS to be whimsically dubbed the \"Golf, Cheese and Chess Society\".During a morale-boosting visit on 9 September 1941, Winston Churchill reportedly remarked to Denniston or Menzies: \"I told you to leave no stone unturned to get staff, but I had no idea you had taken me so literally.\"", "Six weeks later, having failed to get sufficient typing and unskilled staff to achieve the productivity that was possible, Turing, Welchman, Alexander and Milner-Barry wrote directly to Churchill.", "His response was \"Action this day make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done.", "\"After initial training at the Inter-Service Special Intelligence School set up by John Tiltman (initially at an RAF depot in Buckingham and later in Bedfordwhere it was known locally as \"the Spy School\") staff worked a six-day week, rotating through three shifts: 4 p.m. to midnight, midnight to 8 a.m. (the most disliked shift), and 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., each with a half-hour meal break.", "At the end of the third week, a worker went off at 8 a.m. and came back at 4 p.m., thus putting in 16 hours on that last day.", "The irregular hours affected workers' health and social life, as well as the routines of the nearby homes at which most staff lodged.", "The work was tedious and demanded intense concentration; staff got one week's leave four times a year, but some \"girls\" collapsed and required extended rest.", "Recruitment took place to combat a shortage of experts in Morse code and German.In January 1945, at the peak of codebreaking efforts, nearly 10,000 personnel were working at Bletchley and its outstations.", "About three-quarters of these were women.", "Many of the women came from middle-class backgrounds and held degrees in the areas of mathematics, physics and engineering; they were given chance due to the lack of men, who had been sent to war.", "They performed calculations and coding and hence were integral to the computing processes.", "Among them were Eleanor Ireland, who worked on the Colossus computers and Ruth Briggs, a German scholar, who worked within the Naval Section.The female staff in Dilwyn Knox's section were sometimes termed \"Dilly's Fillies\".", "Knox's methods enabled Mavis Lever (who married mathematician and fellow code-breaker Keith Batey) and Margaret Rock to solve a German code, the Abwehr cipher.Many of the women had backgrounds in languages, particularly French, German and Italian.", "Among them were Rozanne Colchester, a translator who worked mainly for the Italian air forces Section, and Cicely Mayhew, recruited straight from university, who worked in Hut 8, translating decoded German Navy signals.Alan Brooke (CIGS) in his secret wartime diary frequently refers to “intercepts”:: 16 April 1942: ''Took lunch in car and went to see the organization for breaking down ciphers Bletchley Park – a wonderful set of professors and genii!", "I marvel at the work they succeed in doing.", "'': 28 June 1945: ''After lunch (with Andrew Cunningham (RN) and Sinclair (RAF) we went to “The Park” … I began by addressing some 400 of the workers who consist of all 3 services, both sexes, and civilians, They come from every sort of walk of life, professors, students, actors, dancers, mathematicians, electricians signallers, etc.", "I thanked them on behalf of the Chiefs of Staff and congratulated them on the results of their work.", "We then toured round the establishment and had tea before returning.", "''For a long time, the British Government failed to acknowledge the contributions the personnel at Bletchley Park had made.", "Their work achieved official recognition only in 2009." ], [ "Secrecy", "Properly used, the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers should have been virtually unbreakable, but flaws in German cryptographic procedures, and poor discipline among the personnel carrying them out, created vulnerabilities that made Bletchley's attacks just barely feasible.", "These vulnerabilities, however, could have been remedied by relatively simple improvements in enemy procedures, and such changes would certainly have been implemented had Germany had any hint of Bletchley's success.", "Thus the intelligence Bletchley produced was considered wartime Britain's \"Ultra secret\"higher even than the normally highest classification and security was paramount.All staff signed the Official Secrets Act (1939) and a 1942 security warning emphasised the importance of discretion even within Bletchley itself: \"Do not talk at meals.", "Do not talk in the transport.", "Do not talk travelling.", "Do not talk in the billet.", "Do not talk by your own fireside.", "Be careful even in your Hut ...\"Nevertheless, there were security leaks.", "Jock Colville, the Assistant Private Secretary to Winston Churchill, recorded in his diary on 31 July 1941, that the newspaper proprietor Lord Camrose had discovered Ultra and that security leaks \"increase in number and seriousness\".", "Without doubt, the most serious of these was that Bletchley Park had been infiltrated by John Cairncross, the notorious Soviet mole and member of the Cambridge Spy Ring, who leaked Ultra material to Moscow.Despite the high degree of secrecy surrounding Bletchley Park during the Second World War, unique and hitherto unknown amateur film footage of the outstation at nearby Whaddon Hall came to light in 2020, after being anonymously donated to the Bletchley Park Trust.", "A spokesman for the Trust noted the film's existence was all the more incredible because it was \"very, very rare even to have still photographs\" of the park and its associated sites." ], [ "Early work", " Flow of information from an intercepted Enigma messageThe first personnel of the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) moved to Bletchley Park on 15 August 1939.The Naval, Military, and Air Sections were on the ground floor of the mansion, together with a telephone exchange, teleprinter room, kitchen, and dining room; the top floor was allocated to MI6.Construction of the wooden huts began in late 1939, and Elmers School, a neighbouring boys' boarding school in a Victorian Gothic redbrick building by a church, was acquired for the Commercial and Diplomatic Sections.After the United States joined World War II, a number of American cryptographers were posted to Hut 3, and from May 1943 onwards there was close co-operation between British and American intelligence.", "(See 1943 BRUSA Agreement.)", "In contrast, the Soviet Union was never officially told of Bletchley Park and its activities, a reflection of Churchill's distrust of the Soviets even during the US-UK-USSR alliance imposed by the Nazi threat.The only direct enemy damage to the site was done 2021 November 1940 by three bombs probably intended for Bletchley railway station; Hut 4, shifted two feet off its foundation, was winched back into place aswork inside continued." ], [ "Intelligence reporting", " Number of signals despatched daily from Bletchley Park Hut 3 during the Second World WarInitially, when only a very limited amount of Enigma traffic was being read, deciphered non-Naval Enigma messages were sent from Hut 6 to Hut 3 which handled their translation and onward transmission.", "Subsequently, under Group Captain Eric Jones, Hut 3 expanded to become the heart of Bletchley Park's intelligence effort, with input from decrypts of \"Tunny\" (Lorenz SZ42) traffic and many other sources.", "Early in 1942 it moved into Block D, but its functions were still referred to as Hut 3.Hut 3 contained a number of sections: Air Section \"3A\", Military Section \"3M\", a small Naval Section \"3N\", a multi-service Research Section \"3G\" and a large liaison section \"3L\".", "It also housed the Traffic Analysis Section, SIXTA.", "An important function that allowed the synthesis of raw messages into valuable Military intelligence was the indexing and cross-referencing of information in a number of different filing systems.", "Intelligence reports were sent out to the Secret Intelligence Service, the intelligence chiefs in the relevant ministries, and later on to high-level commanders in the field.Naval Enigma deciphering was in Hut 8, with translation in Hut 4.Verbatim translations were sent to the Naval Intelligence Division (NID) of the Admiralty's Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC), supplemented by information from indexes as to the meaning of technical terms and cross-references from a knowledge store of German naval technology.", "Where relevant to non-naval matters, they would also be passed to Hut 3.Hut 4 also decoded a manual system known as the dockyard cipher, which sometimes carried messages that were also sent on an Enigma network.", "Feeding these back to Hut 8 provided excellent \"cribs\" for Known-plaintext attacks on the daily naval Enigma key." ], [ "Listening stations", "Initially, a wireless room was established at Bletchley Park.It was set up in the mansion's water tower under the code name \"Station X\", a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole.", "The \"X\" is the Roman numeral \"ten\", this being the Secret Intelligence Service's tenth such station.", "Due to the long radio aerials stretching from the wireless room, the radio station was moved from Bletchley Park to nearby Whaddon Hall to avoid drawing attention to the site.Subsequently, other listening stationsthe Y-stations, such as the ones at Chicksands in Bedfordshire, Beaumanor Hall, Leicestershire (where the headquarters of the War Office \"Y\" Group was located) and Beeston Hill Y Station in Norfolkgathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley.", "Coded messages were taken down by hand and sent to Bletchley on paper by motorcycle despatch riders or (later) by teleprinter." ], [ "Additional buildings", "The wartime needs required the building of additional accommodation.===Huts===Hut 1Hut 4, adjacent to the mansion, is now a bar and restaurant for the museum.Hut 6 in 2004Often a hut's number became so strongly associated with the work performed inside that even when the work was moved to another building it was still referred to by the original \"Hut\" designation.", "* ''Hut 1'': The first hut, built in 1939 used to house the Wireless Station for a short time, later administrative functions such as transport, typing, and Bombe maintenance.", "The first Bombe, \"Victory\", was initially housed here.", "* ''Hut 2'': A recreational hut for \"beer, tea, and relaxation\".", "* ''Hut 3'': Intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Air Force decrypts* ''Hut 4'': Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma and Hagelin decrypts* ''Hut 5'': Military intelligence including Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ciphers and German police codes.", "* ''Hut 6'': Cryptanalysis of Army and Air Force Enigma* ''Hut 7'': Cryptanalysis of Japanese naval codes and intelligence.", "* ''Hut 8'': Cryptanalysis of Naval Enigma.", "* ''Hut 9'': ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey).", "* ''Hut 10'': Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6) codes, Air and Meteorological sections.", "* ''Hut 11'': Bombe building.", "* ''Hut 14'': Communications centre.", "* ''Hut 15'': SIXTA (Signals Intelligence and Traffic Analysis).", "* ''Hut 16'': ISK (Intelligence Service Knox) Abwehr ciphers.", "* ''Hut 18'': ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey).", "* ''Hut 23'': Primarily used to house the engineering department.", "After February 1943, Hut 3 was renamed Hut 23.===Blocks===In addition to the wooden huts, there were a number of brick-built \"blocks\".", "* ''Block A'': Naval Intelligence.", "* ''Block B'': Italian Air and Naval, and Japanese code breaking.", "* ''Block C'': Stored the substantial punch-card indexes.", "* ''Block D'': From February 1943 it housed those from Hut 3, who synthesised intelligence from multiple sources, Huts 6 and 8 and SIXTA.", "* ''Block E'': Incoming and outgoing Radio Transmission and TypeX.", "* ''Block F'': Included the Newmanry and Testery, and Japanese Military Air Section.", "It has since been demolished.", "* ''Block G'': Traffic analysis and deception operations.", "* ''Block H'': ''Tunny'' and Colossus (now The National Museum of Computing)." ], [ "Work on specific countries' signals", "===German signals===File:bp-polish-codebreakers-plaque.jpg|thumb|Bletchley's Polish Memorial, commemorating \"the prewar work of Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, mathematicians of the Polish intelligence service, in first breaking the Enigma code.", "Their work greatly assisted the Bletchley Park code breakers and contributed to the Allied victory in World War II.", "\"Most German messages decrypted at Bletchley were produced by one or another version of the Enigma cipher machine, but an important minority were produced by the even more complicated twelve-rotor Lorenz SZ42 on-line teleprinter cipher machine used for high command messages, known as Fish.Five weeks before the outbreak of war, Warsaw's Cipher Bureau revealed its achievements in breaking Enigma to astonished French and British personnel.", "The British used the Poles' information and techniques, and the Enigma clone sent to them in August 1939, which greatly increased their (previously very limited) success in decrypting Enigma messages.The working rebuilt bombe, built by a team led by John Harper and switched on by the Duke of Kent, patron of the British Computer Society, on 17 July 2008.This is now located at The National Museum of Computing in Block H on Bletchley Park.The bombe was an electromechanical device whose function was to discover some of the daily settings of the Enigma machines on the various German military networks.", "Its pioneering design was developed by Alan Turing (with an important contribution from Gordon Welchman) and the machine was engineered by Harold 'Doc' Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company.", "Each machine was about high and wide, deep and weighed about a ton.At its peak, GC&CS was reading approximately 4,000 messages per day.", "As a hedge against enemy attack most bombes were dispersed to installations at Adstock and Wavendon (both later supplanted by installations at Stanmore and Eastcote), and Gayhurst.Luftwaffe messages were the first to be read in quantity.", "The German navy had much tighter procedures, and the capture of code books was needed before they could be broken.", "When, in February 1942, the German navy introduced the four-rotor Enigma for communications with its Atlantic U-boats, this traffic became unreadable for a period of ten months.", "Britain produced modified bombes, but it was the success of the US Navy Bombe that was the main source of reading messages from this version of Enigma for the rest of the war.", "Messages were sent to and fro across the Atlantic by enciphered teleprinter links.A Mark 2 Colossus computer.", "The ten Colossi were the world's first (semi-) programmable electronic computers, the first having been built in 1943The Lorenz messages were codenamed ''Tunny'' at Bletchley Park.", "They were only sent in quantity from mid-1942.The Tunny networks were used for high-level messages between German High Command and field commanders.", "With the help of German operator errors, the cryptanalysts in the Testery (named after Ralph Tester, its head) worked out the logical structure of the machine despite not knowing its physical form.", "They devised automatic machinery to help with decryption, which culminated in Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer.", "This was designed and built by Tommy Flowers and his team at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill.", "The prototype first worked in December 1943, was delivered to Bletchley Park in January and first worked operationally on 5 February 1944.Enhancements were developed for the Mark 2 Colossus, the first of which was working at Bletchley Park on the morning of 1 June in time for D-day.", "Flowers then produced one Colossus a month for the rest of the war, making a total of ten with an eleventh part-built.", "The machines were operated mainly by Wrens in a section named the Newmanry after its head Max Newman.Bletchley's work was essential to defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, and to the British naval victories in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape.", "In 1941, Ultra exerted a powerful effect on the North African desert campaign against German forces under General Erwin Rommel.", "General Sir Claude Auchinleck wrote that were it not for Ultra, \"Rommel would have certainly got through to Cairo\".", "While not changing the events, \"Ultra\" decrypts featured prominently in the story of Operation SALAM, László Almásy's mission across the desert behind Allied lines in 1942.Prior to the Normandy landings on D-Day in June 1944, the Allies knew the locations of all but two of Germany's fifty-eight Western-front divisions.===Italian signals===Italian signals had been of interest since Italy's attack on Abyssinia in 1935.During the Spanish Civil War the Italian Navy used the K model of the commercial Enigma without a plugboard; this was solved by Knox in 1937.When Italy entered the war in 1940 an improved version of the machine was used, though little traffic was sent by it and there were \"wholesale changes\" in Italian codes and cyphers.Knox was given a new section for work on Enigma variations, which he staffed with women (\"Dilly's girls\"), who included Margaret Rock, Jean Perrin, Clare Harding, Rachel Ronald, Elisabeth Granger; and Mavis Lever.Mavis Lever solved the signals revealing the Italian Navy's operational plans before the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941, leading to a British victory.Although most Bletchley staff did not know the results of their work, Admiral Cunningham visited Bletchley in person a few weeks later to congratulate them.On entering World War II in June 1940, the Italians were using book codes for most of their military messages.", "The exception was the Italian Navy, which after the Battle of Cape Matapan started using the C-38 version of the Boris Hagelin rotor-based cipher machine, particularly to route their navy and merchant marine convoys to the conflict in North Africa.", "As a consequence, JRM Butler recruited his former student Bernard Willson to join a team with two others in Hut 4.In June 1941, Willson became the first of the team to decode the Hagelin system, thus enabling military commanders to direct the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force to sink enemy ships carrying supplies from Europe to Rommel's Afrika Korps.", "This led to increased shipping losses and, from reading the intercepted traffic, the team learnt that between May and September 1941 the stock of fuel for the Luftwaffe in North Africa reduced by 90 per cent.After an intensive language course, in March 1944 Willson switched to Japanese language-based codes.A Middle East Intelligence Centre (MEIC) was set up in Cairo in 1939.When Italy entered the war in June 1940, delays in forwarding intercepts to Bletchley via congested radio links resulted in cryptanalysts being sent to Cairo.", "A Combined Bureau Middle East (CBME) was set up in November, though the Middle East authorities made \"increasingly bitter complaints\" that GC&CS was giving too little priority to work on Italian cyphers.", "However, the principle of concentrating high-grade cryptanalysis at Bletchley was maintained.", "John Chadwick started cryptanalysis work in 1942 on Italian signals at the naval base 'HMS Nile' in Alexandria.", "Later, he was with GC&CS; in the Heliopolis Museum, Cairo and then in the Villa Laurens, Alexandria.===Soviet signals===Soviet signals had been studied since the 1920s.", "In 193940, John Tiltman (who had worked on Russian Army traffic from 1930) set up two Russian sections at Wavendon (a country house near Bletchley) and at Sarafand in Palestine.", "Two Russian high-grade army and navy systems were broken early in 1940.Tiltman spent two weeks in Finland, where he obtained Russian traffic from Finland and Estonia in exchange for radio equipment.", "In June 1941, when the Soviet Union became an ally, Churchill ordered a halt to intelligence operations against it.", "In December 1941, the Russian section was closed down, but in late summer 1943 or late 1944, a small GC&CS Russian cypher section was set up in London overlooking Park Lane, then in Sloane Square.===Japanese signals===An outpost of the Government Code and Cypher School had been set up in Hong Kong in 1935, the Far East Combined Bureau (FECB).", "The FECB naval staff moved in 1940 to Singapore, then Colombo, Ceylon, then Kilindini, Mombasa, Kenya.", "They succeeded in deciphering Japanese codes with a mixture of skill and good fortune.", "The Army and Air Force staff went from Singapore to the Wireless Experimental Centre at Delhi, India.In early 1942, a six-month crash course in Japanese, for 20 undergraduates from Oxford and Cambridge, was started by the Inter-Services Special Intelligence School in Bedford, in a building across from the main Post Office.", "This course was repeated every six months until war's end.", "Most of those completing these courses worked on decoding Japanese naval messages in Hut 7, under John Tiltman.By mid-1945, well over 100 personnel were involved with this operation, which co-operated closely with the FECB and the US Signal intelligence Service at Arlington Hall, Virginia.", "In 1999, Michael Smith wrote that: \"Only now are the British codebreakers (like John Tiltman, Hugh Foss, and Eric Nave) beginning to receive the recognition they deserve for breaking Japanese codes and cyphers\"." ], [ "Postwar", "===Continued secrecy===After the War, the secrecy imposed on Bletchley staff remained in force, so that most relatives never knew more than that a child, spouse, or parent had done some kind of secret war work.", "Churchill referred to the Bletchley staff as \"the geese that laid the golden eggs and never cackled\".", "That said, occasional mentions of the work performed at Bletchley Park slipped the censor's net and appeared in print.With the publication of F. W. Winterbotham's ''The Ultra Secret'' (1974) public discussion of Bletchley Park's work finally became possible, although even today some former staff still consider themselves bound to silence.Professor Brian Randell was researching the history of computer science in Britain in 1975-76 for a conference on the history of computing held at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico on 10–15 June 1976, and received permission to present a paper on wartime development of the COLOSSI at the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill.", "(In October 1975 the British Government had released a series of captioned photographs from the Public Record Office.)", "The interest in the “revelations” in his paper resulted in a special evening meeting when Randell and Coombs answered further questions.", "Coombs later wrote that \"no member of our team could ever forget the fellowship, the sense of purpose and, above all, the breathless excitement of those days\".", "In 1977 Randell published an article \"The First Electronic Computer\" in several journals.In July 2009 the British government announced that Bletchley personnel would be recognised with a commemorative badge.===Site===After the war, the site passed through a succession of hands and saw a number of uses, including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters.", "By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition for redevelopment.In February 1992, the Milton Keynes Borough Council declared most of the Park a conservation area, and the Bletchley Park Trust was formed to maintain the site as a museum.", "The site opened to visitors in 1993, and was formally inaugurated by the Duke of Kent as Chief Patron in July 1994.In 1999 the land owners, the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and BT, granted a lease to the Trust giving it control over most of the site." ], [ "Heritage attraction", "The stableyard cottages, where Alan Turing workedJune 2014 saw the completion of an £8 million restoration project by museum design specialist, Event Communications, which was marked by a visit from Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge.", "The Duchess' paternal grandmother, Valerie, and Valerie's twin sister, Mary (''née'' Glassborow), both worked at Bletchley Park during the war.", "The twin sisters worked as Foreign Office Civilians in Hut 6, where they managed the interception of enemy and neutral diplomatic signals for decryption.", "Valerie married Catherine's grandfather, Captain Peter Middleton.", "A memorial at Bletchley Park commemorates Mary and Valerie Middleton's work as code-breakers.===Exhibitions===Rear of the rebuilt Bombe* Block C Visitor Centre** Secrets Revealed introduction** The Road to Bletchley Park.", "Codebreaking in World War One.", "** Intel Security Cybersecurity exhibition.", "Online security and privacy in the 21st Century.", "* Block B** Lorenz Cipher** Alan Turing** Enigma machines** Japanese codes** Home Front exhibition.", "How people lived in WW2* The Mansion** Office of Alistair Denniston** Library.", "Dressed as a World War II naval intelligence office** The Imitation Game exhibition** Gordon Welchman: Architect of Ultra Intelligence exhibition* Huts 3 and 6.Codebreaking offices as they would have looked during World War II.", "* Hut 8.", "** Interactive exhibitions explaining codebreaking** Alan Turing's office** Pigeon exhibition.", "The use of pigeons in World War II.", "* Hut 11.Life as a WRNS Bombe operator* Hut 12.Bletchley Park: Rescued and Restored.", "Items found during the restoration work.", "* Wartime garages* Hut 19.2366 Bletchley Park Air Training Corp Squadron===Learning Department===The Story of Enigma workshop with Middlesex University studentsThe Bletchley Park Learning Department offers educational group visits with active learning activities for schools and universities.", "Visits can be booked in advance during term time, where students can engage with the history of Bletchley Park and understand its wider relevance for computer history and national security.", "Their workshops cover introductions to codebreaking, cyber security and the story of Enigma and Lorenz." ], [ "Funding", "In October 2005, American billionaire Sidney Frank donated £500,000 to Bletchley Park Trust to fund a new Science Centre dedicated to Alan Turing.", "Simon Greenish joined as Director in 2006 to lead the fund-raising effort in a post he held until 2012 when Iain Standen took over the leadership role.", "In July 2008, a letter to ''The Times'' from more than a hundred academics condemned the neglect of the site.", "In September 2008, PGP, IBM and other technology firms announced a fund-raising campaign to repair the facility.", "On 6 November 2008 it was announced that English Heritage would donate £300,000 to help maintain the buildings at Bletchley Park, and that they were in discussions regarding the donation of a further £600,000.In October 2011, the Bletchley Park Trust received a £4.6 million Heritage Lottery Fund grant to be used \"to complete the restoration of the site, and to tell its story to the highest modern standards\" on the condition that £1.7 million of match funding is raised by the Bletchley Park Trust.", "Just weeks later, Google contributed £550,000 and by June 2012 the trust had successfully raised £2.4 million to unlock the grants to restore Huts 3 and 6, as well as develop its exhibition centre in Block C.Additional income is raised by renting Block H to the National Museum of Computing, and some office space in various parts of the park to private firms.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the Trust expected to lose more than £2 million in 2020 and be required to cut a third of its workforce.", "Former MP John Leech asked Amazon, Apple, Google, Facebook and Microsoft to donate £400,000 each to secure the future of the Trust.", "Leech had led the successful campaign to pardon Alan Turing and implement Turing's Law." ], [ "Other organisations sharing the campus", "===The National Museum of Computing===Tony Sale supervising the breaking of an enciphered message with the completed Colossus computer rebuild in 2006 at The National Museum of ComputingThe National Museum of Computing is housed in Block H, which is rented from the Bletchley Park Trust.", "Its Colossus and Tunny galleries tell an important part of allied breaking of German codes during World War II.", "There is a working reconstruction of a Bombe and a rebuilt Colossus computer which was used on the high-level Lorenz cipher, codenamed ''Tunny'' by the British.The museum, which opened in 2007, is an independent voluntary organisation that is governed by its own board of trustees.", "Its aim is \"To collect and restore computer systems particularly those developed in Britain and to enable people to explore that collection for inspiration, learning and enjoyment.\"", "Through its many exhibits, the museum displays the story of computing through the mainframes of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of personal computing in the 1980s.", "It has a policy of having as many of the exhibits as possible in full working order.===Science and Innovation Centre===This consists of serviced office accommodation housed in Bletchley Park's Blocks A and E, and the upper floors of the Mansion.", "Its aim is to foster the growth and development of dynamic knowledge-based start-ups and other businesses.===Proposed National College of Cyber Security===In April 2020 Bletchley Park Capital Partners, a private company run by Tim Reynolds, Deputy Chairman of the National Museum of Computing, announced plans to sell off the freehold to part of the site containing former Block G for commercial development.", "Offers of between £4 million and £6 million were reportedly being sought for the 3 acre plot, for which planning permission for employment purposes was granted in 2005.Previously, the construction of a National College of Cyber Security for students aged from 16 to 19 years old had been envisaged on the site, to be housed in Block G after renovation with funds supplied by the Bletchley Park Science and Innovation Centre.===RSGB National Radio Centre===The Radio Society of Great Britain's National Radio Centre (including a library, radio station, museum and bookshop) are in a newly constructed building close to the main Bletchley Park entrance." ], [ "Final recognition", "Commemorative medal for those working at Bletchley ParkNot until July 2009 did the British government fully acknowledge the contribution of the many people working for the Government Code and Cypher School (G C & C S) at Bletchley.", "Only then was a commemorative medal struck to be presented to those involved.", "The gilded medal bears the inscription ''G C & C S 1939-1945 Bletchley Park and its Outstations''." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Literature===* Bletchley featured heavily in Robert Harris' novel ''Enigma'' (1995).", "* A fictionalised version of Bletchley Park is featured in Neal Stephenson's novel ''Cryptonomicon'' (1999).", "* Bletchley Park plays a significant role in Connie Willis' novel ''All Clear'' (2010).", "* The Agatha Christie novel ''N or M?", "'', published in 1941, was about spies during the Second World War and featured a character called Major Bletchley.", "Christie was friends with one of the code-breakers at Bletchley Park, and MI5 thought that the character name might have been a joke indicating that she knew what was happening there.", "It turned out to be a coincidence.", "*Bletchley Park is the setting of Kate Quinn's 2021 historical fiction novel, ''The Rose Code''.", "Quinn used the likenesses of true veterans of Bletchley Park as inspiration for her story of three women who worked in some of the different areas at Bletchley Park.===Film===German U-boat model used in the film ''Enigma'' (2001)Enigma'' (2001)* The film ''Enigma'' (2001), which was based upon Robert Harris's book and starred Kate Winslet, Saffron Burrows and Dougray Scott, is set in part in Bletchley Park.", "* The film ''The Imitation Game'' (2014), starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Alan Turing, is set in Bletchley Park, and was partially filmed there.===Radio===* The Radio Show ''Hut 33'' is a Situation Comedy set in the fictional 33rd Hut of Bletchley Park.", "* The Big Finish Productions ''Doctor Who'' audio ''Criss-Cross'', released in September 2015, features the Sixth Doctor working undercover in Bletchley Park to decode a series of strange alien signals that have hindered his TARDIS, the audio also depicting his first meeting with his new companion Constance Clarke.", "* The Bletchley Park Podcast began in August 2012, with new episodes being released approximately monthly.", "It features stories told by the codebreakers, staff and volunteers, audio from events and reports on the development of Bletchley Park.===Television===* The 1979 ITV television serial ''Danger UXB'' featured the character Steven Mount, who was a codebreaker at Bletchley and was driven to a nervous breakdown (and eventual suicide) by the stressful and repetitive nature of the work.", "* In ''Foyle's War'', Adam Wainwright (Samantha Stewart's fiancé, then husband), is a former Bletchley Park codebreaker.", "* The Second World War code-breaking sitcom pilot \"Satsuma & Pumpkin\" was recorded at Bletchley Park in 2003 and featured Bob Monkhouse, OBE in his last screen role.", "The BBC declined to produce the show and develop it further before creating effectively the same show on Radio 4 several years later, featuring some of the same cast, entitled ''Hut 33''.", "* Bletchley came to wider public attention with the documentary series ''Station X'' (1999).", "* The 2012 ITV programme, ''The Bletchley Circle'', is a set of murder mysteries set in 1952 and 1953.The protagonists are four female former Bletchley codebreakers, who use their skills to solve crimes.", "The pilot episode's opening scene was filmed on-site, and the set was asked to remain there for its close adaptation of historiography.", "*The 2018 programme, ''The Bletchley Circle: San Francisco'', is a spin-off of ''The Bletchley Circle''.", "It takes place in San Francisco and features two characters from the original series.", "* Ian McEwan's television play ''The Imitation Game'' (1980) concludes at Bletchley Park.", "* Bletchley Park was featured in the sixth and final episode of the BBC TV documentary ''The Secret War'' (1977), presented and narrated by William Woodard.", "This episode featured interviews with Gordon Welchman, Harry Golombek, Peter Calvocoressi, F. W. Winterbotham, Max Newman, Jack Good, and Tommy Flowers.", "* The ''Agent Carter'' season 2 episode \"Smoke & Mirrors\" reveals that Agent Peggy Carter worked at Bletchley Park early in the war before joining the Strategic Scientific Reserve.===Theatre===* The play ''Breaking the Code'' (1986) is set at Bletchley Park." ], [ "Location", "Bletchley Park is opposite Bletchley railway station.", "It is close to junctions 13 and 14 of the M1, about northwest of London." ], [ "See also", "* * * * in Hong Kong prewar, then Singapore, Colombo (Ceylon) and Kilindini (Kenya)* * * * * , based in Washington, D.C.* * Wireless Experimental Centre operated by the Intelligence Corps outside Delhi* ---* , made the \"Bletchley Declaration\"." ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ====== References ===" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * * * * * in * * Updated and extended version of ''Action This Day: From Breaking of the Enigma Code to the Birth of the Modern Computer'' Bantam Press 2001* in * * * That version is a facsimile copy, but there is a transcript of much of this document in '.pdf' format at: , and a web transcript of Part 1 at: * * * * (CAPTCHA) (10-page preview from ''A Century of mathematics in America, Volume 1'' By Peter L. Duren, Richard Askey, Uta C. Merzbach, see A Century of Mathematics in America: Part 1; ).", "* Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University* * * * * * in * * * * * in * in * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * in * * in * * * in * * in * New edition with addendum by Welchman correcting his misapprehensions in the 1982 edition." ], [ "External links", "* Bletchley Park Trust * * Bletchley Park—Virtual Tour by Tony Sale* The National Museum of Computing (based at Bletchley Park)* The RSGB National Radio Centre (based at Bletchley Park)* (''The Daily Telegraph'' 3 March 1997)* Boffoonery!", "Comedy Benefit For Bletchley Park Comedians and computing professionals stage comedy show in aid of Bletchley Park* Bletchley Park: It's No Secret, Just an Enigma, ''The Telegraph'', 29 August 2009* Bletchley Park is official charity of Shed Week 2010—in recognition of the work done in the Huts* Saving Bletchley Park blog by Sue Black* with Sue Black by Robert Llewellyn about Bletchley Park* * C4 Station X 1999 on DVD here* How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums* The Bletchley Park Podcast on Audioboom* Bletchley Park Paperwork at The ICL Computer Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bede" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bede''' (; ; 672/326 May 735), also known as '''Saint Bede''', '''The Venerable Bede''', and '''Bede the Venerable''' (), was an English monk and an author and scholar.", "He was one of the greatest teachers and writers during the Early Middle Ages, and his most famous work, ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', gained him the title \"The Father of English History\".", "He served at the monastery of St Peter and its companion monastery of St Paul in the Kingdom of Northumbria of the Angles.Born on lands belonging to the twin monastery of Monkwearmouth–Jarrow in present-day Tyne and Wear, England, Bede was sent to Monkwearmouth at the age of seven and later joined Abbot Ceolfrith at Jarrow.", "Both of them survived a plague that struck in 686 and killed the majority of the population there.", "While Bede spent most of his life in the monastery, he travelled to several abbeys and monasteries across the British Isles, even visiting the archbishop of York and King Ceolwulf of Northumbria.His ecumenical writings were extensive and included a number of Biblical commentaries and other theological works of exegetical erudition.", "Another important area of study for Bede was the academic discipline of ''computus'', otherwise known to his contemporaries as the science of calculating calendar dates.", "One of the more important dates Bede tried to compute was Easter, an effort that was mired in controversy.", "He also helped popularize the practice of dating forward from the birth of Christ (''Anno Domini—''in the year of our Lord), a practice which eventually became commonplace in medieval Europe.", "He is considered by many historians to be the most important scholar of antiquity for the period between the death of Pope Gregory I in 604 and the coronation of Charlemagne in 800.In 1899, Pope Leo XIII declared him a Doctor of the Church.", "He is the only native of Great Britain to achieve this designation.", "Bede was moreover a skilled linguist and translator, and his work made the Latin and Greek writings of the early Church Fathers much more accessible to his fellow Anglo-Saxons, which contributed significantly to English Christianity.", "Bede's monastery had access to an impressive library which included works by Eusebius, Orosius, and many others." ], [ "Life", "''Opera Bedae Venerabilis'' (1563)Almost everything that is known of Bede's life is contained in the last chapter of his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', a history of the church in England.", "It was completed in about 731, and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty-ninth year, which would give a birth date in 672 or 673.A minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert (not to be confused with the saint, Cuthbert, who is mentioned in Bede's work) which relates Bede's death.", "Bede, in the ''Historia'', gives his birthplace as \"on the lands of this monastery\".", "He is referring to the twinned monasteries of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, in modern-day Wearside and Tyneside respectively.", "There is also a tradition that he was born at Monkton, two miles from the site where the monastery at Jarrow was later built.", "Bede says nothing of his origins, but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well-to-do.", "Bede's first abbot was Benedict Biscop, and the names \"Biscop\" and \"Beda\" both appear in a list of the kings of Lindsey from around 800, further suggesting that Bede came from a noble family.Bede's name reflects West Saxon ''Bīeda'' (Anglian ''Bēda'').", "It is an Old English short name formed on the root of ''bēodan'' \"to bid, command\".The name also occurs in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', s.a. 501, as ''Bieda'', one of the sons of the Saxon founder of Portsmouth.", "The ''Liber Vitae'' of Durham Cathedral names two priests with this name, one of whom is presumably Bede himself.", "Some manuscripts of the ''Life of Cuthbert'', one of Bede's works, mention that Cuthbert's own priest was named Bede; it is possible that this priest is the other name listed in the ''Liber Vitae''.At the age of seven, Bede was sent as a ''puer oblatus'' to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith.", "Bede does not say whether it was already intended at that point that he would be a monk.", "It was fairly common in Ireland at this time for young boys, particularly those of noble birth, to be fostered out as an oblate; the practice was also likely to have been common among the Germanic peoples in England.", "Monkwearmouth's sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682, and Bede probably transferred to Jarrow with Ceolfrith that year.", "The dedication stone for the church has survived ; it is dated 23 April 685, and as Bede would have been required to assist with menial tasks in his day-to-day life it is possible that he helped in building the original church.", "In 686, plague broke out at Jarrow.", "The ''Life of Ceolfrith'', written in about 710, records that only two surviving monks were capable of singing the full offices; one was Ceolfrith and the other a young boy, who according to the anonymous writer had been taught by Ceolfrith.", "The two managed to do the entire service of the liturgy until others could be trained.", "The young boy was almost certainly Bede, who would have been about 14.When Bede was about 17 years old, Adomnán, the abbot of Iona Abbey, visited Monkwearmouth and Jarrow.", "Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit, and it may be that Adomnán sparked Bede's interest in the Easter dating controversy.", "In about 692, in Bede's nineteenth year, Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop, John, who was bishop of Hexham.", "The canonical age for the ordination of a deacon was 25; Bede's early ordination may mean that his abilities were considered exceptional, but it is also possible that the minimum age requirement was often disregarded.", "There might have been minor orders ranking below a deacon; but there is no record of whether Bede held any of these offices.", "In Bede's thirtieth year (about 702), he became a priest, with the ordination again performed by Bishop John.In about 701 Bede wrote his first works, the ''De Arte Metrica'' and ''De Schematibus et Tropis''; both were intended for use in the classroom.", "He continued to write for the rest of his life, eventually completing over 60 books, most of which have survived.", "Not all his output can be easily dated, and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years.", "His last surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York, a former student, written in 734.A 6th-century Greek and Latin manuscript of ''Acts of the Apostles'' that is believed to have been used by Bede survives and is now in the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford.", "It is known as the Codex Laudianus.", "Bede may have worked on some of the Latin Bibles that were copied at Jarrow, one of which, the Codex Amiatinus, is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence.", "Bede was a teacher as well as a writer; he enjoyed music and was said to be accomplished as a singer and as a reciter of poetry in the vernacular.", "It is possible that he suffered a speech impediment, but this depends on a phrase in the introduction to his verse life of St Cuthbert.", "Translations of this phrase differ, and it is uncertain whether Bede intended to say that he was cured of a speech problem, or merely that he was inspired by the saint's works.Stained glass at Gloucester Cathedral depicting Bede dictating to a scribeIn 708, some monks at Hexham accused Bede of having committed heresy in his work ''De Temporibus''.", "The standard theological view of world history at the time was known as the Six Ages of the World; in his book, Bede calculated the age of the world for himself, rather than accepting the authority of Isidore of Seville, and came to the conclusion that Christ had been born 3,952 years after the creation of the world, rather than the figure of over 5,000 years that was commonly accepted by theologians.", "The accusation occurred in front of the bishop of Hexham, Wilfrid, who was present at a feast when some drunken monks made the accusation.", "Wilfrid did not respond to the accusation, but a monk present relayed the episode to Bede, who replied within a few days to the monk, writing a letter setting forth his defence and asking that the letter also be read to Wilfrid.", "Bede had another brush with Wilfrid, for the historian says that he met Wilfrid sometime between 706 and 709 and discussed Æthelthryth, the abbess of Ely.", "Wilfrid had been present at the exhumation of her body in 695, and Bede questioned the bishop about the exact circumstances of the body and asked for more details of her life, as Wilfrid had been her advisor.In 733, Bede travelled to York to visit Ecgbert, who was then bishop of York.", "The See of York was elevated to an archbishopric in 735, and it is likely that Bede and Ecgbert discussed the proposal for the elevation during his visit.", "Bede hoped to visit Ecgbert again in 734 but was too ill to make the journey.", "Bede also travelled to the monastery of Lindisfarne and at some point visited the otherwise unknown monastery of a monk named , a visit that is mentioned in a letter to that monk.", "Because of his widespread correspondence with others throughout the British Isles, and because many of the letters imply that Bede had met his correspondents, it is likely that Bede travelled to some other places, although nothing further about timing or locations can be guessed.", "It seems certain that he did not visit Rome, however, as he did not mention it in the autobiographical chapter of his ''Historia Ecclesiastica''.", "Nothhelm, a correspondent of Bede's who assisted him by finding documents for him in Rome, is known to have visited Bede, though the date cannot be determined beyond the fact that it was after Nothhelm's visit to Rome.", "Except for a few visits to other monasteries, his life was spent in a round of prayer, observance of the monastic discipline and study of the Sacred Scriptures.", "He was considered the most learned man of his time.Galilee Chapel at the west end of Durham CathedralBede died on the Feast of the Ascension, Thursday, 26 May 735, on the floor of his cell, singing \"Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit\" and was buried at Jarrow.", "Cuthbert, a disciple of Bede's, wrote a letter to a Cuthwin (of whom nothing else is known), describing Bede's last days and his death.", "According to Cuthbert, Bede fell ill, \"with frequent attacks of breathlessness but almost without pain\", before Easter.", "On the Tuesday, two days before Bede died, his breathing became worse and his feet swelled.", "He continued to dictate to a scribe, however, and despite spending the night awake in prayer he dictated again the following day.At three o'clock, according to Cuthbert, he asked for a box of his to be brought and distributed among the priests of the monastery \"a few treasures\" of his: \"some pepper, and napkins, and some incense\".", "That night he dictated a final sentence to the scribe, a boy named Wilberht, and died soon afterwards.", "The account of Cuthbert does not make entirely clear whether Bede died before midnight or after.", "However, by the reckoning of Bede's time, passage from the old day to the new occurred at sunset, not midnight, and Cuthbert is clear that he died after sunset.", "Thus, while his box was brought at three o'clock Wednesday afternoon of 25 May, by the time of the final dictation it was considered 26 May, although it might still have been 25 May in modern usage.Cuthbert's letter also relates a five-line poem in the vernacular that Bede composed on his deathbed, known as \"Bede's Death Song\".", "It is the most-widely copied Old English poem and appears in 45 manuscripts, but its attribution to Bede is not certain—not all manuscripts name Bede as the author, and the ones that do are of later origin than those that do not.", "Bede's remains may have been transferred to Durham Cathedral in the 11th century; his tomb there was looted in 1541, but the contents were probably re-interred in the Galilee chapel at the cathedral.One further oddity in his writings is that in one of his works, the ''Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles'', he writes in a manner that gives the impression he was married.", "The section in question is the only one in that work that is written in first-person view.", "Bede says: \"Prayers are hindered by the conjugal duty because as often as I perform what is due to my wife I am not able to pray.\"", "Another passage, in the ''Commentary on Luke'', also mentions a wife in the first person: \"Formerly I possessed a wife in the lustful passion of desire and now I possess her in honourable sanctification and true love of Christ.\"", "The historian Benedicta Ward argued that these passages are Bede employing a rhetorical device." ], [ "Works", "Bede writing, from a 12th-century copy of his ''Life of St Cuthbert'' (Yates Thompson MS 26, f. 2r)Bede wrote scientific, historical and theological works, reflecting the range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture commentaries.", "He knew patristic literature, as well as Pliny the Elder, Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace and other classical writers.", "He knew some Greek.", "Bede's scriptural commentaries employed the allegorical method of interpretation, and his history includes accounts of miracles, which to modern historians has seemed at odds with his critical approach to the materials in his history.", "Modern studies have shown the important role such concepts played in the world-view of Early Medieval scholars.", "Although Bede is mainly studied as a historian now, in his time his works on grammar, chronology, and biblical studies were as important as his historical and hagiographical works.", "The non-historical works contributed greatly to the Carolingian renaissance.", "He has been credited with writing a penitential, though his authorship of this work is disputed.=== ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' ===The Venerable Bede writing the ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', from a 12th-century codex at Engelberg Abbey, SwitzerlandBede's best-known work is the , or ''An Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', completed in about 731.Bede was aided in writing this book by Albinus, abbot of St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury.", "The first of the five books begins with some geographical background and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Caesar's invasion in 55 BC.", "A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain, including the martyrdom of St Alban, is followed by the story of Augustine's mission to England in 597, which brought Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons.", "The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604 and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelise Northumbria.", "These ended in disaster when Penda, the pagan king of Mercia, killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632.The setback was temporary, and the third book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald of Northumbria and Oswy.", "The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby, traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history.", "The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury and recounts Wilfrid's efforts to bring Christianity to the Kingdom of Sussex.", "The fifth book brings the story up to Bede's day and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter.", "Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria.", "The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book; presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it.", "The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy, and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf's approval; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede's monastery had connections among the Northumbrian nobility.==== Sources ====The monastery at Wearmouth-Jarrow had an excellent library.", "Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from the Continent, and in Bede's day the monastery was a renowned centre of learning.", "It has been estimated that there were about 200 books in the monastic library.For the period prior to Augustine's arrival in 597, Bede drew on earlier writers, including Solinus.", "He had access to two works of Eusebius: the ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', and also the ''Chronicon'', though he had neither in the original Greek; instead he had a Latin translation of the ''Historia'', by Rufinus, and Jerome's translation of the ''Chronicon''.", "He also knew Orosius's ''Adversus Paganus'', and Gregory of Tours' ''Historia Francorum'', both Christian histories, as well as the work of Eutropius, a pagan historian.", "He used Constantius's ''Life of Germanus'' as a source for Germanus's visits to Britain.", "Bede's account of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is drawn largely from Gildas's ''De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae''.", "Bede would also have been familiar with more recent accounts such as Stephen of Ripon's ''Life of Wilfrid'', and anonymous ''Life'' ''of Gregory the Great'' and ''Life of Cuthbert''.", "He also drew on Josephus's ''Antiquities'', and the works of Cassiodorus, and there was a copy of the ''Liber Pontificalis'' in Bede's monastery.", "Bede quotes from several classical authors, including Cicero, Plautus, and Terence, but he may have had access to their work via a Latin grammar rather than directly.", "However, it is clear he was familiar with the works of Virgil and with Pliny the Elder's ''Natural History'', and his monastery also owned copies of the works of Dionysius Exiguus.", "He probably drew his account of Alban from a life of that saint which has not survived.", "He acknowledges two other lives of saints directly; one is a life of Fursa, and the other of Æthelburh; the latter no longer survives.", "He also had access to a life of Ceolfrith.", "Some of Bede's material came from oral traditions, including a description of the physical appearance of Paulinus of York, who had died nearly 90 years before Bede's ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' was written.Bede had correspondents who supplied him with material.", "Albinus, the abbot of the monastery in Canterbury, provided much information about the church in Kent, and with the assistance of Nothhelm, at that time a priest in London, obtained copies of Gregory the Great's correspondence from Rome relating to Augustine's mission.", "Almost all of Bede's information regarding Augustine is taken from these letters.", "Bede acknowledged his correspondents in the preface to the ''Historia Ecclesiastica''; he was in contact with Bishop Daniel of Winchester, for information about the history of the church in Wessex and also wrote to the monastery at Lastingham for information about Cedd and Chad.", "Bede also mentions an Abbot Esi as a source for the affairs of the East Anglian church, and Bishop Cynibert for information about Lindsey.The historian Walter Goffart argues that Bede based the structure of the ''Historia'' on three works, using them as the framework around which the three main sections of the work were structured.", "For the early part of the work, up until the Gregorian mission, Goffart feels that Bede used ''De excidio''.", "The second section, detailing the Gregorian mission of Augustine of Canterbury was framed on ''Life of Gregory the Great'' written at Whitby.", "The last section, detailing events after the Gregorian mission, Goffart feels was modelled on ''Life of Wilfrid''.", "Most of Bede's informants for information after Augustine's mission came from the eastern part of Britain, leaving significant gaps in the knowledge of the western areas, which were those areas likely to have a native Briton presence.==== Models and style ====Bede's stylistic models included some of the same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history.", "His introduction imitates the work of Orosius, and his title is an echo of Eusebius's ''Historia Ecclesiastica''.", "Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the ''Acts of the Apostles'' as the model for the overall work: where Eusebius used the ''Acts'' as the theme for his description of the development of the church, Bede made it the model for his history of the Anglo-Saxon church.", "Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative, as Eusebius had done.", "Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times.", "For example, he almost always uses the terms \"Australes\" and \"Occidentales\" for the South and West Saxons respectively, but in a passage in the first book he uses \"Meridiani\" and \"Occidui\" instead, as perhaps his informant had done.", "At the end of the work, Bede adds a brief autobiographical note; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours' earlier ''History of the Franks''.Bede's work as a hagiographer and his detailed attention to dating were both useful preparations for the task of writing the ''Historia Ecclesiastica''.", "His interest in computus, the science of calculating the date of Easter, was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo-Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date.Bede is described by Michael Lapidge as \"without question the most accomplished Latinist produced in these islands in the Anglo-Saxon period\".", "His Latin has been praised for its clarity, but his style in the ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' is not simple.", "He knew rhetoric and often used figures of speech and rhetorical forms which cannot easily be reproduced in translation, depending as they often do on the connotations of the Latin words.", "However, unlike contemporaries such as Aldhelm, whose Latin is full of difficulties, Bede's own text is easy to read.", "In the words of Charles Plummer, one of the best-known editors of the ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', Bede's Latin is \"clear and limpid ... it is very seldom that we have to pause to think of the meaning of a sentence ... Alcuin rightly praises Bede for his unpretending style.", "\"==== Intent ====Bede's primary intention in writing the ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' was to show the growth of the united church throughout England.", "The native Britons, whose Christian church survived the departure of the Romans, earn Bede's ire for refusing to help convert the Anglo-Saxons; by the end of the ''Historia'' the English, and their church, are dominant over the Britons.", "This goal, of showing the movement towards unity, explains Bede's animosity towards the British method of calculating Easter: much of the ''Historia'' is devoted to a history of the dispute, including the final resolution at the Synod of Whitby in 664.Bede is also concerned to show the unity of the English, despite the disparate kingdoms that still existed when he was writing.", "He also wants to instruct the reader by spiritual example and to entertain, and to the latter end he adds stories about many of the places and people about which he wrote.N.", "J. Higham argues that Bede designed his work to promote his reform agenda to Ceolwulf, the Northumbrian king.", "Bede painted a highly optimistic picture of the current situation in the Church, as opposed to the more pessimistic picture found in his private letters.Bede's extensive use of miracles can prove difficult for readers who consider him a more or less reliable historian but do not accept the possibility of miracles.", "Yet both reflect an inseparable integrity and regard for accuracy and truth, expressed in terms both of historical events and of a tradition of Christian faith that continues.", "Bede, like Gregory the Great whom Bede quotes on the subject in the ''Historia'', felt that faith brought about by miracles was a stepping stone to a higher, truer faith, and that as a result miracles had their place in a work designed to instruct.==== Omissions and biases ====Bede is somewhat reticent about the career of Wilfrid, a contemporary and one of the most prominent clerics of his day.", "This may be because Wilfrid's opulent lifestyle was uncongenial to Bede's monastic mind; it may also be that the events of Wilfrid's life, divisive and controversial as they were, simply did not fit with Bede's theme of the progression to a unified and harmonious church.Bede's account of the early migrations of the Angles and Saxons to England omits any mention of a movement of those peoples across the English Channel from Britain to Brittany described by Procopius, who was writing in the sixth century.", "Frank Stenton describes this omission as \"a scholar's dislike of the indefinite\"; traditional material that could not be dated or used for Bede's didactic purposes had no interest for him.Bede was a Northumbrian, and this tinged his work with a local bias.", "The sources to which he had access gave him less information about the west of England than for other areas.", "He says relatively little about the achievements of Mercia and Wessex, omitting, for example, any mention of Boniface, a West Saxon missionary to the continent of some renown and of whom Bede had almost certainly heard, though Bede does discuss Northumbrian missionaries to the continent.", "He is also parsimonious in his praise for Aldhelm, a West Saxon who had done much to convert the native Britons to the Roman form of Christianity.", "He lists seven kings of the Anglo-Saxons whom he regards as having held ''imperium'', or overlordship; only one king of Wessex, Ceawlin, is listed as Bretwalda, and none from Mercia, though elsewhere he acknowledges the secular power several of the Mercians held.", "Historian Robin Fleming states that he was so hostile to Mercia because Northumbria had been diminished by Mercian power that he consulted no Mercian informants and included no stories about its saints.Bede relates the story of Augustine's mission from Rome, and tells how the British clergy refused to assist Augustine in the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons.", "This, combined with Gildas's negative assessment of the British church at the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions, led Bede to a very critical view of the native church.", "However, Bede ignores the fact that at the time of Augustine's mission, the history between the two was one of warfare and conquest, which, in the words of Barbara Yorke, would have naturally \"curbed any missionary impulses towards the Anglo-Saxons from the British clergy.", "\"==== Use of ''Anno Domini'' ====At the time Bede wrote the ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', there were two common ways of referring to dates.", "One was to use indictions, which were 15-year cycles, counting from 312 AD.", "There were three different varieties of indiction, each starting on a different day of the year.", "The other approach was to use regnal years—the reigning Roman emperor, for example, or the ruler of whichever kingdom was under discussion.", "This meant that in discussing conflicts between kingdoms, the date would have to be given in the regnal years of all the kings involved.", "Bede used both these approaches on occasion but adopted a third method as his main approach to dating: the ''Anno Domini'' method invented by Dionysius Exiguus.", "Although Bede did not invent this method, his adoption of it and his promulgation of it in ''De Temporum Ratione'', his work on chronology, is the main reason it is now so widely used.", "Bede's Easter table, contained in ''De Temporum Ratione'', was developed from Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table.==== Assessment ====The ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' was copied often in the Middle Ages, and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive.", "About half of those are located on the European continent, rather than in the British Isles.", "Most of the 8th- and 9th-century texts of Bede's ''Historia'' come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire.", "This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work, of which another 100 or so survive.", "It was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482, probably at Strasbourg.", "Modern historians have studied the ''Historia'' extensively, and several editions have been produced.", "For many years, early Anglo-Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the ''Historia'', but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did.", "The belief that the ''Historia'' was the culmination of Bede's works, the aim of all his scholarship, was a belief common among historians in the past but is no longer accepted by most scholars.Modern historians and editors of Bede have been lavish in their praise of his achievement in the ''Historia Ecclesiastica''.", "Stenton regards it as one of the \"small class of books which transcend all but the most fundamental conditions of time and place\", and regards its quality as dependent on Bede's \"astonishing power of co-ordinating the fragments of information which came to him through tradition, the relation of friends, or documentary evidence ...", "In an age where little was attempted beyond the registration of fact, he had reached the conception of history.\"", "Patrick Wormald describes him as \"the first and greatest of England's historians\".The ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' has given Bede a high reputation, but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history.", "His focus on the history of the organisation of the English church, and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out, led him to exclude the secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church.", "Besides the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', the medieval writers William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations.", "Early modern writers, such as Polydore Vergil and Matthew Parker, the Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury, also utilised the ''Historia'', and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the wars of religion.Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede's accounts.", "One historian, Charlotte Behr, thinks that the ''Historia's'' account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should not be considered to relate what actually happened, but rather relates myths that were current in Kent during Bede's time.It is likely that Bede's work, because it was so widely copied, discouraged others from writing histories and may even have led to the disappearance of manuscripts containing older historical works.=== Other historical works ===King Æthelstan presenting the work to the saint.", "This manuscript was given to St Cuthbert's shrine in 934.==== Chronicles ====As Chapter 66 of his ''On the Reckoning of Time'', in 725 Bede wrote the ''Greater Chronicle'' (''chronica maiora''), which sometimes circulated as a separate work.", "For recent events the ''Chronicle'', like his ''Ecclesiastical History'', relied upon Gildas, upon a version of the ''Liber Pontificalis'' current at least to the papacy of Pope Sergius I (687–701), and other sources.", "For earlier events he drew on Eusebius's ''Chronikoi Kanones.''", "The dating of events in the ''Chronicle'' is inconsistent with his other works, using the era of creation, the ''Anno Mundi''.==== Hagiography ====His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, as well as verse and prose lives of St Cuthbert, an adaptation of Paulinus of Nola's ''Life of St Felix'', and a translation of the Greek ''Passion'' of St Anastasius.", "He also created a listing of saints, the ''Martyrology''.=== Theological works ===In his own time, Bede was as well known for his biblical commentaries, and for his exegetical and other theological works.", "The majority of his writings were of this type and covered the Old Testament and the New Testament.", "Most survived the Middle Ages, but a few were lost.", "It was for his theological writings that he earned the title of ''Doctor Anglorum'' and why he was declared a saint.Bede synthesised and transmitted the learning from his predecessors, as well as made careful, judicious innovation in knowledge (such as recalculating the age of the Earth—for which he was censured before surviving the heresy accusations and eventually having his views championed by Archbishop Ussher in the sixteenth century—see below) that had theological implications.", "In order to do this, he learned Greek and attempted to learn Hebrew.", "He spent time reading and rereading both the Old and the New Testaments.", "He mentions that he studied from a text of Jerome's Vulgate, which itself was from the Hebrew text.He also studied both the Latin and the Greek Fathers of the Church.", "In the monastic library at Jarrow were numerous books by theologians, including works by Basil, Cassian, John Chrysostom, Isidore of Seville, Origen, Gregory of Nazianzus, Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, Pope Gregory I, Ambrose of Milan, Cassiodorus, and Cyprian.", "He used these, in conjunction with the Biblical texts themselves, to write his commentaries and other theological works.", "He had a Latin translation by Evagrius of Athanasius's ''Life of Antony'' and a copy of Sulpicius Severus' ''Life of St Martin''.", "He also used lesser known writers, such as Fulgentius, Julian of Eclanum, Tyconius, and Prosper of Aquitaine.", "Bede was the first to refer to Jerome, Augustine, Pope Gregory and Ambrose as the four Latin Fathers of the Church.", "It is clear from Bede's own comments that he felt his calling was to explain to his students and readers the theology and thoughts of the Church Fathers.Bede also wrote homilies, works written to explain theology used in worship services.", "He wrote homilies on the major Christian seasons such as Advent, Lent, or Easter, as well as on other subjects such as anniversaries of significant events.Both types of Bede's theological works circulated widely in the Middle Ages.", "Several of his biblical commentaries were incorporated into the ''Glossa Ordinaria'', an 11th-century collection of biblical commentaries.", "Some of Bede's homilies were collected by Paul the Deacon, and they were used in that form in the Monastic Office.", "Boniface used Bede's homilies in his missionary efforts on the continent.Bede sometimes included in his theological books an acknowledgement of the predecessors on whose works he drew.", "In two cases he left instructions that his marginal notes, which gave the details of his sources, should be preserved by the copyist, and he may have originally added marginal comments about his sources to others of his works.", "Where he does not specify, it is still possible to identify books to which he must have had access by quotations that he uses.", "A full catalogue of the library available to Bede in the monastery cannot be reconstructed, but it is possible to tell, for example, that Bede was very familiar with the works of Virgil.There is little evidence that he had access to any other of the pagan Latin writers—he quotes many of these writers, but the quotes are almost always found in the Latin grammars that were common in his day, one or more of which would certainly have been at the monastery.", "Another difficulty is that manuscripts of early writers were often incomplete: it is apparent that Bede had access to Pliny's ''Encyclopaedia'', for example, but it seems that the version he had was missing book xviii, since he did not quote from it in his ''De temporum ratione''.Cropped portrait from ''The Last Chapter'' by 170x170pxBede's works included ''Commentary on Revelation'', ''Commentary on the Catholic Epistles'', ''Commentary on Acts'', ''Reconsideration on the Books of Acts'', ''On the Gospel of Mark'', ''On the Gospel of Luke'', and ''Homilies on the Gospels''.", "At the time of his death he was working on a translation of the Gospel of John into English.", "He did this for the last 40 days of his life.", "When the last passage had been translated he said: \"All is finished.\"", "The works dealing with the Old Testament included ''Commentary on Samuel'', ''Commentary on Genesis'', ''Commentaries on Ezra and Nehemiah'', ''On the Temple'', ''On the Tabernacle'', ''Commentaries on Tobit'', ''Commentaries on Proverbs'', ''Commentaries on the Song of Songs'', ''Commentaries on the Canticle of Habakkuk'', The works on Ezra, the tabernacle and the temple were especially influenced by Gregory the Great's writings.=== Historical and astronomical chronology ===''De natura rerum'', 1529''De temporibus'', or ''On Time'', written in about 703, provides an introduction to the principles of Easter computus.", "This was based on parts of Isidore of Seville's ''Etymologies'', and Bede also included a chronology of the world which was derived from Eusebius, with some revisions based on Jerome's translation of the Bible.", "In about 723, Bede wrote a longer work on the same subject, ''On the Reckoning of Time'', which was influential throughout the Middle Ages.", "He also wrote several shorter letters and essays discussing specific aspects of computus.", "''On the Reckoning of Time'' (''De temporum ratione'') included an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the cosmos, including an explanation of how the spherical Earth influenced the changing length of daylight, of how the seasonal motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the new moon at evening twilight.", "Bede also records the effect of the moon on tides.", "He shows that the twice-daily timing of tides is related to the Moon and that the lunar monthly cycle of spring and neap tides is also related to the Moon's position.", "He goes on to note that the times of tides vary along the same coast and that the water movements cause low tide at one place when there is high tide elsewhere.", "Since the focus of his book was the computus, Bede gave instructions for computing the date of Easter from the date of the Paschal full moon, for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac, and for many other calculations related to the calendar.", "He gives some information about the months of the Anglo-Saxon calendar.Any codex of Bede's Easter table is normally found together with a codex of his ''De temporum ratione''.", "His Easter table, being an exact extension of Dionysius Exiguus' Paschal table and covering the time interval AD 532–1063, contains a 532-year Paschal cycle based on the so-called classical Alexandrian 19-year lunar cycle, being the close variant of bishop Theophilus' 19-year lunar cycle proposed by Annianus and adopted by bishop Cyril of Alexandria around AD 425.The ultimate similar (but rather different) predecessor of this Metonic 19-year lunar cycle is the one invented by Anatolius around AD 260.For calendric purposes, Bede made a new calculation of the age of the world since the creation, which he dated as 3952 BC.", "Because of his innovations in computing the age of the world, he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfrid, his chronology being contrary to accepted calculations.", "Once informed of the accusations of these \"lewd rustics,\" Bede refuted them in his Letter to Plegwin.In addition to these works on astronomical timekeeping, he also wrote ''De natura rerum'', or ''On the Nature of Things'', modelled in part after the work of the same title by Isidore of Seville.", "His works were so influential that late in the ninth century Notker the Stammerer, a monk of the Monastery of St Gall in Switzerland, wrote that \"God, the orderer of natures, who raised the Sun from the East on the fourth day of Creation, in the sixth day of the world has made Bede rise from the West as a new Sun to illuminate the whole Earth\".=== Educational works ===Bede wrote some works designed to help teach grammar in the abbey school.", "One of these was ''De arte metrica'', a discussion of the composition of Latin verse, drawing on previous grammarians' work.", "It was based on Donatus's ''De pedibus'' and Servius's ''De finalibus'' and used examples from Christian poets as well as Virgil.", "It became a standard text for the teaching of Latin verse during the next few centuries.", "Bede dedicated this work to Cuthbert, apparently a student, for he is named \"beloved son\" in the dedication, and Bede says \"I have laboured to educate you in divine letters and ecclesiastical statutes.\"", "''De orthographia'' is a work on orthography, designed to help a medieval reader of Latin with unfamiliar abbreviations and words from classical Latin works.", "Although it could serve as a textbook, it appears to have been mainly intended as a reference work.", "The date of composition for both of these works is unknown.", "''De schematibus et tropis sacrae scripturae'' discusses the Bible's use of rhetoric.", "Bede was familiar with pagan authors such as Virgil, but it was not considered appropriate to teach biblical grammar from such texts, and Bede argues for the superiority of Christian texts in understanding Christian literature.", "Similarly, his text on poetic metre uses only Christian poetry for examples.===Latin poetry===A number of poems have been attributed to Bede.", "His poetic output has been systematically surveyed and edited by Michael Lapidge, who concluded that the following works belong to Bede: the ''Versus de die iudicii'' (\"verses on the day of Judgement\", found complete in 33 manuscripts and fragmentarily in 10); the metrical ''Vita Sancti Cudbercti'' (\"Life of St Cuthbert\"); and two collections of verse mentioned in the ''Historia ecclesiastica'' V.24.2.Bede names the first of these collections as \"librum epigrammatum heroico metro siue elegiaco\" (\"a book of epigrams in the heroic or elegiac metre\"), and much of its content has been reconstructed by Lapidge from scattered attestations under the title ''Liber epigrammatum''.", "The second is named as \"liber hymnorum diuerso metro siue rythmo\" (\"a book of hymns, diverse in metre or rhythm\"); this has been reconstructed by Lapidge as containing ten liturgical hymns, one paraliturgical hymn (for the Feast of St Æthelthryth), and four other hymn-like compositions.=== Vernacular poetry ===According to his disciple Cuthbert, Bede was ''doctus in nostris carminibus'' (\"learned in our songs\").", "Cuthbert's letter on Bede's death, the ''Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae'', moreover, commonly is understood to indicate that Bede composed a five-line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as ''Bede's Death Song''As Opland notes, however, it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede: most manuscripts of the latter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede's presentation of the song, and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo-Latin literature.", "The fact that Cuthbert's description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts.", "On the other hand, the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert's Latin letter, the observation that Bede \"was learned in our song,\" and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all point to the possibility of his having written it.", "By citing the poem directly, Cuthbert seems to imply that its particular wording was somehow important, either since it was a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who evidently frowned upon secular entertainment or because it is a direct quotation of Bede's last original composition." ], [ "Veneration", "St. Bede's School, ChennaiThere is no evidence for cult being paid to Bede in England in the 8th century.", "One reason for this may be that he died on the feast day of Augustine of Canterbury.", "Later, when he was venerated in England, he was either commemorated after Augustine on 26 May, or his feast was moved to 27 May.", "However, he was venerated outside England, mainly through the efforts of Boniface and Alcuin, both of whom promoted the cult on the continent.", "Boniface wrote repeatedly back to England during his missionary efforts, requesting copies of Bede's theological works.Alcuin, who was taught at the school set up in York by Bede's pupil Ecgbert, praised Bede as an example for monks to follow and was instrumental in disseminating Bede's works to all of Alcuin's friends.", "Bede's cult became prominent in England during the 10th-century revival of monasticism and by the 14th century had spread to many of the cathedrals of England.", "Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester was a particular devotee of Bede's, dedicating a church to him in 1062, which was Wulfstan's first undertaking after his consecration as bishop.His body was 'translated' (the ecclesiastical term for relocation of relics) from Jarrow to Durham Cathedral around 1020, where it was placed in the same tomb with St Cuthbert.", "Later Bede's remains were moved to a shrine in the Galilee Chapel at Durham Cathedral in 1370.The shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation, but the bones were reburied in the chapel.", "In 1831 the bones were dug up and then reburied in a new tomb, which is still there.", "Other relics were claimed by York, Glastonbury and Fulda.His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in 1899 when the Vatican declared him a Doctor of the Church.", "He is the only Englishman named a Doctor of the Church.", "He is also the only Englishman in Dante's ''Paradise'' (''Paradiso'' X.130), mentioned among theologians and doctors of the church in the same canto as Isidore of Seville and the Scot Richard of St Victor.His feast day was included in the General Roman Calendar in 1899, for celebration on 27 May rather than on his date of death, 26 May, which was then the feast day of St Augustine of Canterbury.", "He is venerated in the Catholic Church, in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church (United States) on 25 May, and in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with a feast day on 27 May (Βεδέα του Ομολογητού).Bede became known as ''Venerable Bede'' (Latin: ) by the 9th century because of his holiness, but this was not linked to consideration for sainthood by the Catholic Church.", "According to a legend, the epithet was miraculously supplied by angels, thus completing his unfinished epitaph.", "It is first utilised in connection with Bede in the 9th century, where Bede was grouped with others who were called \"venerable\" at two ecclesiastical councils held at Aachen in 816 and 836.Paul the Deacon then referred to him as venerable consistently.", "By the 11th and 12th century, it had become commonplace.===Modern legacy===A depiction of the Venerable Bede (on CLVIIIv) from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493Bede's reputation as a historian, based mostly on the ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', remains strong.", "Thomas Carlyle called him \"the greatest historical writer since Herodotus\".", "Walter Goffart says of Bede that he \"holds a privileged and unrivalled place among first historians of Christian Europe\".", "He is patron of Beda College in Rome which prepares older men for the Roman Catholic priesthood.", "His life and work have been celebrated with the annual Jarrow Lecture, held at St Paul's Church, Jarrow, since 1958.Bede has been described as a progressive scholar, who made Latin and Greek teachings accessible to his fellow Anglo-Saxons.Jarrow Hall (formerly Bede's World), in Jarrow, is a museum that celebrates the history of Bede and other parts of English heritage, on the site where he lived.Bede Metro station, part of the Tyne and Wear Metro light rail network, is named after him." ], [ "See also", "* List of manuscripts of Bede's ''Historia Ecclesiastica''* List of works by Bede* Medieval ecclesiastic historiography*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "=== Primary sources ===* * * (Parallel Latin text and English translation with English notes.", ")** * * * * (contains translations of ''On the Song of Songs, Homilies on the Gospels'' and selections from the ''Ecclesiastical history of the English people'').", "* === Secondary sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Dickinson College Commentaries: ''Historia Ecclēsiastica''* * * * Bede's World: the museum of early medieval Northumbria at Jarrow* The Venerable Bede from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)* ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', Books 1–5, L.C.", "Jane's 1903 Temple Classics translation.", "From the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.", "* Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' and the Continuation of Bede (pdf), at CCEL, edited & translated by A.M.", "Sellar.", "* Saint Bede, complete works, in Latin, with historical works also in English at ''The Online Library of Liberty''* Dionysius Exiguus' Paschal table" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bubble tea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bubble tea''' (also known as '''pearl milk tea''', '''bubble milk tea''', '''tapioca milk tea''', '''boba tea''', or '''boba'''; , ) is a tea-based drink that originated in Taiwan in the early 1980s.", "Taiwanese immigrants brought it to the United States in the 1990s, initially in California through regions including Los Angeles County, but the drink has also spread to other countries where there is a large East Asian diaspora population.Bubble tea most commonly consists of tea accompanied by chewy tapioca balls (\"boba\" or \"pearls\"), but it can be made with other toppings as well, such as grass jelly, aloe vera, red bean, and popping boba.", "It has many varieties and flavors, but the two most popular varieties are pearl black milk tea and pearl green milk tea (\"pearl\" for the tapioca balls at the bottom)." ], [ "Description", "A paper straw for bubble tea compared with a more typical plastic strawBubble teas fall under two categories: teas without milk and milk teas.", "Both varieties come with a choice of black, green, or oolong tea as the base.", "Milk teas usually include powdered or fresh milk, but may also use condensed milk, almond milk, soy milk, or coconut milk.The oldest known bubble tea drink consisted of a mixture of hot Taiwanese black tea, tapioca pearls (), condensed milk, and syrup (Chinese: 糖漿; pinyin: táng jiāng) or honey.", "Nowadays, bubble tea is most commonly served cold.", "The tapioca pearls that give bubble tea its name were originally made from the starch of the cassava, a tropical shrub known for its starchy roots which was introduced to Taiwan from South America during Japanese colonial rule.", "Larger pearls (Chinese: 波霸/黑珍珠; pinyin: bō bà/hēi zhēn zhū) quickly replaced these.Today, there are some cafés that specialize in bubble tea production.", "While some cafés may serve bubble tea in a glass, most Taiwanese bubble tea shops serve the drink in a plastic cup and use a machine to seal the top of the cup with heated plastic cellophane.", "The method allows the tea to be shaken in the serving cup and makes it spill-free until a person is ready to drink it.", "The cellophane is then pierced with an oversized straw, now referred to as a boba straw, which is larger than a typical drinking straw to allow the toppings to pass through.Due to its popularity, bubble tea has inspired a variety of bubble tea flavored snacks, such as bubble tea ice cream and bubble tea candy.", "The market size of bubble tea was valued at $2.4 billion in 2022 and is projected to reach $4.3 billion by the end of 2027.Some of the largest global bubble tea chains include Chatime, CoCo Fresh Tea & Juice and Gong Cha.===Variants======= Drink ====Bubble tea comes in many variations which usually consist of black tea, green tea, oolong tea, and sometimes white tea.", "Another variation, yuenyeung, (Chinese: 鴛鴦, named after the Mandarin duck) originated in Hong Kong and consists of black tea, coffee, and milk.Other varieties of the drink include blended tea drinks.", "These variations are often either blended using ice cream, or are smoothies that contain both tea and fruit.", "Boba ice cream bars have also been produced.There are many popular flavours of bubble tea, such as taro, mango, coffee, and coconut.", "Flavouring ingredients such as a syrup or powder determines the flavour and usually the colour of the bubble tea, while other ingredients such as tea, milk and boba are the basis.==== Toppings ====Tapioca (boba)Tapioca pearls (boba) are the most common ingredient, although there are other ways to make the chewy spheres found in bubble tea.", "The pearls vary in color according to the ingredients mixed in with the tapioca.", "Most pearls are black from brown sugar.Jelly comes in different shapes: small cubes, stars, or rectangular strips, and flavors such as coconut jelly, konjac, lychee, grass jelly, mango, coffee and green tea.", "Azuki bean or mung bean paste, typical toppings for Taiwanese shaved ice desserts, give bubble tea an added subtle flavor as well as texture.", "Aloe, egg pudding (custard), and sago also can be found in many bubble tea shops.", "Popping boba, or spheres that have fruit juices or syrups inside them, are another popular bubble tea topping.", "Flavors include mango, strawberry, coconut, kiwi and honey melon.Some shops offer milk or cheese foam on top of the drink, giving the drink a consistency similar to that of whipped cream, and a saltier flavor profile.", "One shop described the effect of the cheese foam as \"neutralizing the bitterness of the tea...and as you drink it you taste the returning sweetness of the tea\".==== Ice and sugar level ====Bubble tea packaged in a promotional shape (lightbulb) instead of a takeaway cupBubble tea shops often give customers the option of choosing the amount of ice or sugar in their drink.", "Sugar and ice levels are usually specified ordinally (e.g.", "no ice, less ice, normal ice, more ice), corresponding to quarterly intervals (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%).==== Packaging ====In Southeast Asia, bubble tea is usually packaged in a plastic takeaway cup, sealed with plastic or a rounded cap.", "New entrants into the market have attempted to distinguish their products by packaging it in bottles and other shapes.", "Some have used sealed plastic bags.", "Nevertheless, the plastic takeaway cup with a sealed cap is still the most common packaging method.==== Preparation method ====The traditional way of bubble tea preparation is to mix the ingredients (sugar, powders and other flavorings) together using a bubble tea shaker cup, by hand.Many present-day bubble tea shops use a bubble tea shaker machine.", "This eliminates the need for humans to shake the bubble tea by hand.", "It also reduces staffing needs as multiple cups of bubble tea may be prepared by a single barista.One bubble tea shop in Taiwan, named Jhu Dong Auto Tea, makes bubble tea entirely without manual work.", "All stages of the bubble tea sales process, from ordering, to making, to collection, are fully automated." ], [ "History", "Milk and sugar have been added to tea in Taiwan since the Dutch colonization of Taiwan in 1624–1662.There are two competing stories for the discovery of bubble tea.", "One is associated with the Chun Shui Tang tea room () in Taichung.", "Its founder, Liu Han-Chieh, began serving Chinese tea cold after he observed coffee was served cold in Japan while on a visit in the 1980s.", "The new style of serving tea propelled his business, and multiple chains serving this tea were established.", "The company's product development manager, Lin Hsiu Hui, said she created the first bubble tea in 1988 when she poured tapioca balls into her tea during a staff meeting and encouraged others to drink it.", "The beverage was well received by everyone at the meeting, leading to its inclusion on the menu.", "It ultimately became the franchise's top-selling product.Another claim for the invention of bubble tea comes from the Hanlin Tea Room () in Tainan.", "It claims that bubble tea was invented in 1986 when teahouse owner Tu Tsong-he was inspired by white tapioca balls he saw in the local market of Ah-bó-liâu (, or ''Yāmǔliáo'' in Mandarin).", "He later made tea using these traditional Taiwanese snacks.", "This resulted in what is known as \"pearl tea\".On 29 January 2023, Google celebrated Bubble Tea with a doodle." ], [ "Popularity", "In the 1990s, bubble tea spread all over East and Southeast Asia with its ever-growing popularity.", "In regions like Hong Kong, Mainland China, Japan, Vietnam, and Singapore, the bubble tea trend expanded rapidly among young people.", "In some popular shops, people would line up for more than thirty minutes to get a cup of the drink.", "In recent years, the popularity of bubble tea has gone beyond the beverage itself, with boba lovers inventing various bubble tea flavored-foods, including ice cream, pizza, toast, sushi, and ramen.===Taiwan===In Taiwan, bubble tea has become not just a beverage, but an enduring icon of the culture and food history for the nation.", "In 2020, the date April 30 was officially declared as National Bubble Tea Day in Taiwan.", "That same year, the image of bubble tea was proposed as an alternative cover design for Taiwan's passport.", "According to Al Jazeera, bubble tea has become synonymous with Taiwan and is an important symbol of Taiwanese identity both domestically and internationally.", "Bubble tea is used to represent Taiwan in the context of the Milk Tea Alliance.=== Hong Kong ===Hong Kong is famous for its traditional Hong Kong-style milk tea, which is made with brewed black tea and evaporated milk.", "While milk tea has long become integrated into people's daily life, the expansion of Taiwanese bubble tea chains, including Tiger Sugar, Youiccha, and Xing Fu Tang, into Hong Kong created a new wave for “boba tea”.=== Mainland China ===Since the idea of adding tapioca pearls into milk tea was introduced into China in the 1990s, bubble tea has increased in popularity.", "In 2020 it was estimated that the consumption of bubble tea was 5 times that of coffee in recent years.", "According to data from QianZhen Industry Research Institute, the value of the tea-related beverage market in China reached 53.7 billion yuan (about $7.63 billion) in 2018.In 2019, annual sales from bubble tea shops reached as high as 140.5 billion RMB (roughly US$20 billion).", "While bubble tea chains from Taiwan (e.g., Gong Cha and Coco) are still popular, more local brands, like Yi Dian Dian, Nayuki, Hey Tea, etc., are now dominating the market.In China, young people's growing obsession with bubble tea shaped their way of social interaction.", "Buying someone a cup of bubble tea has become a new way of informally thanking someone.", "It is also a favored topic among friends and on social media.=== Japan ===Bubble tea first entered Japan by the late 1990s, but it failed to leave a lasting impression on the public markets.", "It was not until the 2010s when the bubble tea trend finally swept Japan.", "Shops from Taiwan, Korea, and China, as well as local brands, began to pop up in cities, and bubble tea has remained one of the hottest trends since then.", "Bubble tea has become so commonplace among teenagers that teenage girls in Japan invented slang for it: ''tapiru'' (タピる).", "The word is short for drinking tapioca tea in Japanese, and it won first place in a survey of \"Japanese slang for middle school girls\" in 2018.A bubble tea theme park was open for a limited time in 2019 in Harajuku, Tokyo.=== Singapore ===Known locally in Chinese as 泡泡茶 (Pinyin: pào pào chá), bubble tea is loved by many in Singapore.", "The drink was sold in Singapore as early as 1992 and became phenomenally popular among young people in 2001.This soon ended because of the intense competition and price wars among shops.", "As a result, most bubble tea shops closed and bubble tea lost its popularity by 2003.When Taiwanese chains like Koi and Gong Cha came to Singapore in 2007 and 2009, the beverage experienced only short resurgences in popularity.", "In 2018, the interest in bubble tea rose again at an unprecedented speed in Singapore, as new brands like The Alley and Tiger Sugar entered the market; social media also played an important role in driving this renaissance of bubble tea.===United States===In the 1990s, Taiwanese immigrants began to introduce bubble tea in Taiwanese restaurants in California.", "Some of the first stand-alone bubble tea shops can be traced to a food court in Arcadia, in Southern California, and Fantasia Coffee & Tea in Cupertino, in Northern California.", "Chains like Tapioca Express, Quickly, Lollicup and Q-Cup emerged in the late 1990s and early 2000s, bringing the Taiwanese bubble tea trend to the US.", "Within the Asian American community, bubble tea is commonly known under its colloquial term \"boba\".As the beverage gained popularity in the US, it gradually became more than a drink, but a cultural identity for Asian Americans.", "This phenomenon was referred to as “boba life” by Chinese-American brothers Andrew and David Fung in their music video, “Bobalife,” released in 2013.Boba symbolizes a subculture that Asian Americans as social minorities could define themselves as, and “boba life” is a reflection of their desire for both cultural and political recognition.", "It is also used disparagingly in the term boba liberal.Other regions with large concentrations of bubble tea restaurants in the United States are the Northeast and Southwest.", "This is reflected in the coffeehouse-style teahouse chains that originate from the regions, such as Boba Tea Company from Albuquerque, New Mexico, No.", "1 Boba Tea in Las Vegas, Nevada, and Kung Fu Tea from New York City.", "Albuquerque and Las Vegas have a large concentrations of boba tea restaurants, as the drink is popular especially among the Hispano, Navajo, Pueblo, and other Native American, Hispanic and Latino American communities in the Southwest.A massive shipping and supply chain crisis on the U.S. West coast, coupled with the obstruction of the Suez Canal in March 2021, caused a shortage of tapioca pearls for bubble tea shops in the U.S. and Canada.", "Most of the tapioca consumed in the U.S. is imported from Asia, since the critical ingredient, tapioca starch, is mostly grown in Asia.TikTok trends and the Korean Wave also fueled the popularity of bubble tea in the United States.===Australia===Individual bubble tea shops began to appear in Australia in the 1990s, along with other regional drinks like Eis Cendol.", "Chains of stores were established as early as 2002, when the Bubble Cup franchise opened its first store in Melbourne.", "Although originally associated with the rapid growth of immigration from Asia and the vast tertiary student cohort from Asia, in Melbourne and Sydney bubble tea has become popular across many communities.", "Many suburban shopping centres have a branch of a bubble tea franchise.=== Mauritius ===The first bubble tea shop in Mauritius opened in late 2012, and since then there have been bubble tea shops in most shopping malls on the island.", "Bubble tea shops have become a popular place for teenagers to hang out." ], [ "Potential health concerns", "In July 2019, Singapore's Mount Alvernia Hospital warned against the high sugar content of bubble tea since the drink had become extremely popular in Singapore.", "While it acknowledged the benefits of drinking green tea and black tea in reducing risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis and cancer, respectively, the hospital cautions that the addition of other ingredients like non-dairy creamer and toppings in the tea could raise the fat and sugar content of the tea and increase the risk of chronic diseases.", "Non-dairy creamer is a milk substitute that contains trans fat in the form of hydrogenated palm oil.", "The hospital warned that this oil has been strongly correlated with an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.The other concern about bubble tea is its high calorie content, partially attributed to the high-carbohydrate tapioca pearls (or 珍珠 zhēn zhū), which can make up to half the calorie-count in a 500 ml serving of bubble tea." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Battle of Blenheim" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Blenheim''' (; ; ) fought on , was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession.", "The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the reconstituted Grand Alliance.Louis XIV of France sought to knock the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold, out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement.", "The dangers to Vienna were considerable: Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and Marshal Ferdinand de Marsin's forces in Bavaria threatened from the west, and Marshal Louis Joseph de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme's large army in northern Italy posed a serious danger with a potential offensive through the Brenner Pass.", "Vienna was also under pressure from Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches.", "Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg to help maintain Emperor Leopold within the Grand Alliance.A combination of deception and skilled administration – designed to conceal his true destination from friend and foe alike – enabled Marlborough to march unhindered from the Low Countries to the River Danube in five weeks.", "After securing Donauwörth on the Danube, Marlborough sought to engage Maximilian's and Marsin's army before Marshal Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard, could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest.", "The Franco-Bavarian commanders proved reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, and Marlborough failed in his attempts to force an engagement.", "When Tallard arrived to bolster Maximilian's army, and Prince Eugene of Savoy arrived with reinforcements for the Allies, the two armies finally met on the banks of the Danube in and around the small village of Blindheim, from which the English \"Blenheim\" is derived.Blenheim was one of the battles that altered the course of the war, which until then was favouring the French and Spanish Bourbons.", "Although the battle did not win the war, it prevented a potentially devastating loss for the Grand Alliance and shifted the war's momentum, ending French plans of knocking Emperor Leopold out of the war.", "The French suffered catastrophic casualties in the battle, including their commander-in-chief, Tallard, who was taken captive to England.", "Before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following year's campaign into France itself.", "This offensive never materialised, for the Grand Alliance's army had to depart the Moselle to defend Liège from a French counter-offensive.", "The war continued for another decade before ending in 1714." ], [ "Background", "Portrait of the Duke of Marlborough by Adriaen van der Werff (December 1704) UffiziBy 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year.", "The previous year had been one of successes for France and her allies, most particularly on the Danube, where Marshal Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars and Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, had created a direct threat to Vienna, the Habsburg capital.", "Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Ferdinand de Marsin.", "Nevertheless, the threat was still real: Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt was threatening the Empire's eastern approaches, and Marshal Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme's forces threatened an invasion from northern Italy.", "In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Vienna's fall was confidently anticipated, an event which would almost certainly have led to the collapse of the reconstituted Grand Alliance.To isolate the Danube from any Allied intervention, Marshal François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi's 46,000 troops were expected to pin the 70,000 Dutch and British troops around Maastricht in the Low Countries, while General Robert Jean Antoine de Franquetot de Coigny protected Alsace against surprise with a further corps.", "The only forces immediately available for Vienna's defence were the imperial army under Margrave Louis William of Baden of 36,000 men stationed in the Lines of Stollhofen to watch Marshal Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard, at Strasbourg; and 10,000 men under Prince Eugene of Savoy south of Ulm.Both the Imperial Austrian Ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, and the Duke of Marlborough realised the implications of the situation on the Danube.", "The Dutch were against any adventurous military operation as far south as the Danube and would not permit any major weakening of the forces in the Spanish Netherlands.", "Marlborough, realising the only way to reinforce the Austrians was by the use of secrecy and guile, set out to deceive his Dutch allies by pretending to move his troops to the Moselle – a plan approved of by The Hague – but once there, he would slip the Dutch leash and link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany.", "This does not mean that he proceeded entirely without consultation with the Dutch.", "Without them, the army's logistics system would have simply collapsed.", "Intensive consultations preceded the campaign and Anthonie Heinsius, the Dutch Grand Pensionary, was likely informed by Marlborough of his secret plan to link up with Austrian forces.", "Many other important Dutchmen, like Major-General Johan Wijnand van Goor, were in favour of helping the Emperor and participated in the campaign.", "The Dutch diplomat and field deputy Van Rechteren-Almelo also played an important role.", "He made sure that on their 450-kilometer-long march, the Allies would nowhere be denied passage by local rulers, nor would they need to look for provisions, horsefeed or new boots.", "He also saw to it that sufficient stopovers were arranged along the way to ensure that the Allies arrived at their destination in good condition.", "This was of paramount importance, for the success of the operation depended on a quick elimination of the Bavarian elector.", "However, it was not possible to make the logistical arrangements in advance that would have been indispensable to supply the Allied army south of the Danube.", "For this, the Allies should have had access to the free imperial cities of Ulm and Augsburg, but the Bavarian elector had taken these two cities.", "This could have become a problem for Marlborough had the Elector avoided a battle and instead entrenched himself south of the Danube.", "Had Villeroy then managed to take advantage of the weakening of Allied forces in the Netherlands by recapturing Liège and besieging Maastricht, it would have validated the concerns of his Dutch adversaries." ], [ "Prelude", "===Protagonists march to the Danube===Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk, took control of Allied forces in the NetherlandsMarlborough's march started on 19 May from Bedburg, northwest of Cologne.", "The army assembled by Marlborough's brother, General Charles Churchill, consisted of 66 squadrons of cavalry, 31 battalions of infantry and 38 guns and mortars, totalling 21,000 men, 16,000 of whom were British.", "This force was augmented en route, and by the time it reached the Danube it numbered 40,00047 battalions and 88 squadrons.", "While Marlborough led this army south, the Dutch general, Henry Overkirk, Count of Nassau, maintained a defensive position in the Dutch Republic against the possibility of Villeroi mounting an attack.", "Marlborough had assured the Dutch that if the French were to launch an offensive he would return in good time, but he calculated that as he marched south, the French army would be drawn after him.", "In this assumption Marlborough proved correct: Villeroi shadowed Marlborough with 30,000 men in 60 squadrons and 42 battalions.", "Marlborough wrote to Godolphin: \"I am very sensible that I take a great deal upon me, but should I act otherwise, the Empire would be undone ...\"In the meantime, the appointment of Henry Overkirk as Field Marshal caused significant controversy in the Dutch Republic.", "After the Earl of Athlone's death, the Dutch States General had put Overkirk in charge of the Dutch States Army, which led to much discontent among the other high-ranking Dutch generals.", "Ernst Wilhelm von Salisch, Daniël van Dopff and Menno van Coehoorn threatened to resign or go into the service of other countries, although all were eventually convinced to stay.", "The new infantry generals were also disgruntled — the Lord of Slangenburg because he had to serve the less experienced Overkirk; and the Count of Noyelles because he had to serve the orders of the 'insupportable' Slangenburg.", "Then there was the major problem of the position of the Prince of Orange.", "The provinces of Friesland and Groningen demanded that their 17-year-old stadtholder be appointed supreme infantry general.", "This divided the parties so much that a second Grand Assembly, as had existed in 1651, was considered.", "However, after pressure from the other provinces, Friesland and Groningen adjusted their demands and a compromise was found.", "The Prince of Orange would nominally be appointed infantry general, behind Slangenburg and Noyelles, but he would not really be in command until he was 20.While the Allies were making their preparations, the French were striving to maintain and re-supply Marsin.", "He had been operating with Maximilian II against Margrave Louis William, and was somewhat isolated from France: his only lines of communication lay through the rocky passes of the Black Forest.", "On 14 May, Tallard brought 8,000 reinforcements and vast supplies and munitions through the difficult terrain, whilst outmanoeuvring , the Imperial general who sought to block his path.", "Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngen's efforts to intercept him.On 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine.", "If he intended an attack along the Moselle his army would now have to turn west; instead it crossed to the right bank of the Rhine, and was reinforced by 5,000 waiting Hanoverians and Prussians.", "The French realised that there would be no campaign on the Moselle.", "A second possible objective now occurred to theman Allied incursion into Alsace and an attack on Strasbourg.", "Marlborough furthered this apprehension by constructing bridges across the Rhine at Philippsburg, a ruse that not only encouraged Villeroi to come to Tallard's aid in the defence of Alsace, but one that ensured the French plan to march on Vienna was delayed while they waited to see what Marlborough's army would do.Encouraged by Marlborough's promise to return to the Netherlands if a French attack developed there, transferring his troops up the Rhine on barges at a rate of a day, the Dutch States General agreed to release the Danish contingent of seven battalions and 22 squadrons as reinforcements.", "Marlborough reached Ladenburg, in the plain of the Neckar and the Rhine, and there halted for three days to rest his cavalry and allow the guns and infantry to close up.", "On 6 June he arrived at Wiesloch, south of Heidelberg.", "The following day, the Allied army swung away from the Rhine towards the hills of the Swabian Jura and the Danube beyond.", "At last Marlborough's destination was established without doubt.===Strategy===Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736) by Jacob van Schuppen.", "Prince Eugene met Marlborough for the first time in 1704.It was the start of a lifelong personal and professional friendship.On 10 June, Marlborough met for the first time the President of the Imperial War Council, Prince Eugene – accompanied by Count Wratislaw – at the village of Mundelsheim, halfway between the Danube and the Rhine.", "By 13 June, the Imperial Field Commander, Margrave Louis William of Baden, had joined them in Großheppach.", "The three generals commanded a force of nearly 110,000 men.", "At this conference, it was decided that Prince Eugene would return with 28,000 men to the Lines of Stollhofen on the Rhine to watch Villeroi and Tallard and prevent them going to the aid of the Franco-Bavarian army on the Danube.", "Meanwhile, Marlborough's and Margrave Louis William's forces would combine, totalling 80,000 men, and march on the Danube to seek out Maximilian II and Marsin before they could be reinforced.Knowing Marlborough's destination, Tallard and Villeroi met at Landau in the Palatinate on 13 June to construct a plan to save Bavaria.", "The rigidity of the French command system was such that any variations from the original plan had to be sanctioned by Versailles.", "The Count of Mérode-Westerloo, commander of the Flemish troops in Tallard's army, wrote \"One thing is certain: we delayed our march from Alsace for far too long and quite inexplicably.\"", "Approval from King Louis arrived on 27 June: Tallard was to reinforce Marsin and Maximilian II on the Danube via the Black Forest, with 40 battalions and 50 squadrons; Villeroi was to pin down the Allies defending the Lines of Stollhofen, or, if the Allies should move all their forces to the Danube, he was to join with Tallard; Coigny with 8,000 men would protect Alsace.", "On 1 July Tallard's army of 35,000 re-crossed the Rhine at Kehl and began its march.On 22 June, Marlborough's forces linked up with the Imperial forces at Launsheim, having covered in five weeks.", "Thanks to a carefully planned timetable, the effects of wear and tear had been kept to a minimum.", "Captain Parker described the march discipline: \"As we marched through the country of our Allies, commissars were appointed to furnish us with all manner of necessaries for man and horse ... the soldiers had nothing to do but pitch their tents, boil kettles and lie down to rest.\"", "In response to Marlborough's manoeuvres, Maximilian and Marsin, conscious of their numerical disadvantage with only 40,000 men, moved their forces to the entrenched camp at Dillingen on the north bank of the Danube.", "Marlborough could not attack Dillingen because of a lack of siege guns – he had been unable to bring any from the Low Countries, and Margrave Louis William had failed to supply any, despite prior assurances that he would.Allied assault on the Schellenberg – taken by coup de main on 2 July – provided the Allies with an excellent river crossing.The Allies needed a base for provisions and a good river crossing.", "Consequently, on 2 July Marlborough stormed the fortress of Schellenberg on the heights above the town of Donauwörth.", "Count Jean d'Arco had been sent with 12,000 men from the Franco-Bavarian camp to hold the town and grassy hill, but after a fierce battle, with heavy casualties on both sides, Schellenberg fell.", "This forced Donauwörth to surrender shortly afterward.", "Maximilian, knowing his position at Dillingen was now not tenable, took up a position behind the strong fortifications of Augsburg.Tallard's march presented a dilemma for Prince Eugene.", "If the Allies were not to be outnumbered on the Danube, he realised that he had to either try to cut Tallard off before he could get there, or to reinforce Marlborough.", "If he withdrew from the Rhine to the Danube, Villeroi might also make a move south to link up with Maximilian and Marsin.", "Prince Eugene compromisedleaving 12,000 troops behind guarding the Lines of Stollhofenhe marched off with the rest of his army to forestall Tallard.Lacking in numbers, Prince Eugene could not seriously disrupt Tallard's march but the French marshal's progress was proving slow.", "Tallard's force had suffered considerably more than Marlborough's troops on their march – many of his cavalry horses were suffering from glanders and the mountain passes were proving tough for the 2,000 wagonloads of provisions.", "Local German peasants, angry at French plundering, compounded Tallard's problems, leading Mérode-Westerloo to bemoan – \"the enraged peasantry killed several thousand of our men before the army was clear of the Black Forest.", "\"At Augsburg, Maximilian was informed on 14 July that Tallard was on his way through the Black Forest.", "This good news bolstered his policy of inaction, further encouraging him to wait for the reinforcements.", "This reticence to fight induced Marlborough to undertake a controversial policy of spoliation in Bavaria, burning buildings and crops throughout the rich lands south of the Danube.", "This had two aims: firstly to put pressure on Maximilian to fight or come to terms before Tallard arrived with reinforcements; and secondly, to ruin Bavaria as a base from which the French and Bavarian armies could attack Vienna, or pursue Marlborough into Franconia if, at some stage, he had to withdraw northwards.", "But this destruction, coupled with a protracted siege of the town of Rain over 9 to 16 July, caused Prince Eugene to lament \"... since the Donauwörth action I cannot admire their performances\", and later to conclude \"If he has to go home without having achieved his objective, he will certainly be ruined.", "\"===Final positioning===Manoeuvres before the battle, 9–13 AugustTallard, with 34,000 men, reached Ulm, joining with Maximilian and Marsin at Augsburg on 5 August, although Maximilian had dispersed his army in response to Marlborough's campaign of ravaging the region.", "Also on 5 August, Prince Eugene reached Höchstädt, riding that same night to meet with Marlborough at Schrobenhausen.", "Marlborough knew that another crossing point over the Danube was required in case Donauwörth fell to the enemy; so on 7 August, the first of Margrave Louis William's 15,000 Imperial troops left Marlborough's main force to besiege the heavily defended city of Ingolstadt, farther down the Danube, with the remainder following two days later.Dutch officer Willem Vleertman scouts the marshy terrain near Blenheim at the risk of his own lifeWith Prince Eugene's forces at Höchstädt on the north bank of the Danube, and Marlborough's at Rain on the south bank, Tallard and Maximilian debated their next move.", "Tallard preferred to bide his time, replenish supplies and allow Marlborough's Danube campaign to flounder in the colder autumn weather; Maximilian and Marsin, newly reinforced, were keen to push ahead.", "The French and Bavarian commanders eventually agreed to attack Prince Eugene's smaller force.", "On 9 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces began to cross to the north bank of the Danube.", "On 10 August, Prince Eugene sent an urgent dispatch reporting that he was falling back to Donauwörth.", "By a series of swift marches Marlborough concentrated his forces on Donauwörth and, by noon 11 August, the link-up was complete.During 11 August, Tallard pushed forward from the river crossings at Dillingen.", "By 12 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces were encamped behind the small River Nebel near the village of Blenheim on the plain of Höchstädt.", "On the same day, Marlborough and Prince Eugene carried out a reconnaissance of the French position from the church spire at Tapfheim, and moved their combined forces to Münster – from the French camp.", "A French reconnaissance under Jacques Joseph Vipart, Marquis de Silly went forward to probe the enemy, but were driven off by Allied troops who had deployed to cover the pioneers of the advancing army, labouring to bridge the numerous streams in the area and improve the passage leading westwards to Höchstädt.", "Marlborough quickly moved forward two brigades under the command of Lieutenant General John Wilkes and Brigadier Archibald Rowe to secure the narrow strip of land between the Danube and the wooded Fuchsberg hill, at the Schwenningen defile.", "Tallard's army numbered 56,000 men and 90 guns; the army of the Grand Alliance, 52,000 men and 66 guns.", "Some Allied officers who were acquainted with the superior numbers of the enemy, and aware of their strong defensive position, remonstrated with Marlborough about the hazards of attacking; but he was resolute – partly because the Dutch officer Willem Vleertman had scouted the marshy ground before them and reported that the land was perfectly suitable for the troops." ], [ "Battle", "===The battlefield===The battlefield stretched for nearly .", "The extreme right flank of the Franco-Bavarian army rested on the Danube, the undulating pine-covered hills of the Swabian Jura lay to their left.", "A small stream, the Nebel, fronted the French line; the ground either side of this was marshy and only fordable intermittently.", "The French right rested on the village of Blenheim near where the Nebel flows into the Danube; the village itself was surrounded by hedges, fences, enclosed gardens, and meadows.", "Between Blenheim and the village of Oberglauheim to the north west the fields of wheat had been cut to stubble and were now ideal for the deployment of troops.", "From Oberglauheim to the next hamlet of Lutzingen the terrain of ditches, thickets and brambles was potentially difficult ground for the attackers.===Initial manoeuvres===The position of the forces at noon, 13 August.", "Marlborough took control of the left arm of the Allied forces including the attacks on Blenheim and Oberglauheim, whilst Prince Eugene commanded the right including the attacks on Lutzingen.At 02:00 on 13 August, 40 Allied cavalry squadrons were sent forward, followed at 03:00, in eight columns, by the main Allied force pushing over the River Kessel.", "At about 06:00 they reached Schwenningen, from Blenheim.", "The British and German troops who had held Schwenningen through the night joined the march, making a ninth column on the left of the army.", "Marlborough and Prince Eugene made their final plans.", "The Allied commanders agreed that Marlborough would command 36,000 troops and attack Tallard's force of 33,000 on the left, including capturing the village of Blenheim, while Prince Eugene's 16,000 men would attack Maximilian and Marsin's combined forces of 23,000 troops on the right.", "If this attack was pressed hard, it was anticipated that Maximilian and Marsin would feel unable to send troops to aid Tallard on their right.", "Lieutenant-General John Cutts would attack Blenheim in concert with Prince Eugene's attack.", "With the French flanks busy, Marlborough could cross the Nebel and deliver the fatal blow to the French at their centre.", "The Allies would have to wait until Prince Eugene was in position before the general engagement could begin.At 9am on the day of battle Tallard, Maximilian, and Marsin climbed Blenheim's church tower to finalise their plans.", "St Martin's Church, Blindheim, with octagonal tower ''circa'' 1660Tallard was not anticipating an Allied attack; he had been deceived by intelligence gathered from prisoners taken by de Silly the previous day, and his army's strong position.", "Tallard and his colleagues believed that Marlborough and Prince Eugene were about to retreat north-westwards towards Nördlingen.", "Tallard wrote a report to this effect to King Louis that morning.", "Signal guns were fired to bring in the foraging parties and pickets as the French and Bavarian troops drew into battle-order to face the unexpected threat.At about 08:00 the French artillery on their right wing opened fire, answered by Colonel Holcroft Blood's batteries.", "The guns were heard by Prince Louis in his camp before Ingolstadt.", "An hour later Tallard, Maximilian, and Marsin climbed Blenheim's church tower to finalise their plans.", "It was settled that Maximilian and Marsin would hold the front from the hills to Oberglauheim, whilst Tallard would defend the ground between Oberglauheim and the Danube.", "The French commanders were divided as to how to utilise the Nebel.", "Tallard's preferred tactic was to lure the Allies across before unleashing his cavalry upon them.", "This was opposed by Marsin and Maximilian who felt it better to close their infantry right up to the stream itself, so that while the enemy was struggling in the marshes, they would be caught in crossfire from Blenheim and Oberglauheim.", "Tallard's approach was sound if all its parts were implemented, but in the event it allowed Marlborough to cross the Nebel without serious interference and fight the battle he had planned.===Deployment===The Battle of Blenheim by HuchtenburgThe Franco-Bavarian commanders deployed their forces.", "In the village of Lutzingen, Count Alessandro de Maffei positioned five Bavarian battalions with a great battery of 16 guns at the village's edge.", "In the woods to the left of Lutzingen, seven French battalions under César Armand, Marquis de Rozel moved into place.", "Between Lutzingen and Oberglauheim Maximilian placed 27 squadrons of cavalry and 14 Bavarian squadrons commanded by d'Arco with 13 more in support nearby under Baron Veit Heinrich Moritz Freiherr von Wolframsdorf.", "To their right stood Marsin's 40 French squadrons and 12 battalions.", "The village of Oberglauheim was packed with 14 battalions commanded by , including the effective Irish Brigade known as the \"Wild Geese\".", "Six batteries of guns were ranged alongside the village.", "On the right of these French and Bavarian positions, between Oberglauheim and Blenheim, Tallard deployed 64 French and Walloon squadrons, 16 of which were from Marsin, supported by nine French battalions standing near the Höchstädt road.", "In the cornfield next to Blenheim stood three battalions from the Regiment de Roi.", "Nine battalions occupied the village itself, commanded by Philippe, Marquis de Clérambault.", "Four battalions stood to the rear and a further eleven were in reserve.", "These battalions were supported by Count Gabriel d'Hautefeuille's twelve squadrons of dismounted dragoons.", "By 11:00 Tallard, Maximilian, and Marsin were in place.", "Many of the Allied generals were hesitant to attack such a strong position.", "The Earl of Orkney later said that, \"had I been asked to give my opinion, I had been against it.", "\"Prince Eugene was expected to be in position by 11:00, but due to the difficult terrain and enemy fire, progress was slow.", "Cutts' column – which by 10:00 had expelled the enemy from two water mills on the Nebel – had already deployed by the river against Blenheim, enduring over the next three hours severe fire from a six-gun heavy battery posted near the village.", "The rest of Marlborough's army, waiting in their ranks on the forward slope, were also forced to bear the cannonade from the French artillery, suffering 2,000 casualties before the attack could even start.", "Meanwhile, engineers repaired a stone bridge across the Nebel, and constructed five additional bridges or causeways across the marsh between Blenheim and Oberglauheim.", "Marlborough's anxiety was finally allayed when, just past noon, Colonel William Cadogan reported that Prince Eugene's Prussian and Danish infantry were in place – the order for the general advance was given.", "At 13:00, Cutts was ordered to attack the village of Blenheim whilst Prince Eugene was requested to assault Lutzingen on the Allied right flank.===Blenheim===Part of the Battle of Blenheim tapestry at Blenheim Palace by Judocus de Vos.", "In the background is the village of Blenheim; in the middle ground are the two water mills that Rowe had to take to gain a bridgehead over the Nebel.", "The foreground shows an English grenadier with a captured French colour.Cutts ordered Rowe's brigade to attack.", "The English infantry rose from the edge of the Nebel, and silently marched towards Blenheim, a distance of some .", "James Ferguson's Scottish brigade supported Rowe's left, and moved towards the barricades between the village and the river, defended by Hautefeuille's dragoons.", "As the range closed to within , the French fired a deadly volley.", "Rowe had ordered that there should be no firing from his men until he struck his sword upon the palisades, but as he stepped forward to give the signal, he fell mortally wounded.", "The survivors of the leading companies closed up the gaps in their ranks and rushed forward.", "Small parties penetrated the defences, but repeated French volleys forced the English back and inflicted heavy casualties.", "As the attack faltered, eight squadrons of elite Gens d'Armes, commanded by the veteran Swiss officer, , fell on the English troops, cutting at the exposed flank of Rowe's own regiment.", "Wilkes' Hessian brigade, nearby in the marshy grass at the water's edge, stood firm and repulsed the Gens d'Armes with steady fire, enabling the English and Hessians to re-order and launch another attack.Although the Allies were again repulsed, these persistent attacks on Blenheim eventually bore fruit, panicking Clérambault into making the worst French error of the day.", "Without consulting Tallard, Clérambault ordered his reserve battalions into the village, upsetting the balance of the French position and nullifying the French numerical superiority.", "\"The men were so crowded in upon one another\", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, \"that they couldn't even fire – let alone receive or carry out any orders\".", "Marlborough, spotting this error, now countermanded Cutts' intention to launch a third attack, and ordered him simply to contain the enemy within Blenheim; no more than 5,000 Allied soldiers were able to pen in twice the number of French infantry and dragoons.===Lutzingen===Memorial for the Battle of Blenheim 1704, Lutzingen, GermanyOn the Allied right, Prince Eugene's Prussian and Danish forces were desperately fighting the numerically superior forces of Maximilian and Marsin.", "Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau led forward four brigades across the Nebel to assault the well-fortified position of Lutzingen.", "Here, the Nebel was less of an obstacle, but the great battery positioned on the edge of the village enjoyed a good field of fire across the open ground stretching to the hamlet of Schwennenbach.", "As soon as the infantry crossed the stream, they were struck by Maffei's infantry, and salvoes from the Bavarian guns positioned both in front of the village and in enfilade on the wood-line to the right.", "Despite heavy casualties the Prussians attempted to storm the great battery, whilst the Danes, under Count Jobst von Scholten, attempted to drive the French infantry out of the copses beyond the village.With the infantry heavily engaged, Prince Eugene's cavalry picked its way across the Nebel.", "After an initial success, his first line of cavalry, under the Imperial General of Horse, Prince Maximilian of Hanover, were pressed by the second line of Marsin's cavalry and forced back across the Nebel in confusion.", "The exhausted French were unable to follow up their advantage, and both cavalry forces tried to regroup and reorder their ranks.", "Without cavalry support, and threatened with envelopment, the Prussian and Danish infantry were in turn forced to pull back across the Nebel.", "Panic gripped some of Prince Eugene's troops as they crossed the stream.", "Ten infantry colours were lost to the Bavarians, and hundreds of prisoners taken; it was only through the leadership of Prince Eugene and the Prince Maximilian of Hanover that the Imperial infantry was prevented from abandoning the field.After rallying his troops near Schwennenbach – well beyond their starting point – Prince Eugene prepared to launch a second attack, led by the second-line squadrons under the Duke of Württemberg-Teck.", "Yet again they were caught in the murderous crossfire from the artillery in Lutzingen and Oberglauheim, and were once again thrown back in disarray.", "The French and Bavarians were almost as disordered as their opponents, and they too were in need of inspiration from their commander, Maximilian, who was seen \" ... riding up and down, and inspiring his men with fresh courage.\"", "Anhalt-Dessau's Danish and Prussian infantry attacked a second time but could not sustain the advance without proper support.", "Once again they fell back across the stream.===Centre and Oberglauheim===The Battle of Blenheim by Joshua RossWhilst these events around Blenheim and Lutzingen were taking place, Marlborough was preparing to cross the Nebel.", "Hulsen's brigade of Hessians and Hanoverians and the earl of Orkney's British brigade advanced across the stream and were supported by dismounted British dragoons and ten British cavalry squadrons.", "This covering force allowed Charles Churchill's Dutch, British and German infantry and further cavalry units to advance and form up on the plain beyond.", "Marlborough arranged his infantry battalions in a novel manner with gaps sufficient to allow the cavalry to move freely between them.", "Marlborough ordered the formation forward.", "Once again Zurlauben's Gens d'Armes charged, looking to rout Henry Lumley's English cavalry who linked Cutts' column facing Blenheim with Churchill's infantry.", "As the elite French cavalry attacked, they were faced by five English squadrons under Colonel Francis Palmes.", "To the consternation of the French, the Gens d'Armes were pushed back in confusion and pursued well beyond the Maulweyer stream that flows through Blenheim.", "\"What?", "Is it possible?\"", "exclaimed Maximilian, \"the gentlemen of France fleeing?\"", "Palmes attempted to follow up his success but was repulsed by other French cavalry and musket fire from the edge of Blenheim.Nevertheless, Tallard was alarmed by the repulse of the Gens d'Armes and urgently rode across the field to ask Marsin for reinforcements; but on the basis of being hard pressed by Prince Eugene – whose second attack was in full flood – Marsin refused.", "As Tallard consulted with Marsin, more of his infantry were taken into Blenheim by Clérambault.", "Fatally, Tallard, although aware of the situation, did nothing to rectify it, leaving him with just the nine battalions of infantry near the Höchstädt road to oppose the massed enemy ranks in the centre.", "Zurlauben tried several more times to disrupt the Allies forming on Tallard's side of the stream.", "His front-line cavalry darted forward down the gentle slope towards the Nebel, but the attacks lacked co-ordination, and the Allied infantry's steady volleys disconcerted the French horsemen.", "During these skirmishes Zurlauben fell mortally wounded; he died two days later.", "At this stage the time was just after 15:00.The Danish cavalry, under Carl Rudolf, Duke of Württemberg-Neuenstadt, had made slow work of crossing the Nebel near Oberglauheim.", "Harassed by Marsin's infantry near the village, the Danes were driven back across the stream.", "Count Horn's Dutch infantry managed to push the French back from the water's edge, but it was apparent that before Marlborough could launch his main effort against Tallard, Oberglauheim would have to be secured.Count Horn directed Anton Günther, Fürst von Holstein-Beck to take the village, but his two Dutch brigades were cut down by the French and Irish troops, capturing and badly wounding Holstein-Beck during the action.", "The battle was now in the balance.", "If Holstein-Beck's Dutch column were destroyed, the Allied army would be split in two: Prince Eugene's wing would be isolated from Marlborough's, passing the initiative to the Franco-Bavarian forces.", "Seeing the opportunity, Marsin ordered his cavalry to change from facing Prince Eugene, and turn towards their right and the open flank of Churchill's infantry drawn up in front of Unterglau.", "Marlborough, who had crossed the Nebel on a makeshift bridge to take personal control, ordered Hulsen's Hanoverian battalions to support the Dutch infantry.", "A nine-gun artillery battery and a Dutch cavalry brigade under Averock were also called forward, but the cavalry soon came under pressure from Marsin's more numerous squadrons.Marlborough now requested Prince Eugene to release Count Hendrick Fugger and his Imperial Cuirassier brigade to help repel the French cavalry thrust.", "Despite his own difficulties, Prince Eugene at once complied.", "Although the Nebel stream lay between Fugger's and Marsin's squadrons, the French were forced to change front to meet this new threat, thus preventing Marsin from striking at Marlborough's infantry.", "Fugger's cuirassiers charged and, striking at a favourable angle, threw back Marsin's squadrons in disorder.", "With support from Blood's batteries, the Hessian, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry – now commanded by Count Berensdorf – succeeded in pushing the French and Irish infantry back into Oberglauheim so that they could not again threaten Churchill's flank as he moved against Tallard.", "The French commander in the village, de Blainville, was numbered among the heavy casualties.===Breakthrough===Breakthrough: Position of the battle at 17:30.By 16:00, with large parts of the Franco-Bavarian army besieged in Blenheim and Oberglau, the Allied centre of 81 squadrons (nine squadrons had been transferred from Cutts' column) supported by 18 battalions was firmly planted amidst the French line of 64 squadrons and nine battalions of raw recruits.", "There was now a pause in the battle: Marlborough wanted to attack simultaneously along the whole front, and Prince Eugene, after his second repulse, needed time to reorganise.By just after 17:00 all was ready along the Allied front.", "Marlborough's two lines of cavalry had now moved to the front of his line of battle, with the two supporting lines of infantry behind them.", "Mérode-Westerloo attempted to extricate some French infantry crowded into Blenheim, but Clérambault ordered the troops back into the village.", "The French cavalry exerted themselves once more against the Allied first line – Lumley's English and Scots on the Allied left, and Reinhard Vincent Graf von Hompesch's Dutch and German squadrons on the Allied right.", "Tallard's squadrons, which lacked infantry support and were tired, managed to push the Allied first line back to their infantry support.", "With the battle still not won, Marlborough had to rebuke one of his cavalry officers who was attempting to leave the field – \"Sir, you are under a mistake, the enemy lies that way ...\" Marlborough commanded the second Allied line, under and , to move forward, and, driving through the centre, the Allies finally routed Tallard's tired cavalry.", "The Prussian Life Dragoons' Colonel, Ludwig von Blumenthal, and his second in command, Lieutenant Colonel von Hacke, fell next to each other, but the charge succeeded.", "With their cavalry in headlong flight, the remaining nine French infantry battalions fought with desperate valour, trying to form a square, but they were overwhelmed by Blood's close-range artillery and platoon fire.", "Mérode-Westerloo later wrote – \"They died to a man where they stood, stationed right out in the open plain – supported by nobody.", "\"The Battle of Blenheim by John WoottonThe majority of Tallard's retreating troops headed for Höchstädt but most did not make the safety of the town, plunging instead into the Danube where over 3,000 French horsemen drowned; others were cut down by the pursuing Allied cavalry.", "The Marquis de Gruignan attempted a counter-attack, but he was brushed aside by the triumphant Allies.", "After a final rally behind his camp's tents, shouting entreaties to stand and fight, Tallard was caught up in the rout and swept towards Sonderheim.", "Surrounded by a squadron of Hessian troops, Tallard surrendered to Lieutenant Colonel de Boinenburg, the Prince of Hesse-Kassel's ''aide-de-camp'', and was sent under escort to Marlborough.", "Marlborough welcomed the French commander – \"I am very sorry that such a cruel misfortune should have fallen upon a soldier for whom I have the highest regard.", "\"Meanwhile, the Allies had once again attacked the Bavarian stronghold at Lutzingen.", "Prince Eugene became exasperated with the performance of his Imperial cavalry whose third attack had failed: he had already shot two of his troopers to prevent a general flight.", "Then, declaring in disgust that he wished to \"fight among brave men and not among cowards\", Prince Eugene went into the attack with the Prussian and Danish infantry, as did Leopold I, waving a regimental colour to inspire his troops.", "This time the Prussians were able to storm the great Bavarian battery, and overwhelm the guns' crews.", "Beyond the village, Scholten's Danes defeated the French infantry in a desperate hand-to-hand bayonet struggle.", "When they saw that the centre had broken, Maximilian and Marsin decided the battle was lost; like the remnants of Tallard's army, they fled the battlefield, albeit in better order than Tallard's men.", "Attempts to organise an Allied force to prevent Marsin's withdrawal failed owing to the exhaustion of the cavalry, and the growing confusion in the field.===Fall of Blenheim===PursuitMarlborough now turned his attention from the fleeing enemy to direct Churchill to detach more infantry to storm Blenheim.", "Orkney's infantry, Hamilton's English brigade and St Paul's Hanoverians moved across the trampled wheat to the cottages.", "Fierce hand-to-hand fighting gradually forced the French towards the village centre, in and around the walled churchyard which had been prepared for defence.", "Lord John Hay and Charles Ross's dismounted dragoons were also sent, but suffered under a counter-charge delivered by the regiments of Artois and Provence under command of Colonel de la Silvière.", "Colonel Belville's Hanoverians were fed into the battle to steady the resolve of the dragoons, who attacked again.", "The Allied progress was slow and hard, and like the defenders, they suffered many casualties.Many of the cottages were now burning, obscuring the field of fire and driving the defenders out of their positions.", "Hearing the din of battle in Blenheim, Tallard sent a message to Marlborough offering to order the garrison to withdraw from the field.", "\"Inform Monsieur Tallard\", replied Marlborough, \"that, in the position in which he is now, he has no command.\"", "Nevertheless, as dusk came the Allied commander was anxious for a quick conclusion.", "The French infantry fought tenaciously to hold on to their position in Blenheim, but their commander was nowhere to be found.", "By now Blenheim was under assault from every side by three British generals: Cutts, Churchill, and Orkney.", "The French had repulsed every attack, but many had seen what had happened on the plain: their army was routed and they were cut off.", "Orkney, attacking from the rear, now tried a different tactic – \"... it came into my head to beat parley\", he later wrote, \"which they accepted of and immediately their Brigadier de Nouville capitulated with me to be prisoner at discretion and lay down their arms.\"", "Threatened by Allied guns, other units followed their example.", "It was not until 21:00 that the Marquis de Blanzac, who had taken charge in Clérambault's absence, reluctantly accepted the inevitability of defeat, and some 10,000 of France's best infantry had laid down their arms.During these events Marlborough was still in the saddle organising the pursuit of the broken enemy.", "Pausing for a moment, he scribbled on the back of an old tavern bill a note addressed to his wife, Sarah: \"I have no time to say more but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory.\"" ], [ "Aftermath", "Marlborough and Cadogan at the Battle of Blenheim by Pieter van Bloemen''Battle of Höchstädt'' by Wolfgang and VindFrench losses were immense, with over 27,000 killed, wounded and captured.", "Moreover the myth of French invincibility had been destroyed, and King Louis's hopes of a victorious early peace were over.", "Mérode-Westerloo summarised the case against Tallard's army: It was a hard-fought contest: Prince Eugene observed that \"I have not a squadron or battalion which did not charge four times at least.", "\"Although the war dragged on for years, the Battle of Blenheim was probably its most decisive victory; Marlborough and Prince Eugene had saved the Habsburg Empire and thereby preserved the Grand Alliance from collapse.", "Munich, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Ulm and the remaining territory of Bavaria soon fell to the Allies.", "By the Treaty of Ilbersheim, signed on 7 November, Bavaria was placed under Austrian military rule, allowing the Habsburgs to use its resources for the rest of the conflict.The remnants of Maximilian and Marsin's wing limped back to Strasbourg, losing another 7,000 men through desertion.", "Despite being offered the chance to remain as ruler of Bavaria, under the strict terms of an alliance with Austria, Maximilian left his country and family in order to continue the war against the Allies from the Spanish Netherlands where he still held the post of governor-general.", "Tallard – who, unlike his subordinates, was not ransomed or exchanged – was taken to England and imprisoned in Nottingham until his release in 1711.The 1704 campaign lasted longer than usual, for the Allies sought to extract the maximum advantage.", "Realising that France was too powerful to be forced to make peace by a single victory, Prince Eugene, Marlborough and Prince Louis met to plan their next moves.", "For the following year Marlborough proposed a campaign along the valley of the Moselle to carry the war deep into France.", "This required the capture of the major fortress of Landau which guarded the Rhine, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle itself.", "Trier was taken on 27 October and Landau fell on 23 November to Prince Louis and Prince Eugene; with the fall of Trarbach on 20 December, the campaign season for 1704 came to an end.", "The planned offensive never materialised as the Grand Alliance's army had to depart the Moselle to defend Liège from a French counteroffensive.", "The war raged on for another decade.Marlborough returned to England on 14 December (O.S) to the acclamation of Queen Anne and the country.", "In the first days of January, the 110 cavalry standards and 128 infantry colours that had been captured during the battle were borne in procession to Westminster Hall.", "In February 1705, Queen Anne, who had made Marlborough a duke in 1702, granted him the Park of Woodstock Palace and promised a sum of £240,000 to build a suitable house as a gift from a grateful Crown in recognition of his victory; this resulted in the construction of Blenheim Palace.", "The British historian Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy considered Blenheim one of the pivotal battles in history, writing: \"Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of Alexander in extent and those of the Romans in durability.\"", "The military historian John A. Lynn considers this claim unjustified, for King Louis never had such an objective; the campaign in Bavaria was intended only to bring a favourable peace settlement and not domination over Europe.Lake poet Robert Southey criticised the Battle of Blenheim in his anti-war poem \"After Blenheim\", but later praised the victory as \"the greatest victory which had ever done honour to British arms\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Battle of Ramillies" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Ramillies''' (), fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession.", "For the Grand AllianceAustria, England, and the Dutch Republicthe battle had followed an indecisive campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705.Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had been forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands and suffered defeat in northern Italy.", "Yet despite his opponents' setbacks LouisXIV wanted peace, but on reasonable terms.", "Because of this, as well as to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706.The campaign began well for Louis XIV's generals: in Italy Marshal Vendôme defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Calcinato in April, while in Alsace Marshal Villars forced the Margrave of Baden back across the Rhine.", "Encouraged by these early gains LouisXIV urged Marshal Villeroi to go over to the offensive in the Spanish Netherlands and, with victory, gain a 'fair' peace.", "Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven (''Louvain'') at the head of 60,000 men and marched towards Tienen (''Tirlemont''), as if to threaten Zoutleeuw (''Léau'').", "Also determined to fight a major engagement, the Duke of Marlborough, commander-in-chief of Anglo-Dutch forces, assembled his armysome 62,000 mennear Maastricht, and marched past Zoutleeuw.", "With both sides seeking battle, they soon encountered each other on the dry ground between the rivers Mehaigne and Petite Gette, close to the small village of Ramillies.In less than four hours Marlborough's Dutch, English, and Danish forces overwhelmed Villeroi's and Max Emanuel's Franco-Spanish-Bavarian army.", "The Duke's subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battlesomething his opponents failed to realise until it was too latecaught the French in a tactical vice.", "With their foe broken and routed, the Allies were able to fully exploit their victory.", "Town after town fell, including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp; by the end of the campaign Villeroi's army had been driven from most of the Spanish Netherlands.", "With Prince Eugene's subsequent success at the Battle of Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that LouisXIV would suffer during the war.", "Thus, the year 1706 proved, for the Allies, to be an ''annus mirabilis''." ], [ "Background", "After their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the French found some respite in next year.", "The Duke of Marlborough had intended the 1705 campaignan invasion of France through the Moselle valleyto complete the work of Blenheim and persuade King LouisXIV to make peace but the plan had been thwarted by friend and foe alike.", "The reluctance of his Dutch allies to see their frontiers denuded of troops for another gamble in Germany had denied Marlborough the initiative but of far greater importance was the Margrave of Baden's pronouncement that he could not join the Duke in strength for the coming offensive.", "This was in part due to the sudden switching of troops from the Rhine to reinforce Prince Eugene in Italy and part due to the deterioration of Baden's health brought on by the re-opening of a severe foot wound he had received at the storming of the Schellenberg the previous year.", "Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor LeopoldI in May and the accession of JosephI, which unavoidably complicated matters for the Grand Alliance.The resilience of the French king and the efforts of his generals also added to Marlborough's problems.", "Marshal Villeroi, exerting considerable pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse, took Huy on 10 June before pressing on towards Liège.", "With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commanderwhose supplies had by now become very shortwas forced to call off his campaign on 16 June.", "\"What a disgrace for Marlborough,\" exulted Villeroi, \"to have made false movements without any result!\"", "With Marlborough's departure north, the French transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, while Villars marched off to the Rhine.The Anglo-Dutch forces gained minor compensation for the failed Moselle campaign with the success at Elixheim and the crossing of the Lines of Brabant in the Spanish Netherlands (Huy was also retaken on 11 July) but a chance to bring the French to a decisive engagement eluded Marlborough.", "The year 1705 proved almost entirely barren for the Duke, whose military disappointments were only partly compensated by efforts on the diplomatic front where, at the courts of Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Vienna, Berlin and Hanover, Marlborough sought to bolster support for the Grand Alliance and extract promises of prompt assistance for the following year's campaign." ], [ "Prelude", "On 11 January 1706 Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour but he had already been planning his strategy for the coming season.", "The first option (although it is debatable to what extent the Duke was committed to such an enterprise) was a plan to transfer his forces from the Spanish Netherlands to northern Italy; once there, he intended linking up with Prince Eugene in order to defeat the French and safeguard Savoy from being overrun.", "Savoy would then serve as a gateway into France by way of the mountain passes or an invasion with naval support along the Mediterranean coast via Nice and Toulon, in connexion with redoubled Allied efforts in Spain.", "It seems that the Duke's favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley (where Marshal Marsin had recently taken command of French forces) and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France.", "But these decisions soon became academic.", "Shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of big Allied setbacks in the wider war.Determined to show the Grand Alliance that France was still resolute, LouisXIV prepared to launch a double surprise in Alsace and northern Italy.", "On the latter front Marshal Vendôme defeated the Imperial army at Calcinato on 19 April, pushing the Imperialists back in confusion (French forces were now in a position to prepare for the long-anticipated siege of Turin).", "In Alsace, Marshal Villars took Baden by surprise and captured Haguenau, driving him back across the Rhine in some disorder, thus creating a threat on Landau.", "With these reverses, the Dutch refused to contemplate Marlborough's ambitious march to Italy or any plan that denuded their borders of the Duke and their army.", "In the interest of coalition harmony, Marlborough prepared to campaign in the Low Countries.===On the move===Map of the Low Countries during the War of the Spanish Succession.", "The village of Ramillies lies near the Mehaigne, a tributary of the Meuse.The Duke left The Hague on 9 May.", "\"God knows I go with a heavy heart,\" he wrote six days later to his friend and political ally in England, Lord Godolphin, \"for I have no hope of doing anything considerable, unless the French do what I am very confident they will not...\"in other words, court battle.", "On 17 May the Duke concentrated his Dutch and English troops at Tongeren, near Maastricht.", "The Hanoverians, Hessians and Danes, despite earlier undertakings, found, or invented, pressing reasons for withholding their support.", "Marlborough wrote an appeal to the Duke of Württemberg, the commander of the Danish contingent: \"I send you this express to request your Highness to bring forward by a double march your cavalry so as to join us at the earliest moment...\" Additionally, the King ''in'' Prussia, Frederick I, had kept his troops in quarters behind the Rhine while his personal disputes with Vienna and the States General at The Hague remained unresolved.", "Nevertheless, the Duke could think of no circumstances why the French would leave their strong positions and attack his army, even if Villeroi was first reinforced by substantial transfers from Marsin's command.", "But in this he had miscalculated.", "Although LouisXIV wanted peace he wanted it on reasonable terms; for that, he needed victory in the field and to convince the Allies that his resources were by no means exhausted.", "''John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough'' (1650–1722) possibly by Michael DahlFollowing the successes in Italy and along the Rhine, LouisXIV was now hopeful of similar results in Flanders.", "Far from standing on the defensive thereforeand unbeknown to MarlboroughLouisXIV was persistently goading his marshal into action.", "\"Villeroi began to imagine,\" wrote St Simon, \"that the King doubted his courage, and resolved to stake all at once in an effort to vindicate himself.\"", "Accordingly, on 18 May, Villeroi set off from Leuven at the head of 70 battalions, 132 squadrons and 62 cannoncomprising an overall force of some 60,000 troopsand crossed the river Dyle to seek battle with the enemy.", "Spurred on by his growing confidence in his ability to out-general his opponent, and by Versailles’ determination to avenge Blenheim, Villeroi and his generals anticipated success.Neither opponent expected the clash at the exact moment or place where it occurred.", "The French moved first to Tienen, (as if to threaten Zoutleeuw, abandoned by the French in October 1705), before turning southwards, heading for Jodoignethis line of march took Villeroi's army towards the narrow aperture of dry ground between the rivers Mehaigne and Petite Gette close to the small villages of Ramillies and Taviers; but neither commander quite appreciated how far his opponent had travelled.", "Villeroi still believed (on 22 May) the Allies were a full day's march away when in fact they had camped near Corswaren waiting for the Danish squadrons to catch up; for his part, Marlborough deemed Villeroi still at Jodoigne when in reality he was now approaching the plateau of Mont St. André with the intention of pitching camp near Ramillies (see map at right).", "However, the Prussian infantry was not there.", "Marlborough wrote to Lord Raby, the English resident at Berlin: \"If it should please God to give us victory over the enemy, the Allies will be little obliged to the King Frederick for the success.", "\"The following day, at 01:00, Marlborough dispatched Cadogan, his Quartermaster-General, with an advanced guard to reconnoitre the same dry ground that Villeroi's army was now heading toward, country that was well known to the Duke from previous campaigns.", "Two hours later the Duke followed with the main body: 74 battalions, 123 squadrons, 90 pieces of artillery and 20 mortars, totalling 62,000 troops.", "About 08:00, after Cadogan had just passed Merdorp, his force made brief contact with a party of French hussars gathering forage on the edge of the plateau of Jandrenouille.", "After a brief exchange of shots the French retired and Cadogan's dragoons pressed forward.", "With a short lift in the mist, Cadogan soon discovered the smartly ordered lines of Villeroi's advance guard some off; a galloper hastened back to warn Marlborough.", "Two hours later the Duke, accompanied by the Dutch field commander Field Marshal Overkirk, General Daniël van Dopff, and the Allied staff, rode up to Cadogan where on the horizon to the westward he could discern the massed ranks of the French army deploying for battle along the front.", "Marlborough later told Bishop Burnet: \"The French army looked the best of any he had ever seen.\"" ], [ "Battle", "===Battlefield===The battlefield of Ramillies is very similar to that of Blenheim, for here too there is an immense area of arable land unimpeded by woods or hedges.", "Villeroi's right rested on the villages of Franquenée and Taviers, with the river Mehaigne protecting his flank.", "A large open plain, about wide, lay between Taviers and Ramillies, but unlike Blenheim, there was no stream to hinder the cavalry.", "His centre was secured by Ramillies itself, lying on a slight eminence which gave distant views to the north and east.", "The French left flank was protected by broken country, and by a stream, the Petite Gheete, which runs deep between steep and slippery slopes.", "On the French side of the stream the ground rises to Offus, the village which, together with Autre-Eglise farther north, anchored Villeroi's left flank.", "To the west of the Petite Gheete rises the plateau of Mont St. André; a second plain, the plateau of Jandrenouilleupon which the Anglo-Dutch army amassedrises to the east.===Initial dispositions===Initial attack at the Battle of Ramillies, 23 May 1706.To the south, between Taviers and Ramillies, both commanders positioned the bulk of their cavalry.", "It was here that Marlborough made his breakthrough.At 11:00 the Duke ordered the army to take standard battle formation.", "On the far right, towards Foulz, the British battalions and squadrons took up their posts in a double line near the Jeuche stream.", "The centre was formed by the mass of Dutch, German, Protestant Swiss and Scottish infantryperhaps 30,000 menfacing Offus and Ramillies.", "Also facing Ramillies Marlborough placed a powerful battery of thirty 24-pounders, dragged into position by a team of oxen; further batteries were positioned overlooking the Petite Gheete.", "On their left, on the broad plain between Taviers and Ramilliesand where Marlborough thought the decisive encounter must take placeOverkirk drew the 69 squadrons of the Dutch and Danish horse, supported by 19 battalions of Dutch infantry and two artillery pieces.", "''Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria'', (1662–1726) by Joseph VivienMeanwhile, Villeroi deployed his forces.", "In Taviers on his right, he placed two battalions of the Greder Suisse Régiment, with a smaller force forward in Franquenée; the whole position was protected by the boggy ground of the river Mehaigne, thus preventing an Allied flanking movement.", "In the open country between Taviers and Ramillies, he placed 82 squadrons under General de Guiscard supported by several interleaved brigades of French, Swiss and Bavarian infantry.", "Along the Ramillies–Offus–Autre Eglise ridge-line, Villeroi positioned Walloon and Bavarian infantry, supported by the Elector of Bavaria's 50 squadrons of Bavarian and Walloon cavalry placed behind on the plateau of Mont St. André.", "Ramillies, Offus and Autre-Eglise were all packed with troops and put in a state of defence, with alleys barricaded and walls loop-holed for muskets.", "Villeroi also positioned powerful batteries near Ramillies.", "These guns (some of which were of the three barrelled kind first seen at Elixheim the previous year) enjoyed good arcs of fire, able to fully cover the approaches of the plateau of Jandrenouille over which the Allied infantry would have to pass.Marlborough, however, noticed several important weaknesses in the French dispositions.", "Tactically, it was imperative for Villeroi to occupy Taviers on his right and Autre-Eglise on his left, but by adopting this posture he had been forced to over-extend his forces.", "Moreover, this dispositionconcave in relation to the Allied armygave Marlborough the opportunity to form a more compact line, drawn up in a shorter front between the 'horns' of the French crescent; when the Allied blow came it would be more concentrated and carry more weight.", "Additionally, the Duke's disposition facilitated the transfer of troops across his front far more easily than his foe, a tactical advantage that would grow in importance as the events of the afternoon unfolded.", "Although Villeroi had the option of enveloping the flanks of the Allied army as they deployed on the plateau of Jandrenouillethreatening to encircle their armythe Duke correctly gauged that the characteristically cautious French commander was intent on a defensive battle along the ridge-line.===Taviers===At 13:00 the batteries went into action; a little later two Allied columns set out from the extremities of their line and attacked the flanks of the Franco-Bavarian army.", "To the south, 4 battalions, under the command of Colonel Wertmüller, came forward with their two field guns to seize the hamlet of Franquenée.", "The small Swiss garrison in the village, shaken by the sudden onslaught and unsupported by the battalions to their rear, were soon compelled back towards the village of Taviers.", "Taviers was of particular importance to the Franco-Bavarian position: it protected the otherwise unsupported flank of General de Guiscard's cavalry on the open plain, while at the same time, it allowed the French infantry to pose a threat to the flanks of the Dutch and Danish squadrons as they came forward into position.", "But hardly had the retreating Swiss rejoined their comrades in that village when the Dutch Guards renewed their attack.", "The fighting amongst the alleys and cottages soon deteriorated into a fierce bayonet and clubbing ''mêlée'', but the superiority in Dutch firepower soon told.", "The accomplished French officer, Colonel de la Colonie, standing on the plain nearby remembered: \"This village was the opening of the engagement, and the fighting there was almost as murderous as the rest of the battle put together.\"", "By about 15:00 the Swiss had been pushed out of the village into the marshes beyond.", "''François de Neufville, Duke of Villeroi, Marshal of France'', (1644–1730) by Alexandre-François Caminade.", "The Battle of Ramillies was Villeroi's last command.Villeroi's right flank fell into chaos and was now open and vulnerable.", "Alerted to the situation de Guiscard ordered an immediate attack with 14 squadrons of French dragoons currently stationed in the rear.", "Two other battalions of the Greder Suisse Régiment were also sent, but the attack was poorly co-ordinated and consequently went in piecemeal.", "The Anglo-Dutch commanders now sent dismounted Dutch dragoons into Taviers, which, together with the Guards and their field guns, poured concentrated musketry- and canister-fire into the advancing French troops.", "Colonel d’Aubigni, leading his regiment, fell mortally wounded.As the French ranks wavered, the leading squadrons of Württemberg's Danish horsenow unhampered by enemy fire from either villagewere also sent into the attack and fell upon the exposed flank of the Franco-Swiss infantry and dragoons.", "De la Colonie, with his Grenadiers Rouge regiment, together with the Cologne Guards who were brigaded with them, was now ordered forward from his post south of Ramillies to support the faltering counter-attack on the village.", "But on his arrival, all was chaos: \"Scarcely had my troops got over when the dragoons and Swiss who had preceded us, came tumbling down upon my battalions in full flight... My own fellows turned about and fled along with them.\"", "De La Colonie managed to rally some of his grenadiers, together with the remnants of the French dragoons and Greder Suisse battalions, but it was an entirely peripheral operation, offering only fragile support for Villeroi's right flank.===Offus and Autre-Eglise===''Field Marshal George Hamilton 1666–1737 Earl of Orkney'', by Martin MaingaudWhile the attack on Taviers went on the Earl of Orkney launched his first line of English across the Petite Gheete in a determined attack against the barricaded villages of Offus and Autre-Eglise on the Allied right.", "Villeroi, posting himself near Offus, watched anxiously the redcoats' advance, mindful of the counsel he had received on 6 May from LouisXIV: \"Have particular care to that part of the line which will endure the first shock of the English troops.\"", "Heeding this advice the French commander began to transfer battalions from his centre to reinforce the left, drawing more foot from the already weakened right to replace them.As the English battalions descended the gentle slope of the Petite Gheete valley, struggling through the boggy stream, they were met by Major General de la Guiche's disciplined Walloon infantry sent forward from around Offus.", "After concentrated volleys, exacting heavy casualties on the redcoats, the Walloons reformed back to the ridgeline in good order.", "The English took some time to reform their ranks on the dry ground beyond the stream and press on up the slope towards the cottages and barricades on the ridge.", "The vigour of the English assault, however, was such that they threatened to break through the line of the villages and out onto the open plateau of Mont St André beyond.", "This was potentially dangerous for the Allied infantry who would then be at the mercy of the Elector's Bavarian and Walloon squadrons patiently waiting on the plateau for the order to move.Although Henry Lumley's English cavalry had managed to cross the marshy ground around the Petite Gheete, it was soon evident to Marlborough that sufficient cavalry support would not be practicable and that the battle could not be won on the Allied right.", "The Duke, therefore, called off the attack against Offus and Autre-Eglise.", "To make sure that Orkney obeyed his order to withdraw, Marlborough sent his Quartermaster-General in person with the command.", "Despite Orkney's protestations, Cadogan insisted on compliance and, reluctantly, Orkney gave the word for his troops to fall back to their original positions on the edge of the plateau of Jandrenouille.", "It is still not clear how far Orkney's advance was planned only as a feint; according to historian David Chandler it is probably more accurate to surmise that Marlborough launched Orkney in a serious probe with a view to sounding out the possibilities of the sector.", "Nevertheless, the attack had served its purpose.", "Villeroi had given his personal attention to that wing and strengthened it with large bodies of horse and foot that ought to have been taking part in the decisive struggle south of Ramillies.===Ramillies===''King's Horse at Ramillies, 1706''.", "Unknown author.Meanwhile, the Dutch assault on Ramillies was gaining pace.", "Marlborough's younger brother, General of Infantry, Charles Churchill, ordered four brigades of foot to attack the village.", "The assault consisted of 12 battalions of Dutch infantry commanded by Major Generals Scholten and Sparre; two brigades of Saxons under Count Schulenburg; a Scottish brigade in Dutch service led by the 2nd Duke of Argyle; and a small brigade of Protestant Swiss.", "The 20 French and Bavarian battalions in Ramillies, supported by the Irish who had left Ireland in the Flight of the Wild Geese to join Clare's Dragoons who fought as infantry and captured a colour from the British 3rd Regiment of Foot and a small brigade of Cologne and Bavarian Guards under the Marquis de Maffei, put up a determined defence, initially driving back the attackers with severe losses as commemorated in the song ''Clare's Dragoons''.Seeing that Scholten and Sparre were faltering, Marlborough now ordered Orkney's second-line British and Danish battalions (who had not been used in the assault on Offus and Autre-Eglise) to move south towards Ramillies.", "Shielded as they were from observation by a slight fold in the land, their commander, Brigadier-General Van Pallandt, ordered the regimental colours to be left in place on the edge of the plateau to convince their opponents they were still in their initial position.", "Therefore, unbeknown to the French who remained oblivious to the Allies' real strength and intentions on the opposite side of the Petite Gheete, Marlborough was throwing his full weight against Ramillies and the open plain to the south.", "Villeroi meanwhile, was still moving more reserves of infantry in the opposite direction towards his left flank; crucially, it would be some time before the French commander noticed the subtle change in emphasis of the Allied dispositions.", "''Henry of Nassau, Lord of Overkirk''Around 15:30 Overkirk advanced his massed squadrons on the open plain in support of the infantry attack on Ramillies.", "48 Dutch squadrons, supported on their left by 21 Danish squadrons, led by Count Tilly and Lieutenants Generals Hompesch, d'Auvergne, Ostfriesland and Dopffsteadily advanced towards the enemy (taking care not to prematurely tire the horses), before breaking into a trot to gain the impetus for their charge.", "The Marquis de Feuquières writing after the battle described the scene: \"They advanced in four lines... As they approached they advanced their second and fourth lines into the intervals of their first and third lines; so that when they made their advance upon us, they formed only one front, without any intermediate spaces.\"", "This made it nearly impossible for the French cavalry to perform flanking manoeuvres.The initial clash favoured the Dutch and Danish squadrons.", "The disparity of numbersexacerbated by Villeroi stripping their ranks of infantry to reinforce his left flankenabled Overkirk's cavalry to throw the first line of French horse back in some disorder towards their second-line squadrons.", "This line also came under severe pressure and, in turn, was forced back to their third-line of cavalry and the few battalions still remaining on the plain.", "But these French horsemen were amongst the best in LouisXIV's armythe ''Maison du Roi'', supported by four elite squadrons of Bavarian Cuirassiers.", "Ably led by de Guiscard, the French cavalry rallied, thrusting back the Allied squadrons in successful local counterattacks.", "On Overkirk's right flank, close to Ramillies, ten of his squadrons suddenly broke ranks and were scattered, riding headlong to the rear to recover their order, leaving the left flank of the Allied assault on Ramillies dangerously exposed.", "Notwithstanding the lack of infantry support, de Guiscard threw his cavalry forward in an attempt to split the Allied army in two.The Battle of RamilliesA crisis threatened the centre, but from his vantage point Marlborough was at once aware of the situation.", "The Allied commander now summoned the cavalry on the right wing to reinforce his centre, leaving only the English squadrons in support of Orkney.", "Thanks to a combination of battle-smoke and favourable terrain, his redeployment went unnoticed by Villeroi who made no attempt to transfer any of his own 50 unused squadrons.", "While he waited for the fresh reinforcements to arrive, Marlborough flung himself into the ''mêlée'', rallying some of the Dutch cavalry who were in confusion.", "But his personal involvement nearly led to his undoing.", "A number of French horsemen, recognising the Duke, came surging towards his party.", "Marlborough's horse tumbled and the Duke was thrown\"Milord Marlborough was rid over,\" wrote Orkney some time later.", "It was a critical moment of the battle.", "\"Major-General Murray,\" recalled one eyewitness: \"...seeing him fall, marched up in all haste with two Swiss battalions to save him and stop the enemy who were hewing all down in their way.\"", "Fortunately Marlborough's newly appointed aide-de-camp, Richard Molesworth, galloped to the rescue, mounted the Duke on his horse and made good their escape, before Murray's disciplined ranks threw back the pursuing French troopers.After a brief pause, Marlborough's equerry, Colonel Bringfield (or Bingfield), led up another of the Duke's spare horses; but while assisting him onto his mount, the unfortunate Bringfield was hit by an errant cannonball that sheared off his head.", "One account has it that the cannonball flew between the Captain-General's legs before hitting the unfortunate colonel, whose torso fell at Marlborough's feeta moment subsequently depicted in a lurid set of contemporary playing cards.", "Nevertheless, the danger passed and Overkirk and Tilly restored order among the confused squadrons and ordered them to attack again, enabling the Duke to attend to the positioning of the cavalry reinforcements feeding down from his right flanka change of which Villeroi remained blissfully unaware.===Breakthrough===Allied squadrons transferred from north to south gave the Allies a 5–3 advantage on the plain where some 25,000 French and Allied cavalry were heavily engaged.The time was about 16:30, and the two armies were in close contact across the whole front, from the skirmishing in the marshes in the south, through the vast cavalry battle on the open plain; to the fierce struggle for Ramillies at the centre, and to the north, where, around the cottages of Offus and Autre-Eglise, Orkney and de la Guiche faced each other across the Petite Gheete ready to renew hostilities.The arrival of the transferring squadrons now began to tip the balance in favour of the Allies.", "Tired, and suffering a growing list of casualties, the numerical inferiority of Guiscard's squadrons battling on the plain at last began to tell.", "After earlier failing to hold or retake Franquenée and Taviers, Guiscard's right flank had become dangerously exposed and a fatal gap had opened on the right of their line.", "Taking advantage of this breach, Württemberg's Danish cavalry now swept forward, wheeling to penetrate the flank of the Maison du Roi whose attention was almost entirely fixed on holding back the Dutch.", "Sweeping forwards, virtually without resistance, the 21 Danish squadrons reformed behind the French around the area of the Tomb of Ottomond, facing north across the plateau of Mont St André towards the exposed flank of Villeroi's army.The final Allied reinforcements for the cavalry contest to the south were at last in position; Marlborough's superiority on the left could no longer be denied, and his fast-moving plan took hold of the battlefield.", "Now, far too late, Villeroi tried to redeploy his 50 unused squadrons, but a desperate attempt to form line facing south, stretching from Offus to Mont St André, floundered amongst the baggage and tents of the French camp carelessly left there after the initial deployment.", "The Allied commander ordered his cavalry forward against the now heavily outnumbered French and Bavarian horsemen.", "De Guiscard's right flank, without proper infantry support, could no longer resist the onslaught and, turning their horses northwards, they broke and fled in complete disorder.", "Even the squadrons currently being scrambled together by Villeroi behind Ramillies could not withstand the onslaught.", "\"We had not got forty yards on our retreat,\" remembered Captain Peter Drake, an Irishman serving with the French\"when the words ''sauve qui peut'' went through the great part, if not the whole army, and put all to confusion\"In Ramillies the Allied infantry, now reinforced by the English troops brought down from the north, at last broke through.", "The Régiment de Picardie stood their ground but were caught between Colonel Borthwick's Scots-Dutch regiment and the English reinforcements.", "Borthwick was killed, as was Charles O’Brien, the Irish Viscount Clare in French service, fighting at the head of his regiment.", "The Marquis de Maffei attempted one last stand with his Bavarian and Cologne Guards, but it proved in vain.", "Noticing a rush of horsemen fast approaching from the south, he later recalled: \"...I went towards the nearest of these squadrons to instruct their officer, but instead of being listened to I was immediately surrounded and called upon to ask for quarter.", "\"===Pursuit===The roads leading north and west were choked with fugitives.", "Orkney now sent his English troops back across the Petite Gheete stream to once again storm Offus where de la Guiche's infantry had begun to drift away in the confusion.", "To the right of the infantry Lord John Hay's 'Scots Greys' also picked their way across the stream and charged the Régiment du Roi within Autre-Eglise.", "\"Our dragoons,\" wrote John Deane, \"pushing into the village... made terrible slaughter of the enemy.\"", "The Bavarian Horse Grenadiers and the Electoral Guards withdrew and formed a shield about Villeroi and the Elector but were scattered by Lumley's cavalry.", "Stuck in the mass of fugitives fleeing the battlefield, the French and Bavarian commanders narrowly escaped capture by General Cornelius Wood who, unaware of their identity, had to content himself with the seizure of two Bavarian Lieutenant-Generals.", "Far to the south, the remnants of de la Colonie's brigade headed in the opposite direction towards the French held fortress of Namur.The retreat became a rout.", "Individual Allied commanders drove their troops forward in pursuit, allowing their beaten enemy no chance to recover.", "Soon the Allied infantry could no longer keep up, but their cavalry were off the leash, heading through the gathering night for the crossings on the river Dyle.", "At last, however, Marlborough called a halt to the pursuit shortly after midnight near Meldert, from the field.", "\"It was indeed a truly shocking sight to see the miserable remains of this mighty army,\" wrote Captain Drake, \"...reduced to a handful.\"" ], [ "Aftermath", "The Duke of Marlborough receives captured standards at Ramillies.", "Artist: H. Dupray.Queen Anne as Minerva.The reverse shows the seizure by the Allies of twelve Flanders towns: Brussels, Mechelen, Lier, Antwerp, Furnes (Veurne), Aalst, Ath, Oudenarde (Oudenaarde), Bruges (Brugge), Ghent (Gent), Damme, Leuven (Louvain).What was left of Villeroi's army was now broken in spirit; the imbalance of the casualty figures amply demonstrates the extent of the disaster for LouisXIV's army: (''see below'').", "In addition, hundreds of French soldiers were fugitives, many of whom would never remuster to the colours.", "Villeroi also lost 52 artillery pieces and his entire engineer pontoon train.", "In the words of Marshal Villars, the French defeat at Ramillies was \"the most shameful, humiliating and disastrous of routs\".Town after town now succumbed to the Allies.", "Leuven fell on 25 May 1706; three days later, the Allies entered Brussels, the capital of the Spanish Netherlands.", "Marlborough realised the great opportunity created by the early victory of Ramillies: \"We now have the whole summer before us,\" wrote the Duke from Brussels to Robert Harley: \"...and with the blessing of God I shall make the best use of it.\"", "Malines, Lierre, Ghent, Alost, Damme, Oudenaarde, Bruges, and on 6 June Antwerp, all subsequently fell to Marlborough's victorious army and, like Brussels, proclaimed the Austrian candidate for the Spanish throne, the Archduke Charles, as their sovereign.", "Villeroi was helpless to arrest the process of collapse.", "When LouisXIV learnt of the disaster he recalled Marshal Vendôme from northern Italy to take command in Flanders; but it would be weeks before the command changed hands.Allied gains of the Ramillies campaign 1706.", "(Note: Dates of capitulation differ slightly depending on source).As news spread of the Allies' triumph, the Prussians, Hessians and Hanoverian contingents, long delayed by their respective rulers, eagerly joined the pursuit of the broken French and Bavarian forces.", "\"This,\" wrote Marlborough wearily, \"I take to be owing to our late success.\"", "Meanwhile, Overkirk took the port of Ostend on 4 July thus opening a direct route to the English Channel for communication and supply, but the Allies were making scant progress against Dendermonde whose governor, the Marquis de Valée, was stubbornly resisting.", "Only later when Cadogan and Churchill went to take charge did the town's defences begin to fail.Vendôme formally took over command in Flanders on 4 August; Villeroi would never again receive a major command: \"I cannot foresee a happy day in my life save only that of my death.\"", "LouisXIV was more forgiving to his old friend: \"At our age, Marshal, we must no longer expect good fortune.\"", "In the meantime, Marlborough invested the elaborate fortress of Menin which, after a costly siege, capitulated on 22 August.", "Dendermonde finally succumbed on 6 September followed by Aththe last conquest of 1706on 2 October.", "By the time Marlborough had closed down the Ramillies campaign he had denied the French most of the Spanish Netherlands west of the Meuse and north of the Sambreit was an unsurpassed operational triumph for the English Duke but once again it was not decisive as these gains did not defeat France.The immediate question for the Allies was how to deal with the Spanish Netherlands, a subject on which the Austrians and the Dutch were diametrically opposed.", "Emperor JosephI, acting on behalf of his younger brother King CharlesIII, absent in Spain, claimed that reconquered Brabant and Flanders should be put under immediate possession of a governor named by himself.", "The Dutch, however, who had supplied the major share of the troops and money to secure the victory (the Austrians had produced nothing of either) claimed the government of the region till the war was over, and that after the peace they should continue to garrison Barrier Fortresses stronger than those which had fallen so easily to LouisXIV's forces in 1701.Marlborough mediated between the two parties but favoured the Dutch position.", "To sway the Duke's opinion, the Emperor offered Marlborough the governorship of the Spanish Netherlands.", "It was a tempting offer, but in the name of Allied unity, it was one he refused.", "In the end England and the Dutch Republic took control of the newly won territory for the duration of the war; after which it was to be handed over to the direct rule of CharlesIII, subject to the reservation of a Dutch Barrier, the extent and nature of which had yet to be settled.Meanwhile, on the Upper Rhine, Villars had been forced onto the defensive as battalion after battalion had been sent north to bolster collapsing French forces in Flanders; there was now no possibility of his undertaking the re-capture of Landau.", "Further good news for the Allies arrived from northern Italy where, on 7 September, Prince Eugene had routed a French army before the Piedmontese capital, Turin, driving the Franco-Spanish forces from northern Italy.", "Only from Spain did LouisXIV receive any good news where Das Minas and Galway had been forced to retreat from Madrid towards Valencia, allowing PhilipV to re-enter his capital on 4 October.", "All in all though, the situation had changed considerably and LouisXIV began to look for ways to end what was fast becoming a ruinous war for France.", "For Queen Anne also, the Ramillies campaign had one overriding significance: \"Now we have God be thanked so hopeful a prospect of peace.\"", "Instead of continuing the momentum of victory, however, cracks in Allied unity would enable LouisXIV to reverse some of the major setbacks suffered at Turin and Ramillies." ], [ "Casualties", "The total number of French casualties cannot be calculated precisely, so complete was the collapse of the Franco-Bavarian army that day.", "David G. Chandler's ''Marlborough as Military Commander'' and ''A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe'' are consistent with regards to French casualty figures, i.e.", "12,000 dead and wounded plus some 7,000 taken prisoner.", "James Falkner, in ''Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles'', also notes 12,000 dead and wounded and \"up to 10,000\" taken prisoner.", "In ''Notes on the history of military medicine'', Garrison puts French casualties at 13,000, including 2,000 killed, 3,000 wounded and 6,000 missing.", "In ''The Collins Encyclopaedia of Military History'', Dupuy puts Villeroi's dead and wounded at 8,000, with a further 7,000 captured.", "Neil Litten, using French archives, suggests 7,000 killed and wounded and 6,000 captured, with a further 2,000 choosing to desert.", "John Millner's memoirs''Compendious Journal'' (1733)is more specific, recording 12,087 of Villeroi's army were killed or wounded, with another 9,729 taken prisoner.", "In ''Marlborough'', however, Correlli Barnett puts the total casualty figure as high as 30,000–15,000 dead and wounded with an additional 15,000 taken captive.", "Trevelyan estimates Villeroi's casualties at 13,000 but adds \"his losses by desertion may have doubled that number\".", "La Colonie omits a casualty figure in his ''Chronicles of an old Campaigner'' but Saint-Simon in his ''Memoirs'' states 4,000 killed adding \"many others were wounded and many important persons were taken prisoner\".", "Voltaire, however, in ''Histoire du siècle du LouisXIV'' records \"the French lost there twenty thousand men\".", "Gaston Bodart states 2,000 killed or wounded, 6,000 captured and 7,000 scattered for a total of 13,000 casualties.", "Périni writes that both sides lost 2 to 3,000 killed or wounded (the Dutch losing precisely 716 killed and 1,712 wounded), and that 5,600 French were captured." ], [ "See also", "*The battle was used as the name of several Royal Navy ships, HMS ''Ramillies''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Primary===*La Colonie, Jean Martin de.", "''The Chronicles of an Old Campaigner'', (trans.", "W. C. Horsley), (1904)* (1857) ''Mémoires relatifs à la Guerre de succession de 1706–1709 et 1711, de Sicco van Goslinga, publiés par mm.", "U.", "A. Evertsz et G. H. M. Delprat, au nom de la Société d’histoire, d’archéologie et de linquistique de Frise'', (Published by G.T.N.", "Suringar, 1857)*Saint-Simon.", "''Memoirs, vol i''.", "Prion Books Ltd., (1999).", "===Secondary===*Barnett, Correlli.", "''Marlborough''.", "Wordsworth Editions Limited, (1999).", "*Chandler, David G. ''A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe''.", "Wordsworth Editions Limited, (1998).", "*Chandler, David G. ''Marlborough as Military Commander''.", "Spellmount Ltd, (2003).", "*Falkner, James.", "''Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles''.", "Pen & Sword Books Ltd, (2006).", "*Gregg, Edward.", "''Queen Anne''.", "Yale University Press, (2001).", "*Lynn, John A.", "''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714''.", "Longman, (1999).", "***Trevelyan, G. M. ''England Under Queen Anne: Ramillies and the Union with Scotland''.", "Longmans, Green and co., (1932)****** * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Brian Kernighan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brian Wilson Kernighan''' (; born January 30, 1942) is a Canadian computer scientist.He worked at Bell Labs and contributed to the development of Unix alongside Unix creators Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie.", "Kernighan's name became widely known through co-authorship of the first book on the C programming language (''The C Programming Language'') with Dennis Ritchie.", "Kernighan affirmed that he had no part in the design of the C language (\"it's entirely Dennis Ritchie's work\").Kernighan authored many Unix programs, including ditroff.", "He is coauthor of the AWK and AMPL programming languages.", "The \"K\" of K&R C and of AWK both stand for \"Kernighan\".In collaboration with Shen Lin he devised well-known heuristics for two NP-complete optimization problems: graph partitioning and the travelling salesman problem.", "In a display of authorial equity, the former is usually called the Kernighan–Lin algorithm, while the latter is known as the Lin–Kernighan heuristic.Kernighan has been a professor of computer science at Princeton University since 2000 and is the director of undergraduate studies in the department of computer science.", "In 2015, he co-authored the book ''The Go Programming Language''." ], [ "Early life and education", "Brian Kernighan speaks at a tribute to Dennis Ritchie in 2012 at Bell Labs.Kernighan was born in Toronto.", "He attended the University of Toronto between 1960 and 1964, earning his bachelor's degree in engineering physics.", "He received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Princeton University in 1969, completing a doctoral dissertation titled \"Some graph partitioning problems related to program segmentation\" under the supervision of Peter G. Weiner." ], [ "Career and research", "Kernighan has held a professorship in the department of computer science at Princeton since 2000.Each fall he teaches a course called \"Computers in Our World\", which introduces the fundamentals of computing to non-majors.Kernighan was the software editor for Prentice Hall International.", "His \"Software Tools\" series spread the essence of \"C/Unix thinking\" with makeovers for BASIC, FORTRAN, and Pascal, and most notably his \"Ratfor\" (rational FORTRAN) was put in the public domain.He has said that if stranded on an island with only one programming language it would have to be C.Kernighan coined the term \"Unix\" and helped popularize Thompson's Unix philosophy.", "Kernighan is also known as a coiner of the expression \"What You See Is All You Get\" (WYSIAYG), which is a sarcastic variant of the original \"What You See Is What You Get\" (WYSIWYG).", "Kernighan's term is used to indicate that WYSIWYG systems might throw away information in a document that could be useful in other contexts.In 1972, Kernighan described memory management in strings using \"hello\" and \"world\", in the B programming language, which became the iconic example we know today.", "Kernighan's original 1978 implementation of Hello, World!", "was sold at The Algorithm Auction, the world's first auction of computer algorithms.In 1996, Kernighan taught CS50 which is the Harvard University introductory course in computer science.", "Kernighan was an influence on David J. Malan who subsequently taught the course and scaled it up to run at multiple universities and in multiple digital formats.Kernighan was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2002 for contributions to software and to programming languages.", "He was also elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2019.In 2022 Kernighan stated that he was actively working on improvements to the AWK programming language, which he took part in creating in 1977.===Books and reports===* ''The Elements of Programming Style'', with P. J. Plauger* ''Software Tools'', a book and set of tools for Ratfor, co-created in part with P. J. Plauger* ''Software Tools in Pascal'', a book and set of tools for Pascal, with P. J. Plauger* ''The C Programming Language'', with C creator Dennis Ritchie, the first book on C* ''The Practice of Programming'', with Rob Pike* ''The Unix Programming Environment'', a tutorial book, with Rob Pike* \"Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language\", a popular criticism of Niklaus Wirth's Pascal.", "Some parts of the criticism are obsolete due to ISO 7185 (Programming Languages - Pascal); the criticism was written before ISO 7185 was created.", "(AT&T Computing Science Technical Report #100)===Algorithms===* 1972: The first documented \"Hello, world!\"", "program, in Kernighan's \"A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B\"* 1973: ditroff, or \"device independent troff\", which allowed troff to be used with any device* 1974: The eqn typesetting language for troff, with Lorinda Cherry* 1976: Ratfor* 1977: The m4 macro processing language, with Dennis Ritchie* 1977: The AWK programming language, with Alfred Aho and Peter J. Weinberger, and its book ''The AWK Programming Language''* 1985: The AMPL programming language* 1988: The pic typesetting language for troff" ], [ "Publications", "* ''The Elements of Programming Style'' (1974, 1978) with P. J. Plauger* ''Software Tools'' (1976) with P. J. Plauger* ''The C Programming Language'' (1978, 1988) with Dennis M. Ritchie* ''Software Tools in Pascal'' (1981) with P. J. Plauger* ''The Unix Programming Environment'' (1984) with Rob Pike* ''The AWK Programming Language'' (1988) with Alfred Aho and Peter J. Weinberger* ''The Practice of Programming'' (1999) with Rob Pike* ''AMPL: A Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming, 2nd ed.''", "(2003) with Robert Fourer and David Gay* ''D is for Digital: What a well-informed person should know about computers and communications'' (2011)* ''The Go Programming Language'' (2015) with Alan Donovan* ''Understanding the Digital World: What You Need to Know about Computers, the Internet, Privacy, and Security'' (2017)* ''Millions, Billions, Zillions: Defending Yourself in a World of Too Many Numbers'' (2018)* ''UNIX: A History and a Memoir'' (2019)" ], [ "See also", "* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Brian Kernighan's home page at Bell Labs* Lex Fridman Podcast #109: Brian Kernighan - UNIX, C, AWK, AMPL, and Go Programming* \"Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language\" — By Brian Kernighan, AT&T Bell Labs, 2 April 1981* \"Leap In and Try Things\" — Interview with Brian Kernighan — on \"Harmony at Work Blog\", October 2009.", "* An Interview with Brian Kernighan — By Mihai Budiu, for ''PC Report Romania'', August 2000* – Interview by * Video — TechNetCast At Bell Labs: Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan (1999-05-14)* Video (Princeton University, September 7, 2003) — \"Assembly for the Class of 2007: 'D is for Digital and Why It Matters'\"* A Descent into Limbo by Brian Kernighan* Photos of Brian Kernighan* * Video interview with Brian Kernighan for Princeton Startup TV (2012-03-20)* The Setup, Brian Kernighan* Hello, World!", "A collection of Kernighan's opinion columns from The Daily Princetonian, 2006-2013." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "BCPL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BCPL''' (\"'''Basic Combined Programming Language'''\") is a procedural, imperative, and structured programming language.", "Originally intended for writing compilers for other languages, BCPL is no longer in common use.", "However, its influence is still felt because a stripped down and syntactically changed version of BCPL, called B, was the language on which the C programming language was based.", "BCPL introduced several features of many modern programming languages, including using curly braces to delimit code blocks.", "BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967." ], [ "Design", "BCPL was designed so that small and simple compilers could be written for it; reputedly some compilers could be run in 16 kilobytes.", "Furthermore, the original compiler, itself written in BCPL, was easily portable.", "BCPL was thus a popular choice for bootstrapping a system.", "A major reason for the compiler's portability lay in its structure.", "It was split into two parts: the front end parsed the source and generated O-code, an intermediate language.", "The back end took the O-code and translated it into the machine code for the target machine.", "Only of the compiler's code needed to be rewritten to support a new machine, a task that usually took between 2 and 5 person-months.", "This approach became common practice later (e.g.", "Pascal, Java).The language is unusual in having only one data type: a word, a fixed number of bits, usually chosen to align with the architecture's machine word and of adequate capacity to represent any valid storage address.", "For many machines of the time, this data type was a 16-bit word.", "This choice later proved to be a significant problem when BCPL was used on machines in which the smallest addressable item was not a word but a byte or on machines with larger word sizes such as 32-bit or 64-bit.The interpretation of any value was determined by the operators used to process the values.", "(For example, + added two values together, treating them as integers; !", "indirected through a value, effectively treating it as a pointer.)", "In order for this to work, the implementation provided no type checking.The mismatch between BCPL's word orientation and byte-oriented hardware was addressed in several ways.", "One was by providing standard library routines for packing and unpacking words into byte strings.", "Later, two language features were added: the bit-field selection operator and the infix byte indirection operator (denoted by %).BCPL handles bindings spanning separate compilation units in a unique way.", "There are no user-declarable global variables; instead, there is a global vector, similar to \"blank common\" in Fortran.", "All data shared between different compilation units comprises scalars and pointers to vectors stored in a pre-arranged place in the global vector.", "Thus, the header files (files included during compilation using the \"GET\" directive) become the primary means of synchronizing global data between compilation units, containing \"GLOBAL\" directives that present lists of symbolic names, each paired with a number that associates the name with the corresponding numerically addressed word in the global vector.", "As well as variables, the global vector contains bindings for external procedures.", "This makes dynamic loading of compilation units very simple to achieve.", "Instead of relying on the link loader of the underlying implementation, effectively, BCPL gives the programmer control of the linking process.The global vector also made it very simple to replace or augment standard library routines.", "A program could save the pointer from the global vector to the original routine and replace it with a pointer to an alternative version.", "The alternative might call the original as part of its processing.", "This could be used as a quick ''ad hoc'' debugging aid.BCPL was the first brace programming language and the braces survived the syntactical changes and have become a common means of denoting program source code statements.", "In practice, on limited keyboards of the day, source programs often used the sequences $( and $) in place of the symbols { and }.", "The single-line // comments of BCPL, which were not adopted by C, reappeared in C++ and later in C99.The book ''BCPL: The language and its compiler'' describes the philosophy of BCPL as follows:" ], [ "History", "BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967.BCPL was a response to difficulties with its predecessor, Cambridge Programming Language, later renamed Combined Programming Language (CPL), which was designed during the early 1960s.", "Richards created BCPL by \"removing those features of the full language which make compilation difficult\".", "The first compiler implementation, for the IBM 7094 under Compatible Time-Sharing System, was written while Richards was visiting Project MAC at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the spring of 1967.The language was first described in a paper presented to the 1969 Spring Joint Computer Conference.BCPL has been rumored to have originally stood for \"Bootstrap Cambridge Programming Language\", but CPL was never created since development stopped at BCPL, and the acronym was later reinterpreted for the BCPL book.BCPL is the language in which the original \"Hello, World!\"", "program was written.", "The first MUD was also written in BCPL (''MUD1'').Several operating systems were written partially or wholly in BCPL (for example, TRIPOS and the earliest versions of AmigaDOS).", "BCPL was also the initial language used in the Xerox PARC Alto project, the first modern personal computer; among other projects, the Bravo document preparation system was written in BCPL.An early compiler, bootstrapped in 1969, by starting with a paper tape of the O-code of Richards's Atlas 2 compiler, targeted the ICT 1900 series.", "The two machines had different word-lengths (48 vs 24 bits), different character encodings, and different packed string representations—and the successful bootstrapping increased confidence in the practicality of the method.By late 1970, implementations existed for the Honeywell 635 and Honeywell 645, IBM 360, PDP-10, TX-2, CDC 6400, UNIVAC 1108, PDP-9, KDF 9 and Atlas 2.In 1974 a dialect of BCPL was implemented at BBN without using the intermediate O-code.", "The initial implementation was a cross-compiler hosted on BBN's TENEX PDP-10s, and directly targeted the PDP-11s used in BBN's implementation of the second generation IMPs used in the ARPANET.There was also a version produced for the BBC Micro in the mid-1980s, by Richards Computer Products, a company started by John Richards, the brother of Martin Richards.", "The BBC Domesday Project made use of the language.", "Versions of BCPL for the Amstrad CPC and Amstrad PCW computers were also released in 1986 by UK software house Arnor Ltd. MacBCPL was released for the Apple Macintosh in 1985 by Topexpress Ltd, of Kensington, England.Both the design and philosophy of BCPL strongly influenced B, which in turn influenced C. Programmers at the time debated whether an eventual successor to C would be called \"D\", the next letter in the alphabet, or \"P\", the next letter in the parent language name.", "The language most accepted as being C's successor is C++ (with ++ being C's increment operator), although meanwhile, a D programming language also exists.In 1979, implementations of BCPL existed for at least 25 architectures; the language gradually fell out of favour as C became popular on non-Unix systems.Martin Richards maintains a modern version of BCPL on his website, last updated in 2018.This can be set up to run on various systems including Linux, FreeBSD, and Mac OS X.", "The latest distribution includes graphics and sound libraries, and there is a comprehensive manual.", "He continues to program in it, including for his research on musical automated score following.A common informal MIME type for BCPL is ." ], [ "Examples", "=== Hello world ===Richards and Whitby-Strevens provide an example of the \"Hello, World!\"", "program for BCPL using a standard system header, 'LIBHDR':GET \"LIBHDR\"LET START() BE WRITES(\"Hello, World\")=== Further examples ===If these programs are run using Richards' current version of Cintsys (December 2018), LIBHDR, START and WRITEF must be changed to lower case to avoid errors.Print factorials:GET \"LIBHDR\"LET START() = VALOF $(\tFOR I = 1 TO 5 DO\t\tWRITEF(\"%N!", "= %I4*N\", I, FACT(I))\tRESULTIS 0$)AND FACT(N) = N = 0 -> 1, N * FACT(N - 1)Count solutions to the N queens problem:GET \"LIBHDR\"GLOBAL $(\tCOUNT: 200\tALL: 201$)LET TRY(LD, ROW, RD) BE\tTEST ROW = ALL THEN\t\tCOUNT := COUNT + 1\tELSE $(\t\tLET POSS = ALL & ~(LD | ROW | RD)\t\tUNTIL POSS = 0 DO $(\t\t\tLET P = POSS & -POSS\t\t\tPOSS := POSS - P\t\t\tTRY(LD + P > 1)\t\t$)\t$)LET START() = VALOF $(\tALL := 1\tFOR I = 1 TO 12 DO $(\t\tCOUNT := 0\t\tTRY(0, 0, 0)\t\tWRITEF(\"%I2-QUEENS PROBLEM HAS %I5 SOLUTIONS*N\", I, COUNT)\t\tALL := 2 * ALL + 1\t$)\tRESULTIS 0$)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Martin Richards, '' The BCPL Reference Manual'' (Memorandum M-352, Project MAC, Cambridge, MA, USA, July, 1967) * Martin Richards, ''BCPL - a tool for compiler writing and systems programming'' ('''Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference''', Vol 34, pp 557–566, 1969)* Martin Richards, Arthur Evans, Robert F. Mabee, '' The BCPL Reference Manual'' (MAC TR-141, Project MAC, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1974)* Martin Richards, Colin Whitby-Strevens, ''BCPL, the language and its compiler'' (Cambridge University Press, 1980)" ], [ "External links", "* Martin Richards' BCPL distribution* Martin Richards' BCPL Reference Manual, 1967 by Dennis M. Ritchie* BCPL entry in the Jargon File* Nordier & Associates' x86 port* ArnorBCPL manual (1986, Amstrad PCW/CPC)* How BCPL evolved from CPL, Martin Richards * Ritchie's ''The Development of the C Language'' has commentary about BCPL's influence on C* The BCPL Cintsys and Cintpos User Guide" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Battleship" ], [ "Introduction", "main armament demonstrated by unleashing a broadside volley, during which the muzzle blasts from its 16-inch main guns distort the surrounding ocean surface.A '''battleship''' is a large, heavily armored warship with a main battery consisting of large-caliber guns, designed to serve as capital ships with the most intense firepower.", "Before the rise of supercarriers, battleships were among the largest and most formidable weapon systems ever built.The term ''battleship'' came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship, now referred to by historians as pre-dreadnought battleships.", "In 1906, the commissioning of into the United Kingdom's Royal Navy heralded a revolution in the field of battleship design.", "Subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS ''Dreadnought'', were referred to as \"dreadnoughts\", though the term eventually became obsolete as dreadnoughts became the only type of battleship in common use.Battleships dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, and for decades were a major intimidation factor for power projection in both diplomacy and military strategy.", "A global arms race in battleship construction began in Europe in the 1890s and culminated at the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905, the outcome of which significantly influenced the design of HMS ''Dreadnought''.", "The launch of ''Dreadnought'' in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race.", "Three major fleet actions between steel battleships took place: the long-range gunnery duel at the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904, the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905 (both during the Russo-Japanese War) and the inconclusive Battle of Jutland in 1916, during the First World War.", "Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of dreadnoughts of the war, and it was the last major battle in naval history fought primarily by battleships.The Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued.", "Both the Allied and Axis powers built battleships during World War II, though the increasing importance of the aircraft carrier meant that the battleship played a less important role than had been expected in that conflict.The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday.", "There were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets.", "Even in spite of their huge firepower and protection, battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller and relatively inexpensive weapons: initially the torpedo and the naval mine, and later attack aircraft and the guided missile.", "The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II, with the last battleship to be launched being in 1944.Four battleships were retained by the United States Navy until the end of the Cold War for fire support purposes and were last used in combat during the Gulf War in 1991, and then struck from the U.S.", "Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s.", "Many World War II-era battleships remain today as museum ships." ], [ "History", "===Ships of the line=== (1850), the world's first steam-powered battleshipA ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades, which came to prominence with the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship's heyday in the 1830s.", "From 1794, the alternative term 'line of battle ship' was contracted (informally at first) to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'.The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a ship of the line could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew.", "However, the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards, so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind.Over time, ships of the line gradually became larger and carried more guns, but otherwise remained quite similar.", "The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system.", "Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft and later for frigates.", "The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun in 1850—the first true steam battleship.", "''Napoléon'' was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of , regardless of the wind.", "This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement.", "The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships.", "France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships, including Russia (9), the Ottoman Empire (3), Sweden (2), Naples (1), Denmark (1) and Austria (1).", "In addition, the Navy of the North Germany Confederacy (which included Prussia) bought from Britain in 1870 for use as a gunnery training ship.===Ironclads===The French (1859), the first ocean-going ironclad warshipThe adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century.", "The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad: powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells.====Explosive shells====Guns that fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships, and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8-inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line-of-battle ships in 1841.For the U.S. introduction of 8-inch shell guns into the armament of line-of-battle ships in 1841, see Spencer Tucker, ''Arming the Fleet, US Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era'' (U.S.", "Naval Institute Pres, 1989), p. 149..", "In the Crimean War, six line-of-battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853.Later in the war, French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn.Nevertheless, wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells, as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa, where the modern Austrian steam two-decker ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads, many of which were shells, but including at least one 300-pound shot at point-blank range.", "Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day.====Iron armor and construction====, the Royal Navy's first ocean-going iron-hulled warshipThe development of high-explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary.", "In 1859 France launched , the first ocean-going ironclad warship.", "She had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerations.", "Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys, ''Gloire'' was fitted with a propeller, and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor.", "''Gloire'' prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy, anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead.The superior armored frigate followed ''Gloire'' by only 14 months, and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates.", "Within two years, Italy, Austria, Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships, and by the time of the famous clash of the and the at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships.The French , the first battleship to use steel as the main building materialNavies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets (like the USS ''Monitor''), central-batteries or barbettes, or with the ram as the principal weapon.", "As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs.", "By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood.", "The French Navy's , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material.===Pre-dreadnought battleship===Pre-''Dreadnought'' , built in 1892, was the first battleship of the U.S. Navy.", "Photochrom print .The term \"battleship\" was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re-classification of 1892.By the 1890s, there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs, and the type that later became known as the 'pre-dreadnought battleship' emerged.", "These were heavily armored ships, mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets, and without sails.", "The typical first-class battleship of the pre-dreadnought era displaced 15,000 to 17,000 tons, had a speed of , and an armament of four guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed-caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure.", "An early design with superficial similarity to the pre-dreadnought is the British of 1871.The slow-firing main guns were the principal weapons for battleship-to-battleship combat.", "The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles.", "Against major ships, it was thought a 'hail of fire' from quick-firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure, and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers.", "Smaller guns (12-pounders and smaller) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats.The beginning of the pre-dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance.", "For many years previously, Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted.", "Expensive naval projects were criticized by political leaders of all inclinations.", "However, in 1888 a war scare with France and the build-up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction, and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships.", "The principle that Britain's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established.", "This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships, but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s.Diagram of (1908), a typical late pre-dreadnought battleshipIn the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany.", "The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorized a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power.", "Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened.", "In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together.", "In 1897, Britain's lead was far smaller due to competition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan.", "The Ottoman Empire, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors.Pre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad.", "Turrets, armor plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and torpedo tubes were also introduced.", "A small number of designs, including the American and es, experimented with all or part of the 8-inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12-inch primary.", "Results were poor: recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8-inch battery being completely unusable, and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations.", "Even though such innovative designs saved weight (a key reason for their inception), they proved too cumbersome in practice.===Dreadnought era===In 1906, the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary .", "Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John (\"Jackie\") Fisher, HMS ''Dreadnought'' rendered existing battleships obsolete.", "Combining an \"all-big-gun\" armament of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns with unprecedented speed (from steam turbine engines) and protection, she prompted navies worldwide to re-evaluate their battleship building programs.", "While the Japanese had laid down an all-big-gun battleship, , in 1904 and the concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years, it had yet to be validated in combat.", "''Dreadnought'' sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power.Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with steep changes in armament, armor and propulsion.", "Ten years after ''Dreadnought''s commissioning, much more powerful ships, the super-dreadnoughts, were being built.====Origin====Vittorio CunibertiIn the first years of the 20th century, several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns.Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti, the Italian Navy's chief naval architect, articulated the concept of an all-big-gun battleship in 1903.When the ''Regia Marina'' did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in ''Janes'' proposing an \"ideal\" future British battleship, a large armored warship of 17,000 tons, armed solely with a single calibre main battery (twelve 12-inch 305 mm guns), carrying belt armor, and capable of 24 knots (44 km/h).The Russo-Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the \"all-big-gun\" concept.", "During the Battle of the Yellow Sea on August 10, 1904, Admiral Togo of the Imperial Japanese Navy commenced deliberate 12-inch gun fire at the Russian flagship ''Tzesarevich'' at 14,200 yards (13,000 meters).", "At the Battle of Tsushima on May 27, 1905, Russian Admiral Rozhestvensky's flagship fired the first 12-inch guns at the Japanese flagship ''Mikasa'' at 7,000 meters.", "It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the gun over its smaller counterparts, though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons when dealing with smaller fast moving torpedo craft.", "Such was the case, albeit unsuccessfully, when the Russian battleship ''Knyaz Suvorov'' at Tsushima had been sent to the bottom by destroyer launched torpedoes.", "The 1903–04 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines.A preliminary design for the Imperial Japanese Navy's was an \"all-big-gun\" design.As early as 1904, Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast, powerful ships with an all-big-gun armament.", "If Tsushima influenced his thinking, it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on guns.", "Fisher's concerns were submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes, then threatening to outrange battleship guns, making speed imperative for capital ships.", "Fisher's preferred option was his brainchild, the battlecruiser: lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12-inch guns and propelled to by steam turbines.It was to prove this revolutionary technology that ''Dreadnought'' was designed in January 1905, laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906.She carried ten 12-inch guns, had an 11-inch armor belt, and was the first large ship powered by turbines.", "She mounted her guns in five turrets; three on the centerline (one forward, two aft) and two on the wings, giving her at her launch twice the broadside of any other warship.", "She retained a number of 12-pound (3-inch, 76 mm) quick-firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo-boats.", "Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head-to-head with any other ship in a gun battle, and conceivably win.", "''Dreadnought'' was to have been followed by three s, their construction delayed to allow lessons from ''Dreadnought'' to be used in their design.", "While Fisher may have intended ''Dreadnought'' to be the last Royal Navy battleship, the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy.", "Although there were some problems with the ship (the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside, and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load), the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the and es.An American design, , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906, was another of the first dreadnoughts, but she and her sister, , were not launched until 1908.Both used triple-expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery, dispensing with ''Dreadnought''s wing turrets.", "They thus retained the same broadside, despite having two fewer guns.====Arms race====In 1897, before the revolution in design brought about by , the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany.", "From the 1906 launching of ''Dreadnought'', an arms race with major strategic consequences was prompted.", "Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts.", "Possession of modern battleships was not only seen as vital to naval power, but also, as with nuclear weapons after World War II, represented a nation's standing in the world.", "Germany, France, Japan, Italy, Austria, and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; while the Ottoman Empire, Argentina, Russia, Brazil, and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards.===World War I===German High Seas Fleet during World War IBy virtue of geography, the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany's smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea: only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces.", "Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory.", "The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds.", "This did not happen, however, due in large part to the necessity to keep submarines for the Atlantic campaign.", "Submarines were the only vessels in the Imperial German Navy able to break out and raid British commerce in force, but even though they sank many merchant ships, they could not successfully counter-blockade the United Kingdom; the Royal Navy successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany's submarine counter-blockade and eventually defeated it.", "This was in stark contrast to Britain's successful blockade of Germany.Britain's Grand FleetThe first two years of war saw the Royal Navy's battleships and battlecruisers regularly \"sweep\" the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out.", "Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea, such as the famous light cruiser , were able to raid commerce.", "Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers, as in the Battle of the Falklands, December 7, 1914.The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles including the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast, all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail.", "On May 31, 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland.", "The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet.", "Less than two months later, the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle.", "The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive.", "This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle.", "''Warspite'' and ''Malaya'' at JutlandIn the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles.", "In the Black Sea, engagement between Russian and Ottoman battleships was restricted to skirmishes.", "In the Baltic Sea, action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys, and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre-dreadnought was lost.", "The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade.", "And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli.In September 1914, the threat posed to surface ships by German U-boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine in less than an hour.", "The British Super-dreadnought soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U-boat in October 1914 and sank.", "The threat that German U-boats posed to British dreadnoughts was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U-boat attack.", "Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships.As the war wore on however, it turned out that whilst submarines did prove to be a very dangerous threat to older pre-dreadnought battleships, as shown by examples such as the sinking of , which was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine and and were torpedoed by ''U-21'' as well as , , etc., the threat posed to dreadnought battleships proved to have been largely a false alarm.", "HMS ''Audacious'' turned out to be the only dreadnought sunk by a submarine in World War I.", "While battleships were never intended for anti-submarine warfare, there was one instance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battleship.", "HMS ''Dreadnought'' rammed and sank the German submarine ''U-29'' on March 18, 1915, off the Moray Firth.Italian motor boatsWhilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships, the German attempt to rely on U-boat attacks on the British fleet failed.Torpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I, as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre-dreadnought by during the Dardanelles Campaign and the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918.In large fleet actions, however, destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them.", "The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre-dreadnought .", "She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland.The German High Seas Fleet, for their part, were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic, the fleet stayed in port for much of the war.===Inter-war period===For many years, Germany simply had no battleships.", "The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port; largely because no neutral port could be found, the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow, Scotland.", "The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British.", "Instead, most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21, 1919, just before the signature of the peace treaty.", "The treaty also limited the German Navy, and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships.Profile drawing of commissioned 1927The inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out.Scrapping of battleships in the Philadelphia Navy Yard, Pennsylvania, in December 1923While the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles, many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war.", "Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922.This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan.", "The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First Geneva Naval Conference (1927), the First London Naval Treaty (1930), the Second Geneva Naval Conference (1932), and finally the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which all set limits on major warships.", "These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1, 1939, at the beginning of World War II, but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply.", "The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919–1939 than in 1905–1914.The treaties also inhibited development by imposing upper limits on the weights of ships.", "Designs like the projected British , the first American , and the Japanese —all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board.", "Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships.====Rise of air power====Bombing tests which sank (1909), September 1921As early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft.", "By the end of World War I, aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon.", "In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled ''The Command of the Air'', which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units.In the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps, believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete, testified in front of Congress that \"1,000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship\" and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship, making for more efficient use of government funds.", "This infuriated the U.S. Navy, but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers.", "In 1921, he bombed and sank numerous ships, including the \"unsinkable\" German World War I battleship and the American pre-dreadnought .Although Mitchell had required \"war-time conditions\", the ships sunk were obsolete, stationary, defenseless and had no damage control.", "The sinking of ''Ostfriesland'' was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions: Mitchell's airmen disregarded the rules, and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack.", "The stunt made headlines, and Mitchell declared, \"No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them.\"", "While far from conclusive, Mitchell's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the defensive.", "Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy's nascent aircraft carrier program.====Rearmament====The Royal Navy, United States Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I–era battleships during the 1930s.", "Among the new features were an increased tower height and stability for the optical rangefinder equipment (for gunnery control), more armor (especially around turrets) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bombing, and additional anti-aircraft weapons.", "Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the \"Queen Anne's castle\", such as in and , which would be used in the new conning towers of the fast battleships.", "External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes.", "The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships, plus their battlecruisers, with distinctive \"pagoda\" structures, though the received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new .", "Bulges were fitted, including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline.", "The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts, though after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships (such as and ) were rebuilt with tower masts, for an appearance similar to their contemporaries.", "Radar, which was effective beyond visual range and effective in complete darkness or adverse weather, was introduced to supplement optical fire control.Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleship construction did not regain the level of importance it had held in the years before World War I.", "The \"building holiday\" imposed by the naval treaties meant the capacity of dockyards worldwide had shrunk, and the strategic position had changed.In Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and commerce raiding (in particular by s).", "In Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the .", "It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare.", "France intended to build six battleships of the and es, and the Italians four ships.", "Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers.", "The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the .", "Japan, also prioritising aircraft carriers, nevertheless began work on three mammoth ''Yamato''s (although the third, , was later completed as a carrier) and a planned fourth was cancelled.At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish navy included only two small dreadnought battleships, and .", "''España'' (originally named ''Alfonso XIII''), by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol, fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936.The crew aboard ''Jaime I'' remained loyal to the Republic, killed their officers, who apparently supported Franco's attempted coup, and joined the Republican Navy.", "Thus each side had one battleship; however, the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers.", "The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades, convoy escort duties, and shore bombardment, rarely in direct fighting against other surface units.", "In April 1937, ''España'' ran into a mine laid by friendly forces, and sank with little loss of life.", "In May 1937, ''Jaime I'' was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident.", "The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired.", "There she was again hit by several aerial bombs.", "It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port, but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss.", "Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non-intervention blockade.", "On May 29, 1937, two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship outside Ibiza, causing severe damage and loss of life.", "retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería, causing much destruction, and the resulting ''Deutschland'' incident meant the end of German and Italian participation in non-intervention.===World War II===Imperial Japanese Navy's ''Yamato'', seen here under air attack in 1945, and her sister ship (1940) were the heaviest battleships in history.", "leading battleship and cruisers , , and into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945The —an obsolete pre-dreadnought—fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte; and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship, .", "Between those two events, it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role.Battleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean theaters; in the Atlantic, the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders.", "However, clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance.", "The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines, and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers.In the first year of the war, armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare.", "and surprised and sank the aircraft carrier off western Norway in June 1940.This engagement marked the only time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery.", "In the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, British battleships opened fire on the French battleships in the harbor near Oran in Algeria with their heavy guns.", "The fleeing French ships were then pursued by planes from aircraft carriers.The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its effectiveness against battleships.", "The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more.", "The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German battleship .On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Within a short time, five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking, with the rest damaged.", "All three American aircraft carriers were out to sea, however, and evaded destruction.", "The sinking of the British battleship and battlecruiser , demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover, settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921.Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land-based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10, 1941.", "''Haruna'' attacked by U.S. Navy carrier aircraft at Kure air raid, 28 July 1945At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific, for instance Coral Sea and Midway, battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles.", "In later battles in the Pacific, battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti-aircraft defense as escort for the carriers.", "Even the largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's , which carried a main battery of nine 18-inch (46 cm) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon, were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre-war planning.The last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait, on October 25, 1944, in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks.", "All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired.", "fired the last major-caliber salvo of this battle.", "In April 1945, during the battle for Okinawa, the world's most powerful battleship, the ''Yamato'', was sent out on a suicide mission against a massive U.S. force and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost.", "After that, Japanese fleet remaining in the mainland was also destroyed by the US naval air force.===Cold War===Operation CrossroadsAfter World War II, several navies retained their existing battleships, but they were no longer strategically dominant military assets.", "It soon became apparent that they were no longer worth the considerable cost of construction and maintenance and only one new battleship was commissioned after the war, .", "During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship-on-battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of were the exception and not the rule, and with the growing role of aircraft engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer, making heavy gun armament irrelevant.", "The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of or more could be mounted on the Soviet and s. By the end of the 1950s, smaller vessel classes such as destroyers, which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships, now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship's heavy guns.The remaining battleships met a variety of ends.", "and were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946.Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions.", "The was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed ''Novorossiysk''; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29, 1955.The two ships were scrapped in 1956.The French was scrapped in 1954, in 1968, and in 1970.United States Battleship naval fleet in 1987, during the Cold WarThe United Kingdom's four surviving ships were scrapped in 1957, and followed in 1960.All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949.The Soviet Union's was scrapped in 1953, in 1957 and (back under her original name, , since 1942) in 1956–57.Brazil's was scrapped in Genoa in 1953, and her sister ship sank during a storm in the Atlantic ''en route'' to the breakers in Italy in 1951.Argentina kept its two ships until 1956 and Chile kept (formerly ) until 1959.The Turkish battlecruiser (formerly , launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused.", "Sweden had several small coastal-defense battleships, one of which, , survived until 1970.The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build a number of new s were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953.The three old German battleships , , and all met similar ends.", "''Hessen'' was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed ''Tsel''.", "She was scrapped in 1960.", "''Schleswig-Holstein'' was renamed ''Borodino'', and was used as a target ship until 1960.", "''Schlesien'', too, was used as a target ship.", "She was broken up between 1952 and 1957.launches a Tomahawk missile during Operation Desert Storm.The s gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships.", "Radar and computer-controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target.", "The U.S. recommissioned all four ''Iowa''-class battleships for the Korean War and the for the Vietnam War.", "These were primarily used for shore bombardment, ''New Jersey'' firing nearly 6,000 rounds of 16 inch shells and over 14,000 rounds of 5 inch projectiles during her tour on the gunline, seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War.As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to build a 600-ship Navy in the 1980s, and in response to the commissioning of ''Kirov'' by the Soviet Union, the United States recommissioned all four ''Iowa''-class battleships.", "On several occasions, battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups, or led their own battleship battle group.", "These were modernized to carry Tomahawk (TLAM) missiles, with ''New Jersey'' seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984, while and fired their 16-inch (406 mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.", "''Wisconsin'' served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of ''Desert Storm'', firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign.", "The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore-based surface-to-surface missiles; ''Missouri'' was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles, with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer .===End of the battleship era===The American (1912) is the only preserved example of a Dreadnought-type battleship that dates to the time of the original HMS ''Dreadnought''.After was stricken in 1962, the four ''Iowa-class'' ships were the only battleships in commission or reserve anywhere in the world.", "There was an extended debate when the four ''Iowa'' ships were finally decommissioned in the early 1990s.", "and were maintained to a standard whereby they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels, pending the development of a superior fire support vessel.", "These last two battleships were finally stricken from the U.S.", "Naval Vessel Register in 2006.The Military Balance and Russian Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve (Naval Inactive Fleet/Reserve 2nd Turn) in 2010.The Military Balance states the U.S. Navy listed no battleships in the reserve in 2014.When the last ''Iowa''-class ship was finally stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry, no battleships remained in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide.", "A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in drydock.", "The U.S. has eight battleships on display: , , , , , , , and .", "''Missouri'' and ''New Jersey'' are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively.", "''Iowa'' is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro, California.", "''Wisconsin'' now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk, Virginia.", "''Massachusetts'', which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service, is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River, Massachusetts.", "''Texas'', the first battleship turned into a museum, is normally on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, near Houston, but as of 2021 is closed for repairs.", "''North Carolina'' is on display in Wilmington, North Carolina.", "''Alabama'' is on display in Mobile, Alabama.", "The wreck of , sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite.", "The wreck of , also sunk during the attack, is a historic landmark.The only other 20th-century battleship on display is the Japanese pre-dreadnought .", "A replica of the ironclad battleship was built by the Weihai Port Bureau in 2003 and is on display in Weihai, China.Former battleships that were previously used as museum ships included , SMS ''Tegetthoff'', and SMS ''Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand''." ], [ "Strategy and doctrine", "===Doctrine=== fires a full broadside of her nine 16″/50 and six 5″/38 guns during a target exercise.Battleships were the embodiment of sea power.", "For American naval officer Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers, a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas.", "Mahan's theory, proposed in ''The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783'' of 1890, dictated the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas.", "While the work of escorting, blockading, and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels, the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships.", "This concept of \"potential threat\" can be further generalized to the mere existence (as opposed to presence) of a powerful fleet tying the opposing fleet down.", "This concept came to be known as a \"fleet in being\"—an idle yet mighty fleet forcing others to spend time, resource and effort to actively guard against it.Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships, which came to be known as the ''decisive battle'' doctrine in some navies, while targeting merchant ships (commerce raiding or ''guerre de course'', as posited by the ''Jeune École'') could never succeed.Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship, calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible.", "Mahan's work developed in the late 1880s, and by the end of the 1890s it had acquired much international influence on naval strategy; in the end, it was adopted by many major navies (notably the British, American, German, and Japanese).", "The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races, and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era.The \"fleet in being\" suggested battleships could simply by their existence tie down superior enemy resources.", "This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a battle.", "This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic effect.===Tactics===While the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine, the details of battleship deployment were more complex.", "Unlike ships of the line, the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines—because efficient mines and torpedoes did not exist before that—which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft.", "The ''Jeune École'' doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes.", "While this tactic was made less effective by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained.", "By the 1890s, the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats.", "During the First World War and subsequently, battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers.Battleship doctrine emphasized the concentration of the battlegroup.", "In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent (or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet), battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range.", "This was provided by scouting forces; at various stages battlecruisers, cruisers, destroyers, airships, submarines and aircraft were all used.", "(With the development of radio, direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play, as well, so even shore stations, broadly speaking, joined the battlegroup.)", "So for most of their history, battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers.", "The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how, despite this support, the threat of mine and torpedo attack, and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques, seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet, the greatest battleship fleet of its time.===Strategic and diplomatic impact===The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact.", "Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today, the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation's force projection.Even during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant.", "In 1946, USS ''Missouri'' was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region.", "In September 1983, when Druze militia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS ''New Jersey'' stopped the firing.", "Gunfire from ''New Jersey'' later killed militia leaders.===Value for money===Battleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested.", "As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, \"The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people\".", "The ''Jeune École'' school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet.", "It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports.", "The ideas of the ''Jeune École'' were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented.", "The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticized by historians, who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle." ], [ "Former operators", "* : lost its two ''Dingyuan''-class battleships ''Dingyuan'' and ''Zhenyuan'' during the Battle of Weihaiwei in 1895.", "* : lost its entire navy following the collapse of the Empire at the end of World War I.", "* : its only battleship, KB ''Jugoslavija'', was sunk by Italian frogmen during the 1918 Raid on Pula.", "* : lost its entire navy upon its conquest by the Bolsheviks in 1921.", "* : sole surviving battleship TCG ''Turgut Reis'' was decommissioned in 1933.", "* : lost its two surviving s during the Spanish Civil War, both in 1937.", "* : lost its two s during the German bombing of Salamis in 1941.", "* : scuttled its two surviving s in 1945, during the closing months of World War II.", "* : surrendered its sole surviving battleship, ''Nagato'' to the United States following World War II.", "* : decommissioned its last battleship ''Minas Geraes'' in 1952.", "* : decommissioned its two s in 1953.", "* : decommissioned its last two s in 1956.", "* : decommissioned its last battleship ARA ''Rivadavia'' in 1957.", "* : decommissioned its last battleship, ''Almirante Latorre'' in 1958.", "* : decommissioned its last battleship, HMS ''Vanguard'' in 1960.", "* : decommissioned its last battleship, ''Jean Bart'' in 1970.", "* : decommissioned its last battleship USS ''Missouri'' in 1992.She was the last active battleship of any navy." ], [ "See also", "* Arsenal ship* List of battleships* List of sunken battleships* List of ships of World War II* List of battleships of World War I* List of battleships of World War II" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * Corbett, Sir Julian.", "\"Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.\"", "(1994).", "Originally Classified and in two volumes.", ".", "* Corbett, Sir Julian.", "\"Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.\"", "Volume I (2015) Originally published in January 1914.Naval Institute Press * Corbett, Sir Julian.", "\"Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.\"", "Volume II (2015) Originally published in October 1915.Naval Institute Press * * Friedman, Norman (2013).", "\"Naval Firepower, Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnaught Era.\"", "Seaforth Publishing, Great Britain.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Polmar, Norman.", "''The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the US Fleet.''", "2001, Naval Institute Press.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Mahan, Alred Thayer.", "''Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea.''", "By Captain A. T. Mahan, US Navy.", "US Naval ''Proceedings'' magazine; June 1906, volume XXXIV, number 2.United States Naval Institute Press.", "* * Taylor, Bruce, ed.", "''The world of the battleship: The design and careers of capital ships of the world's navies, 1900–1950'' (US Naval Institute Press, 2017).", "224 pp.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Comparison of the capabilities of seven World War II battleships* Comparison of projected post-World War II battleship designs* Development of U.S. battleships, with timeline graph* Battleships in the Transportation Photographs Collection – University of Washington Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bifröst" ], [ "Introduction", "The god Heimdallr stands before the rainbow bridge while blowing his horn (1905) by Emil Doepler.In Norse mythology, '''Bifröst''' (), also called '''Bilröst''', is a burning rainbow bridge that reaches between Midgard (Earth) and Asgard, the realm of the gods.", "The bridge is attested as ''Bilröst'' in the ''Poetic Edda''; compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and as ''Bifröst'' in the ''Prose Edda''; written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, and in the poetry of skalds.", "Both the ''Poetic Edda'' and the ''Prose Edda'' alternately refer to the bridge as '''Ásbrú''' (Old Norse \"Æsir's bridge\").According to the ''Prose Edda'', the bridge ends in heaven at Himinbjörg, the residence of the god Heimdall, who guards it from the jötnar.", "The bridge's destruction during Ragnarök by the forces of Muspell is foretold.", "Scholars have proposed that the bridge may have originally represented the Milky Way and have noted parallels between the bridge and another bridge in Norse mythology, Gjallarbrú." ], [ "Etymology", "Scholar Andy Orchard suggests that ''Bifröst'' may mean \"shimmering path.\"", "He notes that the first element of ''Bilröst''—''bil'' (meaning \"a moment\")—\"suggests the fleeting nature of the rainbow,\" which he connects to the first element of ''Bifröst''—the Old Norse verb ''bifa'' (meaning \"to shimmer\" or \"to shake\")—noting that the element evokes notions of the \"lustrous sheen\" of the bridge.", "Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek says that ''Bifröst'' either means \"the swaying road to heaven\" (also citing ''bifa'') or, if ''Bilröst'' is the original form of the two (which Simek says is likely), \"the fleetingly glimpsed rainbow\" (possibly connected to ''bil'', perhaps meaning \"moment, weak point\")." ], [ "Attestations", "Two poems in the ''Poetic Edda'' and two books in the ''Prose Edda'' provide information about the bridge:===''Poetic Edda''===Thor wades through rivers while the rest of the æsir ride across Bifröst (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.In the ''Poetic Edda'', the bridge is mentioned in the poems ''Grímnismál'' and ''Fáfnismál'', where it is referred to as ''Bilröst''.", "In one of two stanzas in the poem ''Grímnismál'' that mentions the bridge, Grímnir (the god Odin in disguise) provides the young Agnarr with cosmological knowledge, including that Bilröst is the best of bridges.", "Later in ''Grímnismál'', Grímnir notes that Asbrú \"burns all with flames\" and that, every day, the god Thor wades through the waters of Körmt and Örmt and the two Kerlaugar::Benjamin Thorpe translation::Körmt and Ormt, and the Kerlaugs twain::these Thor must wade:each day, when he to council goes:at Yggdrasil's ash;:for as the As-bridge is all on fire,:the holy waters boil.", ":Henry Adams Bellows translation::Kormt and Ormt and the Kerlaugs twain:Shall Thor each day wade through,:(When dooms to give he forth shall go:To the ash-tree Yggdrasil;):For heaven's bridge burns all in flame,:And the sacred waters seethe.In ''Fáfnismál'', the dying wyrm Fafnir tells the hero Sigurd that, during the events of Ragnarök, bearing spears, gods will meet at Óskópnir.", "From there, the gods will cross Bilröst, which will break apart as they cross over it, causing their horses to dredge through an immense river.===''Prose Edda''===Bifröst appears in the background as the gods do battle in ''Battle of the Doomed Gods'' (1882) by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine.Bifröst is shattered in ''The twilight of the gods'' (1920) by Willy Pogany.The bridge is mentioned in the ''Prose Edda'' books ''Gylfaginning'' and ''Skáldskaparmál'', where it is referred to as ''Bifröst''.", "In chapter 13 of ''Gylfaginning'', Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) asks the enthroned figure of High what way exists between heaven and earth.", "Laughing, High replies that the question isn't an intelligent one, and goes on to explain that the gods built a bridge from heaven and earth.", "He incredulously asks Gangleri if he has not heard the story before.", "High says that Gangleri must have seen it, and notes that Gangleri may call it a rainbow.", "High says that the bridge consists of three colors, has great strength, \"and is built with art and skill to a greater extent than other constructions.", "\"High notes that, although the bridge is strong, it will break when \"Muspell's lads\" attempt to cross it, and their horses will have to make do with swimming over \"great rivers.\"", "Gangleri says that it doesn't seem that the gods \"built the bridge in good faith if it is liable to break, considering that they can do as they please.\"", "High responds that the gods do not deserve blame for the breaking of the bridge, for \"there is nothing in this world that will be secure when Muspell's sons attack.", "\"In chapter 15 of ''Gylfaginning'', Just-As-High says that Bifröst is also called ''Asbrú'', and that every day the gods ride their horses across it (with the exception of Thor, who instead wades through the boiling waters of the rivers Körmt and Örmt) to reach Urðarbrunnr, a holy well where the gods have their court.", "As a reference, Just-As-High quotes the second of the two stanzas in ''Grímnismál'' that mention the bridge (see above).", "Gangleri asks if fire burns over Bifröst.", "High says that the red in the bridge is burning fire, and, without it, the frost jotnar and mountain jotnar would \"go up into heaven\" if anyone who wanted could cross Bifröst.", "High adds that, in heaven, \"there are many beautiful places\" and that \"everywhere there has divine protection around it.", "\"In chapter 17, High tells Gangleri that the location of Himinbjörg \"stands at the edge of heaven where Bifrost reaches heaven.\"", "While describing the god Heimdallr in chapter 27, High says that Heimdallr lives in Himinbjörg by Bifröst, and guards the bridge from mountain jotnar while sitting at the edge of heaven.", "In chapter 34, High quotes the first of the two ''Grímnismál'' stanzas that mention the bridge.", "In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök.", "High says that, during Ragnarök, the sky will split open, and from the split will ride forth the \"sons of Muspell\".", "When the \"sons of Muspell\" ride over Bifröst it will break, \"as was said above.", "\"In the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Skáldskaparmál'', the bridge receives a single mention.", "In chapter 16, a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason is provided, where Bifröst is referred to as \"the powers' way.\"" ], [ "Theories", "Bifröst in the background, Heimdallr explains to a young Hnoss how all things came to be (1920) by Willy Pogany.In his translation of the ''Prose Edda'', Henry Adams Bellows comments that the ''Grímnismál'' stanza mentioning Thor and the bridge stanza may mean that \"Thor has to go on foot in the last days of the destruction, when the bridge is burning.", "Another interpretation, however, is that when Thor leaves the heavens (i.e., when a thunder-storm is over) the rainbow-bridge becomes hot in the sun.", "\"John Lindow points to a parallel between Bifröst, which he notes is \"a bridge between earth and heaven, or earth and the world of the gods\", and the bridge Gjallarbrú, \"a bridge between earth and the underworld, or earth and the world of the dead.\"", "Several scholars have proposed that Bifröst may represent the Milky Way." ], [ "Adaptations", "In the final scene of Richard Wagner's 1869 opera ''Das Rheingold'', the god Froh summons a rainbow bridge, over which the gods cross to enter Valhalla.The Bifröst appears in comic books associated with the Marvel Comics character Thor and in subsequent adaptations of those comic books.", "In the Marvel Cinematic Universe film ''Thor'', Jane Foster describes the Bifröst as an Einstein–Rosen bridge, which functions as a means of transportation across space in a short period of time." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Battlecruiser" ], [ "Introduction", ", the largest battlecruiser ever built, in Australia on 17 March 1924The '''battlecruiser''' (also written as '''battle cruiser''' or '''battle-cruiser''') was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century.", "These were similar in displacement, armament and cost to battleships, but differed in form and balance of attributes.", "Battlecruisers typically had thinner armour (to a varying degree) and a somewhat lighter main gun battery than contemporary battleships, installed on a longer hull with much higher engine power in order to attain greater speeds.", "The first battlecruisers were designed in the United Kingdom, as a development of the armoured cruiser, at the same time as the dreadnought succeeded the pre-dreadnought battleship.", "The goal of the design was to outrun any ship with similar armament, and chase down any ship with lesser armament; they were intended to hunt down slower, older armoured cruisers and destroy them with heavy gunfire while avoiding combat with the more powerful but slower battleships.", "However, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships.Battlecruisers served in the navies of the United Kingdom, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Australia and Japan during World War I, most notably at the Battle of the Falkland Islands and in the several raids and skirmishes in the North Sea which culminated in a pitched fleet battle, the Battle of Jutland.", "British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where poor fire safety and ammunition handling practices left them vulnerable to catastrophic magazine explosions following hits to their main turrets from large-calibre shells.", "This dismal showing led to a persistent general belief that battlecruisers were too thinly armoured to function successfully.", "By the end of the war, capital ship design had developed, with battleships becoming faster and battlecruisers becoming more heavily armoured, blurring the distinction between a battlecruiser and a fast battleship.", "The Washington Naval Treaty, which limited capital ship construction from 1922 onwards, treated battleships and battlecruisers identically, and the new generation of battlecruisers planned by the United States, Great Britain and Japan were scrapped or converted into aircraft carriers under the terms of the treaty.Improvements in armour design and propulsion created the 1930s \"fast battleship\" with the speed of a battlecruiser and armour of a battleship, making the battlecruiser in the traditional sense effectively an obsolete concept.", "Thus from the 1930s on, only the Royal Navy continued to use \"battlecruiser\" as a classification for the World War I–era capital ships that remained in the fleet; while Japan's battlecruisers remained in service, they had been significantly reconstructed and were re-rated as full-fledged fast battleships.Battlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, and only one survived to the end.", "There was also renewed interest in large \"cruiser-killer\" type warships, but few were ever begun, as construction of battleships and battlecruisers was curtailed in favor of more-needed convoy escorts, aircraft carriers, and cargo ships.", "Near the end, and after the Cold War era, the Soviet of large guided missile cruisers have been the only active ships termed \"battlecruisers\".", "Russia currently only has two battlecruisers left, one is in active service, the Pyotr Velikiy, and the other is being refitted to modern naval standards, the Admiral Nakhimov." ], [ "Background", "The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser.", "The first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give armour protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection and power projection.", "However, the results were rarely satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship.", "As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, or simply no armour at all.In the 1890s, technology began to change this balance.", "New Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a cruiser side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships and cruisers alike.", "In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as likely allies in the event of war, started to build large, fast armoured cruisers taking advantage of this.", "In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause serious difficulties for the British Empire's worldwide trade.Britain, which had concluded in 1892 that it needed twice as many cruisers as any potential enemy to adequately protect its empire's sea lanes, responded to the perceived threat by laying down its own large armoured cruisers.", "Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type, a total of 35 ships.", "This building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction.", "The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, laying down eight between 1897 and 1906.The cost of this cruiser arms race was significant.", "In the period 1889–1896, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers.", "From 1897 to 1904, it spent £26.9 million.", "Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large and expensive as the equivalent battleship., a ''Minotaur''-class armoured cruiserThe increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely.", "The battleship's main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size.", "However, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value.", "The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, and it seemed unlikely that a battleship would engage within torpedo range.", "However, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques.", "The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were more likely to hit the enemy.", "As naval expert Fred T. Jane wrote in June 1902,Is there anything outside of 2,000 yards that the big gun in its hundreds of tons of medieval castle can affect, that its weight in 6-inch guns without the castle could not affect equally well?", "And inside 2,000, what, in these days of gyros, is there that the torpedo cannot effect with far more certainty?In 1904, Admiral John \"Jacky\" Fisher became First Sea Lord, the senior officer of the Royal Navy.", "He had for some time thought about the development of a new fast armoured ship.", "He was very fond of the \"second-class battleship\" , a faster, more lightly armoured battleship.", "As early as 1901, there is confusion in Fisher's writing about whether he saw the battleship or the cruiser as the model for future developments.", "This did not stop him from commissioning designs from naval architect W. H. Gard for an armoured cruiser with the heaviest possible armament for use with the fleet.", "The design Gard submitted was for a ship between , capable of , armed with four 9.2-inch and twelve guns in twin gun turrets and protected with six inches of armour along her belt and 9.2-inch turrets, on her 7.5-inch turrets, 10 inches on her conning tower and up to on her decks.", "However, mainstream British naval thinking between 1902 and 1904 was clearly in favour of heavily armoured battleships, rather than the fast ships that Fisher favoured.The Battle of Tsushima proved conclusively the effectiveness of heavy guns over intermediate ones and the need for a uniform main caliber on a ship for fire control.", "Even before this, the Royal Navy had begun to consider a shift away from the mixed-calibre armament of the 1890s pre-dreadnought to an \"all-big-gun\" design, and preliminary designs circulated for battleships with all 12-inch or all 10-inch guns and armoured cruisers with all 9.2-inch guns.", "In late 1904, not long after the Royal Navy had decided to use 12-inch guns for its next generation of battleships because of their superior performance at long range, Fisher began to argue that big-gun cruisers could replace battleships altogether.", "The continuing improvement of the torpedo meant that submarines and destroyers would be able to destroy battleships; this in Fisher's view heralded the end of the battleship or at least compromised the validity of heavy armour protection.", "Nevertheless, armoured cruisers would remain vital for commerce protection.Fisher's views were very controversial within the Royal Navy, and even given his position as First Sea Lord, he was not in a position to insist on his own approach.", "Thus he assembled a \"Committee on Designs\", consisting of a mixture of civilian and naval experts, to determine the approach to both battleship and armoured cruiser construction in the future.", "While the stated purpose of the committee was to investigate and report on future requirements of ships, Fisher and his associates had already made key decisions.", "The terms of reference for the committee were for a battleship capable of with 12-inch guns and no intermediate calibres, capable of docking in existing drydocks; and a cruiser capable of , also with 12-inch guns and no intermediate armament, armoured like , the most recent armoured cruiser, and also capable of using existing docks." ], [ "First battlecruisers", "Under the Selborne plan of 1902, the Royal Navy intended to start three new battleships and four armoured cruisers each year.", "However, in late 1904 it became clear that the 1905–1906 programme would have to be considerably smaller, because of lower than expected tax revenue and the need to buy out two Chilean battleships under construction in British yards, lest they be purchased by the Russians for use against the Japanese, Britain's ally.", "These economic realities meant that the 1905–1906 programme consisted only of one battleship, but three armoured cruisers.", "The battleship became the revolutionary battleship , and the cruisers became the three ships of the .", "Fisher later claimed, however, that he had argued during the committee for the cancellation of the remaining battleship.The construction of the new class was begun in 1906 and completed in 1908, delayed perhaps to allow their designers to learn from any problems with ''Dreadnought''.", "The ships fulfilled the design requirement quite closely.", "On a displacement similar to ''Dreadnought'', the ''Invincible''s were longer to accommodate additional boilers and more powerful turbines to propel them at .", "Moreover, the new ships could maintain this speed for days, whereas pre-dreadnought battleships could not generally do so for more than an hour.", "Armed with eight 12-inch Mk X guns, compared to ten on ''Dreadnought'', they had of armour protecting the hull and the gun turrets.", "(''Dreadnought''s armour, by comparison, was at its thickest.)", "The class had a very marked increase in speed, displacement and firepower compared to the most recent armoured cruisers but no more armour.While the ''Invincible''s were to fill the same role as the armoured cruisers they succeeded, they were expected to do so more effectively.", "Specifically their roles were:* '''Heavy reconnaissance.'''", "Because of their power, the ''Invincible''s could sweep away the screen of enemy cruisers to close with and observe an enemy battlefleet before using their superior speed to retire.", "* '''Close support for the battle fleet.'''", "They could be stationed at the ends of the battle line to stop enemy cruisers harassing the battleships, and to harass the enemy's battleships if they were busy fighting battleships.", "Also, the ''Invincible''s could operate as the fast wing of the battlefleet and try to outmanoeuvre the enemy.", "* '''Pursuit.'''", "If an enemy fleet ran, then the ''Invincible''s would use their speed to pursue, and their guns to damage or slow enemy ships.", "* '''Commerce protection.'''", "The new ships would hunt down enemy cruisers and commerce raiders., Britain's first battlecruiserConfusion about how to refer to these new battleship-size armoured cruisers set in almost immediately.", "Even in late 1905, before work was begun on the ''Invincible''s, a Royal Navy memorandum refers to \"large armoured ships\" meaning both battleships and large cruisers.", "In October 1906, the Admiralty began to classify all post-Dreadnought battleships and armoured cruisers as \"capital ships\", while Fisher used the term \"dreadnought\" to refer either to his new battleships or the battleships and armoured cruisers together.", "At the same time, the ''Invincible'' class themselves were referred to as \"cruiser-battleships\", \"dreadnought cruisers\"; the term \"battlecruiser\" was first used by Fisher in 1908.Finally, on 24 November 1911, Admiralty Weekly Order No.", "351 laid down that \"All cruisers of the \"Invincible\" and later types are for the future to be described and classified as \"battle cruisers\" to distinguish them from the armoured cruisers of earlier date.", "\"Along with questions over the new ships' nomenclature came uncertainty about their actual role due to their lack of protection.", "If they were primarily to act as scouts for the battle fleet and hunter-killers of enemy cruisers and commerce raiders, then the seven inches of belt armour with which they had been equipped would be adequate.", "If, on the other hand, they were expected to reinforce a battle line of dreadnoughts with their own heavy guns, they were too thin-skinned to be safe from an enemy's heavy guns.", "The ''Invincible''s were essentially extremely large, heavily armed, fast armoured cruisers.", "However, the viability of the armoured cruiser was already in doubt.", "A cruiser that could have worked with the Fleet might have been a more viable option for taking over that role.Because of the ''Invincible''s size and armament, naval authorities considered them capital ships almost from their inception—an assumption that might have been inevitable.", "Complicating matters further was that many naval authorities, including Lord Fisher, had made overoptimistic assessments from the Battle of Tsushima in 1905 about the armoured cruiser's ability to survive in a battle line against enemy capital ships due to their superior speed.", "These assumptions had been made without taking into account the Russian Baltic Fleet's inefficiency and tactical ineptitude.", "By the time the term \"battlecruiser\" had been given to the ''Invincible''s, the idea of their parity with battleships had been fixed in many people's minds.Not everyone was so convinced.", "''Brasseys Naval Annual'', for instance, stated that with vessels as large and expensive as the ''Invincible''s, an admiral \"will be certain to put them in the line of battle where their comparatively light protection will be a disadvantage and their high speed of no value.\"", "Those in favor of the battlecruiser countered with two points—first, since all capital ships were vulnerable to new weapons such as the torpedo, armour had lost some of its validity; and second, because of its greater speed, the battlecruiser could control the range at which it engaged an enemy." ], [ "Battlecruisers in the dreadnought arms race", "Between the launching of the ''Invincible''s to just after the outbreak of the First World War, the battlecruiser played a junior role in the developing dreadnought arms race, as it was never wholeheartedly adopted as the key weapon in British imperial defence, as Fisher had presumably desired.", "The biggest factor for this lack of acceptance was the marked change in Britain's strategic circumstances between their conception and the commissioning of the first ships.", "The prospective enemy for Britain had shifted from a Franco-Russian alliance with many armoured cruisers to a resurgent and increasingly belligerent Germany.", "Diplomatically, Britain had entered the Entente cordiale in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente.", "Neither France nor Russia posed a particular naval threat; the Russian navy had largely been sunk or captured in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, while the French were in no hurry to adopt the new dreadnought-type design.", "Britain also boasted very cordial relations with two of the significant new naval powers: Japan (bolstered by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, signed in 1902 and renewed in 1905), and the US.", "These changed strategic circumstances, and the great success of the ''Dreadnought'' ensured that she rather than the ''Invincible'' became the new model capital ship.", "Nevertheless, battlecruiser construction played a part in the renewed naval arms race sparked by the ''Dreadnought''., the last battlecruiser built before World War IFor their first few years of service, the ''Invincible''s entirely fulfilled Fisher's vision of being able to sink any ship fast enough to catch them, and run from any ship capable of sinking them.", "An ''Invincible'' would also, in many circumstances, be able to take on an enemy pre-dreadnought battleship.", "Naval circles concurred that the armoured cruiser in its current form had come to the logical end of its development and the ''Invincible''s were so far ahead of any enemy armoured cruiser in firepower and speed that it proved difficult to justify building more or bigger cruisers.", "This lead was extended by the surprise both ''Dreadnought'' and ''Invincible'' produced by having been built in secret; this prompted most other navies to delay their building programmes and radically revise their designs.", "This was particularly true for cruisers, because the details of the ''Invincible'' class were kept secret for longer; this meant that the last German armoured cruiser, , was armed with only guns, and was no match for the new battlecruisers.The Royal Navy's early superiority in capital ships led to the rejection of a 1905–1906 design that would, essentially, have fused the battlecruiser and battleship concepts into what would eventually become the fast battleship.", "The 'X4' design combined the full armour and armament of ''Dreadnought'' with the 25-knot speed of ''Invincible''.", "The additional cost could not be justified given the existing British lead and the new Liberal government's need for economy; the slower and cheaper , a relatively close copy of ''Dreadnought'', was adopted instead.", "The X4 concept would eventually be fulfilled in the and later by other navies.The next British battlecruisers were the three , slightly improved ''Invincible''s built to fundamentally the same specification, partly due to political pressure to limit costs and partly due to the secrecy surrounding German battlecruiser construction, particularly about the heavy armour of .", "This class came to be widely seen as a mistake and the next generation of British battlecruisers were markedly more powerful.", "By 1909–1910 a sense of national crisis about rivalry with Germany outweighed cost-cutting, and a naval panic resulted in the approval of a total of eight capital ships in 1909–1910.Fisher pressed for all eight to be battlecruisers, but was unable to have his way; he had to settle for six battleships and two battlecruisers of the .", "The ''Lion''s carried eight 13.5-inch guns, the now-standard caliber of the British \"super-dreadnought\" battleships.", "Speed increased to and armour protection, while not as good as in German designs, was better than in previous British battlecruisers, with armour belt and barbettes.", "The two ''Lion''s were followed by the very similar .alt=A large gray ship in port.", "The two funnels in the center of the ship emit clouds of smoke.By 1911 Germany had built battlecruisers of her own, and the superiority of the British ships could no longer be assured.", "Moreover, the German Navy did not share Fisher's view of the battlecruiser.", "In contrast to the British focus on increasing speed and firepower, Germany progressively improved the armour and staying power of their ships to better the British battlecruisers.", "''Von der Tann'', begun in 1908 and completed in 1910, carried eight 11.1-inch guns, but with 11.1-inch (283 mm) armour she was far better protected than the ''Invincible''s.", "The two s were quite similar but carried ten 11.1-inch guns of an improved design.", ", designed in 1909 and finished in 1913, was a modified ''Moltke''; speed increased by one knot to , while her armour had a maximum thickness of 12 inches, equivalent to the s of a few years earlier.", "''Seydlitz'' was Germany's last battlecruiser completed before World War I.The next step in battlecruiser design came from Japan.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy had been planning the ships from 1909, and was determined that, since the Japanese economy could support relatively few ships, each would be more powerful than its likely competitors.", "Initially the class was planned with the ''Invincible''s as the benchmark.", "On learning of the British plans for ''Lion'', and the likelihood that new U.S. Navy battleships would be armed with guns, the Japanese decided to radically revise their plans and go one better.", "A new plan was drawn up, carrying eight 14-inch guns, and capable of , thus marginally having the edge over the ''Lion''s in speed and firepower.", "The heavy guns were also better-positioned, being superfiring both fore and aft with no turret amidships.", "The armour scheme was also marginally improved over the ''Lion''s, with nine inches of armour on the turrets and on the barbettes.", "The first ship in the class was built in Britain, and a further three constructed in Japan.", "The Japanese also re-classified their powerful armoured cruisers of the ''Tsukuba'' and ''Ibuki'' classes, carrying four 12-inch guns, as battlecruisers; nonetheless, their armament was weaker and they were slower than any battlecruiser.", "''Kongō''The next British battlecruiser, , was intended initially as the fourth ship in the ''Lion'' class, but was substantially redesigned.", "She retained the eight 13.5-inch guns of her predecessors, but they were positioned like those of ''Kongō'' for better fields of fire.", "She was faster (making on sea trials), and carried a heavier secondary armament.", "''Tiger'' was also more heavily armoured on the whole; while the maximum thickness of armour was the same at nine inches, the height of the main armour belt was increased.", "Not all the desired improvements for this ship were approved, however.", "Her designer, Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, had wanted small-bore water-tube boilers and geared turbines to give her a speed of , but he received no support from the authorities and the engine makers refused his request.1912 saw work begin on three more German battlecruisers of the , the first German battlecruisers to mount 12-inch guns.", "These ships, like ''Tiger'' and the ''Kongō''s, had their guns arranged in superfiring turrets for greater efficiency.", "Their armour and speed was similar to the previous ''Seydlitz'' class.", "In 1913, the Russian Empire also began the construction of the four-ship , which were designed for service in the Baltic Sea.", "These ships were designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns, with armour up to 12 inches thick, and a speed of .", "The heavy armour and relatively slow speed of these ships made them more similar to German designs than to British ships; construction of the ''Borodino''s was halted by the First World War and all were scrapped after the end of the Russian Civil War." ], [ "World War I", "===Construction===For most of the combatants, capital ship construction was very limited during the war.", "Germany finished the ''Derfflinger'' class and began work on the .", "The ''Mackensen''s were a development of the ''Derfflinger'' class, with 13.8-inch guns and a broadly similar armour scheme, designed for .In Britain, Jackie Fisher returned to the office of First Sea Lord in October 1914.His enthusiasm for big, fast ships was unabated, and he set designers to producing a design for a battlecruiser with 15-inch guns.", "Because Fisher expected the next German battlecruiser to steam at 28 knots, he required the new British design to be capable of 32 knots.", "He planned to reorder two s, which had been approved but not yet laid down, to a new design.", "Fisher finally received approval for this project on 28 December 1914 and they became the .", "With six 15-inch guns but only 6-inch armour they were a further step forward from ''Tiger'' in firepower and speed, but returned to the level of protection of the first British battlecruisers.At the same time, Fisher resorted to subterfuge to obtain another three fast, lightly armoured ships that could use several spare gun turrets left over from battleship construction.", "These ships were essentially light battlecruisers, and Fisher occasionally referred to them as such, but officially they were classified as ''large light cruisers''.", "This unusual designation was required because construction of new capital ships had been placed on hold, while there were no limits on light cruiser construction.", "They became and her sisters and , and there was a bizarre imbalance between their main guns of 15 inches (or in ''Furious'') and their armour, which at thickness was on the scale of a light cruiser.", "The design was generally regarded as a failure (nicknamed in the Fleet ''Outrageous'', ''Uproarious'' and ''Spurious''), though the later conversion of the ships to aircraft carriers was very successful.", "Fisher also speculated about a new mammoth, but lightly built battlecruiser, that would carry guns, which he termed ; this never got beyond the concept stage.It is often held that the ''Renown'' and ''Courageous'' classes were designed for Fisher's plan to land troops (possibly Russian) on the German Baltic coast.", "Specifically, they were designed with a reduced draught, which might be important in the shallow Baltic.", "This is not clear-cut evidence that the ships were designed for the Baltic: it was considered that earlier ships had too much draught and not enough freeboard under operational conditions.", "Roberts argues that the focus on the Baltic was probably unimportant at the time the ships were designed, but was inflated later, after the disastrous Dardanelles Campaign.The final British battlecruiser design of the war was the , which was born from a requirement for an improved version of the ''Queen Elizabeth'' battleship.", "The project began at the end of 1915, after Fisher's final departure from the Admiralty.", "While initially envisaged as a battleship, senior sea officers felt that Britain had enough battleships, but that new battlecruisers might be required to combat German ships being built (the British overestimated German progress on the ''Mackensen'' class as well as their likely capabilities).", "A battlecruiser design with eight 15-inch guns, 8 inches of armour and capable of 32 knots was decided on.", "The experience of battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland meant that the design was radically revised and transformed again into a fast battleship with armour up to 12 inches thick, but still capable of .", "The first ship in the class, , was built according to this design to counter the possible completion of any of the Mackensen-class ship.", "The plans for her three sisters, on which little work had been done, were revised once more later in 1916 and in 1917 to improve protection.The Admiral class would have been the only British ships capable of taking on the German ''Mackensen'' class; nevertheless, German shipbuilding was drastically slowed by the war, and while two ''Mackensen''s were launched, none were ever completed.", "The Germans also worked briefly on a further three ships, of the , which were modified versions of the ''Mackensen''s with 15-inch guns.", "Work on the three additional Admirals was suspended in March 1917 to enable more escorts and merchant ships to be built to deal with the new threat from U-boats to trade.", "They were finally cancelled in February 1919.===Battlecruisers in action===The first combat involving battlecruisers during World War I was the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914.A force of British light cruisers and destroyers entered the Heligoland Bight (the part of the North Sea closest to Hamburg) to attack German destroyer patrols.", "When they met opposition from light cruisers, Vice Admiral David Beatty took his squadron of five battlecruisers into the Bight and turned the tide of the battle, ultimately sinking three German light cruisers and killing their commander, Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass.The German battlecruiser perhaps made the most impact early in the war.", "Stationed in the Mediterranean, she and the escorting light cruiser evaded British and French ships on the outbreak of war, and steamed to Constantinople (Istanbul) with two British battlecruisers in hot pursuit.", "The two German ships were handed over to the Ottoman Navy, and this was instrumental in bringing the Ottoman Empire into the war as one of the Central Powers.", "''Goeben'' herself, renamed ''Yavuz Sultan Selim'', fought engagements against the Imperial Russian Navy in the Black Sea before being knocked out of the action for the remainder of the war after the Battle of Imbros against British forces in the Aegean Sea in January 1918.The original battlecruiser concept proved successful in December 1914 at the Battle of the Falkland Islands.", "The British battlecruisers and did precisely the job for which they were intended when they chased down and annihilated the German East Asia Squadron, centered on the armoured cruisers and , along with three light cruisers, commanded by Admiral Maximilian Graf Von Spee, in the South Atlantic Ocean.", "Prior to the battle, the Australian battlecruiser had unsuccessfully searched for the German ships in the Pacific.", "was heavily damaged in the Battle of Dogger BankDuring the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915, the aftermost barbette of the German flagship ''Seydlitz'' was struck by a British 13.5-inch shell from HMS ''Lion''.", "The shell did not penetrate the barbette, but it dislodged a piece of the barbette armour that allowed the flame from the shell's detonation to enter the barbette.", "The propellant charges being hoisted upwards were ignited, and the fireball flashed up into the turret and down into the magazine, setting fire to charges removed from their brass cartridge cases.", "The gun crew tried to escape into the next turret, which allowed the flash to spread into that turret as well, killing the crews of both turrets.", "''Seydlitz'' was saved from near-certain destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines, which had been effected by Wilhelm Heidkamp.", "This near-disaster was due to the way that ammunition handling was arranged and was common to both German and British battleships and battlecruisers, but the lighter protection on the latter made them more vulnerable to the turret or barbette being penetrated.", "The Germans learned from investigating the damaged ''Seydlitz'' and instituted measures to ensure that ammunition handling minimised any possible exposure to flash.Apart from the cordite handling, the battle was mostly inconclusive, though both the British flagship ''Lion'' and ''Seydlitz'' were severely damaged.", "''Lion'' lost speed, causing her to fall behind the rest of the battleline, and Beatty was unable to effectively command his ships for the remainder of the engagement.", "A British signalling error allowed the German battlecruisers to withdraw, as most of Beatty's squadron mistakenly concentrated on the crippled armoured cruiser ''Blücher'', sinking her with great loss of life.", "The British blamed their failure to win a decisive victory on their poor gunnery and attempted to increase their rate of fire by stockpiling unprotected cordite charges in their ammunition hoists and barbettes.", "''Queen Mary'' blows up during the Battle of JutlandAt the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units.", "The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the British Grand Fleet.", "The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', and exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews.", "The exact reason why the ships' magazines detonated is not known, but the plethora of exposed cordite charges stored in their turrets, ammunition hoists and working chambers in the quest to increase their rate of fire undoubtedly contributed to their loss.", "Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' herself was almost lost in a similar manner, save for the heroic actions of Major Francis Harvey.The better-armoured German battlecruisers fared better, in part due to the poor performance of British fuzes (the British shells tended to explode or break up on impact with the German armour).", "—the only German battlecruiser lost at Jutland—had only 128 killed, for instance, despite receiving more than thirty hits.", "The other German battlecruisers, , ''Von der Tann'', ''Seydlitz'', and , were all heavily damaged and required extensive repairs after the battle, ''Seydlitz'' barely making it home, for they had been the focus of British fire for much of the battle." ], [ "Interwar period", "In the years immediately after World War I, Britain, Japan and the US all began design work on a new generation of ever more powerful battleships and battlecruisers.", "The new burst of shipbuilding that each nation's navy desired was politically controversial and potentially economically crippling.", "This nascent arms race was prevented by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, where the major naval powers agreed to limits on capital ship numbers.", "The German navy was not represented at the talks; under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was not allowed any modern capital ships at all.Through the 1920s and 1930s only Britain and Japan retained battlecruisers, often modified and rebuilt from their original designs.", "The line between the battlecruiser and the modern fast battleship became blurred; indeed, the Japanese ''Kongō''s were formally redesignated as battleships after their very comprehensive reconstruction in the 1930s.===Plans in the aftermath of World War I===''Hood'', launched in 1918, was the last World War I battlecruiser to be completed.", "Owing to lessons from Jutland, the ship was modified during construction; the thickness of her belt armour was increased by an average of 50 percent and extended substantially, she was given heavier deck armour, and the protection of her magazines was improved to guard against the ignition of ammunition.", "This was hoped to be capable of resisting her own weapons—the classic measure of a \"balanced\" battleship.", "''Hood'' was the largest ship in the Royal Navy when completed; thanks to her great displacement, in theory she combined the firepower and armour of a battleship with the speed of a battlecruiser, causing some to refer to her as a fast battleship.", "However, her protection was markedly less than that of the British battleships built immediately after World War I, the .", "''Lexington''-class battlecruiser (painting, c. 1919)The navies of Japan and the United States, not being affected immediately by the war, had time to develop new heavy guns for their latest designs and to refine their battlecruiser designs in light of combat experience in Europe.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy began four s. These vessels would have been of unprecedented size and power, as fast and well armoured as ''Hood'' whilst carrying a main battery of ten 16-inch guns, the most powerful armament ever proposed for a battlecruiser.", "They were, for all intents and purposes, fast battleships—the only differences between them and the s which were to precede them were less side armour and a increase in speed.", "The United States Navy, which had worked on its battlecruiser designs since 1913 and watched the latest developments in this class with great care, responded with the .", "If completed as planned, they would have been exceptionally fast and well armed with eight 16-inch guns, but carried armour little better than the ''Invincible''s—this after an increase in protection following Jutland.", "The final stage in the post-war battlecruiser race came with the British response to the ''Amagi'' and ''Lexington'' types: four G3 battlecruisers.", "Royal Navy documents of the period often described any battleship with a speed of over about as a battlecruiser, regardless of the amount of protective armour, although the G3 was considered by most to be a well-balanced fast battleship.The Washington Naval Treaty meant that none of these designs came to fruition.", "Ships that had been started were either broken up on the slipway or converted to aircraft carriers.", "In Japan, ''Amagi'' and were selected for conversion.", "''Amagi'' was damaged beyond repair by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and was broken up for scrap; the hull of one of the proposed ''Tosa''-class battleships, , was converted in her stead.", "The United States Navy also converted two battlecruiser hulls into aircraft carriers in the wake of the Washington Treaty: and , although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: ''Constellation'', ''Ranger'', ''Constitution'' and ''United States'' were scrapped).", "In Britain, Fisher's \"large light cruisers,\" were converted to carriers.", "''Furious'' had already been partially converted during the war and ''Glorious'' and ''Courageous'' were similarly converted.===Rebuilding programmes===''Repulse'' as she was in 1919''Renown'', as reconstructed, in 1939In total, nine battlecruisers survived the Washington Naval Treaty, although HMS ''Tiger'' later became a victim of the London Naval Conference 1930 and was scrapped.", "Because their high speed made them valuable surface units in spite of their weaknesses, most of these ships were significantly updated before World War II.", "and were modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s.", "Between 1934 and 1936, ''Repulse'' was partially modernized and had her bridge modified, an aircraft hangar, catapult and new gunnery equipment added and her anti-aircraft armament increased.", "''Renown'' underwent a more thorough reconstruction between 1937 and 1939.Her deck armour was increased, new turbines and boilers were fitted, an aircraft hangar and catapult added and she was completely rearmed aside from the main guns which had their elevation increased to +30 degrees.", "The bridge structure was also removed and a large bridge similar to that used in the battleships installed in its place.", "While conversions of this kind generally added weight to the vessel, ''Renown''s tonnage actually decreased due to a substantially lighter power plant.", "Similar thorough rebuildings planned for ''Repulse'' and ''Hood'' were cancelled due to the advent of World War II.Unable to build new ships, the Imperial Japanese Navy also chose to improve its existing battlecruisers of the ''Kongō'' class (initially the , , and —the only later as it had been disarmed under the terms of the Washington treaty) in two substantial reconstructions (one for ''Hiei'').", "During the first of these, elevation of their main guns was increased to +40 degrees, anti-torpedo bulges and of horizontal armour added, and a \"pagoda\" mast with additional command positions built up.", "This reduced the ships' speed to .", "The second reconstruction focused on speed as they had been selected as fast escorts for aircraft carrier task forces.", "Completely new main engines, a reduced number of boilers and an increase in hull length by allowed them to reach up to 30 knots once again.", "They were reclassified as \"fast battleships,\" although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War I–era battleships in the American or the British navies, with dire consequences during the Pacific War, when ''Hiei'' and ''Kirishima'' were easily crippled by US gunfire during actions off Guadalcanal, forcing their scuttling shortly afterwards.", "Perhaps most tellingly, ''Hiei'' was crippled by medium-caliber gunfire from heavy and light cruisers in a close-range night engagement.TCG ''Yavuz'' in 1947There were two exceptions: Turkey's ''Yavuz'' and the Royal Navy's ''Hood''.", "The Turkish Navy made only minor improvements to the ship in the interwar period, which primarily focused on repairing wartime damage and the installation of new fire control systems, new main guns and anti-aircraft batteries.", "The aft mainmast of ''Yavuz'' was removed due to the group of anti-aircraft batteries at the aft of the ship, while additional batteries were installed at the fore.", "''Hood'' was in constant service with the fleet and could not be withdrawn for an extended reconstruction.", "She received minor improvements over the course of the 1930s, including modern fire control systems, increased numbers of anti-aircraft guns, and in March 1941, radar.===Naval rearmament===In the late 1930s navies began to build capital ships again, and during this period a number of large commerce raiders and small, fast battleships were built that are sometimes referred to as battlecruisers.", "Germany and Russia designed new battlecruisers during this period, though only the latter laid down two of the 35,000-ton .", "They were still on the slipways when the Germans invaded in 1941 and construction was suspended.", "Both ships were scrapped after the war.The Germans planned three battlecruisers of the as part of the expansion of the Kriegsmarine (Plan Z).", "With six 15-inch guns, high speed, excellent range, but very thin armour, they were intended as commerce raiders.", "Only one was ordered shortly before World War II; no work was ever done on it.", "No names were assigned, and they were known by their contract names: 'O', 'P', and 'Q'.", "The new class was not universally welcomed in the Kriegsmarine.", "Their abnormally-light protection gained it the derogatory nickname ''Ohne Panzer Quatsch'' (without armour nonsense) within certain circles of the Navy." ], [ "World War II", "The Royal Navy deployed some of its battlecruisers during the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940.The and the were engaged during the action off Lofoten by ''Renown'' in very bad weather and disengaged after ''Gneisenau'' was damaged.", "One of ''Renown''s 15-inch shells passed through ''Gneisenau''s director-control tower without exploding, severing electrical and communication cables as it went and destroyed the rangefinders for the forward 150 mm (5.9 in) turrets.", "Main-battery fire control had to be shifted aft due to the loss of electrical power.", "Another shell from ''Renown'' knocked out ''Gneisenau''s aft turret.", "The British ship was struck twice by German shells that failed to inflict any significant damage.", "She was the only pre-war battlecruiser to survive the war.In the early years of the war various German ships had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the Atlantic.", "Allied battlecruisers such as ''Renown'', ''Repulse'', and the fast battleships ''Dunkerque'' and were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce-raiding German ships.", "The one stand-up fight occurred when the battleship and the heavy cruiser sortied into the North Atlantic to attack British shipping and were intercepted by ''Hood'' and the battleship in May 1941 in the Battle of the Denmark Strait.", "The elderly British battlecruiser was no match for the modern German battleship: within minutes, the ''Bismarck''s 15-inch shells caused a magazine explosion in ''Hood'' reminiscent of the Battle of Jutland.", "Only three men survived.The first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was ''Repulse'' when she was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers north of Singapore on 10 December 1941 whilst in company with ''Prince of Wales''.", "She was lightly damaged by a single bomb and near-missed by two others in the first Japanese attack.", "Her speed and agility enabled her to avoid the other attacks by level bombers and dodge 33 torpedoes.", "The last group of torpedo bombers attacked from multiple directions and ''Repulse'' was struck by five torpedoes.", "She quickly capsized with the loss of 27 officers and 486 crewmen; 42 officers and 754 enlisted men were rescued by the escorting destroyers.", "The loss of ''Repulse'' and ''Prince of Wales'' conclusively proved the vulnerability of capital ships to aircraft without air cover of their own.The Japanese ''Kongō''-class battlecruisers were extensively used as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career due to their high speed.", "Their World War I–era armament was weaker and their upgraded armour was still thin compared to contemporary battleships.", "On 13 November 1942, during the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, ''Hiei'' stumbled across American cruisers and destroyers at point-blank range.", "The ship was badly damaged in the encounter and had to be towed by her sister ship ''Kirishima''.", "Both were spotted by American aircraft the following morning and ''Kirishima'' was forced to cast off her tow because of repeated aerial attacks.", "''Hiei''s captain ordered her crew to abandon ship after further damage and scuttled ''Hiei'' in the early evening of 14 November.", "On the night of 14/15 November during the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, ''Kirishima'' returned to Ironbottom Sound, but encountered the American battleships and .", "While failing to detect ''Washington'', ''Kirishima'' engaged ''South Dakota'' with some effect.", "''Washington'' opened fire a few minutes later at short range and badly damaged ''Kirishima'', knocking out her aft turrets, jamming her rudder, and hitting the ship below the waterline.", "The flooding proved to be uncontrollable and ''Kirishima'' capsized three and a half hours later.Returning to Japan after the Battle of Leyte Gulf, ''Kongō'' was torpedoed and sunk by the American submarine on 21 November 1944.", "''Haruna'' was moored at Kure, Japan when the naval base was attacked by American carrier aircraft on 24 and 28 July 1945.The ship was only lightly damaged by a single bomb hit on 24 July, but was hit a dozen more times on 28 July and sank at her pier.", "She was refloated after the war and scrapped in early 1946.===Large cruisers or \"cruiser killers\"===, one of the United States Navy's two \"large cruisers\"A late renaissance in popularity of ships between battleships and cruisers in size occurred on the eve of World War II.", "Described by some as battlecruisers, but never classified as capital ships, they were variously described as \"super cruisers\", \"large cruisers\" or even \"unrestricted cruisers\".", "The Dutch, American, and Japanese navies all planned these new classes specifically to counter the heavy cruisers, or their counterparts, being built by their naval rivals.The first such battlecruisers were the Dutch Design 1047, designed to protect their colonies in the East Indies in the face of Japanese aggression.", "Never officially assigned names, these ships were designed with German and Italian assistance.", "While they broadly resembled the German ''Scharnhorst'' class and had the same main battery, they would have been more lightly armoured and only protected against eight-inch gunfire.", "Although the design was mostly completed, work on the vessels never commenced as the Germans overran the Netherlands in May 1940.The first ship would have been laid down in June of that year.The only class of these late battlecruisers actually built were the United States Navy's \"large cruisers\".", "Two of them were completed, and ; a third, , was cancelled while under construction and three others, to be named ''Philippines'', ''Puerto Rico'' and ''Samoa'', were cancelled before they were laid down.", "They were classified as \"large cruisers\" instead of battlecruisers.", "These ships were named after territories or protectorates.", "(Battleships, were named after states and cruisers after cities.)", "With a main armament of nine 12-inch guns in three triple turrets and a displacement of , the ''Alaska''s were twice the size of s and had guns some 50% larger in diameter.", "They lacked the thick armoured belt and intricate torpedo defence system of true capital ships.", "However, unlike most battlecruisers, they were considered a balanced design according to cruiser standards as their protection could withstand fire from their own caliber of gun, albeit only in a very narrow range band.", "They were designed to hunt down Japanese heavy cruisers, though by the time they entered service most Japanese cruisers had been sunk by American aircraft or submarines.", "Like the contemporary fast battleships, their speed ultimately made them more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the surface combatants they were developed to be.The Japanese started designing the B64 class, which was similar to the ''Alaska'' but with guns.", "News of the ''Alaska''s led them to upgrade the design, creating Design B-65.Armed with 356 mm guns, the B65s would have been the best armed of the new breed of battlecruisers, but they still would have had only sufficient protection to keep out eight-inch shells.", "Much like the Dutch, the Japanese got as far as completing the design for the B65s, but never laid them down.", "By the time the designs were ready the Japanese Navy recognized that they had little use for the vessels and that their priority for construction should lie with aircraft carriers.", "Like the ''Alaska''s, the Japanese did not call these ships battlecruisers, referring to them instead as super-heavy cruisers." ], [ "Cold War–era designs", "''Admiral Lazarev'', formerly ''Frunze'', the second ship of her classIn spite of the fact that most navies abandoned the battleship and battlecruiser concepts after World War II, Joseph Stalin's fondness for big-gun-armed warships caused the Soviet Union to plan a large cruiser class in the late 1940s.", "In the Soviet Navy, they were termed \"heavy cruisers\" (''tjazholyj krejser'').", "The fruits of this program were the Project 82 (''Stalingrad'') cruisers, of standard load, nine guns and a speed of .", "Three ships were laid down in 1951–1952, but they were cancelled in April 1953 after Stalin's death.", "Only the central armoured hull section of the first ship, ''Stalingrad'', was launched in 1954 and then used as a target.The Soviet is sometimes referred to as a battlecruiser.", "This description arises from their over displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a First World War battleship and more than twice the displacement of contemporary cruisers; upon entry into service, ''Kirov'' was the largest surface combatant to be built since World War II.", "The ''Kirov'' class lacks the armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from ordinary cruisers and they are classified as heavy nuclear-powered missile cruisers (''Тяжелый Атомный Ракетный Крейсер'' (ТАРКР)) by Russia, with their primary surface armament consisting of twenty P-700 Granit surface to surface missiles.", "Four members of the class were completed during the 1980s and 1990s, but due to budget constraints only the is operational with the Russian Navy, though plans were announced in 2010 to return the other three ships to service.", "As of 2021, was being refitted, but the other two ships are reportedly beyond economical repair." ], [ "Operators", "* operates one with one more being overhauled.===Former operators===* five surviving battlecruisers were all scuttled at Scapa Flow in 1919.", "* decommissioned its only battlecruiser HMAS ''Australia'' in 1921.", "* upgraded its s into fast-battleships in the 1930s, ending their operation of battlecruisers.", "* last battlecruiser, HMS ''Renown'' was decommissioned in 1945, following World War II.", "* two ''Alaska''-class battlecruisers were both decommissioned in 1947.", "* decommissioned its only battlecruiser TCG ''Yavuz'' in 1950." ], [ "See also", "* List of battlecruisers* List of battlecruisers of World War I* List of battlecruisers of World War II* List of ships of the Second World War* List of sunken battlecruisers" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Notes====== Citations ===" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Maritimequest Battleships & Battlecruisers of the 20th century* British and German Battlecruisers of the First World War* Navsource Online" ] ]
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[ [ "Bob Hawke" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Robert James Lee Hawke''' (9 December 1929 – 16 May 2019) was an Australian politician and trade unionist who served as the 23rd prime minister of Australia from 1983 to 1991.He held office as the leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), having previously served as the president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions from 1969 to 1980 and president of the Labor Party national executive from 1973 to 1978.Hawke was born in Border Town, South Australia.", "He attended the University of Western Australia and went on to study at University College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar.", "In 1956, Hawke joined the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) as a research officer.", "Having risen to become responsible for national wage case arbitration, he was elected as president of the ACTU in 1969, where he achieved a high public profile.", "In 1973, he was appointed as president of the Labor Party.In 1980, Hawke stood down from his roles as ACTU and Labor Party president to announce his intention to enter parliamentary politics, and was subsequently elected to the Australian House of Representatives as a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Wills at the 1980 federal election.", "Three years later, he was elected unopposed to replace Bill Hayden as leader of the Australian Labor Party, and within five weeks led Labor to a landslide victory at the 1983 election, and was sworn in as prime minister.", "He led Labor to victory a further three times, with successful outcomes in 1984, 1987 and 1990 elections, making him the most electorally successful prime minister in the history of the Labor Party.The Hawke government implemented a significant number of reforms, including major economic reforms, the establishment of Landcare, the introduction of the universal healthcare scheme Medicare, brokering the Prices and Incomes Accord, creating APEC, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial sector, introducing the Family Assistance Scheme, enacting the Sex Discrimination Act to prevent discrimination in the workplace, declaring \"Advance Australia Fair\" as the country's national anthem, initiating superannuation pension schemes for all workers, negotiating a ban on mining in Antarctica and overseeing passage of the Australia Act that removed all remaining jurisdiction by the United Kingdom from Australia.", "In June 1991, Hawke faced a leadership challenge by the Treasurer, Paul Keating, but Hawke managed to retain power; however, Keating mounted a second challenge six months later, and won narrowly, replacing Hawke as prime minister.", "Hawke subsequently retired from parliament, pursuing both a business career and a number of charitable causes, until his death in 2019, aged 89.Hawke remains his party's longest-serving Prime Minister, and Australia's third-longest-serving prime minister behind Robert Menzies and John Howard.", "He is also the only prime minister to be born in South Australia and the only one raised and educated in Western Australia.", "Hawke holds the highest-ever approval rating for an Australian prime minister, reaching 75% approval in 1984.Hawke is frequently ranked within the upper tier of Australian prime ministers by historians." ], [ "Early life and family", "Bob Hawke was born on 9 December 1929 in Border Town, South Australia, the second child of Arthur \"Clem\" Hawke (1898–1989), a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Edith Emily (Lee) (1897–1979) (known as Ellie), a schoolteacher.", "His uncle, Albert, was the Labor premier of Western Australia between 1953 and 1959.Hawke's brother Neil, who was seven years his senior, died at the age of seventeen after contracting meningitis, for which there was no cure at the time.", "Ellie Hawke subsequently developed an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny, and this contributed to Hawke's supreme self-confidence throughout his career.", "At the age of fifteen, he presciently boasted to friends that he would one day become the prime minister of Australia.At the age of seventeen, the same age that his brother Neil had died, Hawke had a serious crash while riding his Panther motorcycle that left him in a critical condition for several days.", "This near-death experience acted as his catalyst, driving him to make the most of his talents and not let his abilities go to waste.", "He joined the Labor Party in 1947 at the age of eighteen." ], [ "Education and early career", "Hawke was educated at West Leederville State School, Perth Modern School and the University of Western Australia, graduating in 1952 with Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws degrees.", "He was also president of the university's guild during the same year.", "The following year, Hawke won a Rhodes Scholarship to attend University College, Oxford, where he began a Bachelor of Arts course in philosophy, politics and economics (PPE).", "He soon found he was covering much the same ground as he had in his education at the University of Western Australia, and transferred to a Bachelor of Letters course.", "He wrote his thesis on wage-fixing in Australia and successfully presented it in January 1956.In 1956, Hawke accepted a scholarship to undertake doctoral studies in the area of arbitration law in the law department at the Australian National University in Canberra.", "Soon after his arrival at ANU, Hawke became the students' representative on the University Council.", "A year later, Hawke was recommended to the President of the ACTU to become a research officer, replacing Harold Souter who had become ACTU Secretary.", "The recommendation was made by Hawke's mentor at ANU, H. P. Brown, who for a number of years had assisted the ACTU in national wage cases.", "Hawke decided to abandon his doctoral studies and accept the offer, moving to Melbourne with his wife Hazel.===World record beer skol (scull)===Hawke is well-known for a \"world record\" allegedly achieved at Oxford University for a beer skol (scull) of a yard of ale in 11 seconds.", "The record is widely regarded as having been important to his career and ocker chic image.", "An 2023 article in the ''Journal of Australian Studies'' concluded that Hawke's achievement was \"possibly fabricated\" and \"cultural propaganda\" designed to make Hawke appealing to unionised workers and nationalistic middle-class voters.", "The article contends that \"its location and time remain uncertain; there are no known witnesses; the field of competition was exclusive and with no scientific accountability; the record was first published in a beer pamphlet; and Hawke's recollections were unreliable.\"" ], [ "Australian Council of Trade Unions", "Hawke is elected President of the ACTU at Paddington Town Hall, Sydney, 10 September 1969Not long after Hawke began work at the ACTU, he became responsible for the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission.", "He was first appointed as an ACTU advocate in 1959.The 1958 case, under previous advocate R.L.", "Eggleston, had yielded only a five-shilling increase.", "The 1959 case found for a fifteen-shilling increase, and was regarded as a personal triumph for Hawke.", "He went on to attain such success and prominence in his role as an ACTU advocate that, in 1969, he was encouraged to run for the position of ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held elected office in a trade union.He was elected ACTU President in 1969 on a modernising platform by the narrow margin of 399 to 350, with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the Communist Party of Australia.", "He later credited Ray Gietzelt, General Secretary of the FMWU, as the single most significant union figure in helping him achieve this outcome.", "Questioned after his election on his political stance, Hawke stated that \"socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself\", saying instead his approach to politics was pragmatic.", "His commitment to the cause of Jewish Refuseniks purportedly led to a planned assassination attempt on Hawke by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and its Australian operative Munif Mohammed Abou Rish.Hawke as ACTU President in 1970In 1971, Hawke along with other members of the ACTU requested that South Africa send a non-racially biased team for the rugby union tour, with the intention of unions agreeing not to serve the team in Australia.", "Prior to arrival, the Western Australian branch of the Transport Workers' Union, and the Barmaids' and Barmens' Union, announced that they would serve the team, which allowed the Springboks to land in Perth.", "The tour commenced on 26 June and riots occurred as anti-apartheid protesters disrupted games.", "Hawke and his family started to receive malicious mail and phone calls from people who thought that sport and politics should not mix.", "Hawke remained committed to the ban on apartheid teams and later that year, the South African cricket team was successfully denied and no apartheid team was to ever come to Australia again.", "It was this ongoing dedication to racial equality in South Africa that would later earn Hawke the respect and friendship of Nelson Mandela.In industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for, and considerable skill at, negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for.", "As early as 1972, speculation began that he would seek to enter the Parliament of Australia and eventually run to become the Leader of the Australian Labor Party.", "But while his professional career continued successfully, his heavy drinking and womanising placed considerable strains on his family life.In June 1973, Hawke was elected as the Federal President of the Labor Party.", "Two years later, when the Whitlam government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, Hawke showed an initial keenness to enter Parliament at the ensuing election.", "Harry Jenkins, the MP for Scullin, came under pressure to step down to allow Hawke to stand in his place, but he strongly resisted this push.", "Hawke eventually decided not to attempt to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted.", "After Labor was defeated at the election, Whitlam initially offered the leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him.", "Despite not taking on the offer, Hawke remained influential, playing a key role in averting national strike action.During the 1977 federal election, he emerged as a strident opponent of accepting Vietnamese boat people as refugees into Australia, stating that they should be subject to normal immigration requirements and should otherwise be deported.", "He further stated only refugees selected off-shore should be accepted.Hawke resigned as President of the Labor Party in August 1978.Neil Batt was elected in his place.", "The strain of this period took its toll on Hawke and in 1979 he suffered a physical collapse.", "This shock led Hawke to publicly announce his alcoholism in a television interview, and that he would make a concerted—and ultimately successful—effort to overcome it.", "He was helped through this period by the relationship that he had established with writer Blanche d'Alpuget, who, in 1982, published a biography of Hawke.", "His popularity with the public was, if anything, enhanced by this period of rehabilitation, and opinion polling suggested that he was a more popular public figure than either Labor Leader Bill Hayden or Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.===Informer for the United States===During the period of 1973 to 1979, Hawke acted as an informant for the United States government.", "During his time as ACTU leader, Hawke informed the US of details surrounding labour disputes, especially those relating to American companies and individuals, such as union disputes with Ford Motor Company and the black ban of Frank Sinatra.", "The major industrial action taken against Sinatra came about because Sinatra had made sexist comments against female journalists.", "The dispute was the subject of the 2003 film ''The Night We Called It a Day''.Hawke was described by US diplomats as \"a bulwark against anti-American sentiment and resurgent communism during the economic turmoil of the 1970s\", and often disputed with the Whitlam government over issues of foreign policy and industrial relations.", "With the knowledge of US diplomats, Hawke secretly planned to leave Labor in 1974 to form a new centrist political party to challenge the Whitlam government.", "This plan had the support of Rupert Murdoch and Hawke's confidant, Peter Abeles, but did not eventuate because of the events of 1975.US diplomats played a major role in shaping Hawke's consensus politics and economics." ], [ "Member of Parliament", "Hawke's first attempt to enter Parliament came during the 1963 federal election.", "He stood in the seat of Corio in Geelong and managed to achieve a 3.1% swing against the national trend, although he fell short of ousting longtime Liberal incumbent Hubert Opperman.", "Hawke rejected several opportunities to enter Parliament throughout the 1970s, something he later wrote that he \"regretted\".", "He eventually stood for election to the House of Representatives at the 1980 election for the safe Melbourne seat of Wills, winning it comfortably.", "Immediately upon his election to Parliament, Hawke was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet by Labor Leader Bill Hayden as Shadow Minister for Industrial Relations.Hayden, after having led the Labour party to narrowly lose the 1980 election, was increasingly subject to criticism from Labor MPs over his leadership style.", "To quell speculation over his position, Hayden called a leadership spill on 16 July 1982, believing that if he won he would be guaranteed to lead Labor through to the next election.", "Hawke decided to challenge Hayden in the spill, but Hayden defeated him by five votes; the margin of victory, however, was too slim to dispel doubts that he could lead the Labor Party to victory at an election.", "Despite his defeat, Hawke began to agitate more seriously behind the scenes for a change in leadership, with opinion polls continuing to show that Hawke was a far more popular public figure than both Hayden and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.", "Hayden was further weakened after Labor's unexpectedly poor performance at a by-election in December 1982 for the Victorian seat of Flinders, following the resignation of the sitting member, former deputy Liberal leader Phillip Lynch.", "Labor needed a swing of 5.5% to win the seat and had been predicted by the media to win, but could only achieve 3%.Labor Party power-brokers, such as Graham Richardson and Barrie Unsworth, now openly switched their allegiance from Hayden to Hawke.", "More significantly, Hayden's staunch friend and political ally, Labor's Senate Leader John Button, had become convinced that Hawke's chances of victory at an election were greater than Hayden's.", "Initially, Hayden believed that he could remain in his job, but Button's defection proved to be the final straw in convincing Hayden that he would have to resign as Labor Leader.", "Less than two months after the Flinders by-election result, Hayden announced his resignation as Leader of the Labor Party on 3 February 1983.Hawke was subsequently elected as Leader unopposed on 8 February, and became Leader of the Opposition in the process.", "Having learned that morning about the possible leadership change, on the same that Hawke assumed the leadership of the Labor Party, Malcolm Fraser called a snap election for 5 March 1983, unsuccessfully attempting to prevent Labor from making the leadership change.", "However, he was unable to have the Governor-General confirm the election before Labor announced the change.At the 1983 election, Hawke led Labor to a landslide victory, achieving a 24-seat swing and ending seven years of Liberal Party rule.With the election called at the same time that Hawke became Labor leader this meant that Hawke never sat in Parliament as Leader of the Opposition having spent the entirety of his short Opposition leadership in the election campaign which he won." ], [ "Prime Minister of Australia (1983–1991)", "===Leadership style===After Labor's landslide victory, Hawke was sworn in as the Prime Minister by the Governor-General Ninian Stephen on 11 March 1983.The style of the Hawke government was deliberately distinct from the Whitlam government, the most recent Labor government that preceded it.", "Rather than immediately initiating multiple extensive reform programs as Whitlam had, Hawke announced that Malcolm Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred.", "As part of his internal reforms package, Hawke divided the government into two tiers, with only the most senior ministers sitting in the Cabinet of Australia.", "The Labor caucus was still given the authority to determine who would make up the Ministry, but this move gave Hawke unprecedented powers to empower individual ministers.Hawke presenting a relief cheque to John Bannon, Premier of South Australia following the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfiresIn particular, the political partnership that developed between Hawke and his Treasurer, Paul Keating, proved to be essential to Labor's success in government, with multiple Labor figures in years since citing the partnership as the party's greatest ever.", "The two men proved a study in contrasts: Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left high school early.", "Hawke's enthusiasms were cigars, betting and most forms of sport; Keating preferred classical architecture, Mahler symphonies and collecting British Regency and French Empire antiques.", "Despite not knowing one another before Hawke assumed the leadership in 1983, the two formed a personal as well as political relationship which enabled the Government to pursue a significant number of reforms, although there were occasional points of tension between the two.The Labor Caucus under Hawke also developed a more formalised system of parliamentary factions, which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations.", "Unlike many of his predecessor leaders, Hawke's authority within the Labor Party was absolute.", "This enabled him to persuade MPs to support a substantial set of policy changes which had not been considered achievable by Labor governments in the past.", "Individual accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not often the driving force behind individual reforms, outside of broader economic changes, he took on the role of providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, tasks at which he proved highly successful.", "Hawke took on a very public role as Prime Minister, campaigning frequently even outside of election periods, and for much of his time in office proved to be incredibly popular with the Australian electorate; to this date he still holds the highest ever AC Nielsen approval rating of 75%.===Economic policy===Hawke and US President Ronald Reagan at the White House in November 1984The Hawke government oversaw significant economic reforms, and is often cited by economic historians as being a \"turning point\" from a protectionist, agricultural model to a more globalised and services-oriented economy.", "According to the journalist Paul Kelly, \"the most influential economic decisions of the 1980s were the floating of the Australian dollar and the deregulation of the financial system\".", "Although the Fraser government had played a part in the process of financial deregulation by commissioning the 1981 Campbell Report, opposition from Fraser himself had stalled this process.", "Shortly after its election in 1983, the Hawke government took the opportunity to implement a comprehensive program of economic reform, in the process \"transform(ing) economics and politics in Australia\".Hawke and Keating together led the process for overseeing the economic changes by launching a \"National Economic Summit\" one month after their election in 1983, which brought together business and industrial leaders together with politicians and trade union leaders; the three-day summit led to a unanimous adoption of a national economic strategy, generating sufficient political capital for widespread reform to follow.", "Among other reforms, the Hawke government floated the Australian dollar, repealed rules that prohibited foreign-owned banks to operate in Australia, dismantled the protectionist tariff system, privatised several state sector industries, ended the subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off part of the state-owned Commonwealth Bank.The taxation system was also significantly reformed, with income tax rates reduced and the introduction of a fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax; the latter two reforms were strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but were never reversed by them when they eventually returned to office in 1996.Partially offsetting these imposts upon the business community—the \"main loser\" from the 1985 Tax Summit according to Paul Kelly—was the introduction of full dividend imputation, a reform insisted upon by Keating.", "Funding for schools was also considerably increased as part of this package, while financial assistance was provided for students to enable them to stay at school longer; the number of Australian children completing school rose from 3 in 10 at the beginning of the Hawke government to 7 in 10 by its conclusion in 1991.Considerable progress was also made in directing assistance \"to the most disadvantaged recipients over the whole range of welfare benefits.", "\"===Social and environmental policy===Although criticisms were leveled against the Hawke government that it did not achieve all it said it would do on social policy, it nevertheless enacting a series of reforms which remain in place to the present day.", "From 1983 to 1989, the Government oversaw the permanent establishment of universal health care in Australia with the creation of Medicare, doubled the number of subsidised childcare places, began the introduction of occupational superannuation, oversaw a significant increase in school retention rates, created subsidised homecare services, oversaw the elimination of poverty traps in the welfare system, increased the real value of the old-age pension, reintroduced the six-monthly indexation of single-person unemployment benefits, and established a wide-ranging programme for paid family support, known as the Family Income Supplement.", "During the 1980s, the proportion of total government outlays allocated to families, the sick, single parents, widows, the handicapped, and veterans was significantly higher than under the previous Fraser and Whitlam governments.In 1984, the Hawke government enacted the landmark Sex Discrimination Act 1984, which eliminated discrimination on the grounds of sex within the workplace.", "In 1989, Hawke oversaw the gradual re-introduction of some tuition fees for university study, creating set up the Higher Education Contributions Scheme (HECS).", "Under the original HECS, a $1,800 fee was charged to all university students, and the Commonwealth paid the balance.", "A student could defer payment of this HECS amount and repay the debt through the tax system, when the student's income exceeds a threshold level.", "As part of the reforms, Colleges of Advanced Education entered the University sector by various means.", "by doing so, university places were able to be expanded.", "Further notable policy decisions taken during the Government's time in office included the public health campaign regarding HIV/AIDS, and Indigenous land rights reform, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the Government being launched, although the latter would be overtaken by events, notably the Mabo court decision.The Hawke government also drew attention for a series of notable environmental decisions, particularly in its second and third terms.", "In 1983, Hawke personally vetoed the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, responding to a groundswell of protest around the issue.", "Hawke also secured the nomination of the Wet Tropics of Queensland as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, preventing the forests there from being logged.", "Hawke would later appoint Graham Richardson as Environment Minister, tasking him with winning the second-preference support from environmental parties, something which Richardson later claimed was the major factor in the government's narrow re-election at the 1990 election.", "In the Government's fourth term, Hawke personally led the Australian delegation to secure changes to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, ultimately winning a guarantee that drilling for minerals within Antarctica would be totally prohibited until 2048 at the earliest.", "Hawke later claimed that the Antarctic drilling ban was his \"proudest achievement\".===Industrial relations policy===Hawke addresses the Labour Day crowd, 1980As a former ACTU President, Hawke was well-placed to engage in reform of the industrial relations system in Australia, taking a lead on this policy area as in few others.", "Working closely with ministerial colleagues and the ACTU Secretary, Bill Kelty, Hawke negotiated with trade unions to establish the Prices and Incomes Accord in 1983, an agreement whereby unions agreed to restrict their demands for wage increases, and in turn the Government guaranteed to both minimise inflation and promote an increased social wage, including by establishing new social programmes such as Medicare.Inflation had been a significant issue for the previous decade prior to the election of the Hawke government, regularly running into double-digits.", "The process of the Accord, by which the Government and trade unions would arbitrate and agree upon wage increases in many sectors, led to a decrease in both inflation and unemployment through to 1990.Criticisms of the Accord would come from both the right and the left of politics.", "Left-wing critics claimed that it kept real wages stagnant, and that the Accord was a policy of class collaboration and corporatism.", "By contrast, right-wing critics claimed that the Accord reduced the flexibility of the wages system.", "Supporters of the Accord, however, pointed to the improvements in the social security system that occurred, including the introduction of rental assistance for social security recipients, the creation of labour market schemes such as NewStart, and the introduction of the Family Income Supplement.", "In 1986, the Hawke government passed a bill to de-register the Builders Labourers Federation federally due to the union not following the Accord agreements.Despite a percentage fall in real money wages from 1983 to 1991, the social wage of Australian workers was argued by the Government to have improved drastically as a result of these reforms, and the ensuing decline in inflation.", "The Accord was revisited six further times during the Hawke government, each time in response to new economic developments.", "The seventh and final revisiting would ultimately lead to the establishment of the enterprise bargaining system, although this would be finalised shortly after Hawke left office in 1991.===Foreign policy===Hazel in Moscow, 1987 Arguably the most significant foreign policy achievement of the Government took place in 1989, after Hawke proposed a south-east Asian region-wide forum for leaders and economic ministers to discuss issues of common concern.", "After winning the support of key countries in the region, this led to the creation of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).", "The first APEC meeting duly took place in Canberra in November 1989; the economic ministers of Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and the United States all attended.", "APEC would subsequently grow to become one of the most pre-eminent high-level international forums in the world, particularly after the later inclusions of China and Russia, and the Keating government's later establishment of the APEC Leaders' Forum.Elsewhere in Asia, the Hawke government played a significant role in the build-up to the United Nations peace process for Cambodia, culminating in the Transitional Authority; Hawke's Foreign Minister Gareth Evans was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in negotiations.", "Hawke also took a major public stand after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre; despite having spent years trying to get closer relations with China, Hawke gave a tearful address on national television describing the massacre in graphic detail, and unilaterally offered asylum to over 42,000 Chinese students who were living in Australia at the time, many of whom had publicly supported the Tiananmen protesters.", "Hawke did so without even consulting his Cabinet, stating later that he felt he simply had to act.The Hawke government pursued a close relationship with the United States, assisted by Hawke's close friendship with US Secretary of State George Shultz; this led to a degree of controversy when the Government supported the US's plans to test ballistic missiles off the coast of Tasmania in 1985, as well as seeking to overturn Australia's long-standing ban on uranium exports.", "Although the US ultimately withdrew the plans to test the missiles, the furore led to a fall in Hawke's approval ratings.", "Shortly after the 1990 election, Hawke would lead Australia into its first overseas military campaign since the Vietnam War, forming a close alliance with US President George H. W. Bush to join the coalition in the Gulf War.", "The Royal Australian Navy contributed several destroyers and frigates to the war effort, which successfully concluded in February 1991, with the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait.", "The success of the campaign, and the lack of any Australian casualties, led to a brief increase in the popularity of the Government.Through his role on the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, Hawke played a leading role in ensuring the Commonwealth initiated an international boycott on foreign investment into South Africa, building on work undertaken by his predecessor Malcolm Fraser, and in the process clashing publicly with Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher, who initially favoured a more cautious approach.", "The resulting boycott, led by the Commonwealth, was widely credited with helping bring about the collapse of apartheid, and resulted in a high-profile visit by Nelson Mandela in October 1990, months after the latter's release from a 27-year stint in prison.", "During the visit, Mandela publicly thanked the Hawke government for the role it played in the boycott.===Election wins and leadership challenges===Old Parliament HouseHawke benefited greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal Party fell after the resignation of Fraser following the 1983 election.", "The Liberals were torn between supporters of the more conservative John Howard and the more liberal Andrew Peacock, with the pair frequently contesting the leadership.", "Hawke and Keating were also able to use the concealment of the size of the budget deficit by Fraser before the 1983 election to great effect, damaging the Liberal Party's economic credibility as a result.However, Hawke's time as Prime Minister also saw friction develop between himself and the grassroots of the Labor Party, many of whom were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to cooperate with business interests.", "Hawke regularly and publicly expressed his willingness to cull Labor's \"sacred cows\".", "The Labor Left faction, as well as prominent Labor backbencher Barry Jones, offered repeated criticisms of a number of government decisions.", "Hawke was also subject to challenges from some former colleagues in the trade union movement over his \"confrontationalist style\" in siding with the airline companies in the 1989 Australian pilots' strike.Nevertheless, Hawke was able to comfortably maintain a lead as preferred prime minister in the vast majority of opinion polls carried out throughout his time in office.", "He recorded the highest popularity rating ever measured by an Australian opinion poll, reaching 75% approval in 1984.After leading Labor to a comfortable victory in the snap 1984 election, called to bring the mandate of the House of Representatives back in line with the Senate, Hawke was able to secure an unprecedented third consecutive term for Labor with a landslide victory in the double dissolution election of 1987.Hawke was subsequently able to lead the nation in the bicentennial celebrations of 1988, culminating with him welcoming Queen Elizabeth II to open the newly constructed Parliament House.The late-1980s recession, and the accompanying high interest rates, saw the Government fall in opinion polls, with many doubting that Hawke could win a fourth election.", "Keating, who had long understood that he would eventually succeed Hawke as prime minister, began to plan a leadership change; at the end of 1988, Keating put pressure on Hawke to retire in the new year.", "Hawke rejected this suggestion but reached a secret agreement with Keating, the so-called \"Kirribilli Agreement\", stating that he would step down in Keating's favour at some point after the 1990 election.", "Hawke subsequently won that election, in the process leading Labor to a record fourth consecutive electoral victory, albeit by a slim margin.", "Hawke appointed Keating as deputy prime minister to replace the retiring Lionel Bowen.By the end of 1990, frustrated by the lack of any indication from Hawke as to when he might retire, Keating made a provocative speech to the Federal Parliamentary Press Gallery.", "Hawke considered the speech disloyal, and told Keating he would renege on the Kirribilli Agreement as a result.", "After attempting to force a resolution privately, Keating finally resigned from the Government in June 1991 to challenge Hawke for the leadership.", "His resignation came soon after Hawke vetoed in Cabinet a proposal backed by Keating and other ministers for mining to take place at Coronation Hill in Kakadu National Park.", "Hawke won the leadership spill, and in a press conference after the result, Keating declared that he had fired his \"one shot\" on the leadership.", "Hawke appointed John Kerin to replace Keating as Treasurer.Despite his victory in the June spill, Hawke quickly began to be regarded by many of his colleagues as a \"wounded\" leader; he had now lost his long-term political partner, his rating in opinion polls were beginning to fall significantly, and after nearly nine years as Prime Minister, there was speculation that it would soon be time for a new leader.", "Hawke's leadership was ultimately irrevocably damaged at the end of 1991; after Liberal Leader John Hewson released 'Fightback!", "', a detailed proposal for sweeping economic change, including the introduction of a goods and services tax, Hawke was forced to sack Kerin as Treasurer after the latter made a public gaffe attempting to attack the policy.", "Keating duly challenged for the leadership a second time on 19 December, arguing that he would better placed to defeat Hewson; this time, Keating succeeded, narrowly defeating Hawke by 56 votes to 51.In a speech to the House of Representatives following the vote, Hawke declared that his nine years as prime minister had left Australia a better and wealthier country, and he was given a standing ovation by those present.", "He subsequently tendered his resignation to the Governor-General and pledged support to his successor.", "Hawke briefly returned to the backbench, before resigning from Parliament on 20 February 1992, sparking a by-election which was won by the independent candidate Phil Cleary from among a record field of 22 candidates.", "Keating would go on to lead Labor to a fifth victory at the 1993 election, although he was defeated by the Liberal Party at the 1996 election.Hawke wrote that he had very few regrets over his time in office, although stated he wished he had been able to advance the cause of Indigenous land rights further.", "His bitterness towards Keating over the leadership challenges surfaced in his earlier memoirs, although by the 2000s Hawke stated he and Keating had buried their differences, and that they regularly dined together and considered each other friends.", "The publication of the book ''Hawke: The Prime Minister'', by Hawke's second wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, in 2010, reignited conflict between the two, with Keating accusing Hawke and d'Alpuget of spreading falsehoods about his role in the Hawke government.", "Despite this, the two campaigned together for Labor several times, including at the 2019 election, where they released their first joint article for nearly three decades; Craig Emerson, who worked for both men, said they had reconciled in later years after Hawke grew ill." ], [ "Retirement and later life", "Parliament House for the Apology to the Stolen Generations in 2008After leaving Parliament, Hawke entered the business world, taking on a number of directorships and consultancy positions which enabled him to achieve considerable financial success.", "He avoided public involvement with the Labor Party during Keating's tenure as Prime Minister, not wanting to be seen as attempting to overshadow his successor.", "After Keating's defeat and the election of the Howard government at the 1996 election, he returned to public campaigning with Labor and regularly appearing at election launches.", "Despite his personal affection for Queen Elizabeth II, boasting that he had been her \"favourite Prime Minister\", Hawke was an enthusiastic republican and joined the campaign for a Yes vote in the 1999 republic referendum.In 2002, Hawke was named to South Australia's Economic Development Board during the Rann government.", "In the lead up to the 2007 election, Hawke made a considerable personal effort to support Kevin Rudd, making speeches at a large number of campaign office openings across Australia, and appearing in multiple campaign advertisements.", "As well as campaigning against WorkChoices, Hawke also attacked John Howard's record as Treasurer, stating \"it was the judgement of every economist and international financial institution that it was the restructuring reforms undertaken by my government, with the full cooperation of the trade union movement, which created the strength of the Australian economy today\".", "In February 2008, after Rudd's victory, Hawke joined former Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam, Malcolm Fraser and Paul Keating in Parliament House to witness the long anticipated apology to the Stolen Generations.Hawke in 2012In 2009, Hawke helped establish the Centre for Muslim and Non-Muslim Understanding at the University of South Australia.", "Interfaith dialogue was an important issue for Hawke, who told ''The Adelaide Review'' that he was \"convinced that one of the great potential dangers confronting the world is the lack of understanding in regard to the Muslim world.", "Fanatics have misrepresented what Islam is.", "They give a false impression of the essential nature of Islam.", "\"In 2016, after taking part in Andrew Denton's Better Off Dead podcast, Hawke added his voice to calls for voluntary euthanasia to be legalised.", "Hawke labelled as 'absurd' the lack of political will to fix the problem.", "He revealed that he had such an arrangement with his wife Blanche should such a devastating medical situation occur.", "He also publicly advocated for nuclear power and the importation of international spent nuclear fuel to Australia for storage and disposal, stating that this could lead to considerable economic benefits for Australia.In late December 2018, Hawke revealed that he was in \"terrible health\".", "While predicting a Labor win in the upcoming 2019 federal election, Hawke said he \"may not witness the party's success\".", "In May 2019, the month of the election, he issued a joint statement with Paul Keating endorsing Labor's economic plan and condemning the Liberal Party for \"completely giving up the economic reform agenda\".", "They stated that \"Shorten's Labor is the only party of government focused on the need to modernise the economy to deal with the major challenge of our time: human induced climate change\".", "It was the first joint press statement released by the two since 1991.On 16 May 2019, two days before the election, Hawke died at his home in Northbridge at the age of 89, following a short illness.", "His family held a private cremation on 27 May at Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium where he was subsequently interred.", "A state memorial was held at the Sydney Opera House on 14 June; speakers included Craig Emerson as master of ceremonies and Kim Beazley reading the eulogy, as well as Paul Keating, Julia Gillard, Bill Kelty, Ross Garnaut, and incumbent Prime Minister Scott Morrison and Opposition Leader Anthony Albanese." ], [ "Personal life", "Hawke and his wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, in 2006Hawke married Hazel Masterson in 1956 at Perth Trinity Church.", "They had three children: Susan (born 1957), Stephen (born 1959) and Roslyn (born 1960).", "Their fourth child, Robert Jr, died in early infancy in 1963.Hawke was named Victorian Father of the Year in 1971, an honour which his wife disputed due to his heavy drinking and womanising.", "The couple divorced in 1995, after he left her for the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, and the two lived together in Northbridge, a suburb of the North Shore of Sydney.", "The divorce estranged Hawke from some of his family for a period, although they had reconciled by the 2010s.Throughout his early life, Hawke was a heavy drinker, having set a world record for drinking during his years as a student.", "Hawke eventually suffered from alcohol poisoning following the death of his and Hazel's infant son in 1963.He publicly announced in 1980 that he would abstain from alcohol to seek election to Parliament, in a move which garnered significant public attention and support.", "Hawke began to drink again following his retirement from politics, although to a more manageable extent; on several occasions, in his later years, videos of Hawke downing beer at cricket matches would frequently go viral.On the subject of religion, Hawke wrote, while attending the 1952 World Christian Youth Conference in India, that \"there were all these poverty stricken kids at the gate of this palatial place where we were feeding our face and I just (was) struck by this enormous sense of irrelevance of religion to the needs of people\".", "He subsequently abandoned his Christian beliefs.", "By the time he entered politics he was a self-described agnostic.", "Hawke told Andrew Denton in 2008 that his father's Christian faith had continued to influence his outlook, saying \"My father said if you believe in the fatherhood of God you must necessarily believe in the brotherhood of man, it follows necessarily, and even though I left the church and was not religious, that truth remained with me.", "\"Hawke was a supporter of National Rugby League club the Canberra Raiders." ], [ "Legacy", "A biographical television film, ''Hawke'', premiered on the Ten Network in Australia on 18 July 2010, with Richard Roxburgh playing the title character.", "Rachael Blake and Felix Williamson portrayed Hazel Hawke and Paul Keating, respectively.", "Roxburgh reprised his role as Hawke in the 2020 episode \"Terra Nullius\" of the Netflix series ''The Crown''.In July 2019, the Australian Government announced it would spend $750,000 to purchase and renovate the house in Bordertown where Hawke was born and spent his early childhood.", "In January 2021, the Tatiara District Council decided to turn the house into tourist accommodation.In December 2020, the Western Australian Government announced that it had purchased Hawke's childhood home in West Leederville and would maintain it as a state asset.", "The property will also be assessed for entry onto the State Register of Heritage Places.The Australian Government pledged $5 million in July 2019 to establish a new annual scholarship—the Bob Hawke John Monash Scholarship—through the General Sir John Monash Foundation.", "Bob Hawke College, a high school in Subiaco, Western Australia named after Hawke, was opened in February 2020.In March 2020, the Australian Electoral Commission announced that it would create a new Australian electoral division in the House of Representatives named in honour of Hawke.", "The Division of Hawke was first contested at the 2022 federal election, and is located in the state of Victoria, near the seat of Wills, which Hawke represented from 1980 to 1992." ], [ "Honours", "'''Orders'''* '''1979''': Companion of the Order of Australia (AC), \"For services to trade unionism and industrial relations\"'''Foreign honours'''* '''1989''': Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant* '''1999''': Freedom of the City of London* '''2008''' Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu* '''2012''' Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun===Awards===*'''August 1978''': Rostrum Award of Merit, for \"excellence in the art of public speaking over a considerable period and his demonstration of an effective contribution to society through the spoken word\"* '''August 2009''': Australian Labor Party Life membership, Bob Hawke became only the third person to be awarded life membership of the Australian Labor Party, after Gough and Margaret Whitlam.", "During the conferring, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd referred to Hawke as \"the heart and soul of the Labor Party\".", "* '''March 2014''': University of Western Australia Student Guild Life membership'''Fellowships'''* University College, Oxford'''Honorary degrees'''* Nanjing University, Honorary doctorate* University of Oxford, Honorary Doctor of Civil Law* Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Honorary doctorate* Rikkyo University, Honorary Doctor of Humanities* Macquarie University, Honorary Doctor of Letters* University of New South Wales, Honorary doctorate* University of South Australia, Honorary doctorate* University of Western Australia, Honorary Doctor of Letters* University of Sydney, Honorary Doctor of Letters===Other===* University of South Australia, the Hawke Centre and the Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library" ], [ "See also", "*Hawke–Keating government*First Hawke Ministry*Second Hawke Ministry*Third Hawke Ministry*Fourth Hawke Ministry" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* \"Hawke Swoops into Power\" – ''Time'', 14 March 1983* Robert Hawke  – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia* Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre*" ] ]
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[ [ "Baldr" ], [ "Introduction", "\"Each arrow overshot his head\" (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith.", "'''Baldr''' (Old Norse: ; also '''Balder''', '''Baldur''') is a god in Germanic mythology.", "In Norse mythology, he is a son of the god Odin and the goddess Frigg, and has numerous brothers, such as Thor and Váli.", "In wider Germanic mythology, the god was known in Old English as '''''', and in Old High German as '''''', all ultimately stemming from the Proto-Germanic theonym ('hero' or 'prince').During the 12th century, Danish accounts by Saxo Grammaticus and other Danish Latin chroniclers recorded a euhemerized account of his story.", "Compiled in Iceland during the 13th century, but based on older Old Norse poetry, the ''Poetic Edda'' and the ''Prose Edda'' contain numerous references to the death of Baldr as both a great tragedy to the Æsir and a harbinger of Ragnarök.According to ''Gylfaginning'', a book of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, Baldr's wife is Nanna and their son is Forseti.", "Baldr had the greatest ship ever built, ''Hringhorni'', and there is no place more beautiful than his hall, Breidablik." ], [ "Name", "The Old Norse theonym ''Baldr'' ('brave, defiant'; also 'lord, prince') and its various Germanic cognates – including Old English ''Bældæg'' and Old High German ''Balder'' (or ''Palter'') – probably stems from Proto-Germanic ''*Balðraz'' ('Hero, Prince'; cf.", "Old Norse ''mann-baldr'' 'great man', Old English ''bealdor'' 'prince, hero'), itself a derivative of ''*balþaz'', meaning 'brave' (cf.", "Old Norse ''ballr'' 'hard, stubborn', Gothic ''balþa*'' 'bold, frank', Old English ''beald'' 'bold, brave, confident', Old Saxon ''bald'' 'valiant, bold', Old High German ''bald'' 'brave, courageous').This etymology was originally proposed by Jacob Grimm (1835), who also speculated on a comparison with the Lithuanian ''báltas'' ('white', also the name of a light-god) based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' then 'strong'.", "According to linguist Vladimir Orel, this could be linguistically tenable.", "Philologist Rudolf Simek also argues that the Old English ''Bældæg'' should be interpreted as meaning 'shining day', from a Proto-Germanic root *''bēl''- (cf.", "Old English ''bæl'', Old Norse ''bál'' 'fire') attached to ''dæg'' ('day').Old Norse also shows the usage of the word as an honorific in a few cases, as in ''baldur î brynju'' (Sæm.", "272b) and ''herbaldr'' (Sæm.", "218b), in general epithets of heroes.", "In continental Saxon and Anglo-Saxon tradition, the son of Woden is called not ''Bealdor'' but ''Baldag'' (Saxon) and ''Bældæg, Beldeg'' (Anglo-Saxon), which shows association with \"day\", possibly with Day personified as a deity.", "This, as Grimm points out, would agree with the meaning \"shining one, white one, a god\" derived from the meaning of Baltic ''baltas'', further adducing Slavic ''Belobog'' and German ''Berhta''." ], [ "Attestations", "===Merseburg Incantation===One of the two Merseburg Incantations names ''Balder'' (in the genitive singular ''Balderes''), but also mentions a figure named ''Phol'', considered to be a byname for Baldr (as in Scandinavian ''Falr'', ''Fjalarr''; (in Saxo) ''Balderus'' : ''Fjallerus'').", "The incantation relates of ''Phol ende Wotan'' riding to the woods, where the foot of Baldr's foal is sprained.", "Sinthgunt (the sister of the sun), Frigg and Odin sing to the foot in order for it to heal.", "The identification with Balder is not conclusive.", "Modern scolarship suggests that the god Freyr might be meant.===''Poetic Edda''===\"Mímir and Baldr Consulting the Norns\" (1821–1822) by H. E. Freund.Baldr in an illustration to a Swedish translation of the Elder Edda.Unlike the Prose Edda, in the Poetic Edda the tale of Baldr's death is referred to rather than recounted at length.", "Baldr is mentioned in ''Völuspá'', in ''Lokasenna'', and is the subject of the Eddic poem ''Baldr's Dreams''.Among the visions which the Völva sees and describes in Völuspá is Baldr's death.", "In stanza 32, the Völva says she saw the fate of Baldr \"the bleeding god\":In the next two stanzas, the Völva refers to Baldr's killing, describes the birth of Váli for the slaying of Höðr and the weeping of Frigg:In stanza 62 of Völuspá, looking far into the future, the Völva says that Höðr and Baldr will come back, with the union, according to Bellows, being a symbol of the new age of peace:A depiction of Loki quarreling with the gods (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.Baldr is mentioned in two stanzas of Lokasenna, a poem which describes a flyting between the gods and the god Loki.", "In the first of the two stanzas, Frigg, Baldr's mother, tells Loki that if she had a son like Baldr, Loki would be killed:In the next stanza, Loki responds to Frigg, and says that he is the reason Baldr \"will never ride home again\":\"Odin rides to Hel\" (1908) by W. G. CollingwoodThe Eddic poem ''Baldr's Dreams'' opens with the gods holding a council discussing why Baldr had had bad dreams:Odin then rides to Hel to a Völva's grave and awakens her using magic.", "The Völva asks Odin, who she does not recognize, who he is, and Odin answers that he is Vegtam (\"Wanderer\").", "Odin asks the Völva for whom are the benches covered in rings and the floor covered in gold.", "The Völva tells him that in their location mead is brewed for Baldr, and that she spoke unwillingly, so she will speak no more:Odin asks the Völva to not be silent and asks her who will kill Baldr.", "The Völva replies and says that Höðr will kill Baldr, and again says that she spoke unwillingly, and that she will speak no more:Odin again asks the Völva to not be silent and asks her who will avenge Baldr's death.", "The Völva replies that Váli will, when he will be one night old.", "Once again, she says that she will speak no more:Odin again asks the Völva to not be silent and says that he seeks to know who the women that will then weep be.", "The Völva realizes that Vegtam is Odin in disguise.", "Odin says that the Völva is not a Völva, and that she is the mother of three giants.", "The Völva tells Odin to ride back home proud, because she will speak to no more men until Loki escapes his bounds.===''Prose Edda''===Baldr's death is portrayed in this illustration from an 18th-century Icelandic manuscript.In ''Gylfaginning'', Baldr is described as follows:Apart from this description, Baldr is known primarily for the story of his death, which is seen as the first in a chain of events that will ultimately lead to the destruction of the gods at Ragnarök.", "According to ''Völuspá'', Baldr will be reborn in the new world.Baldr had a dream of his own death and his mother, Frigg, had the same dream.", "Since dreams were usually prophetic, this depressed him, and so Frigg made every object on earth vow never to hurt Baldr.", "All objects made this vow, save for the mistletoe—a detail which has traditionally been explained with the idea that it was too unimportant and nonthreatening to bother asking it to make the vow, but which Merrill Kaplan has instead argued echoes the fact that young people were not eligible to swear legal oaths, which could make them a threat later in life.", "''Odin's last words to Baldr'' (1908) by W. G. Collingwood.When Loki, the mischief-maker, heard of this, he made a magical spear from this plant (in some later versions, an arrow).", "He hurried to the place where the gods were indulging in their new pastime of hurling objects at Baldr, which would bounce off without harming him.", "Loki gave the spear to Baldr's brother, the blind god Höðr, who then inadvertently killed his brother with it (other versions suggest that Loki guided the arrow himself).", "For this act, Odin and the ''ásynja'' Rindr gave birth to Váli, who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr.Baldr was ceremonially burnt upon his ship Hringhorni, the largest of all ships.", "On the pyre he was given the magical ring Draupnir.", "At first the gods were not able to push the ship out onto sea, and so they sent for Hyrrokin, a giantess, who came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook.As he was carried to the ship, Odin whispered something in his ear.", "The import of this speech was held to be unknowable, and the question of what was said was thus used as an unanswerable riddle by Odin in other sources, namely against the giant Vafthrudnir in the Eddic poem ''Vafthrudnismal'' and in the riddles of Gestumblindi in ''Hervarar saga''.Upon seeing the corpse being carried to the ship, Nanna, his wife, died of grief.", "She was then placed on the funeral fire (perhaps a toned-down instance of Sati, also attested in the Arab traveller Ibn Fadlan’s account of a funeral among the Rus'), after which it was set on fire.", "Baldr's horse with all its trappings was also laid on the pyre.As the pyre was set on fire, Thor blessed it with his hammer Mjǫllnir.", "As he did a small dwarf named Litr came running before his feet.", "Thor then kicked him into the pyre.Upon Frigg's entreaties, delivered through the messenger Hermod, Hel promised to release Baldr from the underworld if all objects alive and dead would weep for him.", "All did, except a giantess, Þökk (often presumed to be the god Loki in disguise), who refused to mourn the slain god.", "Thus Baldr had to remain in the underworld, not to emerge until after Ragnarök, when he and his brother Höðr would be reconciled and rule the new earth together with Thor's sons.Besides these descriptions of Baldr, the Prose Edda also explicitly links him to the Anglo-Saxon ''Beldeg'' in its prologue.===''Gesta Danorum''===''Baldur'' by Johannes Gehrts.Writing during the end of the 12th century, the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus tells the story of Baldr (recorded as ''Balderus'') in a form that professes to be historical.", "According to him, Balderus and Høtherus were rival suitors for the hand of Nanna, daughter of Gewar, King of Norway.", "Balderus was a demigod and common steel could not wound his sacred body.", "The two rivals encountered each other in a terrific battle.", "Though Odin and Thor and the other gods fought for Balderus, he was defeated and fled away, and Høtherus married the princess.Nevertheless, Balderus took heart of grace and again met Høtherus in a stricken field.", "But he fared even worse than before.", "Høtherus dealt him a deadly wound with a magic sword, named Mistletoe, which he had received from Mimir, the satyr of the woods; after lingering three days in pain Balderus died of his injury and was buried with royal honours in a barrow.===Utrecht Inscription===A Latin votive inscription from Utrecht, from the 3rd or 4th century C.E., has been theorized as containing the dative form ''Baldruo'', pointing to a Latin nominative singular *''Baldruus'', which some have identified with the Norse/Germanic god, although both the reading and this interpretation have been questioned.=== ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' ===In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Baldr is named as the ancestor of the monarchy of Kent, Bernicia, Deira, and Wessex through his supposed son Brond.===Toponyms===There are a few old place names in Scandinavia that contain the name ''Baldr''.", "The most certain and notable one is the (former) parish name Balleshol in Hedmark county, Norway: \"a Balldrshole\" 1356 (where the last element is ''hóll'' m \"mound; small hill\").", "Others may be (in Norse forms) ''Baldrsberg'' in Vestfold county, ''Baldrsheimr'' in Hordaland county ''Baldrsnes'' in Sør-Trøndelag county—and (very uncertain) the Balsfjorden fjord and Balsfjord municipality in Troms county.In Copenhagen, there is also a Baldersgade, or \"Balder's Street\".", "A street in downtown Reykjavík is called Baldursgata (Baldur's Street).In Sweden there is a Baldersgatan (Balder's Street) in Stockholm.", "There is also Baldersnäs (Balder's isthmus), Baldersvik (Balder's bay), Balders udde (Balder's headland) and Baldersberg (Balder's mountain) at various places." ], [ "In popular culture", "Balder the Brave is a fictional character based on Baldr.", "He has appeared in comic books published by Marvel Comics as the half-brother of Thor, and son of Odin, ruler of the gods.", "Baldr is featured in a number of video games.", "In Ensemble Studios' 2002 video game ''Age of Mythology'' Baldr is one of nine minor gods Norse players can worship.", "Baldr (spelled Baldur in-game) is also the main antagonist in Santa Monica Studio's 2018 video game ''God of War''.", "However, he differs greatly in the game from the Baldr depicted in Norse writings and traditional artistic depictions as he is much more aggressive, crude, and rugged in appearance." ], [ "See also", "* List of Germanic deities* Lemminkäinen" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* ** *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anatoly Liberman, \"Some Controversial Aspects of the Myth of Baldr,\" Alvíssmál 11 (2004): 17–54.", "* John Lindow, ''Murder and Vengeance Among the Gods: Baldr in Scandinavian Mythology''.", "Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia (1997), .", "* Jacob Grimm, ''Deutsche Mythologie'' (1835), chapter 11 \"Paltar\"." ], [ "External links", "* MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Baldr from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]
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[ [ "Breidablik" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Breiðablik''' (sometimes anglicised as '''Breithablik''' or '''Breidablik''') is the home of Baldr in Nordic mythology." ], [ "Meaning", "The word has been variously translated as 'broad sheen', 'Broad gleam', 'Broad-gleaming' or 'the far-shining one'," ], [ "Attestations", "===Grímismál===The Eddic poem Grímnismál describes Breiðablik as the fair home of Baldr: Old Norse text Bellows translation::::The seventh is Breithablik; Baldr has there:For himself a dwelling set,:In the land I know that lies so fair,:And from evil fate is free.===Gylfaginning===In Snorri Sturluson's Gylfaginning, Breiðablik is described in a list of places in heaven, identified by some scholars as Asgard: Old Norse text Brodeur translationThen there is also in that place the abode called Breidablik, and there is not in heaven a fairer dwelling.Later in the work, when Snorri describes Baldr, he gives another description, citing ''Grímnismál'', though he does not name the poem: Old Norse text Brodeur translation:He Baldr dwells in the place called Breidablik, which is in heaven; in that place may nothing unclean be..." ], [ "Interpretation and discussion", "The name of Breiðablik has been noted to link with Baldr's attributes of light and beauty.Similarities have been drawn between the description of Breiðablik in Grímnismál and Heorot in Beowulf, which are both free of 'baleful runes' ( and respectively).", "In Beowulf, the lack of refers to the absence of crimes being committed, and therefore both halls have been proposed to be sanctuaries." ], [ "In popular culture", "* Breidablik is a sacred weapon in ''Fire Emblem Heroes'' that the Summoner uses to summon Heroes coming from different ''Fire Emblem'' games.", "* In the PlayStation game ''Xenogears'', Bledavik is the name of the capital city of the desert kingdom of Aveh on the Ignas continent." ], [ "See also", "* Álfheimr, the home of Freyr* Nóatún, the home of Njörðr* Þrúðvangr, the home of Thor" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary===* * * * * ===Secondary===* * *" ] ]
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