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[ [ "Kennedy family" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Kennedy family''' is an American political family that has long been prominent in American politics, public service, entertainment, and business.", "In 1884, 35 years after the family's arrival from County Wexford, Ireland, Patrick Joseph \"P.", "J.\"", "Kennedy became the first Kennedy elected to public office, serving in the Massachusetts state legislature until 1895.At least one Kennedy family member served in federal elective office from 1947, when P. J. Kennedy's grandson John F. Kennedy became a member of Congress from Massachusetts, until 2011, when Patrick J. Kennedy II (John's nephew) retired as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Rhode Island.P.", "J.", "'s son Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and his wife, Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy, had nine children, including John F. Kennedy, who served in both houses of the United States Congress and as U.S. President; Robert F. Kennedy, who served as U.S. Attorney General and as a U.S.", "Senator; and Ted Kennedy, who served more than 46 years in the U.S. Senate.", "Other descendants include members of the U.S. House of Representatives, two U.S. ambassadors, one U.S. envoy, a lieutenant governor, three state legislators (one of whom also served in the U.S. House of Representatives), and one mayor.Joseph and Rose's daughter Eunice played a vital role in establishing the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (part of the National Institutes of Health) and the Special Olympics.", "Other descendants of Joseph and Rose Kennedy have been lawyers, authors, and activists on behalf of those with physical and intellectual disabilities." ], [ "History", "According to genealogist Brian Kennedy in his work ''JFK's Irish O'Kennedy Ancestors'', the Kennedys—who would go on to play a significant role in the United States of America—originated from an Irish clan called Ó Cinnéide Fionn (which, along with the Ó Cinnéide Donn and Ó Cinnéide Ruadh, were the three Irish Gaelic Ó Cinnéide clans who ruled the kingdom of Ormond).", "In 1546, their progenitor Diarmaid Ó Cinnéide Fionn became the owner of Knigh Castle, located close to what is today Puckane, County Tipperary.", "In 1740, having lost out to the New English order in the Kingdom of Ireland, they moved to Dunganstown, New Ross, County Wexford.", "Patrick Kennedy was born there.Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) and Bridget Murphy (1824–1888) sailed from Ireland to East Boston in 1849.Patrick worked in East Boston as a barrel maker, or cooper, and had five children with Bridget.", "Their youngest, Patrick Joseph \"P.", "J.\"", "Kennedy, went into business and served in the Massachusetts state legislature from 1884 to 1895.P.", "J. and his wife, Mary Augusta Hickey, had four children.", "Their oldest was Joseph Patrick \"Joe\" Kennedy Sr., a businessman who amassed a private fortune in banking and securities trading, which he further expanded by investing in filmmaking and real estate.", "He also founded Somerset Importers and owned Chicago's Merchandise Mart.In 1914, Joseph Sr. married Rose Fitzgerald, the eldest daughter of John F. \"Honey Fitz\" Fitzgerald, who served six years as mayor of Boston and six years as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives.", "The couple had nine children: Joseph Jr., John (called Jack), Rose Marie (called Rosemary), Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert (called Bobby), Jean, and Edward (called Ted).Joseph Sr. was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as the first chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), chairman of the Maritime Commission, and U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1938 to 1940.He served from 1947 to 1949 on The Hoover Commission (the \"Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government\"), which was appointed by President Harry Truman to recommend administrative changes in the federal government.", "Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy was named Papal Countess of the Holy Roman Church by Pope Pius XII in 1951 in recognition of her \"exemplary motherhood and many charitable works.\"" ], [ "Continued public service", "Every Kennedy elected to public office has served as a Democrat, while other members of the family have worked for the party or held Cabinet posts in Democratic administrations.", "Many have attended Harvard University, and the family has contributed greatly to that university's John F. Kennedy School of Government.Joseph Sr. expected his eldest son, Joseph Jr., to go into politics and to ultimately be elected president.", "Joseph Jr. was elected as a Massachusetts delegate to the 1940 Democratic National Convention and enlisted in the U.S. Navy after the United States entered World War II.", "He was killed in 1944 when the bomber he was piloting exploded in flight.", "Joseph Sr.'s desire to see the family involved in politics and government then focused on John, who had considered a career as a journalist, having authored a book (''Why England Slept'') and done some reporting for Hearst Newspapers.", "After returning from Navy service, John served in the U.S. House of Representatives representing Massachusetts's 11th congressional district from 1947 to 1953, and then as U.S.", "Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960.In the 1960 presidential election, John narrowly defeated Republican opponent Richard Nixon.During John's administration, Robert served as attorney general; his brother-in-law Sargent Shriver served as director of the new Peace Corps, and Ted was elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts, occupying his brother's former Senate seat until Ted's death in 2009.The Kennedy administration's accomplishments include the Alliance for Progress with Latin America, the establishment of the Peace Corps, a peaceful resolution to the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, the 24th Amendment ending the poll tax, the continuation of the Apollo spaceflight program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon, and the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to Congress (signed into law by Kennedy's successor Lyndon B. Johnson).", "The family was the subject of intense media coverage during and after Kennedy's presidency.Ted served in the Senate with his brother Robert (1965–1968), and was serving in the Senate when his nephew, Joseph P. II, and his son, Patrick J., served in the U.S. House of Representatives representing Massachusetts's 8th congressional district (1987–1999) and Rhode Island's 1st congressional district (1995–2011), respectively.", "In November 2012, Joseph P. Kennedy III, son of former Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II and grandson of the late Sen. Robert F. Kennedy, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 4th congressional district.", "In 2020, Joseph P. III lost the U.S. Senate primary election in Massachusetts to incumbent Ed Markey, the first Kennedy to ever lose an election in the state.In the 2020s, three Kennedy family members were serving as U.S. ambassadors or envoys.", "Victoria Reggie Kennedy, second wife of Ted Kennedy, was named in 2021 by President Biden as U.S. ambassador to Austria.", "Caroline Kennedy, daughter of President Kennedy, was named in 2022 by President Biden as U.S. ambassador to Australia; she previously served as U.S. ambassador to Japan under President Barack Obama.", "In the same year, Joseph P. Kennedy III was named by President Biden as U.S. special envoy to Northern Ireland.", "In April 2023, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., an environmental lawyer and anti-vaccine activist, filed as a Democratic candidate for the 2024 nomination for President of the United States, and changed to an independent candidate in October 2023." ], [ "Family incidents", "The Kennedy family at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, September 1963Family incidents led Senator Ted Kennedy to wonder, in a televised statement about the Chappaquiddick incident in 1969, whether \"some awful curse did actually hang over all the Kennedys.\"", "Some of the events the family has endured include:In 1941, Rosemary underwent a non-consensual lobotomy intended to correct her violent mood swings, convulsions, and intellectual disability.", "The operation left her incapacitated for the rest of her life.", "In 1944, Joseph Jr. died when the Navy bomber he was piloting exploded in mid-flight.", "In 1948, Kathleen died in a plane crash in France.In 1963 and 1968, John and Robert were assassinated, respectively.", "In 1964, Ted was nearly killed when his plane crashed in an apple orchard near Southampton, Massachusetts.", "Legislative aide Edward Moss and the pilot were killed in the crash.", "Ted was seriously injured and spent months in a hospital recovering from a severe back injury, a punctured lung, broken ribs and internal bleeding.In 1984, Robert's son, David, died of a drug overdose.", "In 1997, another son, Michael, died from injuries sustained in a skiing accident.", "In 1999, John's son, John Jr., died in a plane crash (along with his wife, Carolyn, and sister-in-law, Lauren) off the coast of Martha's Vineyard.", "In 2011 and 2018, Ted's daughter, Kara, and Pat's son, Christopher, died of heart attacks, respectively.In 2019, Robert's granddaughter, Saoirse Kennedy Hill, died of a drug overdose, aged 22.In April 2020, granddaughter, Maeve Kennedy McKean, a senior advisor for human rights in the Obama administration, and her eight-year-old son, Gideon Joseph Kennedy McKean, disappeared in Chesapeake Bay after embarking in a canoe to retrieve a ball.", "Maeve McKean's body was recovered the following week, and her son's two days later, about 2.5 miles from her mother's home on the Chesapeake Bay." ], [ "Businesses", "''Citizens Energy Corporation''''Columbia Trust Company'' FBO Pictures CorporationGeorge (magazine)Hialeah Park Race Track''Intercontinental Rubber Company''Kennedy & Madonna LLP (law firm)''Kenoil Corporation''''Marwood Group'' (healthcare-focused consulting firm) Merchandise Mart Properties, Inc.''Mokeen Oil Company''''Old Colony Realty Associates''RKO PicturesSomerset Imports''Sumner Savings Bank''" ], [ "Philanthropy and policy institutes", "Advocates for Opioid RecoveryBest Buddies InternationalCitizens Energy Corporation''Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Center for Community of Caring''Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development''Global Recovery Initiative''John F. Kennedy Library FoundationJoseph P. Kennedy Jr. FoundationRobert F. Kennedy Center For Justice & Human RightsSmart Approaches to MarijuanaSpecial OlympicsStop Handgun ViolenceTop Box FoodsVSA (Kennedy Center)White House Historical AssociationWaterkeeper Alliance" ], [ "Government offices held", " Patrick Joseph Kennedy: Massachusetts state Representative, 1884–1889; Massachusetts state Senator, 1889–1895.", "Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr.: Chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 1934–1935; chairman of the United States Maritime Commission, 1936–1938; United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, 1938–1940.", "John Fitzgerald Kennedy: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 1947–1953; United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1953–1960; President of the United States, 1961–1963.", "*Caroline Kennedy: United States Ambassador to Japan, 2013–2017; United States Ambassador to Australia 2022-present.", "Eunice Kennedy Shriver*Bobby Shriver: Santa Monica, California City Council member, 2004–2012; Mayor of Santa Monica, 2010.", "Mark Kennedy Shriver: Maryland state Delegate, 1995–2003.", "Robert Francis Kennedy: United States Attorney General, 1961–1964; United States Senator from New York, 1965–1968.", "*Kathleen Kennedy Townsend: Lieutenant governor of Maryland, 1995–2003.", "Joseph P. Kennedy II: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 1987–1999.", "*Joseph P. Kennedy III: United States Representative from Massachusetts, 2013–2021; U.S. envoy to Northern Ireland, 2022–present.", "Jean Kennedy Smith: United States Ambassador to Ireland, 1993–1998.", "Edward Moore Kennedy: United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1962–2009.", "Edward M. Kennedy Jr.: Connecticut state Senator, 2015–2019.", "*Patrick J. Kennedy: Rhode Island state Representative, 1989–1993; United States Representative from Rhode Island, 1995–2011.In addition, some Kennedy spouses have served in government:Andrew Cuomo (then-husband of Kerry Kennedy): United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, 1997–2001.After their divorce, he served as New York state attorney general (2007–2010) and New York governor (2011–2021).", "Victoria Reggie Kennedy (widow of Ted Kennedy): U.S. ambassador to Austria, 2022–presentArnold Schwarzenegger (then-husband of Maria Shriver): governor of California, 2003–2011Sargent Shriver (husband of Eunice Kennedy Shriver): president of the Chicago Board of Education, 1955–1960; director of the Peace Corps, 1961–1966; director of the Office of Economic Opportunity, 1964–1968; U.S. ambassador to France, 1968–1970There was a member of the Kennedy family in public office nearly continuously from 1946, when John F. Kennedy was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, until early 2011, when Patrick J. Kennedy left the House.", "The only exception was the period between John F. Kennedy's resignation from the Senate on December 22, 1960, and his assumption of the office of President on January 20, 1961.In 2013, two years after Patrick Kennedy left the House, Joseph P. Kennedy III was elected U.S. Representative from Massachusetts and served until 2021.Below is a timeline of the Kennedys' tenure in the U.S. Congress.===Timeline===" ], [ "Heraldry", "In 1961, John F. Kennedy was presented with a grant of arms for all the descendants of Patrick Kennedy (1823–1858) from the Chief Herald of Ireland.", "The design of the arms (three gold closed helmets on a black field) strongly alludes to symbols in the coats of arms of the O'Kennedys of Ormonde and the FitzGeralds of Desmond, from whom the family is descended.", "The crest is an armored hand holding four arrows between two olive branches, elements taken from the coat of arms of the United States of America and also symbolic of Kennedy and his brothers." ], [ "See also", " List of Kennedy family members* Kennedy family tree" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Book sources ===* * Haas, Lawrence J.", "''The Kennedys in the World: How Jack, Bobby, and Ted Remade America's Empire'' (2021) excerpt* Hunt, Amber, and David Batcher.", "''Kennedy Wives: Triumph and Tragedy in America's Most Public Family'' (2014) excerpt * Kessler, Ronald.", "''The sins of the father: Joseph P. Kennedy and the dynasty he founded'' (St. Martin's Press, 1996).", "* Klein, Edward.", "''The Kennedy Curse: Why tragedy has haunted America's first family for 150 years'' (Macmillan, 2003).", "* Leamer, Laurence.", "''The Kennedy women: The saga of an American family'' (Ballantine Books, 1996).", "excerpt* Leamer, Laurence.", "''The Kennedy Men: 1901-1963'' (2001) excerpt* Leamer, Laurence.", "''Sons of Camelot: The Fate of an American Dynasty'' (2005) excerpt* Nasaw, David.", "''The Patriarch: The Remarkable Life and Turbulent Times of Joseph P. Kennedy'' (2012); scholarly biography." ], [ "External links", "* The Kennedys: A Family Tree, ''St.", "Petersburg Times''* Kennedy Family Tree, ''The New York Times''* The Forrestal Kennedy Connection, * Kennedy Family, The Political Graveyard" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deflation (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "Commonly, '''deflation''' refers to a decrease in the general price level, the opposite of inflation.", "'''Deflation''' may also refer to:A release or escape of air or gas from an inflatable, resulting in its shrinking or collapsingA mode of wind erosionDividing a polynomial by a linear factor which decreases its degree by one in multiple root-finding algorithms, as done for example in the Jenkins–Traub algorithmIn philosophy, the use of a deflationary theory of truth, where the term ''truth'' is rejected as a real property of propositions''Deflation'' (film), a 2001 short filmThe Great Deflation, a period of worldwide economic deflation occurring roughly between the years 1870–90Deflate, a widely used lossless compression algorithm originating from the program PKZIP" ], [ "See also", "Deflationary theory of truth*Inflation (disambiguation), the antonym of deflation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Democracy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Democracy''' (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a system of government in which state power is vested in the people or the general population of a state.", "According to the United Nations, democracy \"provides an environment that respects human rights and fundamental freedoms, and in which the freely expressed will of people is exercised.", "\"In a direct democracy, the people have the direct authority to deliberate and decide legislation.", "In a representative democracy, the people choose governing officials through elections to do so.", "Who is considered part of \"the people\" and how authority is shared among or delegated by the people has changed over time and at different rates in different countries.", "Features of democracy oftentimes include freedom of assembly, association, personal property, freedom of religion and speech, citizenship, consent of the governed, voting rights, freedom from unwarranted governmental deprivation of the right to life and liberty, and minority rights.The notion of democracy has evolved over time considerably.", "Throughout history, one can find evidence of direct democracy, in which communities make decisions through popular assembly.", "Today, the dominant form of democracy is representative democracy, where citizens elect government officials to govern on their behalf such as in a parliamentary or presidential democracy.Most democracies apply in most cases majority rule, but in some cases plurality rule, supermajority rule (e.g.", "constitution) or consensus rule (e.g.", "Switzerland) are applied.", "They serve the crucial purpose of inclusiveness and broader legitimacy on sensitive issues—counterbalancing majoritarianism—and therefore mostly take precedence on a constitutional level.", "In the common variant of liberal democracy, the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution and a supreme court limit the majority and protect the minority—usually through securing the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g.", "freedom of speech or freedom of association.The term appeared in the 5th century BC in Greek city-states, notably Classical Athens, to mean \"rule of the people\", in contrast to aristocracy (, ''''), meaning \"rule of an elite\".", "Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in antiquity, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as those in Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity.", "In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship was initially restricted to an elite class, which was later extended to all adult citizens.", "In most modern democracies, this was achieved through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in autocratic systems like absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy—oppositions inherited from ancient Greek philosophy.", "Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.", "World public opinion strongly favors democratic systems of government.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices and The Economist Democracy Index, less than half the world's population lives in a democracy .", "Democratic backsliding with a rise in hybrid regimes has exceeded democratization since the early to mid 2010s." ], [ "Characteristics", "Democracy's ''de jure'' status in the world as of 2022: Countries in green claim to be democracies while countries in red do not.", "Only Saudi Arabia, Oman, the UAE, Qatar, Brunei, Afghanistan, and the Vatican do not claim to be democratic.Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, no consensus exists on a precise definition of democracy.", "Karl Popper says that the \"classical\" view of democracy is, \"in brief, the theory that democracy is the rule of the people, and that the people have a right to rule\".", "Kofi Annan states that \"there are as many different forms of democracy as there are democratic nations in the world.\"", "One study identified 2,234 adjectives used to describe democracy in the English language.A 1951 UNESCO-sponsored report found the idea of democracy \"highly ambiguous\".Democratic principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes.", "For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has (in theory) equal weight, and the freedom of eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties which are typically enshrined in a constitution.", "Other uses of \"democracy\" may encompass direct democracy, in which citizens vote on issues directly.One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: upward control (sovereignty residing at the lowest levels of authority), political equality, and social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality.", "Legal equality, political freedom and rule of law are often identified by commentators as foundational characteristics for a well-functioning democracy.Roger Scruton argued that democracy alone cannot provide personal and political freedom unless the institutions of civil society are also present.In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom (which originated the Westminster system), the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty, while maintaining judicial independence.", "In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review.", "Though the term \"democracy\" is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are potentially applicable to private organisations, such as clubs, societies and firms.Democracies may use many different decision-making methods, but majority rule is the dominant form.", "Without compensation, like legal protections of individual or group rights, political minorities can be oppressed by the \"tyranny of the majority\".", "Majority rule involves a competitive approach, opposed to consensus democracy, creating the need that elections, and generally deliberation, are substantively and procedurally \"fair\",\" i.e.", "just and equitable.", "In some countries, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests and beliefs.It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society.", "With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of all the voters, democracy can also be characterised as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in lawmaking.Republics, though often popularly associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by consent of the governed, are not necessarily democracies, as republicanism does not specify ''how'' the people are to rule.Classically the term \"republic\" encompassed both democracies and aristocracies.", "In a modern sense the republican form of government is a form of government without a monarch.", "Because of this, democracies can be republics or constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom." ], [ "History", "Nineteenth-century painting by Philipp Foltz depicting the Athenian politician Pericles delivering his famous funeral oration in front of the AssemblyDemocratic assemblies are as old as the human species and are found throughout human history, but up until the nineteenth century, major political figures have largely opposed democracy.", "Republican theorists linked democracy to small size: as political units grew in size, the likelihood increased that the government would turn despotic.", "At the same time, small political units were vulnerable to conquest.", "Montesquieu wrote, \"If a republic be small, it is destroyed by a foreign force; if it be large, it is ruined by an internal imperfection.\"", "According to Johns Hopkins University political scientist Daniel Deudney, the creation of the United States, with its large size and its system of checks and balances, was a solution to the dual problems of size.Retrospectively different polities, outside of declared democracies, have been described as proto-democratic.===Origins===The term ''democracy'' first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity.", "The word comes from ''dêmos'' '(common) people' and ''krátos'' 'force/might'.", "Under Cleisthenes, what is generally held as the first example of a type of democracy in 508–507 BC was established in Athens.", "Cleisthenes is referred to as \"the father of Athenian democracy\".", "The first attested use of the word democracy is found in prose works of the 430s BC, such as Herodotus' ''Histories'', but its usage was older by several decades, as two Athenians born in the 470s were named Democrates, a new political name—likely in support of democracy—given at a time of debates over constitutional issues in Athens.", "Aeschylus also strongly alludes to the word in his play ''The Suppliants'', staged in c.463 BC, where he mentions \"the demos's ruling hand\" ''demou kratousa cheir''.", "Before that time, the word used to define the new political system of Cleisthenes was probably isonomia, meaning political equality.Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices, and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens.", "All eligible citizens were allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state.", "However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), and youths below the age of military service.", "Effectively, only 1 in 4 residents in Athens qualified as citizens.", "Owning land was not a requirement for citizenship.", "The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship.", "In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns.Athenian democracy was not only ''direct'' in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also the ''most direct'' in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business.", "Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for \"rights\"), those who were citizens of Athens enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person.Range voting appeared in Sparta as early as 700 BC.", "The Spartan ecclesia was an assembly of the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of at least 20 years of age could participate.", "In the assembly, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by range voting and shouting (the vote is then decided on how loudly the crowd shouts).", "Aristotle called this \"childish\", as compared with the stone voting ballots used by the Athenian citizenry.", "Sparta adopted it because of its simplicity, and to prevent any biased voting, buying, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections.Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives.", "The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of weighted voting, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families.", "In addition, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom was the first case in the Western world of a polity being formed with the explicit purpose of being a republic, although it didn't have much of a democracy.", "The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries.Vaishali, capital city of the Vajjika League (Vrijji mahajanapada) of India, was also considered one of the first examples of a republic around the 6th century BC.Other cultures, such as the Iroquois Nation in the Americas also developed a form of democratic society between 1450 and 1660 (and possibly in 1142), well before contact with the Europeans.", "This democracy continues to the present day and is the world's oldest standing representative democracy.", "This indicates that forms of democracy may have been invented in other societies around the world.===Middle Ages===While most regions in Europe during the Middle Ages were ruled by clergy or feudal lords, there existed various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small part of the population.", "In Scandinavia, bodies known as things consisted of freemen presided by a lawspeaker.", "These deliberative bodies were responsible for settling political questions, and variants included the Althing in Iceland and the Løgting in the Faeroe Islands.", "The veche, found in Eastern Europe, was a similar body to the Scandinavian thing.", "In the Roman Catholic Church, the pope has been elected by a papal conclave composed of cardinals since 1059.The first documented parliamentary body in Europe was the Cortes of León.", "Established by Alfonso IX in 1188, the Cortes had authority over setting taxation, foreign affairs and legislating, though the exact nature of its role remains disputed.", "The Republic of Ragusa, established in 1358 and centered around the city of Dubrovnik, provided representation and voting rights to its male aristocracy only.", "Various Italian city-states and polities had republic forms of government.", "For instance, the Republic of Florence, established in 1115, was led by the Signoria whose members were chosen by sortition.", "In 10th–15th century Frisia, a distinctly non-feudal society, the right to vote on local matters and on county officials was based on land size.", "The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the ''Gbara''.", "However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic.Magna Carta, 1215, EnglandThe Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta (1215), which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects and implicitly supported what became the English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal.", "The first representative national assembly in England was Simon de Montfort's Parliament in 1265.The emergence of petitioning is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people.", "However, the power to call parliament remained at the pleasure of the monarch.Studies have linked the emergence of parliamentary institutions in Europe during the medieval period to urban agglomeration and the creation of new classes, such as artisans, as well as the presence of nobility and religious elites.", "Scholars have also linked the emergence of representative government to Europe's relative political fragmentation.", "Political scientist David Stasavage links the fragmentation of Europe, and its subsequent democratization, to the manner in which the Roman Empire collapsed: Roman territory was conquered by small fragmented groups of Germanic tribes, thus leading to the creation of small political units where rulers were relatively weak and needed the consent of the governed to ward off foreign threats.In Poland, noble democracy was characterized by an increase in the activity of the middle nobility, which wanted to increase their share in exercising power at the expense of the magnates.", "Magnates dominated the most important offices in the state (secular and ecclesiastical) and sat on the royal council, later the senate.", "The growing importance of the middle nobility had an impact on the establishment of the institution of the land ''sejmik'' (local assembly), which subsequently obtained more rights.", "During the fifteenth and first half of the sixteenth century, sejmiks received more and more powers and became the most important institutions of local power.", "In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon granted the sejmiks the right to decide on taxes and to convene a mass mobilization in the Nieszawa Statutes.", "He also pledged not to create new laws without their consent.===Modern era=======Early modern period====John Locke expanded on Thomas Hobbes's social contract theory and developed the concept of natural rights, the right to private property and the principle of consent of the governed.", "His ideas form the ideological basis of liberal democracies today.", "In 17th century England, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta.", "The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects.", "The English Civil War (1642–1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647.Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653–59) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule, although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence.", "After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the Bill of Rights was enacted in 1689 which codified certain rights and liberties and is still in effect.", "The Bill set out the requirement for regular elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of Europe at the time, royal absolutism would not prevail.", "Economic historians Douglass North and Barry Weingast have characterized the institutions implemented in the Glorious Revolution as a resounding success in terms of restraining the government and ensuring protection for property rights.Renewed interest in the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution in the 17th century prompted the growth of political philosophy on the British Isles.", "Thomas Hobbes was the first philosopher to articulate a detailed social contract theory.", "Writing in the ''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes theorized that individuals living in the state of nature led lives that were \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short\" and constantly waged a war of all against all.", "In order to prevent the occurrence of an anarchic state of nature, Hobbes reasoned that individuals ceded their rights to a strong, authoritarian power.", "In other words, Hobbes advocated for an absolute monarchy which, in his opinion, was the best form of government.", "Later, philosopher and physician John Locke would posit a different interpretation of social contract theory.", "Writing in his ''Two Treatises of Government'' (1689), Locke posited that all individuals possessed the inalienable rights to life, liberty and estate (property).", "According to Locke, individuals would voluntarily come together to form a state for the purposes of defending their rights.", "Particularly important for Locke were property rights, whose protection Locke deemed to be a government's primary purpose.", "Furthermore, Locke asserted that governments were legitimate only if they held the consent of the governed.", "For Locke, citizens had the right to revolt against a government that acted against their interest or became tyrannical.", "Although they were not widely read during his lifetime, Locke's works are considered the founding documents of liberal thought and profoundly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution and later the French Revolution.", "His liberal democratic framework of governance remains the preeminent form of democracy in the world.In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich, the holder of the highest post of Hetman was elected by the representatives from the country's districts.In North America, representative government began in Jamestown, Virginia, with the election of the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly) in 1619.English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose local governance was democratic; although these local assemblies had some small amounts of devolved power, the ultimate authority was held by the Crown and the English Parliament.", "The Puritans (Pilgrim Fathers), Baptists, and Quakers who founded these colonies applied the democratic organisation of their congregations also to the administration of their communities in worldly matters.====18th and 19th centuries====Statue of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, in front of the Austrian Parliament Building.", "Athena has been used as an international symbol of freedom and democracy since at least the late eighteenth century.The first Parliament of Great Britain was established in 1707, after the merger of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland under the Acts of Union.", "Two key documents of the UK's uncodified constitution, the English Declaration of Right, 1689 (restated in the Bill of Rights 1689) and the Scottish Claim of Right 1689, had both cemented Parliament's position as the supreme law-making body, and said that the \"election of members of Parliament ought to be free\".", "However, Parliament was only elected by male property owners, which amounted to 3% of the population in 1780.The first known British person of African heritage to vote in a general election, Ignatius Sancho, voted in 1774 and 1780.During the Age of Liberty in Sweden (1718–1772), civil rights were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament.", "The taxed peasantry was represented in parliament, although with little influence, but commoners without taxed property had no suffrage.The creation of the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755 was an early attempt to adopt a democratic constitution (all men and women above age of 25 could vote).", "This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and included female suffrage, something that was not included in most other democracies until the 20th century.Colonial America had similar property qualifications as Britain, and in the period before 1776 the abundance and availability of land meant that large numbers of colonists met such requirements with at least 60 per cent of adult white males able to vote.", "The great majority of white men were farmers who met the property ownership or taxpaying requirements.", "With few exceptions no blacks or women could vote.", "Vermont, which, on declaring independence of Great Britain in 1777, adopted a constitution modelled on Pennsylvania's with citizenship and democratic suffrage for males with or without property.", "The United States Constitution of 1787 is the oldest surviving, still active, governmental codified constitution.", "The Constitution provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties, but did not end slavery nor extend voting rights in the United States, instead leaving the issue of suffrage to the individual states.", "Generally, states limited suffrage to white male property owners and taxpayers.", "At the time of the first Presidential election in 1789, about 6% of the population was eligible to vote.", "The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only.", "The Bill of Rights in 1791 set limits on government power to protect personal freedoms but had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 130 years after ratification.In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all men in 1792.The Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791 sought to implement a more effective constitutional monarchy, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom.", "In force for less than 19 months, it was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm that met in 1793.Nonetheless, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the country's sovereignty over a century later.1850s lithograph marking the establishment of leftIn the United States, the 1828 presidential election was the first in which non-property-holding white males could vote in the vast majority of states.", "Voter turnout soared during the 1830s, reaching about 80% of the adult white male population in the 1840 presidential election.", "North Carolina was the last state to abolish property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century).", "In the 1860 United States Census, the slave population had grown to four million, and in Reconstruction after the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed: the 13th Amendment (1865) that ended slavery; the 14th Amendment (1869) that gave black people citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) that gave black males a nominal right to vote.", "Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the civil rights movement gained passage by the US Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.The voting franchise in the United Kingdom was expanded and made more uniform in a series of reforms that began with the Reform Act 1832 and continued into the 20th century, notably with the Representation of the People Act 1918 and the Equal Franchise Act 1928.Universal male suffrage was established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848.During that year, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government.In 1876 the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament.", "Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued, stating that the elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first Parliament.", "Later that year, a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a bicameral Parliament with a Senate appointed by the Sultan and a popularly elected Chamber of Deputies.", "Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in Turkish and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election.", "Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by a foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having \"notoriety for ill deeds\".", "Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934.In 1893 the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to establish active universal suffrage by recognizing women as having the right to vote.====20th and 21st centuries====The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive \"waves of democracy\", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonisation, and religious and economic circumstances.", "Global waves of \"democratic regression\" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s.first wave of democracy in the early 20th centuryWorld War I and the dissolution of the autocratic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic.", "In the 1920s democratic movements flourished and women's suffrage advanced, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships.", "Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as non-democratic governments in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others.World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe.", "The democratisation of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of government change.", "However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet-dominated bloc.The war was followed by decolonisation, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions.", "India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so.", "Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system.", "By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in \"Communist\" states and the former colonies.", ")A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed \"third wave of democracy\".", "Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s.", "This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s.", "Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries.", "The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of the European Union or candidate states.", "In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino, who would later be known as the Mother of Asian Democracy.Corazon Aquino taking the Oath of Office, becoming the first female president in AsiaThe liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa.", "Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.Age of democracies at the end of 2015According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972).", "According to ''World Forum on Democracy'', electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population.", "At the same time liberal democracies i.e.", "countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population.", "Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy.Meeting of the Grand Committee of the Parliament of Finland in 2008Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years; the major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America.", "Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting.", "The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua.", "In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated.", "In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves.According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the Law and Justice Party) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte).", "In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year.", "''The Christian Science Monitor'' reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary.", "For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over legal objections from the European Commission.", "In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown .Countries autocratising (red) or democratising (blue) substantially and significantly (2010–2020).", "Countries in grey are substantially unchanged.", "\"Democratic backsliding\" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor government's management of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other factors such as manipulation of civil society, \"toxic polarization\", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition.", "Within English-speaking Western democracies, \"protection-based\" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance." ], [ "Theory<!--'Democratic theory' redirects here-->", "===Early theory===Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/absolute monarchy).", "He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy).A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities.", "Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic's shift to monarchism as it grew larger or smaller, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny.", "Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units.", "Montesquieu famously said, \"if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice.\"", "Rousseau asserted, \"It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince.", "\"===Contemporary theory===Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: ''aggregative democracy'', ''deliberative democracy'', and ''radical democracy''.====Aggregative====The theory of ''aggregative democracy'' claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.", "Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.Different variants of aggregative democracy exist.", "Under ''minimalism'', democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections.", "According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not \"rule\" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.", "Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''.", "Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner.According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals.", "Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view.", "Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites.", "Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right.", "This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes.", "Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.", "Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''.Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision).", "He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy.", "First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society.", "However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation.", "Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that \"democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal.", "\"====Deliberative====''Deliberative democracy'' is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation.", "Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting.", "''Authentic deliberation'' is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups.", "If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.", "Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making.====Radical====''Radical democracy'' is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.", "Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes." ], [ "Measurement of democracy", "===Democracy indices===The 2022 The Economist Democracy Index map'''Full democracies''''''Flawed democracies''''''Hybrid regimes''''''Authoritarian regimes'''upright=1.5V-Dem Electoral Democracy Index map for 2023upright=1.4====Difficulties in measuring democracy====" ], [ "Types of governmental democracies", "Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice.", "Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others.", "However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy.The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system.===Basic forms===Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will.", "One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly.", "In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy.====Direct====A Landsgemeinde (in 2009) of the canton of Glarus, an example of direct democracy in SwitzerlandSwitzerland, without needing to register, every citizen receives ballot papers and information brochures for each vote (and can send it back by post).", "Switzerland has a direct democracy system and votes (and elections) are organised about four times a year; here, to Berne's citizen in November 2008 about 5 national, 2 cantonal, 4 municipal referendums, and 2 elections (government and parliament of the City of Berne) to take care of at the same time.Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives.", "A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to:* Change constitutional laws,* Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for lawsWithin modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy.", "However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion.", "Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava.=====Lot system=====The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies.", "In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery.====Representative====Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented.", "If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic.", "The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes.", "Most western countries have representative systems.Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two.", "Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums.", "A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so.", "Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy=====Parliamentary=====Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a \"presidential rule\" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.", "Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people.In a parliamentary system, the Prime Minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature.", "This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office with majority support for dismissal.", "In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the Prime Minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected.", "In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections.", "An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the \"loyal opposition\".", "The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles.=====Presidential=====Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election.", "The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers.", "The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time.", "The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office.", "Elections typically have a fixed date and aren't easily changed.", "The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members.The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto.", "However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets.", "This provides some measure of separation of powers.", "In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state.", "This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia.A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president.", "The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country.====Hybrid or semi-direct====Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic.", "These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed ''hybrid democracies'', ''semi-direct democracies'' or ''participatory democracies''.", "Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives.The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy.", "At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (federal popular initiative) or ask for a referendum to be held on any law voted by the parliament.", "Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums).", "Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters.In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government.", "This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government.", "For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters.===Typology=======Constitutional monarchy====King Charles III, a constitutional monarchMany countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles.", "For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers such as H. G. Wells.In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt).", "An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries.Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states.", "Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate).====Republic====The term ''republic'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister.The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy, which in their view often came without the protection of a constitution enshrining inalienable rights; James Madison argued, especially in ''The Federalist'' No.", "10, that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on \"the problem of majority tyranny\".", "They conclude, \"The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities.\"", "What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be \"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend.\"", "As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U.S. constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him \"Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?\".", "He replied \"A republic—if you can keep it.", "\"====Liberal democracy====A liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and moderated by a constitution or laws that emphasise the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a liberal democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make.", "In other words, citizens can \"vote with their feet\" or \"vote with their dollars\", resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many \"powers\" associated with formal government elsewhere.====Socialist====Socialist thought has several different views on democracy.", "Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat are some examples.", "Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy.====Marxist====Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called \"liberal democracy\", which is referred to as parliamentary democracy because of its centralised nature.", "Because of orthodox Marxists' desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).", "This system can begin with workplace democracy and ultimately manifests itself as council democracy.====Anarchist====Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not.", "To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy.", "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous.", "However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says \"majority rule\" is consistent with anarchism.Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy.====Sortition====Sometimes called \"democracy without elections\", sortition chooses decision makers via a random process.", "The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large and be fairer and more impartial than an elected official.", "The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection.====Consociational====Consociational democracy was first conceptualized in the 1960s by Dutch American political scientist Arend Lijphart.", "Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, can be defined as a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups in the society.", "According to the founder of the theory of consociational democracy, Arendt Lijphart, \"Consociational democracy means government by elite cartel designed to turn a democracy with a fragmented political culture into a stable democracy\".", "A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them.", "The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies.", "This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.", "A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate.====Consensus democracy========Inclusive====Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e.", "self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature.", "The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in \"Towards An Inclusive Democracy\" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''.The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i.e.", "the assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities.", "An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi.", "Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policymaking like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts, but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker.", "Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example, to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils.", "Such delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body.", "Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates.====Participatory politics====A Parpolity or Participatory Polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a Nested Council structure.", "The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision.", "Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council.A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue.", "Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council.", "Delegates are recallable at any time.", "Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time.", "A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy.====Cosmopolitan====Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''Global democracy'' or ''World Federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives.", "An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote.", "By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them.According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy.", "The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state.", "To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics.Cosmopolitan Democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi.", "The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy.====Creative democracy====Creative Democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey.", "The main idea about Creative Democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society.", "Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of \"Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us\" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others.", "Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves.", "\"The task of democracy\", Dewey concludes, \"is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute\".====Guided democracy====Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully \"guides\" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them.", "Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority.", "Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a \"Guided democracy\".", "Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government." ], [ "Non-governmental democracy", "Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups.", "Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting.", "Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections.", "Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy.", "Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance.", "Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed ''Islamocracy''.", "There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff.=== Shareholder democracy ===Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders.", "In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle.", "Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives.", "The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights." ], [ "Justification", "Several justifications for democracy have been postulated.=== Legitimacy ===Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e.", "an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will.", "Some proponents of the theory like Jean-Jacques Rousseau advocate for a direct democracy on this basis.=== Better decision-making ===Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e.", "a democracy, will result in the best decisions.", "This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd.=== Economic success ===In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth.A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian.", "The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010.Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies." ], [ "Democracy promotion", "Banner in Hong Kong asking for democracy, August 2019Democracy promotion can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding.", "Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing youth suffrage, increasing civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality and reducing presidentialism." ], [ "Democratic transitions", "number of countries autocratizing (blue) is higher than those democratizing (yellow).A democratic transition describes a phase in a countries political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa).===Democratization===Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy.Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development.", "In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy.Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy.", "It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy.Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use.", "By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily.", "Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns.", "Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy.Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation.", "Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:* a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing)* an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.", "), which itself depends on intelligence.Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by.", "Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal.", "In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy.", "Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power.The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence.", "Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07).", "A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26).", "Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary.", "Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case.", "Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development.Some scholars have searched for the \"deep\" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic.An example of this is the disease environment.", "Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world.", "For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land.", "This made Africa less settled.", "As a consequence, political power was less concentrated.", "This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa.", "Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths.", "This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take.", "As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies.An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers.", "This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade.", "Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power.", "Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest.", "As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy.", "These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power.Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field.", "After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure.", "They do not find it.", "But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being.", "The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites.", "The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution.===Autocratization=======Disruption====Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government.", "Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown.", "(See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.)", "Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the First French Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic.", "Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état.", "Other types of a sudden end to democracy include:* Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam.", "* Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office.", "This can be done through: Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état An \"electoral self-coup\" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party.", "For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election.", "* Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power.", "For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree.Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law.", "A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany.Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments.", "This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era.===Criticism of democracy=======Friedrich Nietzsche====Friedrich Nietzsche conveys a vision of a society where individuality is lost, and conformity prevails.", "In such a society, anyone who holds different beliefs or desires is considered deviant and is willingly marginalized or isolated: \"No shepherd and one herd!", "Everybody wants the same, everybody is the same: whoever feels different goes voluntarily into a madhouse.", "\"Nietzsche expresses skepticism about the democratization of Europe, viewing it as a breeding ground for mediocrity, raising concerns about the equalizing and leveling tendencies within democratic societies as he writes: \"The democratization of Europe is at the same time an involuntary arrangement for the cultivation of mediocrity\".Nietzsche also questions whether democratic systems truly serve the enhancement of power and the flourishing of individuals, challenging the prevailing notions of what is considered good within democratic societies.", "For Nietzsche, the pursuit of power and self-assertion is fundamental to human nature, and any moral framework that suppresses or denies this natural inclination is seen as detrimental to human flourishing: \"What is good?—Whatever augments the feeling of power, the will to power, power itself, in man\".==== Arrow's theorem ====Arrow's impossibility theorem suggests that single-winner elections can be logically incoherent.", "This is based on a certain set of criteria for democratic decision-making being inherently conflicting, i.e., these three \"fairness\" criteria:Kenneth Arrow summarised the implications of the theorem in a non-mathematical form, stating that \"no voting method is fair\", \"every ranked voting method is flawed\", and \"the only voting method that isn't flawed is a dictatorship\".", "However, Arrow's formal premises can be considered overly strict, and with their reasonable weakening, the logical incoherence of democracy looks much less critical.", "Arrow's impossibility theorem does not apply to multi-winner voting such as proportional representation.====Inefficiencies====Some economists have criticized the efficiency of democracy, citing the premise of the irrational voter, or a voter who makes decisions without all of the facts or necessary information in order to make a truly informed decision.", "Another argument is that democracy slows down processes because of the amount of input and participation needed in order to go forward with a decision.", "A common example often quoted to substantiate this point is the high economic development achieved by China (a non-democratic one-party ruling communist state) as compared to India (a democratic multi-party state).", "According to economists, the lack of democratic participation in countries like China allows for unfettered economic growth.On the other hand, Socrates believed that democracy without educated masses (educated in the broader sense of being knowledgeable and responsible) would only lead to populism being the criteria to become an elected leader and not competence.", "This would ultimately lead to a societal demise.", "This was quoted by Plato in book 10 of The Republic, in Socrates' conversation with Adimantus.", "Socrates was of the opinion that the right to vote must not be an indiscriminate right (for example by birth or citizenship), but must be given only to people who thought sufficiently of their choice.Plato's ''The Republic'' presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of Socrates: \"Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequaled alike.\"", "In his work, Plato lists 5 forms of government from best to worst, and lists democracy as the second worst, behind only tyranny, which he implies to be the natural outcome of democracy, arguing that in a democracy everyone puts their own selfish interests ahead of the common good until a tyrant emerges who is strong enough to impose his interest on everyone else.", "Assuming that ''the Republic'' was intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens, Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men), is a just form of government.Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, warned Joe Biden, U.S. president, via a phone call that democracy was dying.", "\"Democracies require consensus, and it takes time, and you don't have the time\", Xi Jinping added.The inefficiencies contribute to decreased voter turnout, decreased political efficacy, and political apathy.====Popular rule as a façade====The 20th-century Italian thinkers Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca (independently) argued that democracy was illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule.", "Indeed, they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise of power from oppression to manipulation.", "As Louis Brandeis once professed, \"We may have democracy, or we may have wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, but we can't have both.", "\".A study led by Princeton professor Martin Gilens of 1,779 U.S. government decisions concluded that\"elites and organized groups representing business interests have substantial independent impacts on U.S. government policy, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little or no independent influence.", "\"====Mob rule====James Madison critiqued democracy in Federalist No.", "10, arguing that a republic is a preferable form of government, saying: \"... democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.\"", "Madison offered that republics were superior to democracies because republics safeguarded against tyranny of the majority, stating in Federalist No.", "10: \"the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic\".", "Thomas Jefferson warned that \"an elective despotism is not the government we fought for.", "\"====Political instability====More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability.", "As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally.", "Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline-grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the popular media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change.", "Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth.", "For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities.This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short-lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government.Biased media has been accused of causing political instability, resulting in the obstruction of democracy, rather than its promotion." ], [ "Importance of mass media", "The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision.", "Since the late 20'th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed because the news media are focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues.The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy:* Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment* Meaningful agenda setting* Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy* Dialogue across a diverse range of views* Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power* Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved* A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience* A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environmentThis proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires.Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function.They are controlled mainly by economic market forces.", "Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition.The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles.", "There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media.", "Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues.", "The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists.", "This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting.The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes.This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures.A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights.The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process.The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate.", "Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format.", "The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions.", "This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation.Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with.", "Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media.Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels.", "This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers.Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy.Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide.The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries.", "These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests.Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters.", "Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US.Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians.", "Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media.", "However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media.The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication.", "The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media.", "This is often seen as an advantage for democracy.The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize.", "The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests.A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters.", "The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information.", "In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories.The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials.Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process.", "Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited=== * ** * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Abbott, Lewis.", "(2006).", "''British Democracy: Its Restoration and Extension''.", "ISR/Google Books.", "* Appleby, Joyce.", "(1992).", "''Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination''.", "Harvard University Press.", "* Archibugi, Daniele, ''The Global Commonwealth of Citizens.", "Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy'', Princeton University Press, * Becker, Peter, Heideking, Juergen, & Henretta, James A.", "(2002).", "''Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750–1850''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Benhabib, Seyla.", "(1996).", "''Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Biagini, Eugenio (general editor).", "2021.", "''A Cultural History of Democracy'', 6 Volumes; Volume 1: ''A Cultural History of Democracy in Antiquity''; Volume 2: ''A Cultural History of Democracy in the Medieval Age''; Volume 3: ''A Cultural History of Democracy in the Renaissance''; Volume 4: ''A Cultural History of Democracy in the Age of Enlightenment''; Volume 5: ''A Cultural History of Democracy in the Age of Empire''; Volume 6: ''A Cultural History of Democracy in the Modern Age''.", "New York : Bloomsbury Academic.", "* Birch, Anthony H. (1993).", "''The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Bobbio, Norberto.", "1987 1984.", "''The Future of Democracy: A Defense of the Rules of The Game''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.", "* Castiglione, Dario.", "(2005). \"", "historiography\" Republicanism and its Legacy.\"", "''European Journal of Political Theory''.", "pp. 453–465.", "* Copp, David, Jean Hampton, & John E. Roemer.", "(1993).", "''The Idea of Democracy''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Caputo, Nicholas.", "(2005).", "''America's Bible of Democracy: Returning to the Constitution''.", "SterlingHouse Publisher, Inc. * Dahl, Robert A.", "(1991).", "''Democracy and its Critics''.", "Yale University Press.", "* Dahl, Robert A.", "(2000).", "''On Democracy''.", "Yale University Press.", "* Dahl, Robert A. Ian Shapiro & Jose Antonio Cheibub.", "(2003).", "''The Democracy Sourcebook''.", "MIT Press.", "* Dahl, Robert A.", "(1963).", "''A Preface to Democratic Theory''.", "University of Chicago Press.", "* Davenport, Christian.", "(2007).", "''State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Diamond, Larry & Marc Plattner.", "(1996).", "''The Global Resurgence of Democracy''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* Diamond, Larry & Richard Gunther.", "(2001).", "''Political Parties and Democracy''.", "JHU Press.", "* Diamond, Larry & Leonardo Morlino.", "(2005).", "''Assessing the Quality of Democracy''.", "JHU Press.", "* Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Philip J. Costopoulos.", "(2005).", "''World Religions and Democracy''.", "JHU Press.", "* Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner & Daniel Brumberg.", "(2003).", "''Islam and Democracy in the Middle East''.", "JHU Press.", "* Doorenspleet, Renske.", "2019.", "''Rethinking the Value of Democracy.", "A Comparative Perspective''.", "Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.", "* Elster, Jon.", "(1998).", "''Deliberative Democracy''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Emerson, Peter (2007) \"Designing an All-Inclusive Democracy.\"", "Springer.", "* Emerson, Peter (2012) ''Defining Democracy''.", "Springer.", "* Everdell, William R. (2003) ''The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", ".", "online* Fisher, Max.", "\"U.S.", "Allies Drive Much of World's Democratic Decline, Data Shows: Washington-aligned countries backslid at nearly double the rate of non-allies, data shows, complicating long-held assumptions about American influence\" ''New York Times'' Nov 16, 2021* * Gabardi, Wayne.", "(2001).", "Contemporary Models of Democracy.", "''Polity''.", "* Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson.", "(1996).", "''Democracy and Disagreement''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson.", "(2002).", "''Why Deliberative Democracy?''", "Princeton University Press.", "* Habermas, Jurgen.", "1996.", "''Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy''.", "Cambridge MA: MIT Press.", "* Halperin, M.H., Siegle, J.T.", "& Weinstein, M.M.", "(2005).", "''The Democracy Advantage: How Democracies Promote Prosperity and Peace''.", "Routledge.", "* * Hansen, Mogens Herman.", "(1991).", "''The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes''.", "Oxford: Blackwell.", "* Held, David.", "(2006).", "''Models of Democracy''.", "Stanford University Press.", "* Inglehart, Ronald.", "(1997).", "''Modernisation and Postmodernisation.", "Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Isakhan, Ben and Stockwell, Stephen (co-editors).", "(2011) ''The Secret History of Democracy''.", "Palgrave MacMillan.", "* Kelsen, Hans.", "2013 1929.", "''The Essence and Value of Democracy''.", "Lanham, Md.", ": Rowman & Littlefield* Khan, L. Ali.", "(2003).", "''A Theory of Universal Democracy: Beyond the End of History''.", "Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.", "* Köchler, Hans.", "(1987).", "''The Crisis of Representative Democracy''.", "Peter Lang.", "* Lijphart, Arend.", "2012.", "''Patterns of Democracy.", "Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries''.", "2nd.", "ed.", "New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press.", "* * Macpherson, C.B.", "(1977).", "''The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Morgan, Edmund.", "(1989).", "''Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America''.", "Norton.", "* * * Munck, Gerardo L.", "2016.", "\"What is Democracy?", "A Reconceptualization of the Quality of Democracy.\"", "''Democratization'' 23(1): 1–26.", "* O’Donnell, Guillermo.", "2010.", "''Democracy, Agency, and the State: Theory with Comparative Intent''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Plattner, Marc F. & Aleksander Smolar.", "(2000).", "''Globalisation, Power, and Democracy''.", "JHU Press.", "* Plattner, Marc F. & João Carlos Espada.", "(2000).", "''The Democratic Invention''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* * Przeworski, Adam.", "2010.", "''Democracy and the Limits of Self-Government''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press* Przeworski, Adam.", "2018.", "''Why Bother With Elections?''", "Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.", "* Putnam, Robert.", "(2001).", "''Making Democracy Work''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Rosenfeld, Sam, \"The Cracked Foundation: Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt explained ''How Democracies Die''.", "But the problems went deeper than they thought\" (review of Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt, ''Tyranny of the Minority: Why American Democracy Reached the Breaking Point'', Crown, 2023, 384 pp.", "), ''The New Republic'', December 2023, pp.", "48–54.", "\"In the name of jettisoning the system's counter-majoritarian vestiges, the authors advocate such modest reforms as the end of equal representation of states in the Senate; abolition of the Electoral College; cloture reform to eliminate the Senate filibuster; sweeping new voting rights legislation under the aegis of a new constitutional amendment affirming a positive right to vote; and term limits and regularized appointment schedules for Supreme Court justices.", "Having documented the... difficulty of enacting constitutional change under the U.S. amendment process (the reform of which is ''also'' on their prescriptive wish list), the authors acknowledge the steep odds that such an undertaking faces.\"", "(p.", "54.)", "* * Sartori, Giovanni.", "1987.", "''The Theory of Democracy Revisited'' Part 1: ''The Contemporary Debate''.", "Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House Publishers.", "* Sartori, Giovanni.", "1987.", "''The Theory of Democracy Revisited'' Part 2: ''The Classical Issues''.", "Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House Publishers.", "* Schumpeter, Joseph.", "1942.", "''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''.", "New York: Harper.", "* Tannsjo, Torbjorn.", "(2008).", "''Global Democracy: The Case for a World Government''.", "Edinburgh University Press.", ".", "Argues that not only is world government necessary if we want to deal successfully with global problems it is also, pace Kant and Rawls, desirable in its own right.", "* * Thompson, Dennis (1970).", "''The Democratic Citizen: Social Science and Democratic Theory in the 20th Century''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Tooze, Adam, \"Democracy and Its Discontents\", ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVI, no.", "10 (6 June 2019), pp.", "52–53, 56–57.", "\"Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power.", "We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics.", "Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed....", "Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly....", "Finally, there is the threat du jour: corporations and the technologies they promote.\"", "(pp. 56–57.", ")* Volk, Kyle G. (2014).", "''Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* * Whitehead, Laurence.", "(2002).", "''Emerging Market Democracies: East Asia and Latin America''.", "JHU Press.", "* Willard, Charles Arthur.", "(1996).", "''Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy''.", "University of Chicago Press.", "* Wood, E. M. (1995).", "''Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing historical materialism''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Wood, Gordon S. (1991).", "''The Radicalism of the American Revolution''.", "Vintage Books.", "examines democratic dimensions of republicanism" ], [ "External links", "* Democracy at the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy* Index 2008.pdf The Economist Intelligence Unit's index of democracy* Alexis de of data sources on political regimes on Our World in Data, by Max Roser.", "* \"Democracy\", BBC Radio 4 discussion on the origins of Democracy (''In Our Time'', 18 October 2001)* Democracy Countries 2022 interactive map of countries at World Population Review" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Logical disjunction" ], [ "Introduction", "Venn diagram of In logic, '''disjunction''', also known as '''logical disjunction''' or '''logical or''' or '''logical addition''' or '''inclusive disjunction''' , is a logical connective typically notated as and read aloud as \"or\".", "For instance, the English language sentence \"it is sunny or it is warm\" can be represented in logic using the disjunctive formula , assuming that abbreviates \"it is sunny\" and abbreviates \"it is warm\".In classical logic, disjunction is given a truth functional semantics according to which a formula is true unless both and are false.", "Because this semantics allows a disjunctive formula to be true when both of its disjuncts are true, it is an ''inclusive'' interpretation of disjunction, in contrast with exclusive disjunction.", "Classical proof theoretical treatments are often given in terms of rules such as disjunction introduction and disjunction elimination.", "Disjunction has also been given numerous non-classical treatments, motivated by problems including Aristotle's sea battle argument, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, as well as the numerous mismatches between classical disjunction and its nearest equivalents in natural languages." ], [ "Inclusive and exclusive disjunction", "Because the logical \"or\" means a disjunction formula is true when either one or both of its parts are true, it is referred to as an ''inclusive'' disjunction.", "This is in contrast with an exclusive disjunction, which is true when one or the other of the arguments are true, but not both (referred to as \"''exclusive or''\", or \"XOR\").When it is necessary to clarify whether inclusive or exclusive \"or\" is intended, English speakers sometimes uses the phrase \"and/or\".", "In terms of logic, this phrase is identical to \"or\", but makes the inclusion of both being true explicit." ], [ "Notation", "In logic and related fields, disjunction is customarily notated with an infix operator (Unicode ).", "Alternative notations include , used mainly in electronics, as well as and in many programming languages.", "The English word \"or\" is sometimes used as well, often in capital letters.", "In Jan Łukasiewicz's prefix notation for logic, the operator is , short for Polish ''alternatywa'' (English: alternative)." ], [ "Classical disjunction", "=== Semantics ===In the semantics of logic, classical disjunction is a truth functional operation which returns the truth value \"true\" unless both of its arguments are \"false\".", "Its semantic entry is standardly given as follows::: if or or bothThis semantics corresponds to the following truth table: ===Defined by other operators===In classical logic systems where logical disjunction is not a primitive, it can be defined in terms of the primitive \"and\" () and \"not\" () as::.Alternatively, it may be defined in terms of \"implies\" () and \"not\" as::.The latter can be checked by the following truth table: ===Properties===The following properties apply to disjunction:Associativity: Commutativity: Distributivity: :::::::::Idempotency: Monotonicity: :::''Truth-preserving'': The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'true', produces a truth value of 'true' as a result of disjunction.", "''Falsehood-preserving'': The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'false', produces a truth value of 'false' as a result of disjunction." ], [ "Applications in computer science", "OR logic gateOperators corresponding to logical disjunction exist in most programming languages.===Bitwise operation===Disjunction is often used for bitwise operations.", "Examples: 0 or 0 = 0* 0 or 1 = 1* 1 or 0 = 1* 1 or 1 = 1* 1010 or 1100 = 1110The or operator can be used to set bits in a bit field to 1, by or-ing the field with a constant field with the relevant bits set to 1.For example, x = x \| 0b00000001 will force the final bit to 1, while leaving other bits unchanged.===Logical operation===Many languages distinguish between bitwise and logical disjunction by providing two distinct operators; in languages following C, bitwise disjunction is performed with the single pipe operator (\|), and logical disjunction with the double pipe () operator.Logical disjunction is usually short-circuited; that is, if the first (left) operand evaluates to true, then the second (right) operand is not evaluated.", "The logical disjunction operator thus usually constitutes a sequence point.In a parallel (concurrent) language, it is possible to short-circuit both sides: they are evaluated in parallel, and if one terminates with value true, the other is interrupted.", "This operator is thus called the ''parallel or''.Although the type of a logical disjunction expression is boolean in most languages (and thus can only have the value true or false), in some languages (such as Python and JavaScript), the logical disjunction operator returns one of its operands: the first operand if it evaluates to a true value, and the second operand otherwise.===Constructive disjunction===The Curry–Howard correspondence relates a constructivist form of disjunction to tagged union types." ], [ "Set theory", "The membership of an element of a union set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: .", "Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and de Morgan's laws, identifying logical conjunction with set intersection, logical negation with set complement." ], [ "Natural language", "Disjunction in natural languages does not precisely match the interpretation of in classical logic.", "Notably, classical disjunction is inclusive while natural language disjunction is often understood exclusively, as the following English typically would be.", ":* Mary is eating an apple or a pear.This inference has sometimes been understood as an entailment, for instance by Alfred Tarski, who suggested that natural language disjunction is ambiguous between a classical and a nonclassical interpretation.", "More recent work in pragmatics has shown that this inference can be derived as a conversational implicature on the basis of a semantic denotation which behaves classically.", "However, disjunctive constructions including Hungarian ''vagy... vagy'' and French ''soit... soit'' have been argued to be inherently exclusive, rendering ungrammaticality in contexts where an inclusive reading would otherwise be forced.Similar deviations from classical logic have been noted in cases such as free choice disjunction and simplification of disjunctive antecedents, where certain modal operators trigger a conjunction-like interpretation of disjunction.", "As with exclusivity, these inferences have been analyzed both as implicatures and as entailments arising from a nonclassical interpretation of disjunction.", ":* You can have an apple or a pear.", ":: You can have an apple and you can have a pear (but you can't have both)In many languages, disjunctive expressions play a role in question formation.", "For instance, while the following English example can be interpreted as a polar question asking whether it's true that Mary is either a philosopher or a linguist, it can also be interpreted as an alternative question asking which of the two professions is hers.", "The role of disjunction in these cases has been analyzed using nonclassical logics such as alternative semantics and inquisitive semantics, which have also been adopted to explain the free choice and simplification inferences.", ":* Is Mary a philosopher or a linguist?In English, as in many other languages, disjunction is expressed by a coordinating conjunction.", "Other languages express disjunctive meanings in a variety of ways, though it is unknown whether disjunction itself is a linguistic universal.", "In many languages such as Dyirbal and Maricopa, disjunction is marked using a verb suffix.", "For instance, in the Maricopa example below, disjunction is marked by the suffix ''šaa''." ], [ "See also", "* Affirming a disjunct* Bitwise OR* Boolean algebra (logic)* Boolean algebra topics* Boolean domain* Boolean function* Boolean-valued function* Disjunctive syllogism* Disjunction elimination* Disjunction introduction* First-order logic* Fréchet inequalities* Free choice inference* Hurford disjunction* Logical graph* Logical value* Operation* Operator (programming)* OR gate* Propositional calculus* Simplification of disjunctive antecedents" ], [ "Notes", "* George Boole, closely following analogy with ordinary mathematics, premised, as a necessary condition to the definition of \"x + y\", that x and y were mutually exclusive.", "Jevons, and practically all mathematical logicians after him, advocated, on various grounds, the definition of \"logical addition\" in a form which does not necessitate mutual exclusiveness." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "***Eric W. Weisstein.", "\"Disjunction.\"", "From MathWorld—A Wolfram Web Resource" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disjunctive syllogism" ], [ "Introduction", "In classical logic, '''disjunctive syllogism''' (historically known as '''''modus tollendo ponens''''' ('''MTP'''), Latin for \"mode that affirms by denying\") is a valid argument form which is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement for one of its premises.An example in English:# I will choose soup or I will choose salad.# I will not choose soup.# Therefore, I will choose salad." ], [ "Propositional logic", "In propositional logic, '''disjunctive syllogism''' (also known as '''disjunction elimination''' and '''or elimination''', or abbreviated '''∨E'''), is a valid rule of inference.", "If it is known that at least one of two statements is true, and that it is not the former that is true; we can infer that it has to be the latter that is true.", "Equivalently, if ''P'' is true or ''Q'' is true and ''P'' is false, then ''Q'' is true.", "The name \"disjunctive syllogism\" derives from its being a syllogism, a three-step argument, and the use of a logical disjunction (any \"or\" statement.)", "For example, \"P or Q\" is a disjunction, where P and Q are called the statement's ''disjuncts''.", "The rule makes it possible to eliminate a disjunction from a logical proof.", "It is the rule that:where the rule is that whenever instances of \"\", and \"\" appear on lines of a proof, \"\" can be placed on a subsequent line.Disjunctive syllogism is closely related and similar to hypothetical syllogism, which is another rule of inference involving a syllogism.", "It is also related to the law of noncontradiction, one of the three traditional laws of thought." ], [ "Formal notation", "For a logical system that validates it, the ''disjunctive syllogism'' may be written in sequent notation as: where is a metalogical symbol meaning that is a syntactic consequence of , and .It may be expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem in the object language of propositional logic as:where , and are propositions expressed in some formal system." ], [ "Natural language examples", "Here is an example:# It is red or it is blue.# It is not blue.# Therefore, it is red.Here is another example:# The breach is a safety violation, or it is not subject to fines.# The breach is not a safety violation.# Therefore, it is not subject to fines." ], [ "Inclusive and exclusive disjunction", "It may be observed that the disjunctive syllogism works whether 'or' is considered 'exclusive' or 'inclusive' disjunction.", "See below for the definitions of these terms.There are two kinds of logical disjunction:* ''inclusive'' means \"and/or\"—at least one of them is true, or maybe both.", "* ''exclusive'' (\"xor\") means exactly one must be true, but they cannot both be.The concept of \"or\" as it exists in the English language is often ambiguous between these two meanings, but the difference is pivotal in evaluating disjunctive arguments.The argument# P or Q.# Not P.# Therefore, Q.is valid and indifferent between both meanings.", "However, only in the ''exclusive'' meaning is the following form valid:# Either (only) P or (only) Q.# P.# Therefore, not Q.With the ''inclusive'' meaning, one could draw no conclusion from the first two premises of that argument.", "See affirming a disjunct." ], [ "Related argument forms", "Unlike ''modus ponens'' and ''modus ponendo tollens'', with which it should not be confused, disjunctive syllogism is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a combination of reductio ad absurdum and disjunction elimination.Other forms of syllogism include:hypothetical syllogismcategorical syllogismDisjunctive syllogism holds in classical propositional logic and intuitionistic logic, but not in some paraconsistent logics." ], [ "See also", "* Stoic logic*Type of syllogism (disjunctive, hypothetical, legal, poly-, prosleptic, quasi-, statistical)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Definition" ], [ "Introduction", "A definition states the meaning of a word using other words.", "This is sometimes challenging.", "Common dictionaries contain lexical descriptive definitions, but there are various types of definition – all with different purposes and focuses.A '''definition''' is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols).", "Definitions can be classified into two large categories: intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term), and extensional definitions (which try to list the objects that a term describes).", "Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples.", "A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions.In mathematics, a definition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, by describing a condition which unambiguously qualifies what a mathematical term is and is not.", "Definitions and axioms form the basis on which all of modern mathematics is to be constructed.", "In computing, definitions can be used as logic programs" ], [ "Basic terminology", "In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group of words.", "The word or group of words that is to be defined is called the ''definiendum'', and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the ''definiens''.", "For example, in the definition ''\"An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa\"'', the word \"elephant\" is the ''definiendum'', and everything after the word \"is\" is the ''definiens''.The ''definiens'' is not ''the meaning'' of the word defined, but is instead something that ''conveys the same meaning'' as that word.There are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study.", "These include, ''lexical definitions'', or the common dictionary definitions of words already in a language; ''demonstrative definitions'', which define something by pointing to an example of it (''\"This,\" said while pointing to a large grey animal, \"is an Asian elephant.", "\"''); and ''precising definitions'', which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some special sense (''\"'Large', among female Asian elephants, is any individual weighing over 5,500 pounds.", "\"'')." ], [ "Intensional definitions vs extensional definitions", "An ''intensional definition'', also called a ''connotative'' definition, specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions for a thing to be a member of a specific set.", "Any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition.An ''extensional definition'', also called a ''denotative'' definition, of a concept or term specifies its ''extension''.", "It is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set.Thus, the \"seven deadly sins\" can be defined ''intensionally'' as those singled out by Pope Gregory I as particularly destructive of the life of grace and charity within a person, thus creating the threat of eternal damnation.", "An ''extensional'' definition, on the other hand, would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, and gluttony.", "In contrast, while an intensional definition of \"prime minister\" might be \"the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of parliamentary government\", an extensional definition is not possible since it is not known who the future prime ministers will be (even though all prime ministers from the past and present can be listed).===Classes of intensional definitions===A ''genus–differentia definition'' is a type of intensional definition that takes a large category (the ''genus'') and narrows it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic (i.e.", "the ''differentia'').More formally, a genus–differentia definition consists of:* ''a genus'' (or family): An existing definition that serves as a portion of the new definition; all definitions with the same genus are considered members of that genus.", "* ''the differentia'': The portion of the new definition that is not provided by the genus.For example, consider the following genus–differentia definitions:* ''a triangle'': A plane figure that has three straight bounding sides.", "* ''a quadrilateral'': A plane figure that has four straight bounding sides.Those definitions can be expressed as a genus (\"a plane figure\") and two ''differentiae'' (\"that has three straight bounding sides\" and \"that has four straight bounding sides\", respectively).It is also possible to have two different genus–differentia definitions that describe the same term, especially when the term describes the overlap of two large categories.", "For instance, both of these genus–differentia definitions of \"square\" are equally acceptable:* ''a square'': a rectangle that is a rhombus.", "* ''a square'': a rhombus that is a rectangle.Thus, a \"square\" is a member of both genera (the plural of ''genus''): the genus \"rectangle\" and the genus \"rhombus\".===Classes of extensional definitions===One important form of the extensional definition is ''ostensive definition''.", "This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind.", "For example, one can explain who ''Alice'' (an individual) is, by pointing her out to another; or what a ''rabbit'' (a class) is, by pointing at several and expecting another to understand.", "The process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein.An ''enumerative definition'' of a concept or a term is an ''extensional definition'' that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question.", "Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets (and in fact only practical for relatively small sets).===''Divisio'' and ''partitio''===''Divisio'' and ''partitio'' are classical terms for definitions.", "A ''partitio'' is simply an intensional definition.", "A ''divisio'' is not an extensional definition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the \"divided\" set is a member of one of the subsets.", "An extreme form of ''divisio'' lists all sets whose only member is a member of the \"divided\" set.", "The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list ''members'', and not ''subsets''.===Nominal definitions vs real definitions===In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing.", "Aristotle had it that an object's essential attributes form its \"essential nature\", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes.The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between ''nominal'' and ''real'' essence—a distinction originating with Aristotle.", "In the Posterior Analytics, he says that the meaning of a made-up name can be known (he gives the example \"goat stag\") without knowing what he calls the \"essential nature\" of the thing that the name would denote (if there were such a thing).", "This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they called the ''quid nominis'', or the \"whatness of the name\", and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the ''quid rei'', or the \"whatness of the thing\".", "The name \"hobbit\", for example, is perfectly meaningful.", "It has a ''quid nominis'', but one could not know the real nature of hobbits, and so the ''quid rei'' of hobbits cannot be known.", "By contrast, the name \"man\" denotes real things (men) that have a certain ''quid rei''.", "The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that a thing must have in order that the name apply to it.This leads to a corresponding distinction between ''nominal'' and ''real'' definitions.", "A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means (i.e., which says what the \"nominal essence\" is), and is definition in the classical sense as given above.", "A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or ''quid rei'' of the thing.This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy.", "Analytic philosophy, in particular, is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing.", "Russell described essence as \"a hopelessly muddle-headed notion\".More recently Kripke's formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism.", "Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are ''necessary'' to it, they are those things that it possesses in all possible worlds.", "Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators." ], [ "Operational vs. theoretical definitions", "A definition may also be classified as an operational definition or theoretical definition." ], [ "Terms with multiple definitions", "===Homonyms===A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings.", "Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their pronunciation) ''and'' homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their spelling).", "The state of being a homonym is called ''homonymy''.", "Examples of homonyms are the pair ''stalk'' (part of a plant) and ''stalk'' (follow/harass a person) and the pair ''left'' (past tense of leave) and ''left'' (opposite of right).", "A distinction is sometimes made between \"true\" homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as ''skate'' (glide on ice) and ''skate'' (the fish), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as ''mouth'' (of a river) and ''mouth'' (of an animal).===Polysemes===Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field.", "It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated." ], [ "In logic, mathematics and computing", "In mathematics, definitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to describe or characterize a concept.", "For naming the object of a definition mathematicians can use either a neologism (this was mainly the case in the past) or words or phrases of the common language (this is generally the case in modern mathematics).", "The precise meaning of a term given by a mathematical definition is often different from the English definition of the word used, which can lead to confusion, particularly when the meanings are close.", "For example a set is not exactly the same thing in mathematics and in common language.", "In some case, the word used can be misleading; for example, a real number has nothing more (or less) real than an imaginary number.", "Frequently, a definition uses a phrase built with common English words, which has no meaning outside mathematics, such as primitive group or irreducible variety.In first-order logic definitions are usually introduced using extension by definition (so using a metalogic).", "On the other hand, lambda-calculi are a kind of logic where the definitions are included as the feature of the formal system itself.===Classification===Authors have used different terms to classify definitions used in formal languages like mathematics.", "Norman Swartz classifies a definition as \"stipulative\" if it is intended to guide a specific discussion.", "A stipulative definition might be considered a temporary, working definition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction.", "In contrast, a \"descriptive\" definition can be shown to be \"right\" or \"wrong\" with reference to general usage.Swartz defines a ''precising definition'' as one that extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) for a specific purpose by including additional criteria.", "A precising definition narrows the set of things that meet the definition.C.L.", "Stevenson has identified ''persuasive definition'' as a form of stipulative definition which purports to state the \"true\" or \"commonly accepted\" meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for some specific belief).", "Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are \"legal\" or \"coercive\" – their object is to create or alter rights, duties, or crimes.===Recursive definitions===A recursive definition, sometimes also called an ''inductive'' definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way.", "Normally this consists of three steps:# At least one thing is stated to be a member of the set being defined; this is sometimes called a \"base set\".# All things bearing a certain relation to other members of the set are also to count as members of the set.", "It is this step that makes the definition recursive.# All other things are excluded from the setFor instance, we could define a natural number as follows (after Peano): # \"0\" is a natural number.# Each natural number has a unique successor, such that:#* the successor of a natural number is also a natural number;#* distinct natural numbers have distinct successors;#* no natural number is succeeded by \"0\".# Nothing else is a natural number.So \"0\" will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called \"1\".", "In turn, \"1\" will have exactly one successor, which could be called \"2\", and so on.", "The second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference.", "Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition has been quite successful.In the same way, we can define ancestor as follows:#A parent is an ancestor.#A parent of an ancestor is an ancestor.#Nothing else is an ancestor.Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor.===Logic programs=== Logic programs can be understood as sets of recursive (and non-recursive) definitions.", "For example, the following Prolog and Datalog program (and database) provides intensional definitions of the parent_child , grandparent_child and ancestor_descendant relations, as well as partial, extensional definitions of the mother_child and father_child relations.", "The definition of the ancestor_descendant relation is recursive:mother_child(elizabeth, charles).father_child(charles, william).father_child(charles, harry).parent_child(X, Y) :- mother_child(X, Y).parent_child(X, Y) :- father_child(X, Y).grandparent_child(X, Y) :- parent_child(X, Z), parent_child(Z, Y).ancestor_descendant(X, Y) :- parent_child(X, X).ancestor_descendant(X, Y) :- ancestor_descendant(X, Z), ancestor_descendant(Z, Y).Here :- represents ''if'' and , represents ''and''.In Prolog, definitions, which have the form conclusion :- conditions, are treated as goal-reduction procedures, using backward reasoning to reduce goals that unify with the conclusion to subgoals that correspond to the associated, instantiated conditions.", "In Datalog, the same definitions are typically used to reason forwards to derive instances of the conclusion from facts that unify with the conditions.Definitions in Prolog have the expressive power of Turing machines.", "For example, here is a Prolog program that implements the Euclidean algorithm, using gcd(A, B, C) to \"define\" C as the greatest common divisor of A and B:gcd(A, A, A).gcd(A, B, C) :- A > B, gcd(A-B, B, C).gcd(A, B, C) :- B > A, gcd(A, B-A, C).Backward reasoning using SLD resolution turns the definition into the Euclidean algorithm:To find the gcd C of two given numbers A and B:If A = B, then C = A.If A > B, then find the gcd of A-B and B, which is C.If B > A, then find the gcd of A and B-A, which is C.The standard definition of greatest common divisor can also be written and executed (inefficiently) in Prolog:gcd(A, B, C) :- divides(C, A), divides(C, B), forall((divides(D, A), divides(D, B)), D =See also Algorithm = Logic + Control." ], [ "In medicine", "In medical dictionaries, guidelines and other consensus statements and classifications, definitions should as far as possible be:simple and easy to understand, preferably even by the general public;useful clinically or in related areas where the definition will be used;specific (that is, by reading the definition only, it should ideally not be possible to refer to any other entity than that being defined);measurable;a reflection of current scientific knowledge." ], [ "Problems", "Certain rules have traditionally been given for definitions (in particular, genus-differentia definitions).", "A definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing defined.", "Definitions should avoid circularity.", "To define a horse as \"a member of the species ''equus''\" would convey no information whatsoever.", "For this reason, Locke adds that a definition of a term must not consist of terms which are synonymous with it.", "This would be a circular definition, a ''circulus in definiendo''.", "Note, however, that it is acceptable to define two relative terms in respect of each other.", "Clearly, we cannot define \"antecedent\" without using the term \"consequent\", nor conversely.", "The definition must not be too wide or too narrow.", "It must be applicable to everything to which the defined term applies (i.e.", "not miss anything out), and to nothing else (i.e.", "not include any things to which the defined term would not truly apply).", "The definition must not be obscure.", "The purpose of a definition is to explain the meaning of a term which may be obscure or difficult, by the use of terms that are commonly understood and whose meaning is clear.", "The violation of this rule is known by the Latin term ''obscurum per obscurius''.", "However, sometimes scientific and philosophical terms are difficult to define without obscurity.", "A definition should not be negative where it can be positive.", "We should not define \"wisdom\" as the absence of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick.", "Sometimes this is unavoidable, however.", "For example, it appears difficult to define blindness in positive terms rather than as \"the absence of sight in a creature that is normally sighted\".===Fallacies of definition======Limitations of definition===Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions.", "If every term of every ''definiens'' must itself be defined, \"where at last should we stop?\"", "A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity.Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined.", "The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (called the ten ''generalissima'') cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under which they may fall.", "Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be defined.", "Locke supposes in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition.", "More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms.", "Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples.", "Wittgenstein pointed out in his ''Philosophical Investigations'' that what counts as a \"simple\" in one circumstance might not do so in another.", "He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: \"As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one\", claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding.Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be defined.", "Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used.", "This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has \"fallen under our notice\".", "Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that \"picks out\" exactly one individual.", "Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book ''Naming and Necessity''.There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the ''definiens'' can be stated.", "Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case.", "The examples he used include ''game'', ''number'' and ''family''.", "In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition.", "Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance.", "For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the ''use'' of the term." ], [ "See also", "Analytic propositionCircular definitionDefinable setDefinitionismExtensional definitionFallacies of definitionIndeterminacyIntensional definitionLexical definitionLogic programmingOperational definitionOstensive definitionRamsey–Lewis methodSemanticsSynthetic propositionTheoretical definition" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** (full text of 1st ed.", "(1906))* (worldcat) (full text of 2nd ed.", "(1916))* (full text: vol 1, vol 2)****" ], [ "External links", " Definitions, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Gupta, Anil (2008)* Definitions, Dictionaries, and Meanings, Norman Swartz 1997Guy Longworth (ca.", "2008) \"Definitions: Uses and Varieties of\".", "= in: K. Brown (ed.", "): ''Elsevier Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', Elsevier.", " Definition and Meaning, a very short introduction by Garth Kemerling (2001)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disruption" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Disruption''', '''disruptive''', or '''disrupted''' may refer to:" ], [ "Business", "Creative disruption, disruption concept in a creative context, introduced in 1992 by TBWA's chairman Jean-Marie DruDisruptive innovation, Clayton Christensen's theory of industry disruption by new technology or products" ], [ "Psychology and sociology", "Disruptive behavior disorders, a class of mental health disordersDisruptive physician, a physician whose obnoxious behaviour upsets patients or other staffSocial disruption, a radical alteration, transformation, dysfunction or breakdown of social life" ], [ "Arts and Entertainment", "''The Disruption'', a 1996 EP by Cursive\"The Disruption\" (''Succession''), TV episode" ], [ "Other uses", "Cell disruption is a method or process in cell biology for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell''Disrupted: My Misadventure in the Start Up Bubble'', a 2016 book by Daniel LyonsDisruption (adoption) is also the term for the cancellation of an adoption of a child before it is legally completedDisruption (of schema), in the field of computer genetic algorithmsDisruption of 1843, the divergence of the Free Church of Scotland from the Church of ScotlandDisruption, a method of disabling an explosive device by using projected water disruptors" ], [ "See also", "Disruptor (disambiguation)Disturbance (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disco" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Disco''' is a genre of dance music and a subculture that emerged in the 1970s from the United States' urban nightlife scene.", "Its sound is typified by four-on-the-floor beats, syncopated basslines, string sections, brass and horns, electric piano, synthesizers, and electric rhythm guitars.Disco started as a mixture of music from venues popular among African-Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans, gay Americans, and Italian Americans in Philadelphia and New York City during the late 1960s to early 1970s.", "Disco can be seen as a reaction by the 1960s counterculture to both the dominance of rock music and the stigmatization of dance music at the time.", "Several dance styles were developed during the period of 70s disco's popularity in the United States, including \"the Bump\", \"the Hustle\", \"the Watergate\", and \"the Busstop\".In the course of the 1970s, disco music was developed further, mainly by artists from the United States and Europe.", "Well-known artists included the Bee Gees, ABBA, Donna Summer, Gloria Gaynor, Giorgio Moroder, Baccara, Boney M., Earth Wind & Fire, Chaka Khan, Chic, KC and the Sunshine Band, Thelma Houston, Sister Sledge, Sylvester, The Trammps, Diana Ross, Kool & the Gang, and the Village People.", "While performers garnered public attention, record producers working behind the scenes played an important role in developing the genre.", "By the late 1970s, most major U.S. cities had thriving disco club scenes, and DJs would mix dance records at clubs such as Studio 54 in Manhattan, a venue popular among celebrities.", "Nightclub-goers often wore expensive, extravagant outfits, consisting predominantly of loose, flowing pants or dresses for ease of movement while dancing.", "There was also a thriving drug subculture in the disco scene, particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights, such as cocaine and quaaludes, the latter being so common in disco subculture that they were nicknamed \"disco biscuits\".", "Disco clubs were also associated with promiscuity as a reflection of the sexual revolution of this era in popular history.", "Films such as ''Saturday Night Fever'' (1977) and ''Thank God It's Friday'' (1978) contributed to disco's mainstream popularity.Disco declined as a major trend in popular music in the United States following the infamous Disco Demolition Night on July 12, 1979, and it continued to sharply decline in popularity in the U.S. during the early 1980s; however, it remained popular in Italy and some European countries throughout the 1980s, and during this time also started becoming trendy in places elsewhere including India and the Middle East, where aspects of disco were blended with regional folk styles such as ''ghazals'' and belly dancing.", "Disco would eventually become a key influence in the development of electronic dance music, house music, hip hop, new wave, dance-punk, and post-disco.", "The style has had several revivals since the 1990s, and the influence of disco remains strong across American and European pop music.", "A revival has been underway since the early 2010s, coming to great popularity in the early 2020s.", "Albums that have contributed to this revival include ''Confessions on a Dance Floor'', ''Random Access Memories'', ''Future Nostalgia'', and Kylie Minogue's album itself titled ''Disco''." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"disco\" is shorthand for the word ''discothèque'', a French word for \"library of phonograph records\" derived from \"bibliothèque\".", "The word \"discothèque\" had the same meaning in English in the 1950s.", "\"Discothèque\" became used in French for a type of nightclub in Paris, after they had resorted to playing records during the Nazi occupation in the early 1940s.", "Some clubs used it as their proper name.", "In 1960, it was also used to describe a Parisian nightclub in an English magazine.In the summer of 1964, a short sleeveless dress called the \"discotheque dress\" was briefly very popular in the United States.", "The earliest known use for the abbreviated form \"disco\" described this dress and has been found in ''The Salt Lake Tribune'' on July 12, 1964; ''Playboy'' magazine used it in September of the same year to describe Los Angeles nightclubs.Vince Aletti was one of the first to describe disco as a sound or a music genre.", "He wrote the feature article \"Discotheque Rock Paaaaarty\" that appeared in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine in September 1973." ], [ "Musical characteristics", "upright=1.15subdivision of the beat, which is four-to-the-floor \|thumb\|upright=1.15The music typically layered soaring, often-reverberated vocals, often doubled by horns, over a background \"pad\" of electric pianos and \"chicken-scratch\" rhythm guitars played on an electric guitar.", "Lead guitar features less frequently in disco than in rock.", "\"The \"rooster scratch\" sound is achieved by lightly pressing the guitar strings against the fretboard and then quickly releasing them just enough to get a slightly muted poker sound while constantly strumming very close to the bridge.\"", "Other backing keyboard instruments include the piano, electric organ (during early years), string synthesizers, and electromechanical keyboards such as the Fender Rhodes electric piano, Wurlitzer electric piano, and Hohner Clavinet.", "Donna Summer's 1977 song \"I Feel Love\", produced by Giorgio Moroder with a prominent Moog synthesizer on the beat, was one of the first disco tracks to use the synthesizer.The rhythm is laid down by prominent, syncopated basslines (with heavy use of broken octaves, that is, octaves with the notes sounded one after the other) played on the bass guitar and by drummers using a drum kit, African/Latin percussion, and electronic drums such as Simmons and Roland drum modules.", "Philly dance and Salsoul disco the sound was enriched with solo lines and harmony parts played by a variety of orchestral instruments, such as violin, viola, cello, trumpet, saxophone, trombone, flugelhorn, French horn, English horn, oboe, flute, timpani and synth strings, string section or a full string orchestra.Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat set by a bass drum, a quaver or semi-quaver hi-hat pattern with an open hissing hi-hat on the off-beat, and a heavy, syncopated bass line.", "A recording error in the 1975 song \"Bad Luck\" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes where Earl Young's hi-hat was too loud in the recording is said to have established loud hi-hats in disco.", "Other Latin rhythms such as the rhumba, the samba, and the cha-cha-cha are also found in disco recordings, and Latin polyrhythms, such as a rhumba beat layered over a merengue, are commonplace.", "The quaver pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar and may be implied rather than explicitly present.Songs often use syncopation, which is the accenting of unexpected beats.", "In general, the difference between disco, or any dance song, and a rock or popular song is that in dance music the bass drum hits ''four to the floor'', at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure).", "Disco is further characterized by a 16th note division of the quarter notes as shown in the second drum pattern below, after a typical rock drum pattern.The orchestral sound usually known as \"disco sound\" relies heavily on string sections and horns playing linear phrases, in unison with the soaring, often reverberated vocals or playing instrumental fills, while electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars create the background \"pad\" sound defining the harmony progression.", "Typically, all of the doubling of parts and use of additional instruments creates a rich \"wall of sound\".", "There are, however, more minimalist flavors of disco with reduced, transparent instrumentation.Harmonically, disco music typically contains major and minor seven chords, which are found more often in jazz than pop music." ], [ "Production", "The \"disco sound\" was much more costly to produce than many of the other popular music genres from the 1970s.", "Unlike the simpler, four-piece-band sound of funk, soul music of the late 1960s or the small jazz organ trios, disco music often included a large band, with several chordal instruments (guitar, keyboards, synthesizer), several drum or percussion instruments (drumkit, Latin percussion, electronic drums), a horn section, a string orchestra, and a variety of \"classical\" solo instruments (for example, flute, piccolo, and so on).Disco songs were arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators, and record producers added their creative touches to the overall sound using multitrack recording techniques and effects units.", "Recording complex arrangements with such a large number of instruments and sections required a team that included a conductor, copyists, record producers, and mixing engineers.", "Mixing engineers had an important role in the disco production process because disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instruments.", "Mixing engineers and record producers, under the direction of arrangers, compiled these tracks into a fluid composition of verses, bridges, and refrains, complete with builds and breaks.", "Mixing engineers and record producers helped to develop the \"disco sound\" by creating a distinctive-sounding, sophisticated disco mix.Early records were the \"standard\" three-minute version until Tom Moulton came up with a way to make songs longer so that he could take a crowd of dancers at a club to another level and keep them dancing longer.", "He found that it was impossible to make the 45-RPM vinyl singles of the time longer, as they could usually hold no more than five minutes of good-quality music.", "With the help of José Rodriguez, his remaster/mastering engineer, he pressed a single on a 10\" disc instead of 7\".", "They cut the next single on a 12\" disc, the same format as a standard album.", "Moulton and Rodriguez discovered that these larger records could have much longer songs and remixes.", "12\" single records, also known as \"Maxi singles\", quickly became the standard format for all DJs of the disco genre." ], [ "Club culture", "===Nightclubs===Blue disco quad roller skates.By the late 1970s, most major US cities had thriving disco club scenes.", "The largest scenes were most notably in New York City but also in Philadelphia, San Francisco, Miami, and Washington, D.C.", "The scene was centered on discotheques, nightclubs and private loft parties.In the 1970s, notable discos included \"Crisco Disco\", \"The Sanctuary\", \"Leviticus\", \"Studio 54\", and \"Paradise Garage\" in New York, \"Artemis\" in Philadelphia, \"Studio One\" in Los Angeles, \"Dugan's Bistro\" in Chicago, and \"The Library\" in Atlanta.In the late '70s, Studio 54 in Midtown Manhattan was arguably the best-known nightclub in the world.", "This club played a major formative role in the growth of disco music and nightclub culture in general.", "It was operated by Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager and was notorious for the hedonism that went on within: the balconies were known for sexual encounters and drug use was rampant.", "Its dance floor was decorated with an image of the \"Man in the Moon\" that included an animated cocaine spoon.The \"Copacabana\", another New York nightclub dating to the 1940s, had a revival in the late 1970s when it embraced disco; it would become the setting of a Barry Manilow song of the same name.In Washington, D.C., large disco clubs such as \"The Pier\" (\"Pier 9\") and \"The Other Side\", originally regarded exclusively as \"gay bars\", became particularly popular among the capital area's gay and straight college students in the late '70s.By 1979 there were 15,000-20,000 disco nightclubs in the US, many of them opening in suburban shopping centers, hotels, and restaurants.", "The 2001 Club franchises were the most prolific chain of disco clubs in the country.", "Although many other attempts were made to franchise disco clubs, 2001 was the only one to successfully do so in this time frame.===Sound and light equipment===Major disco clubs had lighted dance floors, with the lights flashing to complement the beat.The reflective light disco ball was a fixture on the ceilings of many discothèques.Powerful, bass-heavy, hi-fi sound systems were viewed as a key part of the disco club experience.", "\"Loft-party host David Mancuso introduced the technologies of tweeter arrays (clusters of small loudspeakers, which emit high-end frequencies, positioned above the floor) and bass reinforcements (additional sets of subwoofers positioned at ground level) at the start of the 1970s to boost the treble and bass at opportune moments, and by the end of the decade sound engineers such as Richard Long had multiplied the effects of these innovations in venues such as the Garage.", "\"Typical lighting designs for disco dance floors include multi-colored lights that swirl around or flash to the beat, strobe lights, an illuminated dance floor, and a mirror ball.===DJs===Disco-era disc jockeys (DJs) would often remix existing songs using reel-to-reel tape machines, and add in percussion breaks, new sections, and new sounds.", "DJs would select songs and grooves according to what the dancers wanted, transitioning from one song to another with a DJ mixer and using a microphone to introduce songs and speak to the audiences.", "Other equipment was added to the basic DJ setup, providing unique sound manipulations, such as reverb, equalization, and echo effects unit.", "Using this equipment, a DJ could do effects such as cutting out all but the bassline of a song and then slowly mixing in the beginning of another song using the DJ mixer's crossfader.", "Notable U.S. disco DJs include Francis Grasso of The Sanctuary, David Mancuso of The Loft, Frankie Knuckles of the Chicago Warehouse, Larry Levan of the Paradise Garage, Nicky Siano, Walter Gibbons, Karen Mixon Cook, Jim Burgess, John \"Jellybean\" Benitez, Richie Kulala of Studio 54, and Rick Salsalini.Some DJs were also record producers who created and produced disco songs in the recording studio.", "Larry Levan, for example, was a prolific record producer as well as a DJ.", "Because record sales were often dependent on dance floor play by DJs in the nightclubs, DJs were also influential in the development and popularization of certain types of disco music being produced for record labels.===Dance===Disco dancers typically wore loose slacks for men and flowing dresses for women, which enabled ease of movement on the dance floor.In the early years, dancers in discos danced in a \"hang loose\" or \"freestyle\" approach.", "At first, many dancers improvised their own dance styles and dance steps.", "Later in the disco era, popular dance styles were developed, including the \"Bump\", \"Penguin\", \"Boogaloo\", \"Watergate\", and \"Robot\".", "By October 1975 the Hustle reigned.", "It was highly stylized, sophisticated, and overtly sexual.", "Variations included the Brooklyn Hustle, New York Hustle, and Latin Hustle.During the disco era, many nightclubs would commonly host disco dance competitions or offer free dance lessons.", "Some cities had disco dance instructors or dance schools, which taught people how to do popular disco dances such as \"touch dancing\", \"the hustle\", and \"the cha cha\".", "The pioneer of disco dance instruction was Karen Lustgarten in San Francisco in 1973.Her book ''The Complete Guide to Disco Dancing'' (Warner Books 1978) was the first to name, break down and codify popular disco dances as dance forms and distinguish between disco freestyle, partner, and line dances.", "The book topped the ''New York Times'' bestseller list for 13 weeks and was translated into Chinese, German, and French.In Chicago, the ''Step By Step'' disco dance TV show was launched with the sponsorship support of the Coca-Cola company.", "Produced in the same studio that Don Cornelius used for the nationally syndicated dance/music television show, ''Soul Train'', ''Step by Step'''s audience grew and the show became a success.", "The dynamic dance duo of Robin and Reggie led the show.", "The pair spent the week teaching disco dancing to dancers in the disco clubs.", "The instructional show aired on Saturday mornings and had a strong following.", "Its viewers would stay up all night on Fridays so they could be on the set the next morning, ready to return to the disco on Saturday night knowing with the latest personalized steps.", "The producers of the show, John Reid and Greg Roselli, routinely made appearances at disco functions with Robin and Reggie to scout out new dancing talent and promote upcoming events such as \"Disco Night at White Sox Park\".In Sacramento, California, Disco King Paul Dale Roberts danced for the Guinness Book of World Records.", "He danced for 205 hours, the equivalent of 8½ days.", "Other dance marathons took place afterward and Roberts held the world record for disco dancing for a short period of time.Some notable professional dance troupes of the 1970s included Pan's People and Hot Gossip.", "For many dancers, a key source of inspiration for 1970s disco dancing was the film ''Saturday Night Fever'' (1977).", "Further influence came from the music and dance style of such films as ''Fame'' (1980), ''Disco Dancer'' (1982), ''Flashdance'' (1983), and ''The Last Days of Disco'' (1998).", "Interest in disco dancing also helped spawn dance competition TV shows such as ''Dance Fever'' (1979).===Fashion===East German discothèque in 1977.Due to the constant scarcity of consumer goods in the then socialist part of Germany, particularly more exotic fashion items like disco wear, people often sewed them themselves.Disco fashions were very trendy in the late 1970s.", "Discothèque-goers often wore glamorous, expensive, and extravagant fashions for nights out at their local disco club.", "Some women would wear sheer, flowing dresses, such as Halston dresses, or loose, flared pants.", "Other women wore tight, revealing, sexy clothes, such as backless halter tops, disco pants, \"hot pants\", or body-hugging spandex bodywear or \"catsuits\".", "Men would wear shiny polyester Qiana shirts with colorful patterns and pointy, extra wide collars, preferably open at the chest.", "Men often wore Pierre Cardin suits, three piece suits with a vest, and double-knit polyester shirt jackets with matching trousers known as the leisure suit.", "Men's leisure suits were typically form-fitted to some parts of the body, such as the waist and bottom while the lower part of the pants were flared in a bell bottom style, to permit freedom of movement.During the disco era, men engaged in elaborate grooming rituals and spent time choosing fashion clothing, activities that would have been considered \"feminine\" according to the gender stereotypes of the era.", "Women dancers wore glitter makeup, sequins, or gold lamé clothing that would shimmer under the lights.", "Bold colors were popular for both genders.", "Platform shoes and boots for both genders and high heels for women were popular footwear.", "Necklaces and medallions were a common fashion accessory.", "Less commonly, some disco dancers wore outlandish costumes, dressed in drag, covered their bodies with gold or silver paint, or wore very skimpy outfits leaving them nearly nude; these uncommon get-ups were more likely to be seen at invitation-only New York City loft parties and disco clubs.===Drug subculture===In addition to the dance and fashion aspects of the disco club scene, there was also a thriving club drug subculture, particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud, bass-heavy music and the flashing colored lights, such as cocaine (nicknamed \"blow\"), amyl nitrite (\"poppers\"), and the \"... other quintessential 1970s club drug Quaalude, which suspended motor coordination and gave the sensation that one's arms and legs had turned to 'Jell-O.", "Quaaludes were so popular at disco clubs that the drug was nicknamed \"disco biscuits\".Paul Gootenberg states that \"the relationship of cocaine to 1970s disco culture cannot be stressed enough...\" During the 1970s, the use of cocaine by well-to-do celebrities led to its \"glamorization\" and to the widely held view that it was a \"soft drug\".", "LSD, marijuana, and \"speed\" (amphetamines) were also popular in disco clubs, and the use of these drugs \"...contributed to the hedonistic quality of the dance floor experience.\"", "Since disco dances were typically held in liquor licensed-nightclubs and dance clubs, alcoholic drinks were also consumed by dancers; some users intentionally combined alcohol with the consumption of other drugs, such as Quaaludes, for a stronger effect.===Eroticism and sexual liberation===According to Peter Braunstein, the \"massive quantities of drugs ingested in discothèques produced the next cultural phenomenon of the disco era: rampant promiscuity and public sex.", "While the dance floor was the central arena of seduction, actual sex usually took place in the nether regions of the disco: bathroom stalls, exit stairwells, and so on.", "In other cases the disco became a kind of 'main course' in a hedonist's menu for a night out.\"", "At The Saint nightclub, a high percentage of the gay male dancers and patrons would have sex in the club; they typically had unprotected sex, because in 1980, HIV-AIDS had not yet been identified.", "At The Saint, \"dancers would elope to an unpoliced upstairs balcony to engage in sex.\"", "The promiscuity and public sex at discos was part of a broader trend towards exploring a freer sexual expression in the 1970s, an era that is also associated with \"swingers clubs, hot tubs, and key parties.", "\"In his paper, \"In Defense of Disco\" (1979), Richard Dyer claims eroticism as one of the three main characteristics of disco.", "As opposed to rock music which has a very phallic centered eroticism focusing on the sexual pleasure of men over other persons, Dyer describes disco as featuring a non-phallic full body eroticism.", "Through a range of percussion instruments, a willingness to play with rhythm, and the endless repeating of phrases without cutting the listener off, disco achieved this full-body eroticism by restoring eroticism to the whole body for both sexes.", "This allowed for the potential expression of sexualities not defined by the cock/penis, and the erotic pleasure of bodies that are not defined by a relationship to a penis.", "The sexual liberation expressed through the rhythm of disco is further represented in the club spaces that disco grew within.In Peter Shapiro's ''Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound'', he discusses eroticism through the technology disco utilizes to create its audacious sound.", "The music, Shapiro states, is adjunct to \"the pleasure-is-politics ethos of post-Stonewall culture.\"", "He explains how \"mechano-eroticism\", which links the technology used to create the unique mechanical sound of disco to eroticism, set the genre in a new dimension of reality living outside of naturalism and heterosexuality.", "Randy Jones and Mark Jacobsen echo this sentiment in BBC Radio's \"The Politics of Dancing: How Disco Changed the World,\" describing the loose, hip-focused dance style as \"a new kind of communion\" that celebrates the sparks of liberation brought on the Stonewall riots.", "As New York state had laws against homosexual behavior in public, including dancing with a member of the same sex, the eroticism of disco served as resistance and an expression of sexual freedom.He uses Donna Summer's singles \"Love to Love You Baby\" (1975) and \"I Feel Love\" (1977) as examples of the ever-present relationship between the synthesized bass lines and backgrounds to the simulated sounds of orgasms.", "Summer's voice echoes in the tracks, and likens them to the drug-fervent, sexually liberated fans of disco who sought to free themselves through disco's \"aesthetic of machine sex.\"", "Shapiro sees this as an influence that creates sub-genres like hi-NRG and dub-disco, which allowed for eroticism and technology to be further explored through intense synth bass lines and alternative rhythmic techniques that tap into the entire body rather than the obvious erotic parts of the body.The New York nightclub The Sanctuary under resident DJ Francis Grasso is a prime example of this sexual liberty.", "In their history of the disc jockey and club culture, Bill Brewster and Frank Broughton describe the Sanctuary as \"poured full of newly liberated gay men, then shaken (and stirred) by a weighty concoction of dance music and pharmacoia of pills and potions, the result is a festivaly of carnality.\"", "The Sanctuary was the \"first totally uninhibited gay discotheque in America\" and while sex was not allowed on the dancefloor, the dark corners, bathrooms.", "and hallways of the adjacent buildings were all utilized for orgy-like sexual engagements.By describing the music, drugs, and liberated mentality as a trifecta coming together to create the festival of carnality, Brewster and Broughton are inciting all three as stimuli for the dancing, sex, and other embodied movements that contributed to the corporeal vibrations within the Sanctuary.", "It supports the argument that disco music took a role in facilitating this sexual liberation that was experienced in the discotheques.", "The recent legalization of abortion and the introduction of antibiotics and the pill facilitated a culture shift around sex from one of procreation to pleasure and enjoyment.", "Thus was fostered a very sex-positive framework around discotheques.Further, in addition to gay sex being illegal in New York state, until 1973 the American Psychiatric Association classified homosexuality as an illness.", "This law and classification coupled together can be understood to have heavily dissuaded the expression of queerness in public, as such the liberatory dynamics of discotheques can be seen as having provided space for self-realization for queer persons.", "David Mancuso's club/house party, The Loft, was described as having a \"pansexual attitude that was revolutionary in a country where up until recently it had been illegal for two men to dance together unless there was a woman present; where women were legally obliged to wear at least one recognizable item of female clothing in public; and where men visiting gay bars usually carried bail money with them.\"" ], [ "History", "===1940s–1960s: First discotheques===Disco was mostly developed from music that was popular on the dance floor in clubs that started playing records instead of having a live band.", "The first discotheques mostly played swing music.", "Later on, uptempo rhythm and blues became popular in American clubs and northern soul and glam rock records in the UK.", "In the early 1940s, nightclubs in Paris resorted to playing jazz records during the Nazi occupation.Régine Zylberberg claimed to have started the first discotheque and to have been the first club DJ in 1953 in the \"Whisky à Go-Go\" in Paris.", "She installed a dance floor with colored lights and two turntables so she could play records without having a gap in the music.", "In October 1959, the owner of the Scotch Club in Aachen, West Germany chose to install a record player for the opening night instead of hiring a live band.", "The patrons were unimpressed until a young reporter, who happened to be covering the opening of the club, impulsively took control of the record player and introduced the records that he chose to play.", "Klaus Quirini later claimed to thus have been the world's first nightclub DJ.===1960s–1974: Precursors and early disco music===During the 1960s, discotheque dancing became a European trend that was enthusiastically picked up by the American press.", "At this time, when the discotheque culture from Europe became popular in the United States, several music genres with danceable rhythms rose to popularity and evolved into different sub-genres: rhythm and blues (originated in the 1940s), soul (late 1950s and 1960s), funk (mid-1960s) and go-go (mid-1960s and 1970s; more than \"disco\", the word \"go-go\" originally indicated a music club).", "Musical genres that were primarily performed by African-American musicians would influence much of early disco.Also during the 1960s, the Motown record label developed its own approach, described as having \"1) simply structured songs with sophisticated melodies and chord changes, 2) a relentless four-beat drum pattern, 3) a gospel use of background voices, vaguely derived from the style of the Impressions, 4) a regular and sophisticated use of both horns and strings, 5) lead singers who were half way between pop and gospel music, 6) a group of accompanying musicians who were among the most dextrous, knowledgeable, and brilliant in all of popular music (Motown bassists have long been the envy of white rock bassists) and 7) a trebly style of mixing that relied heavily on electronic limiting and equalizing (boosting the high range frequencies) to give the overall product a distinctive sound, particularly effective for broadcast over AM radio.\"", "Motown had many hits with disco elements by acts like Eddie Kendricks (\"Keep on Truckin'\" in 1973, \"Boogie Down\" in 1974).At the end of the 1960s, musicians, and audiences from the Black, Italian, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippie and psychedelia subcultures.", "They included using music venues with a loud, overwhelming sound, free-form dancing, trippy lighting, colorful costumes, and the use of hallucinogenic drugs.", "In addition, the perceived positivity, lack of irony, and earnestness of the hippies informed proto-disco music like MFSB's album ''Love Is the Message''.Partly through the success of Jimi Hendrix, psychedelic elements that were popular in rock music of the late 1960s found their way into soul and early funk music and formed the subgenre psychedelic soul.", "Examples can be found in the music of the Chambers Brothers, George Clinton with his Parliament-Funkadelic collective, Sly and the Family Stone, and the productions of Norman Whitfield with The Temptations.The long instrumental introductions and detailed orchestration found in psychedelic soul tracks by the Temptations are also considered as cinematic soul.", "In the early 1970s, Curtis Mayfield and Isaac Hayes scored hits with cinematic soul songs that were actually composed for movie soundtracks: \"Superfly\" (1972) and \"Theme from Shaft\" (1971).", "The latter is sometimes regarded as an early disco song.", "From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Philadelphia soul and New York soul developed as sub-genres that also had lavish percussion, lush string orchestra arrangements, and expensive record production processes.", "In the early 1970s, the Philly soul productions by Gamble and Huff evolved from the simpler arrangements of the late-1960s into a style featuring lush strings, thumping basslines, and sliding hi-hat rhythms.", "These elements would become typical for disco music and are found in several of the hits they produced in the early 1970s:\"Love Train\" by the O'Jays (with MFSB as the backup band) was released in 1972 and topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in March 1973\"The Love I Lost\" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes (1973)\"Now That We Found Love\" by The O'Jays (1973), later a hit for Third World in 1978\"TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)\" by MFSB with vocals by The Three Degrees, a wordless song written as the theme for ''Soul Train'' and a #1 hit on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in 1974Other early disco tracks that helped shape disco and became popular on the dance floors of (underground) discotheque clubs and parties include: * \"Jungle Fever\" by The Chakachas was first released in Belgium in 1971 and later released in the U.S. in 1972, where it reached #8 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 that same year* \"Soul Makossa\" by Manu Dibango was first released in France in 1972; it was picked up by the underground disco scene in New York and subsequently got a proper release in the U.S., reaching #35 on the Hot 100 in 1973* \"The Night\" by the Four Seasons was released in 1972, but was not immediately popular; it appealed to the Northern soul scene and became a hit in the UK in 1975* \"Love's Theme\" by the Love Unlimited Orchestra, conducted by Barry White, an instrumental song originally featured on ''Under the Influence of... Love Unlimited'' in July 1973 from which it was culled as a single in November of that year; subsequently, the conductor included it on his own debut album* \"Sound Your Funky Horn\" by KC and the Sunshine Band in 1974* \"Rock Your Baby\" by George McCrae in 1974* \"Do It\" by B.T.", "Express in 1974* \"Boogie Down\" by Eddie Kendricks in 1974.Early disco was dominated by record producers and labels such as Salsoul Records (Ken, Stanley, and Joseph Cayre), West End Records (Mel Cheren), Casablanca (Neil Bogart), and Prelude (Marvin Schlachter).", "The genre was also shaped by Tom Moulton, who wanted to extend the enjoyment of dance songs — thus creating the extended mix or \"remix\", going from a three-minute 45 rpm single to the much longer 12\" record.", "Other influential DJs and remixers who helped to establish what became known as the \"disco sound\" included David Mancuso, Nicky Siano, Shep Pettibone, Larry Levan, Walter Gibbons, and Chicago-based Frankie Knuckles.", "Frankie Knuckles was not only an important disco DJ; he also helped to develop house music in the 1980s.Disco hit the television airwaves as part of the music/dance variety show ''Soul Train'' in 1971 hosted by Don Cornelius, then Marty Angelo's ''Disco Step-by-Step Television Show'' in 1975, Steve Marcus's ''Disco Magic/Disco 77'', Eddie Rivera's ''Soap Factory'', and Merv Griffin's ''Dance Fever'', hosted by Deney Terrio, who is credited with teaching actor John Travolta to dance for his role in the film ''Saturday Night Fever'' (1977), as well as DANCE, based out of Columbia, South Carolina.In 1974, New York City's WPIX-FM premiered the first disco radio show.====Early disco culture in the United States====In the 1970s, the key counterculture of the 1960s, the hippie movement, was fading away.", "The economic prosperity of the previous decade had declined, and unemployment, inflation, and crime rates had soared.", "Political issues like the backlash from the Civil Rights Movement culminating in the form of race riots, the Vietnam War, the assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy, and the Watergate scandal, left many feeling disillusioned and hopeless .", "The start of the '70s was marked by a shift in the consciousness of the American people: the rise of the feminist movement, identity politics, gangs, etc.", "very much shaped this era.", "Disco music and disco dancing provided an escape from negative social and economic issues.", "The non-partnered dance style of disco music allowed people of all races and sexual orientations to enjoy the dancefloor atmosphere.In ''Beautiful Things in Popular Culture'', Simon Frith highlights the sociability of disco and its roots in 1960s counterculture.", "\"The driving force of the New York underground dance scene in which disco was forged was not simply that city's complex ethnic and sexual culture but also a 1960s notion of community, pleasure and generosity that can only be described as hippie\", he says.", "\"The best disco music contained within it a remarkably powerful sense of collective euphoria.", "\"The birth of disco is often claimed to be found in the private dance parties held by New York City DJ David Mancuso's home that became known as The Loft, an invitation-only non-commercial underground club that inspired many others.", "He organized the first major party in his Manhattan home on Valentine's Day 1970 with the name \"Love Saves The Day\".", "After some months the parties became weekly events and Mancuso continued to give regular parties into the 1990s.", "Mancuso required that the music played had to be soulful, rhythmic, and impart words of hope, redemption, or pride.When Mancuso threw his first informal house parties, the gay community (which made up much of The Loft's attendee roster) was often harassed in the gay bars and dance clubs, with many gay men carrying bail money with them to gay bars.", "But at The Loft and many other early, private discotheques, they could dance together without fear of police action thanks to Mancuso's underground, yet legal, policies.", "Vince Aletti described it \"like going to party, completely mixed, racially and sexually, where there wasn't any sense of someone being more important than anyone else,\" and Alex Rosner reiterated this saying \"It was probably about sixty percent black and seventy percent gay...There was a mix of sexual orientation, there was a mix of races, mix of economic groups.", "A real mix, where the common denominator was music.", "\"Film critic Roger Ebert called the popular embrace of disco's exuberant dance moves an escape from \"the general depression and drabness of the political and musical atmosphere of the late seventies.\"", "Pauline Kael, writing about the disco-themed film ''Saturday Night Fever'', said the film and disco itself touched on \"something deeply romantic, the need to move, to dance, and the need to be who you'd like to be.", "Nirvana is the dance; when the music stops, you return to being ordinary.", "\"====Early disco culture in the United Kingdom====In the late 1960s, uptempo soul with heavy beats and some associated dance styles and fashion were picked up in the British mod scene and formed the northern soul movement.", "Originating at venues such as the Twisted Wheel in Manchester, it quickly spread to other UK dancehalls and nightclubs like the Chateau Impney (Droitwich), Catacombs (Wolverhampton), the Highland Rooms at Blackpool Mecca, Golden Torch (Stoke-on-Trent), and Wigan Casino.", "As the favoured beat became more uptempo and frantic in the early 1970s, northern soul dancing became more athletic, somewhat resembling the later dance styles of disco and break dancing.", "Featuring spins, flips, karate kicks, and backdrops, club dancing styles were often inspired by the stage performances of touring American soul acts such as Little Anthony & the Imperials and Jackie Wilson.In 1974, there were an estimated 25,000 mobile discos and 40,000 professional disc jockeys in the United Kingdom.", "Mobile discos were hired deejays that brought their own equipment to provide music for special events.", "Glam rock tracks were popular, with, for example, Gary Glitter's 1972 single \"Rock and Roll Part 2\" becoming popular on UK dance floors while it did not get much radio airplay.===1974–1977: Rise to mainstream===From 1974 to 1977, disco music increased in popularity as many disco songs topped the charts.", "The Hues Corporation's \"Rock the Boat\" (1974), a US number-one single and million-seller, was one of the early disco songs to reach number one.", "The same year saw the release of \"Kung Fu Fighting\", performed by Carl Douglas and produced by Biddu, which reached number one in both the UK and US, and became the best-selling single of the year and one of the best-selling singles of all time with 11 million records sold worldwide, helping to popularize disco to a great extent.", "Another notable disco success that year was George McCrae's \"Rock Your Baby\": it became the United Kingdom's first number one disco single.In the northwestern sections of the United Kingdom, the northern soul explosion, which started in the late 1960s and peaked in 1974, made the region receptive to disco, which the region's disc jockeys were bringing back from New York City.", "The shift by some DJs to the newer sounds coming from the U.S. resulted in a split in the scene, whereby some abandoned the 1960s soul and pushed a modern soul sound which tended to be more closely aligned with disco than soul.Gloria Gaynor in 1976In 1975, Gloria Gaynor released her first side-long vinyl album, which included a remake of the Jackson 5's \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" (which, in fact, is also the album title) and two other songs, \"Honey Bee\" and her disco version of \"Reach Out (I'll Be There)\".", "The album first topped the Billboard disco/dance charts in November 1974.Later in 1978, Gaynor's number-one disco song was \"I Will Survive\", which was seen as a symbol of female strength and a gay anthem, like her further disco hit, a 1983 remake of \"I Am What I Am\".", "In 1979 she released \"Let Me Know (I Have a Right)\", a single which gained popularity in the civil rights movements.", "Also in 1975, Vincent Montana Jr.'s Salsoul Orchestra contributed with their Latin-flavored orchestral dance song \"Salsoul Hustle\", reaching number four on the Billboard Dance Chart; their 1976 hits were \"Tangerine\" and \"Nice 'n' Naasty\", the first being a cover of a 1941 song.Advertisement for Silver Convention's \"Fly, Robin, Fly\", October 18, 1975 Songs such as Van McCoy's 1975 \"The Hustle\" and the humorous Joe Tex 1977 \"Ain't Gonna Bump No More (With No Big Fat Woman)\" gave names to the popular disco dances \"the Bump\" and \"the Hustle\".", "Other notable early successful disco songs include Barry White's \"You're the First, the Last, My Everything\" (1974); Labelle's \"Lady Marmalade\" (1974)'; Disco-Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes' \"Get Dancin'\" (1974); Earth, Wind & Fire's \"Shining Star\" (1975); Silver Convention's \"Fly, Robin, Fly\" (1975) and \"Get Up and Boogie\" (1976); Vicki Sue Robinson's \"Turn the Beat Around\" (1976); and \"More, More, More\" (1976) by Andrea True (a former pornographic actress during the Golden Age of Porn, an era largely contemporaneous with the height of disco).Formed by Harry Wayne Casey (a.k.a.", "\"KC\") and Richard Finch, Miami's KC and the Sunshine Band had a string of disco-definitive top-five singles between 1975 and 1977, including \"Get Down Tonight\", \"That's the Way (I Like It)\", \"(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty\", \"I'm Your Boogie Man\", \"Boogie Shoes\", and \"Keep It Comin' Love\".", "In this period, rock bands like the English Electric Light Orchestra featured in their songs a violin sound that became a staple of disco music, as in the 1975 hit \"Evil Woman\", although the genre was correctly described as orchestral rock.Other disco producers such as Tom Moulton took ideas and techniques from dub music (which came with the increased Jamaican migration to New York City in the 1970s) to provide alternatives to the \"four on the floor\" style that dominated.", "DJ Larry Levan utilized styles from dub and jazz and remixing techniques to create early versions of house music that sparked the genre.====Motown turning disco====Norman Whitfield was an influential producer and songwriter at Motown records, renowned for creating innovative \"psychedelic soul\" songs with many hits for Marvin Gaye, the Velvelettes, the Temptations, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.", "From around the production of the Temptations album ''Cloud Nine'' in 1968, he incorporated some psychedelic influences and started to produce longer, dance-friendly tracks, with more room for elaborate rhythmic instrumental parts.", "An example of such a long psychedelic soul track is \"Papa Was a Rollin' Stone\", which appeared as a single edit of almost seven minutes and an approximately 12-minute-long 12\" version in 1972.By the early 70s, many of Whitfield's productions evolved more and more towards funk and disco, as heard on albums by the Undisputed Truth and the 1973 album ''G.I.T.", ": Get It Together'' by The Jackson 5.The Undisputed Truth, a Motown recording act assembled by Whitfield to experiment with his psychedelic soul production techniques, found success with their 1971 song \"Smiling Faces Sometimes\".", "Their disco single \"You + Me = Love\" (number 43) was produced by Whitfield and made number 2 on the US dance chart in 1976.In 1975, Whitfield left Motown and founded his own label Whitfield records, on which also \"You + Me = Love\" was released.", "Whitfield produced some more disco hits, including \"Car Wash\" (1976) by Rose Royce from the album soundtrack to the 1976 film ''Car Wash''.", "In 1977, singer, songwriter, and producer Willie Hutch, who had been signed to Motown since 1970, now signed with Whitfield's new label, and scored a successful disco single with his song \"In and Out\" in 1982.Diana Ross in 1976Other Motown artists turned to disco as well.", "Diana Ross embraced the disco sound with her successful 1976 outing \"Love Hangover\" from her self-titled album.", "Her 1980 dance classics \"Upside Down\" and \"I'm Coming Out\" were written and produced by Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards of the group Chic.", "The Supremes, the group that made Ross famous, scored a handful of hits in the disco clubs without her, most notably 1976's \"I'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking\" and, their last charted single before disbanding, 1977's \"You're My Driving Wheel\".At the request of Motown that he produce songs in the disco genre, Marvin Gaye released \"Got to Give It Up\" in 1978, despite his dislike of disco.", "He vowed not to record any songs in the genre and actually wrote the song as a parody.", "However, several of Gaye's songs have disco elements, including \"I Want You\" (1975).", "Stevie Wonder released the disco single \"Sir Duke\" in 1977 as a tribute to Duke Ellington, the influential jazz legend who had died in 1974.Smokey Robinson left the Motown group the Miracles for a solo career in 1972 and released his third solo album ''A Quiet Storm'' in 1975, which spawned and lent its name to the \"Quiet Storm\" musical programming format and subgenre of R&B.", "It contained the disco single \"Baby That's Backatcha\".", "Other Motown artists who scored disco hits were Robinson's former group, the Miracles, with \"Love Machine\" (1975), Eddie Kendricks with \"Keep On Truckin'\" (1973), the Originals with \"Down to Love Town\" (1976), and Thelma Houston with her cover of the Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes song \"Don't Leave Me This Way\" (1976).", "The label continued to release successful songs into the 1980s with Rick James's \"Super Freak\" (1981), and the Commodores' \"Lady (You Bring Me Up)\" (1981).Several of Motown's solo artists who left the label went on to have successful disco songs.", "Mary Wells, Motown's first female superstar with her signature song \"My Guy\" (written by Smokey Robinson), abruptly left the label in 1964.She briefly reappeared on the charts with the disco song \"Gigolo\" in 1980.Jimmy Ruffin, the elder brother of the Temptations lead singer David Ruffin, was also signed to Motown and released his most successful and well-known song \"What Becomes of the Brokenhearted\" as a single in 1966.Ruffin eventually left the record label in the mid-1970s, but saw success with the 1980 disco song \"Hold On (To My Love)\", which was written and produced by Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees, for his album ''Sunrise''.", "Edwin Starr, known for his Motown protest song \"War\" (1970), reentered the charts in 1979 with a pair of disco songs, \"Contact\" and \"H.A.P.P.Y.", "Radio\".", "Kiki Dee became the first white British singer to sign with Motown in the US, and released one album, ''Great Expectations'' (1970), and two singles \"The Day Will Come Between Sunday and Monday\" (1970) and \"Love Makes the World Go Round\" (1971), the latter giving her first-ever chart entry (number 87 on the US Chart).", "She soon left the company and signed with Elton John's The Rocket Record Company, and in 1976 had her biggest and best-known single, \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\", a disco duet with John.", "The song was intended as an affectionate disco-style pastiche of the Motown sound, in particular the various duets recorded by Marvin Gaye with Tammi Terrell and Kim Weston.Many Motown groups who had left the record label charted with disco songs.", "The Jackson 5, one of Motown's premier acts in the early 1970s, left the record company in 1975 (Jermaine Jackson, however, remained with the label) after successful songs like \"I Want You Back\" (1969) and \"ABC\" (1970), and even the disco song \"Dancing Machine\" (1974).", "Renamed as 'the Jacksons' (as Motown owned the name 'the Jackson 5'), they went on to find success with disco songs like \"Blame It on the Boogie\" (1978), \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" (1979), and \"Can You Feel It?\"", "(1981) on the Epic label.The Isley Brothers, whose short tenure at the company had produced the song \"This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)\" in 1966, went on release successful disco songs like \"It's a Disco Night (Rock Don't Stop)\" (1979).", "Gladys Knight & the Pips, who recorded the most successful version of \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" (1967) before Marvin Gaye, scored commercially successful singles such as \"Baby, Don't Change Your Mind\" (1977) and \"Bourgie, Bourgie\" (1980) in the disco era.", "The Detroit Spinners were also signed to the Motown label and saw success with the Stevie Wonder-produced song \"It's a Shame\" in 1970.They left soon after, on the advice of fellow Detroit native Aretha Franklin, to Atlantic Records, and there had disco songs like \"The Rubberband Man\" (1976).", "In 1979, they released a successful cover of Elton John's \"Are You Ready for Love\", as well as a medley of the Four Seasons' song \"Working My Way Back to You\" and Michael Zager's \"Forgive Me, Girl\".", "The Four Seasons themselves were briefly signed to Motown's MoWest label, a short-lived subsidiary for R&B and soul artists based on the West Coast, and there the group produced one album, ''Chameleon'' (1972) – to little commercial success in the US.", "However, one single, \"The Night\", was released in Britain in 1975, and thanks to popularity from the Northern Soul circuit, reached number seven on the UK Singles Chart.", "The Four Seasons left Motown in 1974 and went on to have a disco hit with their song \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\" (1975) for Warner Curb Records.====Euro disco====ABBA in 1974.By far the most successful Euro disco act was ABBA (1972–1982).", "This Swedish quartet, which sang primarily in English, found success with singles such as \"Waterloo\" (1974), \"Take a Chance on Me\" (1978), \"Gimme!", "Gimme!", "Gimme!", "(A Man After Midnight)\" (1979), \"Super Trouper\" (1980), and their signature smash hit \"Dancing Queen\" (1976).Italian composer Giorgio Moroder is known as the \"Father of Disco\".alt=In the 1970s Munich, West Germany, music producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte made a decisive contribution to disco music with a string of hits for Donna Summer, which became known as the \"Munich Sound\".", "In 1975, Summer suggested the lyric \"Love to Love You Baby\" to Moroder and Bellotte, who turned the lyric into a full disco song.", "The final product, which contained the vocalizations of a series of simulated orgasms, initially was not intended for release, but when Moroder played it in the clubs it caused a sensation and he released it.", "The song became an international hit, reaching the charts in many European countries and the US (No.", "2).", "It has been described as the arrival of the expression of raw female sexual desire in pop music.", "A nearly 17-minute 12-inch single was released.", "The 12\" single became and remains a standard in discos today.", "In 1976 Donna Summer's version of \"Could It Be Magic\" brought disco further into the mainstream.", "In 1977 Summer, Moroder and Bellotte further released \"I Feel Love\", as the B-side of \"Can't We Just Sit Down (And Talk It Over)\", which revolutionized dance music with its mostly electronic production and was a massive worldwide success, spawning the Hi-NRG subgenre.", "Giorgio Moroder was described by AllMusic as \"one of the principal architects of the disco sound\".", "Another successful disco music project by Moroder at that time was Munich Machine (1976–1980).Boney M. (1974–1986) was a West German Euro disco group of four West Indian singers and dancers masterminded by record producer Frank Farian.", "Boney M. charted worldwide with such songs as \"Daddy Cool\" (1976) \"Ma Baker\" (1977) and \"Rivers Of Babylon\" (1978).", "Another successful West German Euro disco recording act was Silver Convention (1974–1979).", "The German group Kraftwerk also had an influence on Euro disco.Dalida in 1967.In France, Dalida released \"J'attendrai\" (\"I Will Wait\") in 1975, which also became successful in Canada, Europe, and Japan.", "Dalida successfully adjusted herself to disco and released at least a dozen of songs that charted in the top 10 in Europe.", "Claude François, who re-invented himself as the \"king of French disco\", released \"La plus belle chose du monde\", a French version of the Bee Gees song \"Massachusetts\", which became successful in Canada and Europe and \"Alexandrie Alexandra\" was posthumously released on the day of his burial and became a worldwide success.", "Cerrone's early songs, \"Love in C Minor\" (1976), \"Supernature\" (1977), and \"Give Me Love\" (1978) were successful in the US and Europe.", "Another Euro disco act was the French diva Amanda Lear, where Euro disco sound is most heard in \"Enigma (Give a Bit of Mmh to Me)\" (1978).", "French producer Alec Costandinos assembled the Euro disco group Love and Kisses (1977–1982).In Italy Raffaella Carrà was the most successful Euro disco act, alongside La Bionda, Hermanas Goggi and Oliver Onions.", "Her greatest international single was \"Tanti Auguri\" (\"Best Wishes\"), which has become a popular song with gay audiences.", "The song is also known under its Spanish title \"Para hacer bien el amor hay que venir al sur\" (which refers to Southern Europe, since the song was recorded and taped in Spain).", "The Estonian version of the song \"Jätke võtmed väljapoole\" was performed by Anne Veski.", "\"A far l'amore comincia tu\" (\"To make love, your move first\") was another success for her internationally, known in Spanish as \"En el amor todo es empezar\", in German as \"Liebelei\", in French as \"Puisque tu l'aimes dis le lui\", and in English as \"Do It, Do It Again\".", "It was her only entry to the UK Singles Chart, reaching number 9, where she remains a one-hit wonder.", "In 1977, she recorded another successful single, \"Fiesta\" (\"The Party\" in English) originally in Spanish, but then recorded it in French and Italian after the song hit the charts.", "\"A far l'amore comincia tu\" has also been covered in Turkish by a Turkish popstar Ajda Pekkan as \"Sakın Ha\" in 1977.Recently, Carrà has gained new attention for her appearance as the female dancing soloist in a 1974 TV performance of the experimental gibberish song \"Prisencolinensinainciusol\" (1973) by Adriano Celentano.", "A remixed video featuring her dancing went viral on the internet in 2008.In 2008 a video of a performance of her only successful UK single, \"Do It, Do It Again\", was featured in the ''Doctor Who'' episode \"Midnight\".", "Rafaella Carrà worked with Bob Sinclar on the new single \"Far l'Amore\" which was released on YouTube on March 17, 2011.The song charted in different European countries.", "Another prominent European disco act was the pop group Luv' from the Netherlands.Euro disco continued evolving within the broad mainstream pop music scene, even when disco's popularity sharply declined in the United States, abandoned by major U.S. record labels and producers.", "Through the influence of Italo disco, it also played a role in the evolution of early house music in the early 1980s and later forms of electronic dance music, including early '90s Eurodance.===1977–1979: Pop preeminence======= ''Saturday Night Fever'' (John Badham, 1977) ====In December 1977, the film ''Saturday Night Fever'' was released.", "It was a huge success and its soundtrack became one of the best-selling albums of all time.", "The idea for the film was sparked by a 1976 ''New York'' magazine article titled \"Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night\" which supposedly chronicled the disco culture in mid-1970s New York City, but was later revealed to have been fabricated.", "Some critics said the film \"mainstreamed\" disco, making it more acceptable to heterosexual white males.", "Many music historians believe the success of the movie and soundtrack extended the life of the disco era by several years.Organized around the culture of suburban discotheques and the character of Tony Manero, portrayed by John Travolta, ''Saturday Night Fever'' became a cultural phenomenon that recast the dance floor as a site for patriarchal masculinity and heterosexual courtship.", "This transformation aligned disco with the interests of the perceived mass market, specifically targeting suburban and Middle American audiences.The portrayal of the dance floor in ''Saturday Night Fever'' marked a reappropriation by straight male culture, turning it into a space for men to showcase their prowess and pursue partners of the opposite sex.", "The film popularized the hustle, a Latin social dance, reinforcing the centrality of the straight-dancing couple in the disco exchange.", "Notably, the soundtrack, dominated by the Bee Gees, risked presenting disco as a new incarnation of shrill white pop, deviating from its diverse and inclusive origins.", "The success of ''Saturday Night Fever'' was unprecedented, breaking box office and album sale records.", "Unfortunately, its impact went beyond mere popularity.", "The film established a template for disco that was easily reproducible, yet thoroughly de-queered in its outlook.", "By narrowing the narrative to fit into the conventional ideals of suburban heterosexual culture, the film contributed to a distorted and commodified version of disco.==== Disco goes mainstream ====The Bee Gees had several disco hits on the soundtrack to ''Saturday Night Fever'' in 1977.\|alt=\|234x234pxThe Bee Gees used Barry Gibb's falsetto to garner hits such as \"You Should Be Dancing\", \"Stayin' Alive\", \"Night Fever\", \"More Than A Woman\", \"Love You Inside Out\", and \"Tragedy\".", "Andy Gibb, a younger brother to the Bee Gees, followed with similarly styled solo singles such as \"I Just Want to Be Your Everything\", \"(Love Is) Thicker Than Water\", and \"Shadow Dancing\".In 1978, Donna Summer's multi-million-selling vinyl single disco version of \"MacArthur Park\" was number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart for three weeks and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.", "The recording, which was included as part of the \"MacArthur Park Suite\" on her double live album ''Live and More'', was eight minutes and 40 seconds long on the album.", "The shorter seven-inch vinyl single version of MacArthur Park was Summer's first single to reach number one on the Hot 100; it does not include the balladic second movement of the song, however.", "A 2013 remix of \"MacArthur Park\" by Summer topped the Billboard Dance Charts marking five consecutive decades with a number-one song on the charts.", "From mid-1978 to late 1979, Summer continued to release singles such as \"Last Dance\", \"Heaven Knows\" (with Brooklyn Dreams), \"Hot Stuff\", \"Bad Girls\", \"Dim All the Lights\" and \"On the Radio\", all very successful songs, landing in the top five or better, on the Billboard pop charts.The band Chic was formed mainly by guitarist Nile Rodgers—a self-described \"street hippie\" from late 1960s New York—and bassist Bernard Edwards.", "Their popular 1978 single, \"Le Freak\", is regarded as an iconic song of the genre.", "Other successful songs by Chic include the often-sampled \"Good Times\" (1979), \"I Want Your Love\" (1979), and \"Everybody Dance\" (1979).", "The group regarded themselves as the disco movement's rock band that made good on the hippie movement's ideals of peace, love, and freedom.", "Every song they wrote was written with an eye toward giving it \"deep hidden meaning\" or D.H.M.Sylvester, a flamboyant and openly gay singer famous for his soaring falsetto voice, scored his biggest disco hit in late 1978 with \"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)\".", "His singing style was said to have influenced the singer Prince.", "At that time, disco was one of the forms of music most open to gay performers.The Village People were a singing/dancing group created by Jacques Morali and Henri Belolo to target disco's gay audience.", "They were known for their onstage costumes of typically male-associated jobs and ethnic minorities and achieved mainstream success with their 1978 hit song \"Macho Man\".", "Other songs include \"Y.M.C.A.\"", "(1979) and \"In the Navy\" (1979).Also noteworthy are The Trammps' \"Disco Inferno\" (1976), (1978, reissue due to the popularity gained from the ''Saturday Night Fever'' soundtrack), Heatwave's \"Boogie Nights\" (1977), Evelyn \"Champagne\" King's \"Shame\" (1977), A Taste of Honey's \"Boogie Oogie Oogie\" (1978), Cheryl Lynn's \"Got to Be Real\" (1978), Alicia Bridges's \"I Love the Nightlife\" (1978), Patrick Hernandez's \"Born to Be Alive\" (1978), Earth, Wind & Fire's \"September\" (1978) and \"Boogie Wonderland\" (1979), Peaches & Herb's \"Shake Your Groove Thing\" (1978), Sister Sledge's \"We Are Family\" and \"He's the Greatest Dancer\" (both 1979), McFadden and Whitehead's \"Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now\" (1979), Anita Ward's \"Ring My Bell\" (1979), Kool & the Gang's \"Ladies' Night\" (1979) and \"Celebration\" (1980), The Whispers's \"And the Beat Goes On\" (1979), Stephanie Mills's \"What Cha Gonna Do with My Lovin'\" (1979), Lipps Inc.'s \"Funkytown\" (1980), The Brothers Johnson's \"Stomp!\"", "(1980), George Benson's \"Give Me the Night\" (1980), Donna Summer's \"Sunset People\" (1980), and Walter Murphy's various attempts to bring classical music to the mainstream, most notably the disco song \"A Fifth of Beethoven\" (1976), which was inspired by Beethoven's fifth symphony.At the height of its popularity, many non-disco artists recorded songs with disco elements, such as Rod Stewart with his \"Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?\"", "in 1979.Even mainstream rock artists adopted elements of disco.", "Progressive rock group Pink Floyd used disco-like drums and guitar in their song \"Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2\" (1979), which became their only number-one single in both the US and UK.", "The Eagles referenced disco with \"One of These Nights\" (1975) and \"Disco Strangler\" (1979), Paul McCartney & Wings with \"Silly Love Songs\" (1976) and \"Goodnight Tonight\" (1979), Queen with \"Another One Bites the Dust\" (1980), the Rolling Stones with \"Miss You\" (1978) and \"Emotional Rescue\" (1980), Stephen Stills with his album ''Thoroughfare Gap'' (1978), Electric Light Orchestra with \"Shine a Little Love\" and \"Last Train to London\" (both 1979), Chicago with \"Street Player\" (1979), the Kinks with \"(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman\" (1979), the Grateful Dead with \"Shakedown Street\", The Who with \"Eminence Front\" (1982), and the J. Geils Band with \"Come Back\" (1980).", "Even hard rock group KISS jumped in with \"I Was Made for Lovin' You\" (1979), and Ringo Starr's album ''Ringo the 4th'' (1978) features a strong disco influence.The disco sound was also adopted by artists from other genres, including the 1979 U.S. number one hit \"No More Tears (Enough Is Enough)\" by easy listening singer Barbra Streisand in a duet with Donna Summer.", "In country music, in an attempt to appeal to the more mainstream market, artists began to add pop/disco influences to their music.", "Dolly Parton launched a successful crossover onto the pop/dance charts, with her albums ''Heartbreaker'' and ''Great Balls of Fire'' containing songs with a disco flair.", "In particular, a disco remix of the track \"Baby I'm Burnin'\" peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart; ultimately becoming one of the years biggest club hits.Additionally, Connie Smith covered Andy Gibb's \"I Just Want to Be Your Everything\" in 1977, Bill Anderson recorded \"Double S\" in 1978, and Ronnie Milsap released \"Get It Up\" and covered blues singer Tommy Tucker's song \"Hi-Heel Sneakers\" in 1979.Pre-existing non-disco songs, standards, and TV themes were frequently \"disco-ized\" in the 1970s, such as the ''I Love Lucy'' theme (recorded as \"Disco Lucy\" by the Wilton Place Street Band), \"Aquarela do Brasil\" (recorded as \"Brazil\" by The Ritchie Family), and \"Baby Face\" (recorded by the Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps).", "The rich orchestral accompaniment that became identified with the disco era conjured up the memories of the big band era—which brought out several artists that recorded and disco-ized some big band arrangements, including Perry Como, who re-recorded his 1945 song \"Temptation\", in 1975, as well as Ethel Merman, who released an album of disco songs entitled ''The Ethel Merman Disco Album'' in 1979.Myron Floren, second-in-command on ''The Lawrence Welk Show'', released a recording of the \"Clarinet Polka\" entitled \"Disco Accordion.\"", "Similarly, Bobby Vinton adapted \"The Pennsylvania Polka\" into a song named \"Disco Polka\".", "Easy listening icon Percy Faith, in one of his last recordings, released an album entitled ''Disco Party'' (1975) and recorded a disco version of his \"Theme from ''A Summer Place''\" in 1976.Even classical music was adapted for disco, notably Walter Murphy's \"A Fifth of Beethoven\" (1976, based on the first movement of Beethoven's 5th Symphony) and \"Flight 76\" (1976, based on Rimsky-Korsakov's \"Flight of the Bumblebee\"), and Louis Clark's ''Hooked On Classics'' series of albums and singles.The a cappella jazz group the Manhattan Transfer had a disco hit with the 1979 \"Twilight Zone/Twilight Tone\" theme.Many original television theme songs of the era also showed a strong disco influence, such as ''S.W.A.T.''", "(1975), ''Wonder Woman'' (1975), ''Charlie's Angels'' (1976), ''NBC Saturday Night At The Movies'' (1976), ''The Love Boat'' (1977), ''The Donahue Show'' (1977), ''CHiPs'' (1977), ''The Professionals'' (1977), ''Dallas'' (1978), NBC Sports broadcasts (1978), ''Kojak'' (1977), and ''The Hollywood Squares'' (1979).Disco jingles also made their way into many TV commercials, including Purina's 1979 \"Good Mews\" cat food commercial and an \"IC Light\" commercial by Pittsburgh's Iron City Brewing Company.====Parodies====Several parodies of the disco style were created.", "Rick Dees, at the time a radio DJ in Memphis, Tennessee, recorded \"Disco Duck\" (1976) and \"Dis-Gorilla\" (1977); Frank Zappa parodied the lifestyles of disco dancers in \"Disco Boy\" on his 1976 ''Zoot Allures'' album and in \"Dancin' Fool\" on his 1979 ''Sheik Yerbouti'' album.", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's eponymous 1983 debut album includes a disco song called \"Gotta Boogie\", an extended pun on the similarity of the disco move to the American slang word \"booger\".", "Comedian Bill Cosby devoted his entire 1977 album ''Disco Bill'' to disco parodies.", "In 1980, ''Mad Magazine'' released a flexi-disc titled ''Mad Disco'' featuring six full-length parodies of the genre.", "Rock and roll songs critical of disco included Bob Seger's \"Old Time Rock and Roll\" and, especially, the Who's \"Sister Disco\" (both 1978)—although the Who's \"Eminence Front\" (four years later) had a disco feel.===1979–1981: Controversy and decline in popularity===A man wearing a \"disco sucks\" T-shirt.By the end of the 1970s, anti-disco sentiment developed among rock music fans and musicians, particularly in the United States.", "Disco was criticized as mindless, consumerist, overproduced and escapist.", "The slogans \"Disco sucks\" and \"Death to disco\" became common.", "Rock artists such as Rod Stewart and David Bowie who added disco elements to their music were accused of selling out.The punk subculture in the United States and the United Kingdom was often hostile to disco, although, in the UK, many early Sex Pistols fans such as the Bromley Contingent and Jordan liked disco, often congregating at nightclubs such as Louise's in Soho and the Sombrero in Kensington.", "The track \"Love Hangover\" by Diana Ross, the house anthem at the former, was cited as a particular favourite by many early UK punks.The film ''The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle'' and its soundtrack album contained a disco medley of Sex Pistols songs, entitled ''Black Arabs'' and credited to a group of the same name.However, Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys, in the song \"Saturday Night Holocaust\", likened disco to the cabaret culture of Weimar-era Germany for its apathy towards government policies and its escapism.", "Mark Mothersbaugh of Devo said that disco was \"like a beautiful woman with a great body and no brains\", and a product of political apathy of that era.", "New Jersey rock critic Jim Testa wrote \"Put a Bullet Through the Jukebox\", a vitriolic screed attacking disco that was considered a punk call to arms.", "Steve Hillage, shortly prior to his transformation from a progressive rock musician into an electronic artist at the end of the 1970s with the inspiration of disco, disappointed his rockist fans by admitting his love for disco, with Hillage recalling \"it's like I'd killed their pet cat.", "\"Anti-disco sentiment was expressed in some television shows and films.", "A recurring theme on the show ''WKRP in Cincinnati'' was a hostile attitude towards disco music.", "In one scene of the 1980 comedy film ''Airplane!", "'', a wayward airplane slices a radio tower with its wing, knocking out an all-disco radio station.", "July 12, 1979, became known as \"the day disco died\" because of the Disco Demolition Night, an anti-disco demonstration in a baseball double-header at Comiskey Park in Chicago.", "Rock station DJs Steve Dahl and Garry Meier, along with Michael Veeck, son of Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck, staged the promotional event for disgruntled rock fans between the games of a White Sox doubleheader which involved exploding disco records in centerfield.", "As the second game was about to begin, the raucous crowd stormed onto the field and proceeded to set fires and tear out seats and pieces of turf.", "The Chicago Police Department made numerous arrests, and the extensive damage to the field forced the White Sox to forfeit the second game to the Detroit Tigers, who had won the first game.Disco's decline in popularity after Disco Demolition Night was rapid.", "On July 12, 1979, the top six records on the U.S. music charts were disco songs.", "By September 22, there were no disco songs in the US Top 10 chart, with the exception of Herb Alpert's instrumental \"Rise\", a smooth jazz composition with some disco overtones.", "Some in the media, in celebratory tones, declared disco \"dead\" and rock revived.", "Karen Mixon Cook, the first female disco DJ, stated that people still pause every July 12 for a moment of silence in honor of disco.", "Dahl stated in a 2004 interview that disco was \"probably on its way out at the time.", "But I think it Disco Demolition Night hastened its demise\".====Impact on the music industry====The anti-disco movement, combined with other societal and radio industry factors, changed the face of pop radio in the years following Disco Demolition Night.", "Starting in the 1980s, country music began a slow rise on the pop chart.", "Emblematic of country music's rise to mainstream popularity was the commercially successful 1980 movie ''Urban Cowboy''.", "The continued popularity of power pop and the revival of oldies in the late 1970s was also related to disco's decline; the 1978 film ''Grease'' was emblematic of this trend.", "Coincidentally, the star of both films was John Travolta, who in 1977 had starred in ''Saturday Night Fever'', which remains one of the most iconic disco films of the era.During this period of decline in disco's popularity, several record companies folded, were reorganized, or were sold.", "In 1979, MCA Records purchased ABC Records, absorbed some of its artists and then shut the label down.", "Midsong International Records ceased operations in 1980.RSO Records founder Robert Stigwood left the label in 1981 and TK Records closed in the same year.", "Salsoul Records continues to exist in the 2000s, but primarily is used as a reissue brand.", "Casablanca Records had been releasing fewer records in the 1980s, and was shut down in 1986 by parent company PolyGram.Many groups that were popular during the disco period subsequently struggled to maintain their success—even ones who tried to adapt to evolving musical tastes.", "The Bee Gees, for instance, had only one top-10 entry (1989's \"One\") and three more top-40 songs (despite completely abandoning disco in their 1980s and 1990s songs), even though numerous songs they wrote and had other artists perform were successful.", "Of the handful of groups not taken down by disco's fall from favor, Kool and the Gang, Donna Summer, the Jacksons, and Gloria Gaynor in particular—stand out.", "In spite of having helped define the disco sound early on, they continued to make popular and danceable, if more refined, songs for yet another generation of music fans in the 1980s and beyond.", "Earth, Wind & Fire also survived the anti-disco trend and continued to produce successful singles at roughly the same pace for several more years, in addition to an even longer string of R&B chart hits that lasted into the 1990s.Six months prior to Disco Demolition Night (in December 1978), popular progressive rock radio station WDAI (WLS-FM) had suddenly switched to an all-disco format, disenfranchising thousands of Chicago rock fans and leaving Dahl unemployed.", "WDAI, who survived the change of public sentiment and still had good ratings at this point, continued to play disco until it flipped to a short-lived hybrid Top 40/rock format in May 1980.Another disco outlet that competed against WDAI at the time, WGCI-FM, would later incorporate R&B and pop songs into the format, eventually evolving into an urban contemporary outlet that it continues with today.", "The latter also helped bring the Chicago house genre to the airwaves.====Factors contributing to disco's decline====Factors that have been cited as leading to the decline of disco in the United States include economic and political changes at the end of the 1970s, as well as burnout from the hedonistic lifestyles led by participants.", "In the years since Disco Demolition Night, some social critics have described the \"Disco sucks\" movement as implicitly macho and bigoted, and an attack on non-white and non-heterosexual cultures.", "It was also interpreted being part of a wider cultural \"backlash\", the move towards conservatism, that also made its way into US politics with the election of conservative president Ronald Reagan in 1980, which also led to Republican control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1954, plus the subsequent rise of the Religious Right around the same time.In January 1979, rock critic Robert Christgau argued that homophobia, and most likely racism, were reasons behind the movement, a conclusion seconded by John Rockwell.", "Craig Werner wrote: \"The Anti-disco movement represented an unholy alliance of funkateers and feminists, progressives, and puritans, rockers and reactionaries.", "Nonetheless, the attacks on disco gave respectable voice to the ugliest kinds of unacknowledged racism, sexism and homophobia.\"", "Legs McNeil, founder of the fanzine ''Punk'', was quoted in an interview as saying, \"the hippies always wanted to be black.", "We were going, 'fuck the blues, fuck the black experience.'\"", "He also said that disco was the result of an \"unholy\" union between homosexuals and blacks.Steve Dahl, who had spearheaded Disco Demolition Night, denied any racist or homophobic undertones to the promotion, saying, \"It's really easy to look at it historically, from this perspective, and attach all those things to it.", "But we weren't thinking like that,\" it was \"just kids pissing on a musical genre\".", "It has been noted that British punk rock critics of disco were very supportive of the pro-black/anti-racist reggae genre as well as the more pro-gay new romantics movement.", "Christgau and Jim Testa have said that there were legitimate artistic reasons for being critical of disco.In 1979, the music industry in the United States underwent its worst slump in decades, and disco, despite its mass popularity, was blamed.", "The producer-oriented sound was having difficulty mixing well with the industry's artist-oriented marketing system.", "Harold Childs, senior vice president at A&M Records, reportedly told the ''Los Angeles Times'' that \"radio is really desperate for rock product\" and \"they're all looking for some white rock-n-roll\".", "Gloria Gaynor argued that the music industry supported the destruction of disco because rock music producers were losing money and rock musicians were losing the spotlight.===1981–1989: Aftermath=======Birth of electronic dance music====Disco was instrumental in the development of electronic dance music genres like house, techno, and eurodance.", "The Eurodisco song ''I Feel Love'', produced by Giorgio Moroder for Donna Summer in 1976, has been described as a milestone and blueprint for electronic dance music because it was the first to combine repetitive synthesizer loops with a continuous four-on-the-floor bass drum and an off-beat hi-hat, which would become a main feature of techno and house ten years later.During the first years of the 1980s, the traditional disco sound characterized by complex arrangements performed by large ensembles of studio session musicians (including a horn section and an orchestral string section) began to be phased out, and faster tempos and synthesized effects, accompanied by guitar and simplified backgrounds, moved dance music toward electronic and pop genres, starting with hi-NRG.", "Despite its decline in popularity, so-called club music and European-style disco remained relatively successful in the early-to-mid 1980s with songs like Aneka's \"Japanese Boy\", The Weather Girls's \"It's Raining Men\", Stacey Q's \"Two of Hearts\", Dead or Alive's \"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)\", Laura Branigan's \"Self Control\", and Baltimora's \"Tarzan Boy\".", "However, a revival of the traditional-style disco called nu-disco has been popular since the 1990s.House music displayed a strong disco influence, which is why house music, regarding its enormous success in shaping electronic dance music and contemporary club culture, is often described being \"disco's revenge.\"", "Early house music was generally dance-based music characterized by repetitive four-on-the-floor beats, rhythms mainly provided by drum machines, off-beat hi-hat cymbals, and synthesized basslines.", "While house displayed several characteristics similar to disco music, it was more electronic and minimalist, and the repetitive rhythm of house was more important than the song itself.", "As well, house did not use the lush string sections that were a key part of the disco sound." ], [ "Legacy", "===DJ culture===Classic DJ Station.", "A DJ mixer is placed between two Technics SL-1200 MK 2 turntables.The rising popularity of disco came in tandem with developments in the role of the DJ.", "DJing developed from the use of multiple record turntables and DJ mixers to create a continuous, seamless mix of songs, with one song transitioning to another with no break in the music to interrupt the dancing.", "The resulting DJ mix differed from previous forms of dance music in the 1960s, which were oriented towards live performances by musicians.", "It, in turn, affected the arrangement of dance music, since songs in the disco era typically contained beginnings and endings marked by a simple beat or riff that could be easily used to transition to a new song.", "The development of DJing was also influenced by new turntablism techniques, such as beatmatching and scratching, a process facilitated by the introduction of new turntable technologies such as the Technics SL-1200 MK 2, first sold in 1978, which had a precise variable pitch control and a direct drive motor.", "DJs were often avid record collectors, who would hunt through used record stores for obscure soul records and vintage funk recordings.", "DJs helped to introduce rare records and new artists to club audiences.Kontula in Helsinki, Finland, in 1994In the 1970s, individual DJs became more prominent, and some DJs, such as Larry Levan, the resident at Paradise Garage, Jim Burgess, Tee Scott, and Francis Grasso became famous in the disco scene.", "Levan, for example, developed a cult following among clubgoers, who referred to his DJ sets as \"Saturday Mass\".", "Some DJs would use reel-to-reel tape recorders to make remixes and tape edits of songs.", "Some DJs who were making remixes made the transition from the DJ booth to becoming a record producer, notably Burgess.", "Scott developed several innovations.", "He was the first disco DJ to use three turntables as sound sources, the first to simultaneously play two beat-matched records, the first to use electronic effects units in his mixes, and he was an innovator in mixing dialogue in from well-known movies, typically over a percussion break.", "These mixing techniques were also applied to radio DJs, such as Ted Currier of WKTU and WBLS.", "Grasso is particularly notable for taking the DJ \"profession out of servitude and making the DJ the musical head chef.\"", "Once he entered the scene, the DJ was no longer responsible for waiting on the crowd hand and foot, meeting their every song request.", "Instead, with increased agency and visibility, the DJ was now able to use their own technical and creative skills to whip up a nightly special of innovative mixes, refining their personal sound and aesthetic, and building their own reputation.===Post-disco===The post-disco sound and genres associated with it originated in the 1970s and early 1980s with R&B and post-punk musicians focusing on a more electronic and experimental side of disco, spawning boogie, Italo disco, and alternative dance.", "Drawing from a diverse range of non-disco influences and techniques, such as the \"one-man band\" style of Kashif and Stevie Wonder and alternative approaches of Parliament-Funkadelic, it was driven by synthesizers, keyboards, and drum machines.", "Post-disco acts include D. Train, Patrice Rushen, ESG, Bill Laswell, Arthur Russell.", "Post-disco had an important influence on dance-pop and was bridging classical disco and later forms of electronic dance music.===Early hip hop===The disco sound had a strong influence on early hip hop.", "Most of the early hip-hop songs were created by isolating existing disco bass guitar lines and dubbing over them with MC rhymes.", "The Sugarhill Gang used Chic's \"Good Times\" as the foundation for their 1979 song \"Rapper's Delight\", generally considered to be the song that first popularized rap music in the United States and around the world.With synthesizers and Krautrock influences that replaced the previous disco foundation, a new genre was born when Afrika Bambaataa released the single \"Planet Rock\", spawning a hip hop electronic dance trend that includes songs such as Planet Patrol's \"Play at Your Own Risk\" (1982), C-Bank's \"One More Shot\" (1982), Cerrone's \"Club Underworld\" (1984), Shannon's \"Let the Music Play\" (1983), Freeez's \"I.O.U.\"", "(1983), Midnight Star's \"Freak-a-Zoid\" (1983), and Chaka Khan's \"I Feel For You\" (1984).===House music and rave culture===Like disco, house music was based around DJs creating mixes for dancers in clubs.", "Pictured is DJ Miguel Migs, mixing using CDJ players.House music is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in Chicago in the early 1980s (also see: Chicago house).", "It quickly spread to other American cities such as Detroit, where it developed into the harder and more industrial techno, New York City (also see: garage house), and Newark – all of which developed their own regional scenes.In the mid-to-late 1980s, house music became popular in Europe as well as major cities in South America and Australia.", "Early house music commercial success in Europe saw songs such as \"Pump Up The Volume\" by MARRS (1987), \"House Nation\" by House Master Boyz and the Rude Boy of House (1987), \"Theme from S'Express\" by S'Express (1988) and \"Doctorin' the House\" by Coldcut (1988) in the pop charts.", "Since the early to mid-1990s, house music has been infused in mainstream pop and dance music worldwide.House music in the 2010s, while keeping several of these core elements, notably the prominent kick drum on every beat, varies widely in style and influence, ranging from the soulful and atmospheric deep house to the more aggressive acid house or the minimalist microhouse.", "House music has also fused with several other genres creating fusion subgenres, such as euro house, tech house, electro house, and jump house.Strobing lights flash at a rave dance event in Vienna, 2005In the late 1980s and early 1990s, rave culture began to emerge from the house and acid house scene.", "Like house, it incorporated disco culture's same love of dance music played by DJs over powerful sound systems, recreational drug and club drug exploration, sexual promiscuity, and hedonism.", "Although disco culture started out underground, it eventually thrived in the mainstream by the late 1970s, and major labels commodified and packaged the music for mass consumption.", "In contrast, the rave culture started out underground and stayed (mostly) underground.", "In part, this was to avoid the animosity that was still surrounding disco and dance music.", "The rave scene also stayed underground to avoid law enforcement attention that was directed at the rave culture due to its use of secret, unauthorized warehouses for some dance events and its association with illegal club drugs like ecstasy.===Post-punk ===The post-punk movement that originated in the late 1970s both supported punk rock's rule-breaking while rejecting its move back to raw rock music.", "Post-punk's mantra of constantly moving forward lent itself to both openness to and experimentation with elements of disco and other styles.", "Public Image Limited is considered the first post-punk group.", "The group's second album ''Metal Box'' fully embraced the \"studio as instrument\" methodology of disco.", "The group's founder John Lydon, the former lead singer for the Sex Pistols, told the press that disco was the only music he cared for at the time.No wave was a subgenre of post-punk centered in New York City.", "For shock value, James Chance, a notable member of the no wave scene, penned an article in the ''East Village Eye'' urging his readers to move uptown and get \"trancin' with some superradioactive disco voodoo funk\".", "His band James White and the Blacks wrote a disco album titled ''Off White''.", "Their performances resembled those of disco performers (horn section, dancers and so on).", "In 1981 ZE Records led the transition from no wave into the more subtle mutant disco (post-disco/punk) genre.", "Mutant disco acts such as Kid Creole and the Coconuts, Was Not Was, ESG and Liquid Liquid influenced several British post-punk acts such as New Order, Orange Juice and A Certain Ratio.===Nu-disco===Nu-disco is a 21st-century dance music genre associated with the renewed interest in 1970s and early 1980s disco, mid-1980s Italo disco, and the synthesizer-heavy Euro disco aesthetics.", "The moniker appeared in print as early as 2002, and by mid-2008 was used by record shops such as the online retailers Juno and Beatport.", "These vendors often associate it with re-edits of original-era disco music, as well as with music from European producers who make dance music inspired by original-era American disco, electro, and other genres popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "It is also used to describe the music on several American labels who were previously associated with the genres electroclash and French house." ], [ "Revivals and return to mainstream success", "===1990s resurgence===In the 1990s, after a decade of backlash, disco and its legacy became more accepted by pop music artists and listeners alike, as more songs, films, and compilations were released that referenced disco.", "This was part of a wave of 1970s nostalgia that was taking place in popular culture at the time.", "Some commentators attributed the revival of the genre to frequent use of disco music in fashion shows.Examples of songs during this time that were influenced by disco included Deee-Lite's \"Groove Is in the Heart\" (1990), U2's \"Lemon\" (1993), Blur's \"Girls & Boys\" (1994) and \"Entertain Me\" (1995), Pulp's \"Disco 2000\" (1995), and Jamiroquai's \"Canned Heat\" (1999), while films such as ''Boogie Nights'' (1997) and ''The Last Days of Disco'' (1998) featured primarily disco soundtracks.===2000s resurgence===Students from Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City dancing to disco during a cultural event on campusIn the early 2000s, an updated genre of disco called \"nu-disco\" began breaking into the mainstream.", "A few examples like Daft Punk's \"One More Time\" and Kylie Minogue's \"Love at First Sight\" and \"Can't Get You Out of My Head\" became club favorites and commercial successes.", "Several nu-disco songs were crossovers with funky house, such as Spiller's \"Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)\" and Modjo's \"Lady (Hear Me Tonight)\", both songs sampling older disco songs and both reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart in 2000.Robbie Williams's disco single \"Rock DJ\" was the UK's fourth best-selling single the same year.", "Jamiroquai's song \"Little L\" and \"Murder on the Dancefloor\" by Sophie Ellis-Bextor were hits in 2001.Rock band Manic Street Preachers released a disco song, \"Miss Europa Disco Dancer\", in the same year.", "The song's disco influence, which appears on ''Know Your Enemy'', was described as being \"much-discussed\".", "In 2005, Madonna immersed herself in the disco music of the 1970s and released her album ''Confessions on a Dance Floor'' to rave reviews.", "One of the singles from the album, \"Hung Up\", which samples ABBA's 1979 song \"Gimme!", "Gimme!", "Gimme!", "(A Man After Midnight)\", became a major club staple.", "In addition to Madonna's disco-influenced attire to award shows and interviews, her Confessions Tour incorporated various elements of the 1970s, such as disco balls, a mirrored stage design, and the roller derby.", "In 2006, Jessica Simpson released her album ''A Public Affair'' inspired by disco and the 1980s music.", "The first single of the album, ''\"''A Public Affair\", was reviewed as a disco-dancing competition influenced by Madonna's early works.", "The video of the song was filmed on a skating rink and features a line dance of hands.The success of the \"nu-disco\" revival of the early 2000s was described by music critic Tom Ewing as more interpersonal than the pop music of the 1990s: \"The revival of disco within pop put a spotlight on something that had gone missing over the 90s: a sense of music not just for dancing, but for dancing with someone.", "Disco was a music of mutual attraction: cruising, flirtation, negotiation.", "Its dancefloor is a space for immediate pleasure, but also for promises kept and otherwise.", "It's a place where things start, but their resolution, let alone their meaning, is never clear.", "All of 2000s great disco number ones explore how to play this hand.", "Madison Avenue look to impose their will upon it, to set terms and roles.", "Spiller is less rigid.", "'Groovejet' accepts the night's changeability, happily sells out certainty for an amused smile and a few great one-liners.", "\"===2010s resurgence===In 2011, K-pop girl group T-ara released Roly-Poly as a part of their EP John Travolta Wannabe.", "The song accumulated over 4,000,000 units in digital downloads, which became the highest number of downloads for a K-pop girl group single on the Gaon Digital Chart in the 2010s.", "In 2013, with several 1970s-style disco and funk being released, the pop charts had more dance songs than at any other point since the late 1970s.", "The biggest disco song of the year was \"Get Lucky\" by Daft Punk, featuring Nile Rodgers on guitar.", "Its parent album, ''Random Access Memories'', ended up winning Album of the Year at the 2014 Grammys.", "Other disco-styled songs that made it into the top 40 that year were Robin Thicke's \"Blurred Lines\" (number one), Justin Timberlake's \"Take Back the Night\" (number 29), Bruno Mars' \"Treasure\" (number five) Arcade Fire's ''Reflektor'' featured strong disco elements.", "In 2014, disco music could be found in Lady Gaga's ''Artpop'' and Katy Perry's \"Birthday\".", "Other disco songs from 2014 include \"I Want It All\" By Karmin, 'Wrong Club\" by the Ting Tings, \"Blow\" by Beyoncé and the William Orbit mix of \"Let Me in Your Heart Again\" by Queen.In 2014 Brazilian Globo TV, the second biggest television network in the world, aired Boogie Oogie, a telenovela about the Disco Era that takes place between 1978 and 1979, from the hit fever to the decadence.", "The show's success was responsible for a Disco revival across the country, bringing back to the stage and to Brazilian record charts local disco divas like Lady Zu and As Frenéticas.Top-10 entries from 2015 such as Mark Ronson's disco groove-infused \"Uptown Funk\", Maroon 5's \"Sugar\", the Weeknd's \"Can't Feel My Face\" and Jason Derulo's \"Want To Want Me\" also have a strong disco influence.", "Disco mogul and producer Giorgio Moroder also re-appeared in 2015 with his new album ''Déjà Vu'', which proved to be a modest success.", "Other songs from 2015 like \"I Don't Like It, I Love It\" by Flo Rida, \"Adventure of a Lifetime\" by Coldplay, \"Back Together\" by Robin Thicke and \"Levels\" by Nick Jonas feature disco elements as well.", "In 2016, disco songs or disco-styled pop songs continued showing a strong presence on the music charts as a possible backlash to the 1980s-styled synthpop, electro house, and dubstep that had been dominating the charts up until then.", "Justin Timberlake's 2016 song \"Can't Stop the Feeling!", "\", which shows strong elements of disco, became the 26th song to debut at number-one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in the history of the chart.", "''The Martian'', a 2015 film, extensively uses disco music as a soundtrack, although for the main character, astronaut Mark Watney, there's only one thing worse than being stranded on Mars: it's being stranded on Mars with nothing but disco music.", "\"Kill the Lights\", featured on an episode of the HBO television series \"Vinyl\" (2016) and with Nile Rodgers' guitar licks, hit number one on the US Dance chart in July 2016.===2020s resurgence===British singer Dua Lipa has been credited by music critics with leading the revival of disco following the widespread international success of her single \"Don't Start Now\" and her album ''Future Nostalgia''.In 2020, disco continued its mainstream popularity and became a prominent trend in popular music.", "In early 2020, disco-influenced hits such as Doja Cat's \"Say So\", Lady Gaga's \"Stupid Love\", and Dua Lipa's \"Don't Start Now\" experienced widespread success on global music charts, charting at numbers 1, 5 and 2, respectively, on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart.", "At the time, ''Billboard'', declared that Lipa was \"leading the charge toward disco-influenced production\" a day after her retro and disco-influenced album ''Future Nostalgia'' was released on March 27, 2020.By the end of 2020, multiple disco albums had been released, including Adam Lambert's ''Velvet'', Jessie Ware's ''What's Your Pleasure?", "'', and Róisín Murphy's discothèque mixtape, ''Róisín Machine''.", "In early September 2020, South Korean group BTS debuted at number 1 in the US with their English–language disco single \"Dynamite\" having sold 265,000 downloads in its first week in the US, marking the biggest pure sales week since Taylor Swift's \"Look What You Made Me Do\" (2017).In July 2020, Australian singer Kylie Minogue announced she would be releasing her fifteenth studio album, ''Disco'', on November 6, 2020.The album was preceded by two singles.", "The lead single, \"Say Something\", was released on July 23 and premiered on BBC Radio 2; the second single, \"Magic\", was released on September 24.Both singles received critical acclaim, with critics praising Minogue for returning to disco roots, which were prominent in her albums ''Light Years'' (2000), ''Fever'' (2001), and ''Aphrodite'' (2010)." ], [ "See also", "* Club Kids* List of number-one dance singles of 1978 (U.S.)* List of number-one dance singles of 1979 (U.S.)* Roller disco* Stealth disco" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * === Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Andrea Angeli Bufalini & Giovanni Savastano (2014).", "''La Disco.", "Storia illustrata della discomusic.''", "Arcana, Italy.", "* Aletti, Vince (2009).", "''The Disco Files 1973–78: New York's underground week by week''.", "DJhistory.com.", ".", "* Angelo, Marty (2006).", "''Once Life Matters: A New Beginning''.", "Impact Publishing.", ".", "* Beta, Andy (November 2008).", "\"Disco Inferno 2.0: A Slightly Less Hedonistic Comeback Charting the DJs, labels, and edits fueling an old new craze\" .", "''The Village Voice''.", "* Campion, Chris (2009).", "\"Walking on the Moon:The Untold Story of the Police and the Rise of New Wave Rock\".", "John Wiley & Sons.", "* Echols, Alice (2010).", "''Hot Stuff: Disco and the Remaking of American Culture''.", "W. W. Norton and Company, Inc.", ".", "* Flynn, Daniel J.", "(February 18, 2010).", "\"How the Knack Conquered Disco\".", "''The American Spectator''.", "* Gillian, Frank (May 2007).", "\"Discophobia: Antigay Prejudice and the 1979 Backlash against Disco\".", "''Journal of the History of Sexuality'', Volume 15, Number 2, pp.", "276–306.Electronic , print .", "* Hanson, Kitty (1978) ''Disco Fever: The Beat, People, Places, Styles, Deejays, Groups''.", "Signet Books.", ".", "* Jones, Alan and Kantonen, Jussi (1999).", "''Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco''.", "Chicago, Illinois: A Cappella Books.", ".", "* Lawrence, Tim (2004).", "''Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970–1979''.", "Duke University Press.", ".", "* Lester, Paul (February 23, 2007).", "\"Can you feel the force?\".", "''The Guardian''.", "* Michaels, Mark (1990).", "''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging''.", ".", "* Narvaez, Richie (2020), ''Holly Hernandez and the Death of Disco''.", "Pinata Books.", "* Reed, John (September 19, 2007). \"", "DVD Review: ''Saturday Night Fever (30th Anniversary Special Collector's Edition)''.", "Blogcritics.", "* Rodgers, Nile (2011).", "''Le Freak: An Upside Down Story of Family, Disco, and Destiny''.", "Spiegel & Grau.", ".", "* Sclafani, Tony (July 10, 2009).", "\"When 'Disco Sucks!'", "echoed around the world\" .", "MSNBC." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Darwin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Darwin''' most often refers to:* Charles Darwin (1809–1882), English naturalist and writer, best known as the originator of the theory of biological evolution by natural selection* Charles Galton Darwin (1887–1962), English physicist, grandson of Charles Darwin* Darwin, Northern Territory, a capital city in Australia, named after the naturalist* Darwin (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name) '''Darwin''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''Darwin'' (1920 film), a German silent film* ''Darwin'' (2011 film), a documentary* ''Darwin'' (2015 film), a science fiction film by Alain Desrochers* Darwin (''seaQuest DSV''), a dolphin in the TV series ''seaQuest DSV''* ''Darwin!", "'', a 1972 album by Banco del Mutuo Soccorso* ''Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist'', a 1991 biography of Charles Darwin* Darwin (Marvel Comics), a fictional character in the Marvel Comics Universe associated with the X-Men* Darwin Watterson, a character from the 2011 TV series ''The Amazing World of Gumball''" ], [ "Astronomy", "* 1991 Darwin, a main-belt asteroid* Darwin (lunar crater)* Darwin (Martian crater)* Darwin (spacecraft), a European Space Agency project" ], [ "Computing", "* Darwin (ADL), an architecture description language* Darwin (operating system), the Unix base for Apple's iOS and macOS operating systems* Darwin (programming game)* Darwin (programming language)* Darwin Information Typing Architecture* Darwin Streaming Server" ], [ "Places", "===Antarctica===* Darwin Glacier (Antarctica), Oates Land* Darwin Mountains, Oates Land===Australia=======Northern Territory====* Darwin, Northern Territory* Darwin River, Northern Territory* City of Darwin* Division of Darwin, a 1903–1955 election division====Tasmania====* Darwin, Tasmania, a short-lived community* Darwin Crater, a suspected meteorite impact crater===Chile===* Darwin Channel* Darwin Sound* Cordillera Darwin, Tierra del Fuego, a mountain range===United States===* Darwin, California, an unincorporated community* Darwin Falls, a waterfall in California* Darwin Township, Clark County, Illinois** Darwin, Illinois, an unincorporated community in the township* Darwin, Minnesota, a city in Meeker County* Darwin, Ohio, an unincorporated community* Darwin, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community* Darwin, Texas, a ghost town* Darwin, Virginia, an unincorporated community* Darwin Township, Meeker County, Minnesota===Other===* Darwin (ward), an electoral ward in Greater London* Darwin, Río Negro, Argentina, a municipality* Darwin, Falkland Islands, a settlement* Darwin Island, Galapagos Islands* Mount Darwin (disambiguation)" ], [ "Schools in England", "* Darwin College, Cambridge* Darwin College, Kent" ], [ "Sport", "* Darwin Baseball League, a North Australian league* Darwin Rugby League, a North Australian league" ], [ "Transport", "* Darwin Airline, an airline in Switzerland* Darwin International Airport, an airport in Australia" ], [ "Other uses", "* Darwin (given name), a given name (including a list of people with the name)* Darwin (monkey), a rhesus macaque colloquially referred to as the \"Ikea Monkey\"* Darwin (unit), a unit of evolutionary change* Darwin Awards, tongue-in-cheek awards for people who remove themselves from reproducing through their stupidity* Darwin Medal, awarded by the Royal Society for biology* Darwin Shopping Centre, Shrewsbury* The Darwin Centre, Natural History Museum, London" ], [ "See also", "* * Port Darwin (disambiguation)* XDarwin* Darvin (disambiguation)* Darwen (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Donegal fiddle tradition" ], [ "Introduction", "Donegal fiddler, Tommy Peoples.The '''Donegal fiddle tradition''' is the way of playing the fiddle that is traditional in County Donegal, Ireland.", "It is one of the distinct fiddle traditions within Irish traditional music.The distinctness of the Donegal tradition developed due to the close relations between Donegal and Scotland, and the Donegal repertoire and style has influences from Scottish fiddle music.", "For example, in addition to the ”universally known” standard Irish dance tunes, there is an added volume of Scottish and Nova Scotia tunes played, with even some tunes from Shetland and Orkney.", "This includes standard tune types such as double jigs (), slip jigs (), reels (), and hornpipes (swung ).", "It has been claimed that Donegal musicians play more slip jigs than any other region of Ireland.", "This is potentially due to the geographical borders/mountains (as well as national borders with Northern Ireland) keeping Donegal's repertoire more locally-known for decades.", "There is also a prevalence of mazurka playing.", "Mazurkas are historically mainland-European tunes very similar to a waltz, in its meter, though generally livelier and with more emphasis being placed on the second beat of each measure.", "Another uniquely Donegal tune is called the barndance, stemming from the Germanic schottische (essentially meaning ‘Scottish’), also similar to the Norwegian reinlander.", "The barndance is very similar to a hornpipe, but slower than a reel; typically they are played with less of a hornpipe's “swing” and more of the “drive” of a reel.In stark contrast to other Irish musical styles, the Donegal tradition also has the Scottish strathspey, a traditional dance from Scotland, played a bit like a hornpipe but with emphasis on the semi-quaver; this dotted rhythm gives the strathspey its distinct “Scotch Snap” sound.", "While strathspeys are definitely known in Donegal (albeit played slightly slower and with less ”snap” than Scottish fiddlers), more common is the highland.", "Very rarely referred to as a “highland fling”, these quintessentially Donegal tunes are influenced by the Scottish strathspey, but played a bit smoother, as a sort of “strathspey-reel”.", "Some Scotch Snaps will be played, but highlands tend to be more akin to a slower reel, overall.", "Reels, themselves, are said to have originated in Scottish music.", "The distinctiveness of the Donegal tradition led to some conflict, between Donegal players and representatives of the mainstream tradition, when Irish traditional music was organised in the 1960s.The tradition has several distinguishing traits compared to other fiddle traditions such as the Sliabh Luachra style of southern Ireland, most of which involves styles of bowing and the ornamentation of the music, and rhythm.", "Due to the frequency of double stops and the strong bowing it is often compared to the Cape Breton tradition.", "Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed.", "Modern players, such as the fiddle group Altan, continue to be popular due to a variety of reasons.Among the most famous Donegal style players are John Doherty from the early twentieth century and James Byrne, Paddy Glackin, Tommy Peoples and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh in recent decades." ], [ "History", "The fiddle has ancient roots in Ireland, the first report of bowed instruments similar to the violin being in the Book of Leinster (ca.", "1160).", "The modern violin was ubiquitous in Ireland by the early 1700s.", "However the first mention of the fiddle being in use in Donegal is from the blind harper Arthur O'Neill who in his 1760 memoirs described a wedding in Ardara as having \"plenty of pipers and fiddlers\".", "Donegal fiddlers participated in the development of the Irish music tradition in the 18th century during which jigs and slipjigs and later reels and hornpipes became the dominant musical forms.", "However, Donegal musicians, many of them being fishermen, also frequently travelled to Scotland, where they acquired tune types from the Scottish repertoire such as the Strathspey which was integrated into the Donegal tradition as \"Highland\" tunes.", "The Donegal tradition derives much of its unique character from the synthesis of Irish and Scottish stylistic features and repertoires.", "Aoidh notes however that while different types of art music were commonly played among the upper classes of Scottish society in the 18th century, the Donegal tradition drew exclusively from the popular types of Scottish music.", "Like some Scottish fiddlers (who, like Donegal fiddlers, tend to use a short bow and play in a straight-ahead fashion), some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the bagpipes.", "Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch.", "Lilting, unaccompanied singing of wordless tunes, was also an important part of the Donegal musical tradition often performed by women in social settings.", "Describing the musical life of Arranmore Island in the late 19th century singer Róise Rua Nic Gríanna describes the most popular dances: \"The Sets, the Lancers, the Maggie Pickie i.e., Maggie Pickins the Donkey, the Mazurka and the Barn dances\".", "Among the travelling fiddlers of the late 19th century players such as John Mhosaí McGinley, Anthony Hilferty, the McConnells and the Dohertys are best known.", "As skill levels increased through apprenticeships several fiddle masters appeared such as the Cassidy's, Connie Haughey, Jimmy Lyons and Miock McShane of Teelin and Francie Dearg and Mickey Bán Byrne of Kilcar.", "These virtuosos played unaccompanied listening pieces in addition to the more common dance music.The influences between Scotland and Donegal went both ways and were furthered by a wave of immigration from Donegal to Scotland in the 19th century (the regions share common names of dances), as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys, schottisches, marches, and Donegal's own strong piping tradition, has influenced and been influenced by music, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Píob Mhór, the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland.", "There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland.", "Instruments such as the tin whistle, flute, concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times.", "Traditionally the píob mór and the fiddle were the only instruments used and the use of pipe or fiddle music was common in old wedding customs.", "Migrant workers carried their music to Scotland and also brought back a number of tunes of Scottish origin.", "The Donegal fiddlers may well have been the route by which Scottish tunes such as Lucy Campbell, Tarbolton Lodge (Tarbolton) and The Flagon (The Flogging Reel), that entered the Irish repertoire.", "These players prided themselves on their technical abilities, which included playing in higher positions (fairly uncommon among traditional Irish fiddlers), and sought out material which would demonstrate their skills.As Irish music was consolidated and organised under the Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann movement in the 1960s, both strengthened the interest in traditional music but sometimes conflicted with the Donegal tradition and its social conventions.", "The rigidly organised sessions of the Comhaltas reflected the traditions of Southern Ireland and Donegal fiddlers like John Doherty considered the National repertoire with its strong focus on reels to be less diverse than that of Donegal with its varied rhythms.", "Other old fiddlers dislike the ways comhaltas sessions were organised with a committee player, often not himself a musician, in charge.", "Sometimes Comhaltas representatives would even disparage the Donegal tradition, with its Scottish flavour, as being un-Irish, and prohibit them from playing local tunes with Scottish genealogies such as the \"Highlands\" at Comhaltas sessions.", "This sometimes cause antagonism between Donegal players and the main organisation of traditional music in Ireland.Outside of the Comhaltas movement however, Donegal fiddling stood strong with Paddy Glackin of Ceoltorí Laighean and the Bothy Band and later Tommy Peoples also with the Bothy Band and Mairead Ni Mhaonaigh with Altan, who all drew attention and prestige to the Donegal tradition within folk music circles throughout Ireland." ], [ "Description of style", "An example of the described musical styles.The Donegal style of fiddling is a label often applied to music from this area, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county.", "To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterised by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more un-swung in the playing of the fast dance tune types (reel and jigs); short (non-slurred), aggressive bowing, sparse ornamentation, the use of bowed triplets more often than trills as ornaments, the use of double stops and droning; and the occurrence of \"playing the octave\", with one player playing the melody and the other playing the melody an octave lower.", "None of these characteristics are universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all.", "In general, however, the style is rather aggressive.Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played.", "Highlands, a type of tune in time with some similarities to Scottish strathspeys, which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county.", "Other tune types common solely in the county include barndances, also called \"Germans,\" and mazurkas." ], [ "Fiddlers of the Donegal tradition", "James Byrne – Glencolumbkille 2 August 2007 Photo: Rik Walton===Historical===Map showing the geography and some of the different regions of Donegal.There are a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.", "Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.", "Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.", "Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.", "John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.", "John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles.", "These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including Inishowen, eastern Donegal, The Rosses and Gweedore, Croaghs, Teelin, Kilcar, Glencolmcille, Ballyshannon and Bundoran.", "Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing.", "Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh (\"Neilly\") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, Frank Cassidy, James Byrne (1946–2008), P.V.", "O'Donnell (2011), and Tommy Peoples (1948–2018).", "Currently living Donegal fiddlers, include, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, and Danny O'Donnell.===Modern===Fiddle playing continues to be popular in Donegal.", "The three fiddlers of the Donegal \"supergroup\" Altan, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are generally admired within Donegal.", "An example of another fiddler-player from Donegal is Liz Doherty.Another well regarded fiddle player hailing from Donegal is Aidan O'Donnell.", "TG4 Young Musician of the Year 2010 Aidan O'Donnell has been described as one of the finest young Irish musicians at present.", "He began his music making at the age of 12, and since then has performed with some of traditional music's finest artists, including Donal Lunny, Micheal Ó'Suilleabháin and the Chieftains.", "In 2007, he won the prestigious ‘Oireachtas na Geailge' fiddle title, and has been a regular tutor at the Irish World Academy of Music and Dance, at the University of Limerick for the past number of years.The fiddle, and traditional music in general, remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists but because of local pride in the music.", "Traditional music ''Seisiúns'' are still common place both in pubs and in houses.", "The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music, but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition.", "Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums." ], [ "See also", "* Irish fiddle* Scottish fiddling* Irish music* Celtic music" ], [ "Notes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Double-barreled shotgun" ], [ "Introduction", "Anson & Deeley boxlock action open and the extractor visible.", "The lever and the safety catch can also be clearly seen.A view of the break-action of a typical over-and-under (O/U) double-barreled shotgun, with action open and the ejectors visible.410 shells being loaded into a side-by-side, double-barrel shotgunA '''double-barreled shotgun''', also known as a '''double shotgun''', is a break-action shotgun with two parallel barrels, allowing two single shots that can be fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession." ], [ "Construction", "Modern double-barreled shotguns, often known as ''doubles'', are almost universally break action, with the barrels hinge down at the rear to expose the breech ends for unloading and reloading.", "Since there is no reciprocating action needed to eject and reload the shells, doubles are more compact than repeating designs such as pump action, lever action, bolt action, or self-loading shotguns.===Barrel configuration===Double-barreled shotguns (specifically break-action), come in two basic configurations:* '''side-by-side''' (S×S) — the two barrels are arranged horizontally;* '''over-and-under''' (O/U) — the two barrels are arranged vertically.The original double-barreled guns were nearly all side-by-side designs, which was a more practical design for muzzleloaders.", "Early cartridge-firing shotguns also used the side-by-side action, because they kept the exposed hammers of the earlier muzzleloading shotguns from which they evolved.", "When hammerless designs started to become common, the over-and-under design was introduced, and most modern sporting doubles are over-and-under designs.One significant advantage that doubles have over single-barrel repeating shotguns is the ability to have more than one choke at a time.", "Some shotgun shooting sports, such as skeet shooting, use crossing targets presented in a narrow range of distance, and only require one level of choke.", "Other sports, like sporting clays, give the shooter targets at differing ranges, and targets that might approach or recede from the shooter, and so must be engaged at differing ranges.", "Having two barrels lets the shooter use a more open choke for near targets, and a tighter choke for distant targets, providing the optimal shot pattern for each distance.The disadvantage lies in the fact that the barrels of a double-barreled shotgun, whether over-and-under or side-by-side, are not parallel, but slightly angled, so that shots from the barrels converge, usually at \"40 yards out\".", "For the side-by-side configuration, the shotstring continues on its path to the opposite side of the rib after the converging point; for example, the left barrel's discharge travels on the left of the rib till it hits dead center at 40 yards (36.58 m) out, after that, the discharge continues on to the right.", "In the over-and-under configuration with a parallel rib, both barrels' discharges will keep to the dead center, but the discharge from the \"under\" barrel will shoot higher than the discharge from the \"over\" barrel after 40 yards (36.58 m).", "Thus, double-barreled shotguns are accurate only at practical shotgun ranges, though the range of their ammunition easily exceeds four to six times that distance.Side-by-side shotguns are often more expensive, and may take more practice to aim effectively than an over-and-under.", "The off-center nature of the recoil in a side-by-side gun may make shooting the body-side barrel slightly more painful by comparison to an over-and-under, single-shot, or pump-action, lever-action shotgun.", "Gas-operated and Recoil-operated, designs will recoil less than either.", "More side-by-side than over-and-under guns have traditional \"cast-off\" stocks, where the end of the buttstock veers slightly to the right, allowing a right-handed user to point the gun more easily.Double-barreled shotguns are also inherently more safe, as whether the shotgun is loaded or can be fired can be ascertained by anyone present if the action is broken open, for instance on a skeet, trap or hunting clays course when another shooter is firing; if the action is open, the gun cannot fire.", "Similarly, doubles are more easily examined to see if loaded than pump-action or semi-automatic shotguns, whose bolt must be opened and chamber closely examined or felt to make sure it is unloaded; with a double gun (or a break-action single gun), whether the gun is loaded, i.e., has cartridges in any chamber, is easily and immediately seen with a glance (and just as easily unloaded).===Trigger mechanism===The early doubles used two triggers, one for each barrel, located front to back inside the trigger guard.", "The index finger was used to pull either trigger, as having two fingers inside the trigger guard can cause a very undesirable recoil-induced double-discharge.", "Double-trigger designs are typically set up for right-handed users.", "In double-trigger designs, it is often possible to pull both triggers at once, firing both barrels simultaneously, though this is generally not recommended as it doubles the recoil, battering both shotgun and shooter, particularly if it was unanticipated or unintended.", "Discharging both barrels at the same time has long been a hunting trick employed by hunters using 8 gauge \"elephant\" shotguns, firing the two slugs for sheer stopping power at close range.Later models use a single trigger that alternately fires both barrels, called a ''single selective trigger'' or ''SST''.", "The single selective trigger does not allow firing both barrels at once, since the single trigger must be pulled twice in order to fire both barrels.", "The change from one barrel to the other may be done by a clockwork type system, where a cam alternates between barrels, or by an inertial system where the recoil of firing the first barrel toggles the trigger to the next barrel.", "A double-barreled shotgun with an inertial trigger works best with full power shotshells; shooting low recoil shotshells often will not reliably toggle the inertial trigger, causing an apparent failure to fire occasionally when attempting to depress the trigger a second time to fire the second barrel (this also can happen if the first shell fails to fire).", "Generally there is a method of selecting the order in which the barrels of a single selective trigger shotgun fire; commonly this is done through manipulation of the safety, pushing to one side to select top barrel first and the other side to select bottom barrel first.", "In the event that an inertial trigger does not toggle to the second barrel when firing low recoil shotshells, manually selecting the order to the second barrel will enable the second barrel to fire when the trigger is depressed again.One of the advantages of double-barreled shotgun with double triggers or single selective trigger, is that the second shot can be taken almost immediately after the first with merely a second trigger pull, without needing to manually operate the action (which will inevitably destabilize the gun from the shoulder position and affect aim), and can utilize different chokes for the two shots (assuming, of course, that full power shotshells are fired, at least for a double-barreled shotgun with an inertial type single selective trigger, as needed to toggle the inertial trigger).", "This can be noticeably faster than a pump-action shotgun, which requires manually pumping the fore-end to eject and reload for the second shot, and may be faster, or not slower, than a semi-automatic shotgun (as there are no bolt movements to delay the rechambering of a second shell).", "Note, however, in neither the pump-action or semi-automatic will the second shot be a different choke pattern from the first shot, whereas for a double, the two shots are usually with different chokes.", "Thus, depending on the nature of the hunt, the appropriate choke for the shot is always at hand.", "For example, while field hunting flushing birds, the first shot is usually closer than the second because the bird flies away from the shooter; so, the more open choke (and barrel) would be better for the first shot, and if a second shot is needed, as the bird is flying away, the more closed (and thus longer distance of an effective shot pattern) choke (and barrel) is then appropriate.", "Conversely, on a driven hunt, where the birds are driven towards the shooter, the closed (longer effective distance) choke (and barrel) should be fired first, saving the open (closer effective distance) choke (and barrel) for the now-closer incoming bird.", "None of this is possible with single-barrel shotguns, only with a double, either a side-by-side (S×S) or over-and-under (O/U).===Regulation===''Regulation'' is a term used for multi-barreled firearms (most commonly found in rifles and shotguns) that indicates how close to the same point of aim the barrels will shoot.", "A poorly regulated gun may hit consistently with one barrel, but miss consistently with the other, making the gun nearly useless for anything requiring two shots.", "However, the short ranges and spread of shot provide a significant overlap, so a small error in regulation in a double is often too small to be noticed.", "Generally the shotguns are regulated to hit the point of aim at a given distance, usually the maximum expected range since that is the range at which a full choke is used, and where precise regulation matters most.", "The regulation is usually more important in side-by-side, rather than in over-and-under shotguns, as felt recoil differs." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dessert" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dessert''' is a course that concludes a meal.", "The course consists of sweet foods, such as cake, and possibly a beverage such as dessert wine and liqueur.", "Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts.", "In some parts of the world there is no tradition of a dessert course to conclude a meal.The term ''dessert'' can apply to many sweets, such as biscuits, cakes, cookies, custards, gelatins, ice creams, pastries, pies, puddings, macaroons, sweet soups, tarts, and fruit salad (fruit is commonly found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness)." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"dessert\" originated from the French word ''desservir,'' meaning \"to clear the table\".", "Its first known use in English was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled ''Naturall and artificial Directions for Health'', written by William Vaughan.", "In his book ''Sweet Invention: A History of Dessert'' (2011), Michael Krondl explains that it refers to the fact that dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes.The term dates from the 14th century but attained its current meaning around the beginning of the 20th century, when \"service à la française\" (setting a variety of dishes on the table at the same time) was replaced with \"service à la russe\" (presenting a meal in multiple courses)." ], [ "Other names", "The word \"dessert\" is most commonly used for this course in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United States, while it is one of several synonyms, including \"''pudding''\", \"''sweet''\" and \"''afters''\", in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries." ], [ "History", "ancient India to the worldIndian confectionery desserts from hundreds of varieties.", "In certain parts of India, these are called ''mithai'' or sweets.", "Sugar and desserts have a long history in India: by about 500 BC, people in India had developed the technology to produce sugar crystals.", "In the local language, these crystals were called ''khanda'' (खण्ड), which is the source of the word ''candy''.Sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and ancient India and other ancient civilizations.", "Herodotus mentions that Persian meals featured many desserts, and were more varied in their sweet offerings than the main dishes.", "German army officer Helmuth von Moltke whilst serving in the Ottoman Empire noted the unusual presentation of courses with the sweet courses served between roasts and other savory dishes.Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, but the spread of sugarcane around the world was essential to the development of dessert.", "Sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BC and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by AD 500.Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making sugar available to Macedonia by 303 BC and China by AD 600.In the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking and desserts for over a thousand years.Sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later when the Crusades and then colonization spread its use.", "Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available.", "Even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions.", "The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381; The earliest documentation of the term ''cupcake'' was in \"Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats\" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's ''Receipts'' cookbook.The Industrial Revolution in Europe and later America led to the mass-production of foodstuffs, including desserts, that could be processed, preserved, canned, and packaged.", "Frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s." ], [ "Ingredients", "Sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, brown sugar, honey, or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup.", "Other common ingredients in Western-style desserts are flour or other starches, cooking fats such as butter or lard, dairy, eggs, salt, acidic ingredients such as lemon juice, and spices and other flavoring agents such as chocolate, coffee, peanut butter, fruits, and nuts.", "The proportions of these ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture, and flavor of the end product.Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods.", "Flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure.", "Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of flaky layers in pastries and pie crusts.", "The dairy products in baked goods keep the desserts moist.", "Many desserts also contain eggs, in order to form custard or to aid in the rising and thickening of a cake-like substance.", "Egg yolks specifically contribute to the richness of desserts.", "Egg whites can act as a leavening agent or provide structure.", "Further innovation in the healthy eating movement has led to more information being available about vegan and gluten-free substitutes for the standard ingredients, as well as replacements for refined sugar.Desserts can contain many spices and extracts to add a variety of flavors.", "Salt and acids are added to desserts to balance sweet flavors and create a contrast in flavors.", "Some desserts are coffee-flavored, for example an iced coffee soufflé or coffee biscuits.", "Alcohols and liqueurs can also be used as an ingredient, to make alcoholic desserts." ], [ "Varieties and elements", "Dessert consist of variations of tastes, textures, and appearances.", "Desserts can be defined as a usually sweeter course that concludes a meal.", "This definition includes a range of courses ranging from fruits or dried nuts to multi-ingredient cakes and pies.", "Many cultures have different variations of dessert.", "In modern times the variations of desserts have usually been passed down or come from geographical regions.", "This is one cause for the variation of desserts.", "These are some major categories in which desserts can be placed.===Cakes===German chocolate cake, a layered cake filled and topped with a coconut-pecan frostingCakes are sweet tender breads made with sugar and delicate flour.", "Cakes can vary from light, airy sponge cakes to dense cakes with less flour.", "Common flavorings include dried, candied or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa or extracts.", "They may be filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit.", "Cake is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, for example weddings, anniversaries, and birthdays.", "Small-sized cakes have become popular, in the form of cupcakes and petits fours, an example of which can be the Portuguese \"bolo de arroz\".===Puddings===Puddings are similar to custards in that their base is cream or milk.", "However, their primary difference is that puddings are thickened with starches such as corn starch or tapioca.", "On the other hand, custards are thickened using only eggs and are usually more firm.===Small cakes and pastries===A batched dough between a cake and pastry by the mix of ingredients.", "An Old French ''bescuit'', commonly spelt in English as biscuit, is a derivation of Latin for ''twice-baked''.", "A Dutch ''koekje'', commonly spelt in English as cookie, is a derivation of ''cake-ie '', meaning little cake.This form of dough can have a texture that is crisp, hard, chewy, or soft – in the UK a biscuit is the former two and a cookie is typically the latter.", "Examples include a ginger nut, shortbread biscuit and chocolate chip cookie.Other small cakes and pastries can also be counted as under these terms, due to their size and relative similarity to cookies and biscuits, such as jaffa cakes and Eccles cakes.===Confection===Valentine's Day chocolatesConfection, also called candy, sweets or lollies, features sugar or honey as a principal ingredient.Many involve sugar heated into crystals with subtle differences.", "Dairy and sugar based include caramel, fudge and toffee or taffy.", "They are multiple forms of egg and sugar meringues.", "and similar confections.", "Unheated sugar co-adulate into icings, preservatives and sauces with other ingredients.====Chocolate====''Theobroma cacao beans'' can be a substitute or more commonly mixed with sugar to form chocolate.", "Pure, unsweetened dark chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids.", "Cocoa butter is also added in varying proportions.", "Much of the chocolate currently consumed is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar.", "Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk.", "White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no cocoa solids.", "Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture, with no milk or much less than milk chocolate.=== Mithai (sweets) ===Mithai, derived from the Sanskrit word '''sharkara','' represents the range of Indian desserts.===Custards===These kinds of desserts usually include a thickened dairy base.", "Custards are cooked and thickened with eggs.", "Baked custards include crème brûlée and flan.", "They are often used as ingredients in other desserts, for instance as a filling for pastries or pies.===Deep-fried===Gulab jamun topped with almond slivers is one of the most popular sweets from the Indian subcontinent.Many cuisines include a dessert made of deep-fried starch-based batter or dough.", "In many countries, a doughnut is a flour-based batter that has been deep-fried.", "It is sometimes filled with custard or jelly.", "Fritters are fruit pieces in a thick batter that have been deep fried.", "Gulab jamun is an Indian dessert made of milk solids kneaded into a dough, deep-fried, and soaked in honey.", "Churros are a deep-fried and sugared dough that is eaten as dessert or a snack in many countries.===Frozen===matka pot from IndiaIce cream, gelato, sorbet and shaved-ice desserts fit into this category.", "Ice cream is a cream base that is churned as it is frozen to create a creamy consistency.", "Gelato uses a milk base and has less air whipped in than ice cream, making it denser.", "Sorbet is made from churned fruit and is not dairy based.", "Shaved-ice desserts are made by shaving a block of ice and adding flavored syrup or juice to the ice shavings.===Gelatin===Jellied desserts are made with a sweetened liquid thickened with gelatin or another gelling agent.", "They are traditional in many cultures.", "Grass jelly and annin tofu are Chinese jellied desserts.", "Yōkan is a Japanese jellied dessert.", "In English-speaking countries, many dessert recipes are based on gelatin with fruit or whipped cream added.", "The vegetarian substitute for gelatin is agar agar.", "Marshmallow is also most commonly made with gelatin.=== Pastries ===Croissants au beurre Pastries are sweet baked pastry products.", "Pastries can either take the form of light and flaky bread with an airy texture, such as a croissant or unleavened dough with a high fat content and crispy texture, such as shortbread.", "Pastries are often flavored or filled with fruits, chocolate, nuts, and spices.", "Pastries are sometimes eaten with tea or coffee as a breakfast food.====Pies, cobblers, and clafoutis====Pies and cobblers consist of a filling enclosed by a crust, which can be made from either pastry or crumbs.", "The fillings of pies can vary from fruits to puddings, whereas cobbler fillings are mostly fruit-based.", "On the other hand, clafoutis is a dessert in which batter is poured over a fruit-based filling before being baked.=== Sweet soups ===Egg tong suiTong sui, literally translated as \"sugar water\" and also known as tim tong, is a collective term for any sweet, warm soup or custard served as a dessert at the end of a meal in Cantonese cuisine.", "''Tong sui'' are a Cantonese specialty and are rarely found in other regional cuisines of China.", "Outside of Cantonese-speaking communities, soupy desserts generally are not recognized as a distinct category, and the term ''tong sui'' is not used.===Wines===Dessert wines are sweet wines typically served with dessert.", "There is no simple definition of a dessert wine.", "In the UK, a dessert wine is considered to be any sweet wine drunk with a meal, as opposed to the white fortified wines (fino and amontillado sherry) drunk before the meal, and the red fortified wines (port and madeira) drunk after it.", "Thus, most fortified wines are regarded as distinct from dessert wines, but some of the less strong fortified white wines, such as Pedro Ximénez sherry and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, are regarded as honorary dessert wines.", "In the United States, by contrast, a dessert wine is legally defined as any wine over 14% alcohol by volume, which includes all fortified wines - and is taxed at higher rates as a result.", "Examples include Sauternes and Tokaji Aszú." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Apple pie.jpg\|Apple pieFile:Baked Alaska (5097717743).jpg\|Baked Alaska, ice cream and cake topped with browned meringueFile:Baklava - Turkish special, 80-ply.JPEG\|Baklava, a pastry comprising layers of filo with chopped nuts, sweetened and held together with syrup or honeyFile:Homemade Flan.jpg\|Baked custardFile:Brennan's Bananas Foster.jpg\|Bananas Foster, made from bananas and vanilla ice cream with a sauce made from butter, brown sugar, cinnamon, dark rum and banana liqueurFile:Plain cheesecake.jpg\|Cheesecake, a type of dessert with a layer of a mixture of soft, fresh cheese, eggs and sugarFile:Cannoli siciliani (7472226896).jpg\|Cannoli with pistachio dust, candied and chocolate dropsFile:Chocolate mousse.jpg\|Chocolate mousse, a chocolate variety of a dessert incorporating air bubbles to give it a light and airy textureFile:Coconutbar.jpg\|Coconut bar, made with coconut milk and set with either tang flour and corn starch, or agar agar and gelatinFile:Creme brulee.jpg\|Preparation of crème brûlée, a rich custard base topped with a contrasting layer of hard caramelFile:Egg custard tart by Stu Spivack.jpg\|Egg custard tarts, a pastry originating from Guangzhou, ChinaFile:Hwangnam bread (cropped).JPG\|Gyeongju bread, a small pastry with a filling of red bean pasteFile:씨앗호떡.jpg\|Hotteok (a variety of filled Korean pancake) with edible seeds, sugar, and cinnamonFile:Kkultarae, Korean court cake.jpg\|Kkultarae, fine strands of honey and maltose, often with a sweet nut fillingFile:Jell-o cream cheese square.jpg\|Jell-o cream cheese squareFile:Lemon tart (cropped).jpg\|Lemon tart, a pastry shell with a lemon-flavored fillingFile:Mämmi, memma.jpg\|Mämmi, a Finnish Easter dessertFile:Pastry assortment.jpg\|An assortment of pastriesFile:Rum cake.jpg\|Rum cake, a type of cake containing rumFile:King of Spotted Dicks.jpg\|Spotted dickFile:Tiramisu with blueberries and raspberries, July 2011.jpg\|TiramisuFile:Banana pudding, homemade.jpg\|Homemade banana puddingFile:Homemade Flan.jpg\|Flan, a type of custardFile:Bibingka with its usual toppings.jpg\|Bibingka, a rice cake with toppingsFile:Dinner Honoring Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.jpg\|Chocolate carriage with raspberries on waffle cookie" ], [ "By continent", "Grass jelly is a jelly-like dessert eaten in several Asian countries.=== Africa ===Throughout much of central and western Africa, there is no tradition of a dessert course following a meal.", "Fruit or fruit salad would be eaten instead, which may be spiced, or sweetened with a sauce.", "In some former colonies in the region, the colonial power has influenced desserts – for example, the Angolan ''cocada amarela'' (yellow coconut) resembles baked desserts in Portugal.=== Asia ===Cendol Akaka in Johor Bahru Shopping CentreBubble tea is famous for its varieties of flavors with bubbles and jellies.In Asia, desserts are often eaten between meals as snacks rather than as a concluding course.", "There is widespread use of rice flour in East Asian desserts, which often include local ingredients such as coconut milk, palm sugar, and tropical fruit.", "In India, where sugarcane has been grown and refined since before 500 BC, desserts have been an important part of the diet for thousands of years; types of desserts include burfis, halvahs, jalebis, and laddus.Bubble tea, which originated in Taiwan, is a kind of dessert made with flavored tea or milk and tapioca.", "It is well known across the world.=== Europe ===Some Turkish cuisine desserts like baklava, şöbiyet, sütlü nuriye, kalburabastı, burma kadayıf, kadayıf dolma, and badem tatlısıIn Ukraine and Russia, breakfast foods such as nalysnyky or blintz or oladi (pancake), and syrniki are served with honey and jam as desserts.In the Netherlands vla is a popular dessert.", "It is a custard-like dessert that is served cold.", "Popular flavours are: vanilla, chocolate, caramel, and several fruit flavours.", "There is also hopjesvla which is flavoured like a Hopje, a Dutch coffee and caramel sweet.The traditional dessert for informal meals in France consists of cheese or fresh fruit with coffee.", "However, the French tradition of pastry is highly developed, and desserts in haute cuisine may be very elaborate, with generous use of cream and butter.Because of their long Christian history, all countries of Europe have developed traditional desserts and sweet snacks for the Christmas season.=== North America ===European colonization of the Americas yielded the introduction of a number of ingredients and cooking styles.", "The various styles continued expanding well into the 19th and 20th centuries, proportional to the influx of immigrants.=== South America ===Cocadas are a traditional coconut candy or confectionery found in many parts of Latin America, made with eggs and shredded coconut.Dulce de leche is a very common confection in Argentina.", "In Bolivia, sugarcane, honey and coconut are traditionally used in desserts.", "''Tawa tawa'' is a Bolivian sweet fritter prepared using sugar cane, and ''helado de canela'' is a dessert that is similar to sherbet which is prepared with cane sugar and cinnamon.", "Coconut tarts, puddings cookies and candies are also consumed in Bolivia.", "Brazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and Romeu e Julieta (cheese with a guava jam known as goiabada).", "Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque.", "Local common fruits are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice pops and ice cream.", "In Chile, ''kuchen'' has been described as a \"trademark dessert\".", "Several desserts in Chile are prepared with ''manjar'', (caramelized milk), including ''alfajor'', ''flan'', ''cuchufli'' and ''arroz con leche''.", "Desserts consumed in Colombia include dulce de leche, waffle cookies, puddings, nougat, coconut with syrup and thickened milk with sugarcane syrup.", "Desserts in Ecuador tend to be simple, and desserts are a moderate part of the cuisine.", "Desserts consumed in Ecuador include tres leches cake, flan, candies and various sweets.=== Oceania ===In Australia, meals are often finished with dessert.", "This includes various fruits.", "More complex desserts include cakes, pies and cookies, which are sometimes served during special occasions.New Zealand and Australia have a long-standing debate over which country invented the Pavlova.", "The pavlova is named after Anna Pavlova, who visited both countries in the 1920s." ], [ "Market", "The market for desserts has grown over the last few decades, being greatly increased by the commercialisation of baking desserts and the rise of food productions.", "Desserts are served in most restaurants as their popularity has increased.", "Many commercial stores have been established as solely dessert stores.", "Ice cream parlors have been around since before 1800.Many businesses have started advertising campaigns focusing solely on desserts.", "The tactics used to market desserts are very different depending on the audience; for example, desserts can be advertised with popular movie characters to target children.", "The rise of companies such as Food Network has produced many shows which feature desserts and their creation.", "Shows like these have displayed extreme desserts and made a game show atmosphere to make desserts a more competitive field.Desserts are a standard staple in restaurant menus, with different degrees of variety.", "Pie and cheesecake were among the most popular dessert courses ordered in U.S. restaurants in 2012." ], [ "Nutrition", "Dessert foods often contain relatively high amounts of sugar and fats and, as a result, higher calorie counts per gram than other foods.", "Fresh or cooked fruit with minimal added sugar or fat is an exception." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese desserts* Culinary art=== List articles ===* List of desserts* List of dessert sauces* List of Bangladeshi sweets and desserts* List of foods* List of Indian sweets and desserts* List of Indonesian desserts* List of Italian desserts* List of Pakistani sweets and desserts* List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts* List of Turkish desserts" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Data Encryption Standard" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Data Encryption Standard''' ('''DES''' ) is a symmetric-key algorithm for the encryption of digital data.", "Although its short key length of 56 bits makes it too insecure for modern applications, it has been highly influential in the advancement of cryptography.Developed in the early 1970s at IBM and based on an earlier design by Horst Feistel, the algorithm was submitted to the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) following the agency's invitation to propose a candidate for the protection of sensitive, unclassified electronic government data.", "In 1976, after consultation with the National Security Agency (NSA), the NBS selected a slightly modified version (strengthened against differential cryptanalysis, but weakened against brute-force attacks), which was published as an official Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for the United States in 1977.The publication of an NSA-approved encryption standard led to its quick international adoption and widespread academic scrutiny.", "Controversies arose from classified design elements, a relatively short key length of the symmetric-key block cipher design, and the involvement of the NSA, raising suspicions about a backdoor.", "The S-boxes that had prompted those suspicions were designed by the NSA to remove a backdoor they secretly knew (differential cryptanalysis).", "However, the NSA also ensured that the key size was drastically reduced so that they could break the cipher by brute force attack.", "The intense academic scrutiny the algorithm received over time led to the modern understanding of block ciphers and their cryptanalysis.DES is insecure due to the relatively short 56-bit key size.", "In January 1999, distributed.net and the Electronic Frontier Foundation collaborated to publicly break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes (see ).", "There are also some analytical results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the cipher, although they are infeasible in practice.", "The algorithm is believed to be practically secure in the form of Triple DES, although there are theoretical attacks.", "This cipher has been superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).", "DES has been withdrawn as a standard by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.Some documents distinguish between the DES standard and its algorithm, referring to the algorithm as the '''DEA''' ('''Data Encryption Algorithm''')." ], [ "History", "The origins of DES date to 1972, when a National Bureau of Standards study of US government computer security identified a need for a government-wide standard for encrypting unclassified, sensitive information.Around the same time, engineer Mohamed Atalla in 1972 founded Atalla Corporation and developed the first hardware security module (HSM), the so-called \"Atalla Box\" which was commercialized in 1973.It protected offline devices with a secure PIN generating key, and was a commercial success.", "Banks and credit card companies were fearful that Atalla would dominate the market, which spurred the development of an international encryption standard.", "Atalla was an early competitor to IBM in the banking market, and was cited as an influence by IBM employees who worked on the DES standard.", "The IBM 3624 later adopted a similar PIN verification system to the earlier Atalla system.On 15 May 1973, after consulting with the NSA, NBS solicited proposals for a cipher that would meet rigorous design criteria.", "None of the submissions was suitable.", "A second request was issued on 27 August 1974.This time, IBM submitted a candidate which was deemed acceptable—a cipher developed during the period 1973–1974 based on an earlier algorithm, Horst Feistel's Lucifer cipher.", "The team at IBM involved in cipher design and analysis included Feistel, Walter Tuchman, Don Coppersmith, Alan Konheim, Carl Meyer, Mike Matyas, Roy Adler, Edna Grossman, Bill Notz, Lynn Smith, and Bryant Tuckerman.=== NSA's involvement in the design ===On 17 March 1975, the proposed DES was published in the ''Federal Register''.", "Public comments were requested, and in the following year two open workshops were held to discuss the proposed standard.", "There was criticism received from public-key cryptography pioneers Martin Hellman and Whitfield Diffie, citing a shortened key length and the mysterious \"S-boxes\" as evidence of improper interference from the NSA.", "The suspicion was that the algorithm had been covertly weakened by the intelligence agency so that they—but no one else—could easily read encrypted messages.", "Alan Konheim (one of the designers of DES) commented, \"We sent the S-boxes off to Washington.", "They came back and were all different.\"", "The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence reviewed the NSA's actions to determine whether there had been any improper involvement.", "In the unclassified summary of their findings, published in 1978, the Committee wrote:However, it also found thatAnother member of the DES team, Walter Tuchman, stated \"We developed the DES algorithm entirely within IBM using IBMers.", "The NSA did not dictate a single wire!", "\"In contrast, a declassified NSA book on cryptologic history states:andSome of the suspicions about hidden weaknesses in the S-boxes were allayed in 1990, with the independent discovery and open publication by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir of differential cryptanalysis, a general method for breaking block ciphers.", "The S-boxes of DES were much more resistant to the attack than if they had been chosen at random, strongly suggesting that IBM knew about the technique in the 1970s.", "This was indeed the case; in 1994, Don Coppersmith published some of the original design criteria for the S-boxes.", "According to Steven Levy, IBM Watson researchers discovered differential cryptanalytic attacks in 1974 and were asked by the NSA to keep the technique secret.", "Coppersmith explains IBM's secrecy decision by saying, \"that was because differential cryptanalysis can be a very powerful tool, used against many schemes, and there was concern that such information in the public domain could adversely affect national security.\"", "Levy quotes Walter Tuchman: \"they asked us to stamp all our documents confidential... We actually put a number on each one and locked them up in safes, because they were considered U.S. government classified.", "They said do it.", "So I did it\".", "Bruce Schneier observed that \"It took the academic community two decades to figure out that the NSA 'tweaks' actually improved the security of DES.", "\"=== The algorithm as a standard ===Despite the criticisms, DES was approved as a federal standard in November 1976, and published on 15 January 1977 as FIPS PUB 46, authorized for use on all unclassified data.", "It was subsequently reaffirmed as the standard in 1983, 1988 (revised as FIPS-46-1), 1993 (FIPS-46-2), and again in 1999 (FIPS-46-3), the latter prescribing \"Triple DES\" (see below).", "On 26 May 2002, DES was finally superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), following a public competition.", "On 19 May 2005, FIPS 46-3 was officially withdrawn, but NIST has approved Triple DES through the year 2030 for sensitive government information.The algorithm is also specified in ANSI X3.92 (Today X3 is known as INCITS and ANSI X3.92 as ANSI INCITS 92), NIST SP 800-67 and ISO/IEC 18033-3 (as a component of TDEA).Another theoretical attack, linear cryptanalysis, was published in 1994, but it was the Electronic Frontier Foundation's DES cracker in 1998 that demonstrated that DES could be attacked very practically, and highlighted the need for a replacement algorithm.", "These and other methods of cryptanalysis are discussed in more detail later in this article.The introduction of DES is considered to have been a catalyst for the academic study of cryptography, particularly of methods to crack block ciphers.", "According to a NIST retrospective about DES,:The DES can be said to have \"jump-started\" the nonmilitary study and development of encryption algorithms.", "In the 1970s there were very few cryptographers, except for those in military or intelligence organizations, and little academic study of cryptography.", "There are now many active academic cryptologists, mathematics departments with strong programs in cryptography, and commercial information security companies and consultants.", "A generation of cryptanalysts has cut its teeth analyzing (that is, trying to \"crack\") the DES algorithm.", "In the words of cryptographer Bruce Schneier, \"DES did more to galvanize the field of cryptanalysis than anything else.", "Now there was an algorithm to study.\"", "An astonishing share of the open literature in cryptography in the 1970s and 1980s dealt with the DES, and the DES is the standard against which every symmetric key algorithm since has been compared.=== Chronology === Date Year Event 15 May 1973 NBS publishes a first request for a standard encryption algorithm 27 August 1974 NBS publishes a second request for encryption algorithms 17 March 1975 DES is published in the ''Federal Register'' for comment August 1976 First workshop on DES September 1976 Second workshop, discussing mathematical foundation of DES November 1976 DES is approved as a standard 15 January 1977 DES is published as a FIPS standard FIPS PUB 46 June 1977 Diffie and Hellman argue that the DES cipher can be broken by brute force.", "1983 DES is reaffirmed for the first time 1986 Videocipher II, a TV satellite scrambling system based upon DES, begins use by HBO 22 January 1988 DES is reaffirmed for the second time as FIPS 46-1, superseding FIPS PUB 46 July 1991 Biham and Shamir rediscover differential cryptanalysis, and apply it to a 15-round DES-like cryptosystem.", "1992 Biham and Shamir report the first theoretical attack with less complexity than brute force: differential cryptanalysis.", "However, it requires an unrealistic 247 chosen plaintexts.", "30 December 1993 DES is reaffirmed for the third time as FIPS 46-2 1994 The first experimental cryptanalysis of DES is performed using linear cryptanalysis (Matsui, 1994).", "June 1997 The DESCHALL Project breaks a message encrypted with DES for the first time in public.", "July 1998 The EFF's DES cracker (Deep Crack) breaks a DES key in 56 hours.", "January 1999 Together, Deep Crack and distributed.net break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes.", "25 October 1999 DES is reaffirmed for the fourth time as FIPS 46-3, which specifies the preferred use of Triple DES, with single DES permitted only in legacy systems.", "26 November 2001 The Advanced Encryption Standard is published in FIPS 197 26 May 2002 The AES becomes effective 26 July 2004 The withdrawal of FIPS 46-3 (and a couple of related standards) is proposed in the ''Federal Register'' 19 May 2005 NIST withdraws FIPS 46-3 (see Federal Register vol 70, number 96) April 2006 The FPGA-based parallel machine COPACOBANA of the Universities of Bochum and Kiel, Germany, breaks DES in 9 days at a $10,000 hardware cost.", "Within a year software improvements reduced the average time to 6.4 days.", "Nov. 2008 The successor of COPACOBANA, the RIVYERA machine, reduced the average time to less than a single day.", "August 2016 The Open Source password cracking software hashcat added in DES brute force searching on general purpose GPUs.", "Benchmarking shows a single off the shelf Nvidia GeForce GTX 1080 Ti GPU costing US$1000 recovers a key in an average of 15 days (full exhaustive search taking 30 days).", "Systems have been built with eight GTX 1080 Ti GPUs which can recover a key in an average of under 2 days.", "July 2017 A chosen-plaintext attack utilizing a rainbow table can recover the DES key for a single specific chosen plaintext ''1122334455667788'' in 25 seconds.", "A new rainbow table has to be calculated per plaintext.", "A limited set of rainbow tables have been made available for download." ], [ "Description", "File:DES-main-network.png\|thumb\|250px\|''Figure 1''— The overall Feistel structure of DESrect 0 130 639 229 Initial permutationrect 220 300 421 405 Feistel functionrect 220 594 421 701 Feistel functionrect 220 1037 421 1144 Feistel functionrect 220 1330 421 1437 Feistel functionrect 0 1478 639 1577 Final permutationcircle 50 351 26 XORcircle 50 647 26 XORcircle 50 1090 26 XORcircle 50 1383 26 XORDES is the archetypal block cipher—an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of plaintext bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another ciphertext bitstring of the same length.", "In the case of DES, the block size is 64 bits.", "DES also uses a key to customize the transformation, so that decryption can supposedly only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt.", "The key ostensibly consists of 64 bits; however, only 56 of these are actually used by the algorithm.", "Eight bits are used solely for checking parity, and are thereafter discarded.", "Hence the effective key length is 56 bits.The key is nominally stored or transmitted as 8 bytes, each with odd parity.", "According to ANSI X3.92-1981 (Now, known as ANSI INCITS 92–1981), section 3.5:Like other block ciphers, DES by itself is not a secure means of encryption, but must instead be used in a mode of operation.", "FIPS-81 specifies several modes for use with DES.", "Further comments on the usage of DES are contained in FIPS-74.Decryption uses the same structure as encryption, but with the keys used in reverse order.", "(This has the advantage that the same hardware or software can be used in both directions.", ")=== Overall structure ===The algorithm's overall structure is shown in Figure 1: there are 16 identical stages of processing, termed ''rounds''.", "There is also an initial and final permutation, termed ''IP'' and ''FP'', which are inverses (IP \"undoes\" the action of FP, and vice versa).", "IP and FP have no cryptographic significance, but were included in order to facilitate loading blocks in and out of mid-1970s 8-bit based hardware.Before the main rounds, the block is divided into two 32-bit halves and processed alternately; this criss-crossing is known as the Feistel scheme.", "The Feistel structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes—the only difference is that the subkeys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting.", "The rest of the algorithm is identical.", "This greatly simplifies implementation, particularly in hardware, as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms.The ⊕ symbol denotes the exclusive-OR (XOR) operation.", "The ''F-function'' scrambles half a block together with some of the key.", "The output from the F-function is then combined with the other half of the block, and the halves are swapped before the next round.", "After the final round, the halves are swapped; this is a feature of the Feistel structure which makes encryption and decryption similar processes.=== The Feistel (F) function ===The F-function, depicted in Figure 2, operates on half a block (32 bits) at a time and consists of four stages:File:Data_Encription_Standard_Flow_Diagram.svg\|thumb\|250px\|''Figure 2''—The Feistel function (F-function) of DESrect 10 88 322 170 Expansion functionrect 9 340 77 395 Substitution box 1rect 89 340 157 395 Substitution box 2rect 169 340 237 395 Substitution box 3rect 247 340 315 395 Substitution box 4rect 327 340 395 395 Substitution box 5rect 405 340 473 395 Substitution box 6rect 485 340 553 395 Substitution box 7rect 565 340 633 395 Substitution box 8rect 9 482 630 565 Permutationcircle 319 232 21 XOR# ''Expansion'': the 32-bit half-block is expanded to 48 bits using the ''expansion permutation'', denoted ''E'' in the diagram, by duplicating half of the bits.", "The output consists of eight 6-bit (8 × 6 = 48 bits) pieces, each containing a copy of 4 corresponding input bits, plus a copy of the immediately adjacent bit from each of the input pieces to either side.# ''Key mixing'': the result is combined with a ''subkey'' using an XOR operation.", "Sixteen 48-bit subkeys—one for each round—are derived from the main key using the ''key schedule'' (described below).# ''Substitution'': after mixing in the subkey, the block is divided into eight 6-bit pieces before processing by the ''S-boxes'', or ''substitution boxes''.", "Each of the eight S-boxes replaces its six input bits with four output bits according to a non-linear transformation, provided in the form of a lookup table.", "The S-boxes provide the core of the security of DES—without them, the cipher would be linear, and trivially breakable.# ''Permutation'': finally, the 32 outputs from the S-boxes are rearranged according to a fixed permutation, the ''P-box''.", "This is designed so that, after permutation, the bits from the output of each S-box in this round are spread across four different S-boxes in the next round.The alternation of substitution from the S-boxes, and permutation of bits from the P-box and E-expansion provides so-called \"confusion and diffusion\" respectively, a concept identified by Claude Shannon in the 1940s as a necessary condition for a secure yet practical cipher.=== Key schedule ===File:DES-key-schedule.png\|thumb\|250px\|''Figure 3''— The key-schedule of DESrect 96 28 298 58 Permuted choice 1rect 127 122 268 155 Permuted choice 2rect 127 216 268 249 Permuted choice 2rect 127 357 268 390 Permuted choice 2rect 127 451 268 484 Permuted choice 2rect 96 91 127 116 Left shift by 1rect 268 91 299 116 Left shift by 1rect 96 185 127 210 Left shift by 1rect 268 185 299 210 Left shift by 1rect 96 326 127 351 Left shift by 2rect 268 326 299 351 Left shift by 2rect 96 419 127 444 Left shift by 1rect 268 419 299 444 Left shift by 1Figure 3 illustrates the ''key schedule'' for encryption—the algorithm which generates the subkeys.", "Initially, 56 bits of the key are selected from the initial 64 by ''Permuted Choice 1'' (''PC-1'')—the remaining eight bits are either discarded or used as parity check bits.", "The 56 bits are then divided into two 28-bit halves; each half is thereafter treated separately.", "In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by ''Permuted Choice 2'' (''PC-2'')—24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right.", "The rotations (denoted by \"<<<\" in the diagram) mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.The key schedule for decryption is similar—the subkeys are in reverse order compared to encryption.", "Apart from that change, the process is the same as for encryption.", "The same 28 bits are passed to all rotation boxes.=== Pseudocode ===Pseudocode for the DES algorithm follows." ], [ "Security and cryptanalysis", "Although more information has been published on the cryptanalysis of DES than any other block cipher, the most practical attack to date is still a brute-force approach.", "Various minor cryptanalytic properties are known, and three theoretical attacks are possible which, while having a theoretical complexity less than a brute-force attack, require an unrealistic number of known or chosen plaintexts to carry out, and are not a concern in practice.=== Brute-force attack ===For any cipher, the most basic method of attack is brute force—trying every possible key in turn.", "The length of the key determines the number of possible keys, and hence the feasibility of this approach.", "For DES, questions were raised about the adequacy of its key size early on, even before it was adopted as a standard, and it was the small key size, rather than theoretical cryptanalysis, which dictated a need for a replacement algorithm.", "As a result of discussions involving external consultants including the NSA, the key size was reduced from 256 bits to 56 bits to fit on a single chip.EFF's US$250,000 DES cracking machine contained 1,856 custom chips and could brute-force a DES key in a matter of days—the photo shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips.In academia, various proposals for a DES-cracking machine were advanced.", "In 1977, Diffie and Hellman proposed a machine costing an estimated US$20 million which could find a DES key in a single day.", "By 1993, Wiener had proposed a key-search machine costing US$1 million which would find a key within 7 hours.", "However, none of these early proposals were ever implemented—or, at least, no implementations were publicly acknowledged.", "The vulnerability of DES was practically demonstrated in the late 1990s.", "In 1997, RSA Security sponsored a series of contests, offering a $10,000 prize to the first team that broke a message encrypted with DES for the contest.", "That contest was won by the DESCHALL Project, led by Rocke Verser, Matt Curtin, and Justin Dolske, using idle cycles of thousands of computers across the Internet.", "The feasibility of cracking DES quickly was demonstrated in 1998 when a custom DES-cracker was built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), a cyberspace civil rights group, at the cost of approximately US$250,000 (see EFF DES cracker).", "Their motivation was to show that DES was breakable in practice as well as in theory: \"''There are many people who will not believe a truth until they can see it with their own eyes.", "Showing them a physical machine that can crack DES in a few days is the only way to convince some people that they really cannot trust their security to DES.''\"", "The machine brute-forced a key in a little more than 2 days' worth of searching.The next confirmed DES cracker was the COPACOBANA machine built in 2006 by teams of the Universities of Bochum and Kiel, both in Germany.", "Unlike the EFF machine, COPACOBANA consists of commercially available, reconfigurable integrated circuits.", "120 of these field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) of type XILINX Spartan-3 1000 run in parallel.", "They are grouped in 20 DIMM modules, each containing 6 FPGAs.", "The use of reconfigurable hardware makes the machine applicable to other code breaking tasks as well.", "One of the more interesting aspects of COPACOBANA is its cost factor.", "One machine can be built for approximately $10,000.The cost decrease by roughly a factor of 25 over the EFF machine is an example of the continuous improvement of digital hardware—see Moore's law.", "Adjusting for inflation over 8 years yields an even higher improvement of about 30x.", "Since 2007, SciEngines GmbH, a spin-off company of the two project partners of COPACOBANA has enhanced and developed successors of COPACOBANA.", "In 2008 their COPACOBANA RIVYERA reduced the time to break DES to less than one day, using 128 Spartan-3 5000's.", "SciEngines RIVYERA held the record in brute-force breaking DES, having utilized 128 Spartan-3 5000 FPGAs.", "Their 256 Spartan-6 LX150 model has further lowered this time.In 2012, David Hulton and Moxie Marlinspike announced a system with 48 Xilinx Virtex-6 LX240T FPGAs, each FPGA containing 40 fully pipelined DES cores running at 400 MHz, for a total capacity of 768 gigakeys/sec.", "The system can exhaustively search the entire 56-bit DES key space in about 26 hours and this service is offered for a fee online.=== Attacks faster than brute force ===There are three attacks known that can break the full 16 rounds of DES with less complexity than a brute-force search: differential cryptanalysis (DC), linear cryptanalysis (LC), and Davies' attack.", "However, the attacks are theoretical and are generally considered infeasible to mount in practice; these types of attack are sometimes termed certificational weaknesses.", "* Differential cryptanalysis was rediscovered in the late 1980s by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir; it was known earlier to both IBM and the NSA and kept secret.", "To break the full 16 rounds, differential cryptanalysis requires 247 chosen plaintexts.", "DES was designed to be resistant to DC.", "* Linear cryptanalysis was discovered by Mitsuru Matsui, and needs 243 known plaintexts (Matsui, 1993); the method was implemented (Matsui, 1994), and was the first experimental cryptanalysis of DES to be reported.", "There is no evidence that DES was tailored to be resistant to this type of attack.", "A generalization of LC—''multiple linear cryptanalysis''—was suggested in 1994 (Kaliski and Robshaw), and was further refined by Biryukov and others.", "(2004); their analysis suggests that multiple linear approximations could be used to reduce the data requirements of the attack by at least a factor of 4 (that is, 241 instead of 243).", "A similar reduction in data complexity can be obtained in a chosen-plaintext variant of linear cryptanalysis (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000).", "Junod (2001) performed several experiments to determine the actual time complexity of linear cryptanalysis, and reported that it was somewhat faster than predicted, requiring time equivalent to 239–241 DES evaluations.", "* ''Improved Davies' attack'': while linear and differential cryptanalysis are general techniques and can be applied to a number of schemes, Davies' attack is a specialized technique for DES, first suggested by Donald Davies in the eighties, and improved by Biham and Biryukov (1997).", "The most powerful form of the attack requires 250 known plaintexts, has a computational complexity of 250, and has a 51% success rate.There have also been attacks proposed against reduced-round versions of the cipher, that is, versions of DES with fewer than 16 rounds.", "Such analysis gives an insight into how many rounds are needed for safety, and how much of a \"security margin\" the full version retains.Differential-linear cryptanalysis was proposed by Langford and Hellman in 1994, and combines differential and linear cryptanalysis into a single attack.", "An enhanced version of the attack can break 9-round DES with 215.8 chosen plaintexts and has a 229.2 time complexity (Biham and others, 2002).=== Minor cryptanalytic properties ===DES exhibits the complementation property, namely that:where is the bitwise complement of denotes encryption with key and denote plaintext and ciphertext blocks respectively.", "The complementation property means that the work for a brute-force attack could be reduced by a factor of 2 (or a single bit) under a chosen-plaintext assumption.", "By definition, this property also applies to TDES cipher.DES also has four so-called ''weak keys''.", "Encryption (''E'') and decryption (''D'') under a weak key have the same effect (see involution):: or equivalently, There are also six pairs of ''semi-weak keys''.", "Encryption with one of the pair of semiweak keys, , operates identically to decryption with the other, :: or equivalently, It is easy enough to avoid the weak and semiweak keys in an implementation, either by testing for them explicitly, or simply by choosing keys randomly; the odds of picking a weak or semiweak key by chance are negligible.", "The keys are not really any weaker than any other keys anyway, as they do not give an attack any advantage.DES has also been proved not to be a group, or more precisely, the set (for all possible keys ) under functional composition is not a group, nor \"close\" to being a group.", "This was an open question for some time, and if it had been the case, it would have been possible to break DES, and multiple encryption modes such as Triple DES would not increase the security, because repeated encryption (and decryptions) under different keys would be equivalent to encryption under another, single key." ], [ "Simplified DES", "Simplified DES (SDES) was designed for educational purposes only, to help students learn about modern cryptanalytic techniques.SDES has similar structure and properties to DES, but has been simplified to make it much easier to perform encryption and decryption by hand with pencil and paper.Some people feel that learning SDES gives insight into DES and other block ciphers, and insight into various cryptanalytic attacks against them." ], [ "Replacement algorithms", "Concerns about security and the relatively slow operation of DES in software motivated researchers to propose a variety of alternative block cipher designs, which started to appear in the late 1980s and early 1990s: examples include RC5, Blowfish, IDEA, NewDES, SAFER, CAST5 and FEAL.", "Most of these designs kept the 64-bit block size of DES, and could act as a \"drop-in\" replacement, although they typically used a 64-bit or 128-bit key.", "In the Soviet Union the GOST 28147-89 algorithm was introduced, with a 64-bit block size and a 256-bit key, which was also used in Russia later.DES itself can be adapted and reused in a more secure scheme.", "Many former DES users now use Triple DES (TDES) which was described and analysed by one of DES's patentees (see FIPS Pub 46–3); it involves applying DES three times with two (2TDES) or three (3TDES) different keys.", "TDES is regarded as adequately secure, although it is quite slow.", "A less computationally expensive alternative is DES-X, which increases the key size by XORing extra key material before and after DES.", "GDES was a DES variant proposed as a way to speed up encryption, but it was shown to be susceptible to differential cryptanalysis.On January 2, 1997, NIST announced that they wished to choose a successor to DES.", "In 2001, after an international competition, NIST selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), as a replacement.", "The algorithm which was selected as the AES was submitted by its designers under the name Rijndael.", "Other finalists in the NIST AES competition included RC6, Serpent, MARS, and Twofish." ], [ "See also", "* ''Brute Force: Cracking the Data Encryption Standard''* DES supplementary material* Skipjack (cipher)* Triple DES" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* ( preprint)Biham, Eli and Shamir, Adi, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993., .", "Biham, Eli and Alex Biryukov: An Improvement of Davies' Attack on DES.", "J. Cryptology 10(3): 195–206 (1997)Biham, Eli, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller: Enhancing Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis.", "ASIACRYPT 2002: pp254–266Biham, Eli: A Fast New DES Implementation in Software* Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics, and Chip Design, Electronic Frontier Foundation* ( preprint).", "Campbell, Keith W., Michael J. Wiener: DES is not a Group.", "CRYPTO 1992: pp512–520 Coppersmith, Don.", "(1994).", ".", "''IBM Journal of Research and Development'', '''38'''(3), 243–250.", "Diffie, Whitfield and Martin Hellman, \"Exhaustive Cryptanalysis of the NBS Data Encryption Standard\" IEEE Computer 10(6), June 1977, pp74–84Ehrsam and others., Product Block Cipher System for Data Security, , Filed February 24, 1975Gilmore, John, \"Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics and Chip Design\", 1998, O'Reilly, .", "Junod, Pascal.", "\"On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack.\"", "Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2001, pp199–211.", "* Kaliski, Burton S., Matt Robshaw: Linear Cryptanalysis Using Multiple Approximations.", "CRYPTO 1994: pp26–39* Knudsen, Lars, John Erik Mathiassen: A Chosen-Plaintext Linear Attack on DES.", "Fast Software Encryption - FSE 2000: pp262–272Langford, Susan K., Martin E. Hellman: Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis.", "CRYPTO 1994: 17–25Levy, Steven, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age, 2001, .", "* * * National Bureau of Standards, Data Encryption Standard, FIPS-Pub.46.National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington D.C., January 1977.", "* Christof Paar, Jan Pelzl, \"The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and Alternatives\", free online lectures on Chapter 3 of \"Understanding Cryptography, A Textbook for Students and Practitioners\".", "Springer, 2009." ], [ "External links", "* FIPS 46-3: The official document describing the DES standard (PDF)* COPACOBANA, a $10,000 DES cracker based on FPGAs by the Universities of Bochum and Kiel* DES step-by-step presentation and reliable message encoding application* A Fast New DES Implementation in Software - Biham* On Multiple Linear Approximations* RFC4772 : Security Implications of Using the Data Encryption Standard (DES)* Python code of DES Cipher implemented using DES Chapter from NIST SP 958" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Double-hulled tanker" ], [ "Introduction", "Plan of a double-hulled tankerA '''double-hulled tanker''' refers to an oil tanker which has a double hull.", "They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring compared to single-hulled tankers, and their ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for oil tankers and other types of ships including by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention.", "After the ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill disaster in Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull." ], [ "Reasons for use", "The double-hulled ''SPT Champion'' in CuraçaoA number of manufacturers have embraced oil tankers with a double hull because it strengthens the hull of ships, reducing the likelihood of oil disasters in low-impact collisions and groundings over single-hull ships.", "They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring at low speed impacts in port areas when the ship is under pilotage.", "Research of impact damage of ships has revealed that double-hulled tankers are unlikely to perforate both hulls in a collision, preventing oil from seeping out.", "However, for smaller tankers, U-shaped tanks might be susceptible to \"free flooding\" across the double bottom and up to the outside water level each side of the cargo tank.", "Salvors prefer to salvage doubled-hulled tankers because they permit the use of air pressure to vacuum out the flood water.", "In the 1960s, collision proof double hulls for nuclear ships were extensively investigated, due to escalating concerns over nuclear accidents.The ability of double-hulled tankers to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including oil tankers by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention.", "In 1992, MARPOL was amended, making it \"mandatory for tankers of 5,000 dwt and more ordered after 6 July 1993 to be fitted with double hulls, or an alternative design approved by IMO\".", "However, in the aftermath of the Erika incident of the coast off France in December 1999, members of IMO adopted a revised schedule for the phase-out of single-hull tankers, which came into effect on 1 September 2003, with further amendments validated on 5 April 2005.After the ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh Reef outside the port of Valdez, Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.", "However, the damage to the Exxon Valdez penetrated sections of the hull (the slops oil tanks, or slop tanks) that were protected by a double bottom, or partial double hull." ], [ "Maintenance issues", "The double-hulled ''Polar Endeavour''Although double-hulled tankers reduce the likelihood of ships grazing rocks and creating holes in the hull, a double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation.", "Double-hulled tankers, if poorly designed, constructed, maintained and operated can be as problematic, if not more problematic than their single-hulled counterparts.", "Double-hulled tankers have a more complex design and structure than their single-hulled counterparts, which means that they require more maintenance and care in operating, which if not subject to responsible monitoring and policing, may cause problems.", "Double hulls often result in the weight of the hull increasing by at least 20%, and because the steel weight of doubled-hulled tanks should not be greater than that of single-hulled ships, the individual hull walls are typically thinner and theoretically less resistant to wear.", "Double hulls by no means eliminate the possibility of the hulls breaking apart.", "Due to the air space between the hulls, there is also a potential problem with volatile gases seeping out through worn areas of the internal hull, increasing the risk of an explosion.Although several international conventions against pollution are in place, as of 2003 there was still no formal body setting international mandatory standards, although the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) does provide guidelines giving advice on optimum use and safety, such as recommending that ballast tanks are not entered while loaded with cargo, and that weekly samples are made of the atmosphere inside for hydrocarbon gas.", "Due to the difficulties of maintenance, ship builders have been competitive in producing double-hulled ships which are easier to inspect, such as ballast and cargo tanks which are easily accessible and easier to spot corrosion in the hull.", "The Tanker Structure Cooperative Forum (TSCF) published the ''Guide to Inspection and Maintenance of Double-Hull Tanker Structures'' in 1995 giving advice based on experience of operating double-hulled tankers." ], [ "See also", "* Marine salvage* Lloyd's Open Form" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drink" ], [ "Introduction", "Tea is the secondmostconsumed drink in the world, after water.A '''drink''' or '''beverage''' is a liquid intended for human consumption.", "In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture.", "Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, juice, smoothies and soft drinks.", "Traditionally warm beverages include coffee, tea, and hot chocolate.", "Caffeinated drinks that contain the stimulant caffeine have a long history.In addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture for more than 8,000 years.", "Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, wine and cocktails, but are made with a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume.", "The category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines." ], [ "Biology", "When the human body becomes dehydrated, a person experiences thirst.", "This craving of fluids results in an instinctive ''need to drink''.", "Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating.", "The complete deprivation of drinks (that is, water) will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance besides oxygen.", "Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history.", "As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases.As society developed, techniques were discovered to create alcoholic drinks from the plants that were available in different areas.", "The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia ( BCE) and Iran ( BCE).", "Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale.", "The invention of beer (and bread) has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization.", "Tea likely originated in Yunnan, China, during the Shang Dynasty (1500 BCE–1046 BCE) as a medicinal drink." ], [ "History", "Caravaggio's interpretation of BacchusDrinking has been a large part of socialising throughout the centuries.", "In Ancient Greece, a social gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium, where watered down wine would be drunk.", "The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence.", "In Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a ''convivium'' took place regularly.Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of gods such as Dionysus.", "Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons.", "In some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion.Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink.", "Another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty.In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in native religious ceremonies.", "As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the Ethiopian Church banned the secular consumption of coffee until the reign of Emperor Menelik II.", "The drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe." ], [ "Production", "A drink is a form of liquid which has been prepared for human consumption.", "The preparation can include a number of different steps, some prior to transport, others immediately prior to consumption.=== Purification of water ===Water is the chief constituent in all drinks, and the primary ingredient in most.", "Water is purified prior to drinking.", "Methods for purification include filtration and the addition of chemicals, such as chlorination.", "The importance of purified water is highlighted by the World Health Organization, who point out 94% of deaths from diarrhea – the third biggest cause of infectious death worldwide at 1.8 million annually – could be prevented by improving the quality of the victim's environment, particularly safe water.=== Pasteurisation ===Pasteurisation is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified temperature, then immediately cooling.", "The process reduces the growth of microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage.", "It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurisation is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness.=== Juicing ===First developed in the Middle Ages, basket presses have a long history of use in winemaking.The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables can take a number of forms.", "Simple crushing of most fruits will provide a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit.", "Both crushing and pressing are processes used in the production of wine.=== Infusion ===Infusion is the process of extracting flavours from plant material by allowing the material to remain suspended within water.", "This process is used in the production of teas, herbal teas and can be used to prepare coffee (when using a coffee press).=== Percolation ===The name is derived from the word \"percolate\" which means ''to cause (a solvent) to pass through a permeable substance especially for extracting a soluble constituent''.In the case of coffee-brewing the solvent is water, the permeable substance is the coffee grounds, and the soluble constituents are the chemical compounds that give coffee its color, taste, aroma, and stimulating properties.=== Carbonation ===Carbonation is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide into a liquid, such as water.=== Fermentation ===Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to ethanol.", "Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of drinks since the Neolithic age.", "In winemaking, grape juice is combined with yeast in an anaerobic environment to allow the fermentation.", "The amount of sugar in the wine and the length of time given for fermentation determine the alcohol level and the sweetness of the wine.When brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients – water, grain, yeast and hops.", "The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting.", "It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation.", "This process is known as mashing.", "Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process.=== Distillation ===An old whiskey stillDistillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid mixture.", "It is one of the methods used in the purification of water.", "It is also a method of producing spirits from milder alcoholic drinks.=== Mixing ===An alcoholic mixed drink that contains two or more ingredients is referred to as a cocktail.", "Cocktails were originally a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters.", "The term is now often used for almost any mixed drink that contains alcohol, including mixers, mixed shots, etc.", "A cocktail today usually contains one or more kinds of spirit and one or more mixers, such as soda or fruit juice.", "Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs." ], [ "Type", "=== Non-alcoholic drinks ===Ice water with a slice of lemonA non-alcoholic drink is one that contains little or no alcohol.", "This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider if they contain a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume (ABV).", "The exact definition of what is \"non-alcoholic\" and what is not depends on local laws: in the United Kingdom, \"alcohol-free beer\" is under 0.05% ABV, \"de-alcoholised beer\" is under 0.5%, while \"low-alcohol beer\" can contain no more than 1.2% ABV.", "The term \"soft drink\" specifies the absence of alcohol in contrast to \"hard drink\" and \"drink\".", "The term \"drink\" is theoretically neutral, but often is used in a way that suggests alcoholic content.", "Drinks such as soda pop, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, root beer, fruit punch, milk, hot chocolate, tea, coffee, milkshakes, tap water, bottled water, juice and energy drinks are all soft drinks.==== Water ====Water is the world's most consumed drink, however, 97% of water on Earth is non-drinkable salt water.", "Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and frozen glaciers.", "Less than 1% of the Earth's fresh water supplies are accessible through surface water and underground sources which are cost effective to retrieve.In western cultures, water is often drunk cold.", "In the Chinese culture, it is typically drunk hot.==== Milk ====Milk is regarded as one of the \"original\" drinks; milk is the primary source of nutrition for babies.", "In many cultures of the world, especially the Western world, humans continue to consume dairy milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a drink.==== Carbonated drinks ====Carbonated drinks refer to drinks which have carbon dioxide dissolved into them.", "This can happen naturally through fermenting and in natural water spas or artificially by the dissolution of carbon dioxide under pressure.", "The first commercially available artificially carbonated drink is believed to have been produced by Thomas Henry in the late 1770s.Cola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be added later.The most consumed carbonated soft drinks are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group.==== Juice and plant drinks ====Orange juice is usually served cold.Fruit juice is a natural product that contains few or no additives.", "Citrus products such as orange juice and tangerine juice are familiar breakfast drinks, while grapefruit juice, pineapple, apple, grape, lime, and lemon juice are also common.", "Coconut water is a highly nutritious and refreshing juice.", "Many kinds of berries are crushed; their juices are mixed with water and sometimes sweetened.", "Raspberry, blackberry and currants are popular juices drinks but the percentage of water also determines their nutritive value.", "Grape juice allowed to ferment produces wine.Fruits are highly perishable so the ability to extract juices and store them was of significant value.", "Some fruits are highly acidic and mixing them with water and sugars or honey was often necessary to make them palatable.", "Fruits can also be blended with ice and other ingredients to make a smoothie.", "Early storage of fruit juices was labor-intensive, requiring the crushing of the fruits and the mixing of the resulting pure juices with sugars before bottling.Vegetable juices are usually served warm or cold.", "Different types of vegetables can be used to make vegetable juice such as carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, celery and many more.", "Some vegetable juices are mixed with some fruit juice to make the vegetable juice taste better.", "Many popular vegetable juices, particularly ones with high tomato content, are high in sodium, and therefore consumption of them for health must be carefully considered.", "Some vegetable juices provide the same health benefits as whole vegetables in terms of reducing risks of cardiovascular disease and cancer.Plant milk is a general term for any milk-like product that is derived from a plant source.", "The most common varieties internationally are soy milk, almond milk, rice milk and coconut milk.", "Type of fruit drink Percentage of fruit needed in drink Description Fruit juice 100% Largely regulated throughout the world; 'juice' is often protected to be used for only 100% fruit.", "Fruit drink 10% Fruit is liquefied and water added.", "Fruit squash 25% Produced using strained fruit juice, 45% sugar and preservatives.", "Fruit cordial 0% All 'suspended matter' is eliminated by filtration or clarification.", "and therefore appears clear This type of drink, if described as 'flavoured,' may not have any amount of fruit.", "Fruit punch 25% A mixture of fruit juices.", "Contains around 65% sugar.", "Fruit syrups - 1 fruit crushed into puree and left to ferment.", "Is then heated with sugar to create syrup.", "Fruit juice concentrates 100% Water removed from fruit juice by heating or freezing.", "Carbonated fruit drinks - Carbon dioxide added to fruit drink.", "Fruit nectars 30% Mixture of fruit pulp, sugar and water which is consumed as 'one shot'.", "Fruit Sherbets - Cooled drink of sweetened diluted fruit juice.=== Sleep drinks ===A nightcap is a drink taken shortly before bedtime to induce sleep.", "For example, a small alcoholic drink or a cup of warm milk can supposedly promote a good night's sleep.", "Today, most nightcaps and relaxation drinks are generally non-alcoholic beverages containing calming ingredients.", "They are considered beverages which serve to relax a person.", "Unlike other calming beverages, such as tea, warm milk or milk with honey; relaxation drinks almost universally contain more than one active ingredient.", "Relaxation drinks have been known to contain other natural ingredients and are usually free of caffeine and alcohol but some have claimed to contain marijuana.=== Alcoholic drinks ===A drink is considered \"alcoholic\" if it contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of \"alcohol\" includes many other compounds).", "Beer has been a part of human civilisation for around 8,000 years.==== Beer ====Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar.", "The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat.", "Most beer is also flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included.", "The preparation of beer is called brewing.", "Beer is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic drink, and is the third-most consumed drink overall, after water and tea.", "It is said to have been discovered by goddess Ninkasi around 5300 BCE, when she accidentally discovered yeast after leaving grain in jars that were later rained upon and left for several days.", "Women have been the chief creators of beer throughout history due to its association with domesticity and it, throughout much of history, being brewed in the home for family consumption.", "Only in recent history have men begun to dabble in the field.", "It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented drink.Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and \"The Hymn to Ninkasi\", a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people.", "Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.==== Cider ====Cider is a fermented alcoholic drink made from fruit juice, most commonly and traditionally apple juice, but also the juice of peaches, pears (\"Perry\" cider) or other fruit.", "Cider may be made from any variety of apple, but certain cultivars grown solely for use in cider are known as cider apples.", "The United Kingdom has the highest per capita consumption of cider, as well as the largest cider-producing companies in the world, , the U.K. produces 600 million litres of cider each year (130 million imperial gallons).==== Wine ====Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes or other fruits.", "The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients.", "Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol and carbon dioxide.", "Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine.", "The well-known variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation, along with human intervention in the overall process.", "The final product may contain tens of thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a few parts per billion.Wines made from produce besides grapes are usually named after the product from which they are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine.", "The term \"wine\" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified drinks having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine, huangjiu, or sake.Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest production so far discovered having occurred BC in Georgia.", "It had reached the Balkans by BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece and Rome.Whiskey served \"on the rocks\"From its earliest appearance in written records, wine has also played an important role in religion.", "Red wine was closely associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians, who, according to Plutarch, avoided its free consumption as late as the 7th-century BC Saite dynasty, \"thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods\".", "The Greek cult and mysteries of Dionysus, carried on by the Romans in their Bacchanalia, were the origins of western theater.", "Judaism incorporates it in the Kiddush and Christianity in its Eucharist, while alcohol consumption was forbidden in Islam.==== Spirits ====Spirits are distilled beverages that contain no added sugar and have at least 20% alcohol by volume (ABV).", "Popular spirits include borovička, brandy, gin, rum, slivovitz, tequila, vodka, and whisky.", "Brandy is a spirit created by distilling wine, whilst vodka may be distilled from any starch- or sugar-rich plant matter; most vodka today is produced from grains such as sorghum, corn, rye or wheat.===Hot drinks===These drinks are often served warm or hot.==== Coffee ====A cup of black coffeeCoffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreen shrub of the genus ''Coffea''.", "The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded ''Coffea arabica'', and the \"robusta\" form of the hardier ''Coffea canephora''.", "Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries.", "Once ripe, coffee \"berries\" are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside.", "The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor, before being ground and brewed to create coffee.Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–5.1) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine content.", "It is one of the most popular drinks in the world.", "It can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways.", "The effect of coffee on human health has been a subject of many studies; however, results have varied in terms of coffee's relative benefit.Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia; the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen.Coffee may have been used socially in the renaissance period of the 17th century.", "The increasing trades between Europe and North Africa regions made coffee more widely available to Europeans gathering at social locations that served coffee, possibly contributing to the growth of coffeehouses.====Hot chocolate====Hot chocolate, also known as drinking chocolate or cocoa, is a heated drink consisting of shaved chocolate, melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and usually a sweetener.", "Hot chocolate may be topped with whipped cream.", "Hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency.The first chocolate drink is believed to have been created by the Mayans around 2,500-3,000 years ago, and a cocoa drink was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD, by which they referred to as xocōlātl.", "The drink became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then.", "Until the 19th century, hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases.Hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations, including the spiced ''chocolate para mesa'' of Latin America, the very thick ''cioccolata calda'' served in Italy and ''chocolate a la taza'' served in Spain, and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States.", "Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses and teahouses.", "Powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores and online.==== Tea ====Tea, the second most consumed drink in the world, is produced from infusing dried leaves of the ''Camellia sinensis'' shrub, in boiling water.", "There are many ways in which tea is prepared for consumption: lemon or milk and sugar are among the most common additives worldwide.", "Other additions include butter and salt in Bhutan, Nepal, and Tibet; bubble tea in Taiwan; fresh ginger in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; mint in North Africa and Senegal; cardamom in Central Asia; rum to make Jagertee in Central Europe; and coffee to make yuanyang in Hong Kong.", "Tea is also served differently from country to country: in China, Japan and South Korea tiny cups are used to serve tea; in Thailand and the United States tea is often served cold (as \"iced tea\") or with a lot of sweetener; Indians boil tea with milk and a blend of spices as masala chai; tea is brewed with a samovar in Iran, Kashmir, Russia and Turkey; and in the Australian Outback it is traditionally brewed in a billycan.Tea leaves can be processed in different ways resulting in a drink which appears and tastes different.", "Chinese yellow and green tea are steamed, roasted and dried; Oolong tea is semi-oxidised and appears green-black and black teas are fully oxidised.Oolong teaMint tea is a popular tisane.==== Herbal tea ====Around the world, people refer to other herbal infusions as \"teas\"; it is also argued that these were popular long before the ''Camellia sinensis'' shrub was used for tea making.", "Leaves, flowers, roots or bark can be used to make a herbal infusion and can be bought fresh, dried or powdered." ], [ "In culture", "=== Places to drink ===''Cafe Terrace at Night'', September 1888, by Vincent van GoghThroughout history, people have come together in establishments to socialise whilst drinking.", "This includes cafés and coffeehouses, focus on providing hot drinks as well as light snacks.", "Many coffee houses in the Middle East, and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world, offer ''shisha'' (''nargile'' in Turkish and Greek), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah.", "Espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specialize in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks.In China and Japan, the establishment would be a tea house, where people would socialise while drinking tea.", "Chinese scholars have used the teahouse as a place to share ideas.Alcoholic drinks are served in drinking establishments, which have different cultural connotations.", "For example, pubs are fundamental to the culture of Britain, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New England, Metro Detroit, South Africa and New Zealand.", "In many places, especially in villages, a pub can be the focal point of the community.", "The writings of Samuel Pepys describe the pub as the heart of England.", "Many pubs are controlled by breweries, so cask ale or keg beer may be a better value than wines and spirits.In contrast, types of bars range from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed \"dive bars\", to elegant places of entertainment for the elite.", "Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons.", "The term \"bar\" is derived from the specialized counter on which drinks are served.", "Some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers.", "Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, or they may sit at tables and be served by cocktail servers.=== Matching with food ===Champagne flute and bottleFood and drink are often paired together to enhance the taste experience.", "This primarily happens with wine and a culture has grown up around the process.", "Weight, flavors and textures can either be contrasted or complemented.", "In recent years, food magazines began to suggest particular wines with recipes and restaurants would offer multi-course dinners matched with a specific wine for each course.=== Presentation ===Different drinks have unique receptacles for their consumption.", "This is sometimes purely for presentations purposes, such as for cocktails.", "In other situations, the drinkware has practical application, such as coffee cups which are designed for insulation or brandy snifters which are designed to encourage evaporation but trap the aroma within the glass.Many glasses include a stem, which allows the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink.", "In champagne glasses, the bowl is designed to retain champagne's signature carbonation, by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl.", "Historically, champagne has been served in a champagne coupe, the shape of which allowed carbonation to dissipate even more rapidly than from a standard wine glass." ], [ "Commercial trade", "=== International exports and imports ===An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004,and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005.Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.=== Investment ===Some drinks, such as wine, can be used as an alternative investment.", "This can be achieved by either purchasing and reselling individual bottles or cases of particular wines, or purchasing shares in an investment wine fund that pools investors' capital." ], [ "See also", "* List of beverages* List of hot drinks* List of national drinks" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "External links", " * * Health-EU Portal – Alcohol* Wikibooks Cookbook* Women and Beer: A Forgotten Pairing (National Women's History Museum)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dill" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dill''' ('''''Anethum graveolens''''') is an annual herb in the celery family Apiaceae.", "It is native to North Africa, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula; it is grown widely in Eurasia, where its leaves and seeds are used as a herb or spice for flavouring food." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''dill'' and its close relatives are found in most of the Germanic languages; its ultimate origin is unknown.=== Taxonomy ===The genus name ''Anethum'' is the Latin form of Greek ἄνῑσον / ἄνησον / ἄνηθον / ἄνητον, which meant both \"dill\" and \"anise\".", "The form 'anīsum' came to be used for anise, and 'anēthum' for dill.", "The Latin word is the origin of dill's names in the Western Romance languages ('anet', 'aneldo' etc.", "), and also of the obsolete English 'anet'." ], [ "Botany", "Dill grows up to from a taproot like a carrot.", "Its stems are slender and hollow with finely divided, softly delicate leaves; the leaves are alternately arranged, long with ultimate leaf divisions are broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of fennel, which are threadlike, less than broad, but harder in texture.File:20141003Anethum graveolens.jpg\|Yellow dill umbelsFile:Dill1 (cropped).jpg\|Closeup of a dill umbelDried dill fruit clusters with fingers to scale.In hot or dry weather, small white to yellow scented flowers form in small umbels diameter from one long stalk.", "The seeds come from dried up fruit long and thick, and straight to slightly curved with a longitudinally ridged surface." ], [ "Cultivation", "Successful cultivation requires warm to hot summers with high sunshine levels; even partial shade will reduce the yield substantially.", "It also prefers rich, well-drained soil.", "The seed is harvested by cutting the flower heads off the stalks when the seed is beginning to ripen.", "The seed heads are placed upside down in a paper bag and left in a warm, dry place for a week.", "The seeds then separate from the stems easily for storage in an airtight container.These plants, like their fennel and parsley relatives, often are eaten by black swallowtail caterpillars in areas where that species occurs.", "For this reason, they may be included in some butterfly gardens." ], [ "History", "Dill has been found in the tomb of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep II, dating to around 1400 BC.", "It was also later found in the Greek city of Samos, around the 7th century BC, and mentioned in the writings of Theophrastus (371–287 BC).", "In Greek mythology, the dill was originally a young man named Anethus who was transformed into the plant." ], [ "Uses", "=== Culinary ======= Aroma profile ====* Apiole and dillapiole* CarvoneLimonene Myristicin* UmbelliferoneDill (''Anethum graveolens'') essential oil in clear glass vialFresh and dried dill leaves (sometimes called \"dill weed\" or \"dillweed\" to distinguish it from dill seed) are widely used as herbs in Europe and in central and south-eastern Asia.Like caraway, the fern-like leaves of dill are aromatic and are used to flavour many foods such as gravlax (cured salmon) and other fish dishes, borscht, and other soups, as well as pickles (where the dill flower is sometimes used).", "Dill is best when used fresh, as it loses its flavor rapidly if dried.", "However, freeze-dried dill leaves retain their flavour relatively well for a few months.Dill oil is extracted from the leaves, stems, and seeds of the plant.", "The oil from the seeds is distilled and used in the manufacturing of soaps.Dill is the eponymous ingredient in dill pickles.====Central and eastern Europe ====In central and eastern Europe, the Nordic countries, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, dill is a staple culinary herb along with chives and parsley.", "Fresh, finely cut dill leaves are used as a topping in soups, especially the hot red borsht and the cold borsht mixed with curds, kefir, yogurt, or sour cream, which is served during hot summer weather and is called 'okroshka'.", "It also is popular in summer to drink fermented milk (curds, kefir, yogurt, or buttermilk) mixed with dill (and sometimes other herbs).In the same way, dill is used as a topping for boiled potatoes covered with fresh butter – especially in summer when there are so-called \"new\", or young, potatoes.", "The dill leaves may be mixed with butter, making a dill butter, to serve the same purpose.", "Dill leaves mixed with tvorog form one of the traditional cheese spreads used for sandwiches.", "Fresh dill leaves are used throughout the year as an ingredient in salads, ''e.g.", "'', one made of lettuce, fresh cucumbers, and tomatoes, as basil leaves are used in Italy and Greece.Russian cuisine is noted for liberal use of dill, where it is known as .", "It is supposed to have antiflatulent properties; some Russian cosmonauts recommended its use in human spaceflight due to such properties being beneficial in confined quarters with a closed air supply.In Polish cuisine, fresh dill leaves mixed with sour cream are the basis for dressings.", "It is especially popular to use this kind of sauce with freshly cut cucumbers, which are almost wholly immersed in the sauce, making a salad called 'mizeria'.", "Dill sauce is used hot for baked freshwater fish and for chicken or turkey breast, or used hot or cold for hard-boiled eggs.", "A dill-based soup, (zupa koperkowa), served with potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, is popular in Poland.", "Whole stems including roots and flower buds are used traditionally to prepare Polish-style pickled cucumbers (ogórki kiszone), especially the so-called low-salt cucumbers (ogórki małosolne).", "Whole stems of dill (often including the roots) also are cooked with potatoes, especially the potatoes of autumn and winter, so they resemble the flavour of the newer potatoes found in summer.", "Some kinds of fish, especially trout and salmon, traditionally are baked with the stems and leaves of dill.In the Czech Republic, white dill sauce made of cream (or milk), butter, flour, vinegar, and dill is called 'koprová omáčka' (also 'koprovka' or 'kopračka') and is served either with boiled eggs and potatoes, or with dumplings and boiled beef.", "Another Czech dish with dill is a soup called 'kulajda' that contains mushrooms (traditionally wild ones).In Germany, dill is popular as a seasoning for fish and many other dishes, chopped as a garnish on potatoes, and as a flavouring in pickles.In the UK, dill may be used in fish pie.In Bulgaria dill is widely used in traditional vegetable salads, and most notably the yogurt-based cold soup Tarator.", "It is also used in the preparation of sour pickles, cabbage, and other dishes.In Romania dill (mărar) is widely used as an ingredient for soups such as 'borş' (pronounced \"borsh\"), pickles, and other dishes, especially those based on peas, beans, and cabbage.", "It is popular for dishes based on potatoes and mushrooms and may be found in many summer salads (especially cucumber salad, cabbage salad and lettuce salad).", "During springtime, it is used in omelets with spring onions.", "It often complements sauces based on sour cream or yogurt and is mixed with salted cheese and used as a filling.", "Another popular dish with dill as a main ingredient is dill sauce, which is served with eggs and fried sausages.In Hungary, dill is very widely used.", "It is popular as a sauce or filling, and mixed with a type of cottage cheese.", "Dill is also used for pickling and in salads.", "The Hungarian name for dill is 'kapor'.In Serbia, dill is known as 'mirodjija' and is used as an addition to soups, potato and cucumber salads, and French fries.", "It features in the Serbian proverb, \"бити мирођија у свакој чорби\" /biti mirodjija u svakoj čorbi/ (to be a dill in every soup), which corresponds to the English proverb \"to have a finger in every pie\".In Greece, dill is known as 'άνηθος' (anithos).", "In antiquity it was used as an ingredient in wines that were called \"anithites oinos\" (wine with anithos-dill).", "In modern days, dill is used in salads, soups, sauces, and fish and vegetable dishes.In Santa Maria, Azores, dill (endro) is the most important ingredient of the traditional Holy Ghost soup (sopa do Espírito Santo).", "Dill is found ubiquitously in Santa Maria, yet, is rare in the other Azorean Islands.In Sweden, dill is a common spice or herb.", "The flowers of fully grown dill are called 'krondill' (crown dill) and used when cooking crayfish.", "The krondill is put into the water after the crayfish is boiled, but still in hot and salt water.", "Then the entire dish is refrigerated for at least 24 hours before being served (with toasted bread and butter).", "Krondill is also used to flavor pickles and vodka.", "After a month or two of fermentation, the cucumber pickles are ready to eat, for instance, with pork, brown sauce, and potatoes, as a sweetener.", "The thinner part of dill and young plants may be used with boiled fresh potatoes (especially the first potatoes of the year, new potatoes, which usually are small and have a very thin skin).", "In salads it is used together with, or instead, of other green herbs, such as parsley, chives, and basil.", "It is often paired up with chives when used in food.", "Dill is often used to flavour fish and seafood in Sweden, for example, gravlax and various herring pickles, among them the traditional, 'sill i dill' (literally 'herring in dill').", "In contrast to the various fish dishes flavoured with dill, there is also a traditional Swedish dish called, 'dillkött', which is a meaty stew flavoured with dill.", "The dish commonly contains pieces of veal or lamb that are boiled until tender and then served together with a vinegary dill sauce.", "Dill seeds may be used in breads or 'akvavit'.", "A newer, non-traditional use of dill is to pair it with chives as a flavouring for potato chips.", "These are called 'dillchips' and are quite popular in Sweden.In Finland, the uses of dill are very similar to those in Sweden, including flavouring potato chips and, comparably less popularly, in a dish comparable to 'dillkött' ('tilliliha').", "Generally, the use of dill in Finland, however, is not as extensive as in large parts of central and eastern Europe, particularly Russia but including even the ethnolinguistically close Estonia.==== Asia and Middle East ==== Nation/region Language Local name of dill Dishes commonly used in Arab world Arabic () As flavouring in various dishes Bangladesh Bangla China Chinese () or colloquially () , , India Bengali India Gujarati (with potato) India Hindi () ''Soa Sabzi'' (with potato).", "As a flavour in: Green ''Kheema'', ''Kheema'' samosa India Kannada () Curry India Malayalam () India Marathi, Konkani ''Shepu'' (शेपू) ''Shepuchi Bhaji'', ''Shepu Pulao'', ''Ashe Mast'' India Tamil () Curry India Telugu () India Punjabi Israel/Jewish DiasporaHebrewשֶבֶת (''shevet, sheves, sheveth)''שָׁמִיר (''shamir)'' Iran Persian 'Aash', 'Baghali Polo', 'Shevid Polo', 'Mast O Khiar' Thailand Thai () () Vietnam Vietnamese Many fish dishes in northern VietnamIn Iran, dill is known as 'shevid' and sometimes, is used with rice and called 'shevid-polo'.", "It also is used in Iranian 'aash' recipes, and similarly, is called in Persian.In India, dill is known as 'Sholpa' in Bengali, (शेपू) in Marathi and Konkani, in Hindi, or in Punjabi.", "In Telugu, it is called 'Soa-kura' (herb greens).", "It also is called (ಸಬ್ಬಸಿಗೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು) in Kannada.", "In Tamil it is known as (சதகுப்பி).", "In Malayalam, it is ചതകുപ്പ () or ().", "In Sanskrit, this herb is called .", "In Gujarati, it is known as (સૂવા).", "In India, dill is prepared in the manner of yellow 'moong dal', as a main-course dish.", "It is considered to have very good antiflatulent properties, so it is used as 'mukhwas', or an after-meal digestive.", "Traditionally, it is given to mothers immediately after childbirth.", "In the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, a small amount of fresh dill is cooked along with cut potatoes and fresh fenugreek leaves (Hindi आलू-मेथी-सोया).In Manipur, dill, locally known as , is an essential ingredient of – a traditional Manipuri dish made with fermented soybean and rice.In Laos and parts of northern Thailand, dill is known in English as Lao coriander ( or ), and served as a side with salad yum or papaya salad.", "In the Lao language, it is called 'phak see', and in Thai, it is known as 'phak chee Lao'.", "In Lao cuisine, Lao coriander is used extensively in traditional Lao dishes such as 'mok pa' (steamed fish in banana leaf) and several coconut milk curries that contain fish or prawns.In China dill is called colloquially, 'huíxiāng' (, perfume of Hui people), or more properly 'shíluó' ().", "It is a common filling in 'baozi', 'jiaozi' and 'xianbing' and may be used as vegetarian with rice vermicelli, or combined with either meat or eggs.", "Vegetarian dill baozi are a common part of a Beijing breakfast.", "In baozi and xianbing, it often is interchangeable with non-bulbing fennel and the term also may refer to fennel, similarly to caraway and coriander leaf, sharing a name in Chinese as well.", "Dill also may be stir fried as a potherb, often with egg, in the same manner as Chinese chives.", "In Northern China, Beijing, Inner-Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu, and Xinjiang, dill seeds commonly are called 'zīrán' (), but also 'kūmíng' (), 'kūmíngzi' (), 'shíluózi' (), 'xiǎohuíxiāngzi' () and are used with pepper for lamb meat.", "In the whole of China, 'yángchuàn' () or 'yángròu chuàn' (), lamb brochette, a speciality from Uyghurs, uses cumin and pepper.", "In Taiwan, it is also commonly used as a filling in steamed buns (baozi) and dumplings (jiaozi).In Vietnam, the use of dill in cooking is regional.", "It is used mainly in northern Vietnamese cuisine.==== Middle East ====In Arab countries, dill seed, called (grasshopper's eye), is used as a spice in cold dishes such as 'fattoush' and pickles.", "In Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, dill is called 'shibint' and is used mostly in fish dishes.", "In Egypt, dillweed is commonly used to flavour cabbage dishes, including 'mahshi koronb' (stuffed cabbage leaves).In Israel, dill weed is used in salads and also to flavour omelettes, often alongside parsley.=== Companion planting ===Dill plantsWhen used as a companion plant, dill attracts many beneficial insects as the umbrella flower heads go to seed.", "It makes a good companion plant for cucumbers and broccoli.Tomatoes will benefit from dill when it is young since it will repel harmful pests while attracting pollinators, but must be pruned as it matures to prevent the dill from flowering, as this will slow or stop the growth of tomatoes." ], [ "See also", "* List of Indian spices" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Plants for a Future: ''Anethum graveolens''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dual space" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, any vector space '''' has a corresponding '''dual vector space''' (or just '''dual space''' for short) consisting of all linear forms on '''' together with the vector space structure of pointwise addition and scalar multiplication by constants.The dual space as defined above is defined for all vector spaces, and to avoid ambiguity may also be called the .When defined for a topological vector space, there is a subspace of the dual space, corresponding to continuous linear functionals, called the '''continuous dual space'''.Dual vector spaces find application in many branches of mathematics that use vector spaces, such as in tensor analysis with finite-dimensional vector spaces.When applied to vector spaces of functions (which are typically infinite-dimensional), dual spaces are used to describe measures, distributions, and Hilbert spaces.", "Consequently, the dual space is an important concept in functional analysis.Early terms for ''dual'' include ''polarer Raum'' Hahn 1927, ''espace conjugué'', ''adjoint space'' Alaoglu 1940, and ''transponierter Raum'' Schauder 1930 and Banach 1932.The term ''dual'' is due to Bourbaki 1938." ], [ "Algebraic dual space", "Given any vector space over a field , the '''(algebraic) dual space''' (alternatively denoted by or ) is defined as the set of all linear maps '''' (linear functionals).", "Since linear maps are vector space homomorphisms, the dual space may be denoted .The dual space itself becomes a vector space over '''' when equipped with an addition and scalar multiplication satisfying:: for all , '''', and .Elements of the algebraic dual space are sometimes called '''covectors''', '''one-forms''', or '''linear forms'''.The pairing of a functional '''' in the dual space and an element '''' of '''' is sometimes denoted by a bracket: ''''or ''''.", "This pairing defines a nondegenerate bilinear mapping called the natural pairing.=== Finite-dimensional case ===If is finite-dimensional, then has the same dimension as .", "Given a basis in , it is possible to construct a specific basis in , called the dual basis.", "This dual basis is a set of linear functionals on , defined by the relation: for any choice of coefficients .", "In particular, letting in turn each one of those coefficients be equal to one and the other coefficients zero, gives the system of equations: where is the Kronecker delta symbol.", "This property is referred to as the ''bi-orthogonality property''.Consider the basis of V. Let be defined as the following:.We have:# are linear functionals.", "Indeed, for such as and (i.e., and ).", "Then, and .", "Therefore, for .# Suppose .", "Applying this functional on the basis vectors of successively, lead us to (The functional applied in results in ).", "Therefore, is linearly independent on .#Lastly, consider .", "Then:and generates .", "Hence, it is a basis of .", "For example, if is , let its basis be chosen as .", "The basis vectors are not orthogonal to each other.", "Then, and are one-forms (functions that map a vector to a scalar) such that , , , and .", "(Note: The superscript here is the index, not an exponent.)", "This system of equations can be expressed using matrix notation as:Solving for the unknown values in the first matrix shows the dual basis to be .", "Because and are functionals, they can be rewritten as and .In general, when is , if is a matrix whose columns are the basis vectors and is a matrix whose columns are the dual basis vectors, then:where is the identity matrix of order .", "The biorthogonality property of these two basis sets allows any point to be represented as:even when the basis vectors are not orthogonal to each other.", "Strictly speaking, the above statement only makes sense once the inner product and the corresponding duality pairing are introduced, as described below in ''''.In particular, can be interpreted as the space of columns of real numbers, its dual space is typically written as the space of ''rows'' of real numbers.", "Such a row acts on as a linear functional by ordinary matrix multiplication.", "This is because a functional maps every -vector into a real number .", "Then, seeing this functional as a matrix , and as an matrix, and a matrix (trivially, a real number) respectively, if then, by dimension reasons, must be a matrix; that is, must be a row vector.If consists of the space of geometrical vectors in the plane, then the level curves of an element of form a family of parallel lines in , because the range is 1-dimensional, so that every point in the range is a multiple of any one nonzero element.So an element of can be intuitively thought of as a particular family of parallel lines covering the plane.", "To compute the value of a functional on a given vector, it suffices to determine which of the lines the vector lies on.", "Informally, this \"counts\" how many lines the vector crosses.More generally, if is a vector space of any dimension, then the level sets of a linear functional in are parallel hyperplanes in , and the action of a linear functional on a vector can be visualized in terms of these hyperplanes.=== Infinite-dimensional case ===If is not finite-dimensional but has a basis indexed by an infinite set , then the same construction as in the finite-dimensional case yields linearly independent elements () of the dual space, but they will not form a basis.For instance, consider the space , whose elements are those sequences of real numbers that contain only finitely many non-zero entries, which has a basis indexed by the natural numbers .", "For , is the sequence consisting of all zeroes except in the -th position, which is 1.The dual space of is (isomorphic to) , the space of ''all'' sequences of real numbers: each real sequence defines a function where the element of is sent to the number:which is a finite sum because there are only finitely many nonzero .", "The dimension of is countably infinite, whereas does not have a countable basis.This observation generalizes to any infinite-dimensional vector space over any field : a choice of basis identifies with the space of functions such that is nonzero for only finitely many , where such a function is identified with the vector:in (the sum is finite by the assumption on , and any may be written uniquely in this way by the definition of the basis).The dual space of may then be identified with the space of ''all'' functions from to : a linear functional on is uniquely determined by the values it takes on the basis of , and any function (with ) defines a linear functional on by:Again, the sum is finite because is nonzero for only finitely many .The set may be identified (essentially by definition) with the direct sum of infinitely many copies of (viewed as a 1-dimensional vector space over itself) indexed by , i.e.", "there are linear isomorphisms:On the other hand, is (again by definition), the direct product of infinitely many copies of indexed by , and so the identification:is a special case of a general result relating direct sums (of modules) to direct products.If a vector space is not finite-dimensional, then its (algebraic) dual space is ''always'' of larger dimension (as a cardinal number) than the original vector space.", "This is in contrast to the case of the continuous dual space, discussed below, which may be isomorphic to the original vector space even if the latter is infinite-dimensional.The proof of this inequality between dimensions results from the following.If is an infinite-dimensional -vector space, the arithmetical properties of cardinal numbers implies that :where cardinalities are, as commonly, denoted as absolute values.", "For proving that it suffices to prove that which can be done with an argument similar to Cantor's diagonal argument.", "The exact dimension of the dual is given by the Erdős–Kaplansky theorem.=== Bilinear products and dual spaces ===If ''V'' is finite-dimensional, then ''V'' is isomorphic to ''V''∗.", "But there is in general no natural isomorphism between these two spaces.", "Any bilinear form on ''V'' gives a mapping of ''V'' into its dual space via:where the right hand side is defined as the functional on ''V'' taking each to .", "In other words, the bilinear form determines a linear mapping:defined by:If the bilinear form is nondegenerate, then this is an isomorphism onto a subspace of ''V''∗.If ''V'' is finite-dimensional, then this is an isomorphism onto all of ''V''∗.", "Conversely, any isomorphism from ''V'' to a subspace of ''V''∗ (resp., all of ''V''∗ if ''V'' is finite dimensional) defines a unique nondegenerate bilinear form on ''V'' by:Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between isomorphisms of ''V'' to a subspace of (resp., all of) ''V''∗ and nondegenerate bilinear forms on ''V''.If the vector space ''V'' is over the complex field, then sometimes it is more natural to consider sesquilinear forms instead of bilinear forms.In that case, a given sesquilinear form determines an isomorphism of ''V'' with the complex conjugate of the dual space: The conjugate of the dual space can be identified with the set of all additive complex-valued functionals such that: === Injection into the double-dual ===There is a natural homomorphism from into the double dual , defined by for all .", "In other words, if is the evaluation map defined by , then is defined as the map .", "This map is always injective; and it is always an isomorphism if is finite-dimensional.Indeed, the isomorphism of a finite-dimensional vector space with its double dual is an archetypal example of a natural isomorphism.Infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are not isomorphic to their algebraic double duals, but instead to their continuous double duals.=== Transpose of a linear map ===If is a linear map, then the ''transpose'' (or ''dual'') is defined by: for every ''''.", "The resulting functional '''' in '''' is called the ''pullback'' of '''' along ''''.The following identity holds for all '''' and '''':: where the bracket ·,· on the left is the natural pairing of ''V'' with its dual space, and that on the right is the natural pairing of ''W'' with its dual.", "This identity characterizes the transpose, and is formally similar to the definition of the adjoint.The assignment produces an injective linear map between the space of linear operators from ''V'' to ''W'' and the space of linear operators from ''W'' to ''V''; this homomorphism is an isomorphism if and only if ''W'' is finite-dimensional.If then the space of linear maps is actually an algebra under composition of maps, and the assignment is then an antihomomorphism of algebras, meaning that .In the language of category theory, taking the dual of vector spaces and the transpose of linear maps is therefore a contravariant functor from the category of vector spaces over ''F'' to itself.It is possible to identify (''f'') with ''f'' using the natural injection into the double dual.If the linear map ''f'' is represented by the matrix ''A'' with respect to two bases of ''V'' and ''W'', then ''f'' is represented by the transpose matrix ''A''T with respect to the dual bases of ''W'' and ''V'', hence the name.Alternatively, as ''f'' is represented by ''A'' acting on the left on column vectors, ''f'' is represented by the same matrix acting on the right on row vectors.These points of view are related by the canonical inner product on '''R'''''n'', which identifies the space of column vectors with the dual space of row vectors.=== Quotient spaces and annihilators ===Let be a subset of .The '''annihilator''' of in , denoted here , is the collection of linear functionals such that for all .That is, consists of all linear functionals such that the restriction to vanishes: .Within finite dimensional vector spaces, the annihilator is dual to (isomorphic to) the orthogonal complement.The annihilator of a subset is itself a vector space.The annihilator of the zero vector is the whole dual space: , and the annihilator of the whole space is just the zero covector: .Furthermore, the assignment of an annihilator to a subset of reverses inclusions, so that if , then: If and are two subsets of then: and equality holds provided is finite-dimensional.", "If is any family of subsets of indexed by belonging to some index set , then: In particular if and are subspaces of then: If is finite-dimensional and is a vector subspace, then: after identifying with its image in the second dual space under the double duality isomorphism .", "In particular, forming the annihilator is a Galois connection on the lattice of subsets of a finite-dimensional vector space.If is a subspace of then the quotient space is a vector space in its own right, and so has a dual.", "By the first isomorphism theorem, a functional factors through if and only if is in the kernel of .", "There is thus an isomorphism: As a particular consequence, if is a direct sum of two subspaces and , then is a direct sum of and .=== Dimensional analysis ===The dual space is analogous to a \"negative\"-dimensional space.", "Most simply, since a vector can be paired with a covector by the natural pairing to obtain a scalar, a covector can \"cancel\" the dimension of a vector, similar to reducing a fraction.", "Thus while the direct sum is a -dimensional space (if is -dimensional), behaves as an -dimensional space, in the sense that its dimensions can be canceled against the dimensions of .", "This is formalized by tensor contraction.This arises in physics via dimensional analysis, where the dual space has inverse units.", "Under the natural pairing, these units cancel, and the resulting scalar value is dimensionless, as expected.", "For example, in (continuous) Fourier analysis, or more broadly time–frequency analysis: given a one-dimensional vector space with a unit of time , the dual space has units of frequency: occurrences ''per'' unit of time (units of ).", "For example, if time is measured in seconds, the corresponding dual unit is the inverse second: over the course of 3 seconds, an event that occurs 2 times per second occurs a total of 6 times, corresponding to .", "Similarly, if the primal space measures length, the dual space measures inverse length.== Continuous dual space ==When dealing with topological vector spaces, the continuous linear functionals from the space into the base field (or ) are particularly important.This gives rise to the notion of the \"continuous dual space\" or \"topological dual\" which is a linear subspace of the algebraic dual space , denoted by .For any ''finite-dimensional'' normed vector space or topological vector space, such as Euclidean ''n-''space, the continuous dual and the algebraic dual coincide.This is however false for any infinite-dimensional normed space, as shown by the example of discontinuous linear maps.Nevertheless, in the theory of topological vector spaces the terms \"continuous dual space\" and \"topological dual space\" are often replaced by \"dual space\".For a topological vector space its ''continuous dual space'', or ''topological dual space'', or just ''dual space'' (in the sense of the theory of topological vector spaces) is defined as the space of all continuous linear functionals .Important examples for continuous dual spaces are the space of compactly supported test functions and its dual the space of arbitrary distributions (generalized functions); the space of arbitrary test functions and its dual the space of compactly supported distributions; and the space of rapidly decreasing test functions the Schwartz space, and its dual the space of tempered distributions (slowly growing distributions) in the theory of generalized functions.=== Properties ===If is a Hausdorff topological vector space (TVS), then the continuous dual space of is identical to the continuous dual space of the completion of .=== Topologies on the dual ===There is a standard construction for introducing a topology on the continuous dual of a topological vector space .", "Fix a collection of bounded subsets of .This gives the topology on of uniform convergence on sets from or what is the same thing, the topology generated by seminorms of the form:where is a continuous linear functional on , and runs over the class This means that a net of functionals tends to a functional in if and only if:Usually (but not necessarily) the class is supposed to satisfy the following conditions:* Each point of belongs to some set :: Each two sets and are contained in some set :: is closed under the operation of multiplication by scalars: :If these requirements are fulfilled then the corresponding topology on is Hausdorff and the sets:form its local base.Here are the three most important special cases.", " The strong topology on is the topology of uniform convergence on bounded subsets in (so here can be chosen as the class of all bounded subsets in ).If is a normed vector space (for example, a Banach space or a Hilbert space) then the strong topology on is normed (in fact a Banach space if the field of scalars is complete), with the norm::* The stereotype topology on is the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded sets in (so here can be chosen as the class of all totally bounded subsets in ).", "* The weak topology on is the topology of uniform convergence on finite subsets in (so here can be chosen as the class of all finite subsets in ).Each of these three choices of topology on leads to a variant of reflexivity property for topological vector spaces:* If is endowed with the strong topology, then the corresponding notion of reflexivity is the standard one: the spaces reflexive in this sense are just called ''reflexive''.", "* If is endowed with the stereotype dual topology, then the corresponding reflexivity is presented in the theory of stereotype spaces: the spaces reflexive in this sense are called ''stereotype''.", "* If is endowed with the weak topology, then the corresponding reflexivity is presented in the theory of dual pairs: the spaces reflexive in this sense are arbitrary (Hausdorff) locally convex spaces with the weak topology.=== Examples ===Let 1 p'' of all sequences for which:Define the number ''q'' by .", "Then the continuous dual of ''ℓ'' ''p'' is naturally identified with ''ℓ'' ''q'': given an element , the corresponding element of is the sequence where '''''' denotes the sequence whose -th term is 1 and all others are zero.", "Conversely, given an element , the corresponding continuous linear functional '''' on is defined by:for all (see Hölder's inequality).In a similar manner, the continuous dual of is naturally identified with (the space of bounded sequences).Furthermore, the continuous duals of the Banach spaces ''c'' (consisting of all convergent sequences, with the supremum norm) and ''c''0 (the sequences converging to zero) are both naturally identified with .By the Riesz representation theorem, the continuous dual of a Hilbert space is again a Hilbert space which is anti-isomorphic to the original space.This gives rise to the bra–ket notation used by physicists in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.By the Riesz–Markov–Kakutani representation theorem, the continuous dual of certain spaces of continuous functions can be described using measures.=== Transpose of a continuous linear map ===If is a continuous linear map between two topological vector spaces, then the (continuous) transpose is defined by the same formula as before::The resulting functional is in .", "The assignment produces a linear map between the space of continuous linear maps from ''V'' to ''W'' and the space of linear maps from to .When ''T'' and ''U'' are composable continuous linear maps, then:When ''V'' and ''W'' are normed spaces, the norm of the transpose in is equal to that of ''T'' in .Several properties of transposition depend upon the Hahn–Banach theorem.For example, the bounded linear map ''T'' has dense range if and only if the transpose is injective.When ''T'' is a compact linear map between two Banach spaces ''V'' and ''W'', then the transpose is compact.This can be proved using the Arzelà–Ascoli theorem.When ''V'' is a Hilbert space, there is an antilinear isomorphism ''iV'' from ''V'' onto its continuous dual .For every bounded linear map ''T'' on ''V'', the transpose and the adjoint operators are linked by:When ''T'' is a continuous linear map between two topological vector spaces ''V'' and ''W'', then the transpose is continuous when and are equipped with \"compatible\" topologies: for example, when for and , both duals have the strong topology of uniform convergence on bounded sets of ''X'', or both have the weak-∗ topology of pointwise convergence on ''X''.The transpose is continuous from to , or from to .=== Annihilators ===Assume that ''W'' is a closed linear subspace of a normed space ''V'', and consider the annihilator of ''W'' in ,:Then, the dual of the quotient can be identified with ''W''⊥, and the dual of ''W'' can be identified with the quotient .Indeed, let ''P'' denote the canonical surjection from ''V'' onto the quotient ; then, the transpose is an isometric isomorphism from into , with range equal to ''W''⊥.If ''j'' denotes the injection map from ''W'' into ''V'', then the kernel of the transpose is the annihilator of ''W''::and it follows from the Hahn–Banach theorem that induces an isometric isomorphism.=== Further properties ===If the dual of a normed space is separable, then so is the space itself.The converse is not true: for example, the space is separable, but its dual is not.=== Double dual ===This is a natural transformation of vector addition from a vector space to its double dual.", "denotes the ordered pair of two vectors.", "The addition + sends ''x''1 and ''x''2 to .The addition +′ induced by the transformation can be defined as '''' for any '''' in the dual space.In analogy with the case of the algebraic double dual, there is always a naturally defined continuous linear operator from a normed space ''V'' into its continuous double dual , defined by:As a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem, this map is in fact an isometry, meaning for all .Normed spaces for which the map Ψ is a bijection are called reflexive.When ''V'' is a topological vector space then Ψ(''x'') can still be defined by the same formula, for every , however several difficulties arise.First, when ''V'' is not locally convex, the continuous dual may be equal to { 0 } and the map Ψ trivial.However, if ''V'' is Hausdorff and locally convex, the map Ψ is injective from ''V'' to the algebraic dual of the continuous dual, again as a consequence of the Hahn–Banach theorem.Second, even in the locally convex setting, several natural vector space topologies can be defined on the continuous dual , so that the continuous double dual is not uniquely defined as a set.", "Saying that Ψ maps from ''V'' to , or in other words, that Ψ(''x'') is continuous on for every , is a reasonable minimal requirement on the topology of , namely that the evaluation mappings: be continuous for the chosen topology on .", "Further, there is still a choice of a topology on , and continuity of Ψ depends upon this choice.As a consequence, defining reflexivity in this framework is more involved than in the normed case." ], [ "See also", "* Covariance and contravariance of vectors* Dual module* Dual norm* Duality (mathematics)* Duality (projective geometry)* Pontryagin duality* Reciprocal lattice – dual space basis, in crystallography" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dianetics" ], [ "Introduction", "Netherlands 2022Germany 2009'''Dianetics''' is a set of pseudoscientific ideas and practices regarding the relationship between the human mind and body created by science fiction writer and Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard.", "Dianetics is practiced by followers of Scientology and the Nation of Islam (as of 2010).Dianetics was originally conceived as a branch of psychiatry, which Hubbard would come to despise when various psychoanalysts dismissed it as unscientific.", "Though it is presented as a form of psychological treatment, Dianetics and its core concepts have been rejected by psychologists and other scientists from the outset and are not supported by credible evidence." ], [ "Premise", "The word ''Dianetics'' is coined from Greek ''dia'' meaning \"through\" and ''nous'' meaning \"mind\".Dianetics theory describes the human mind as two parts: the conscious \"analytical mind\" and the subconscious \"reactive mind\".", "The purpose of Dianetics technique, called \"auditing\", is to erase the contents of the reactive mind, which practitioners believe interferes with a person's ethics, awareness, happiness, and sanity.", "In auditing, the person is asked questions intended to help them locate and deal with painful past experiences.Dianetics theory posits that \"the basic principle of existence is to survive\" and that the basic personality of humans is sincere, intelligent, and good.", "The drive for goodness and survival is distorted and inhibited by aberrations (deviations from rational thinking).", "Hubbard claimed that Dianetics could increase intelligence, eliminate unwanted emotions and alleviate a wide range of illnesses he believed to be psychosomatic.", "Conditions purportedly treatable with Dianetics included arthritis, allergies, asthma, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, ulcers, migraine headaches, and sexual deviation." ], [ "History", "According to Hubbard, when he was sedated for a dental operation in 1938, he had a near-death experience which inspired him to write the manuscript ''Excalibur''.", "Though it was never published, this work would allegedly become the basis for Dianetics.", "The first publication on Dianetics was ''Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science'', an article by Hubbard in ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (cover date May 1950).", "This was followed by the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' (DMSMH) published May 9, 1950.In these works Hubbard claimed that the source of all psychological pain, and therefore the cause of mental and physical health problems, was a form of memory known as \"engrams\".", "According to Hubbard, individuals could reach a state he named \"Clear\" when all of their engrams had been removed through talking with an \"auditor\".While the technique was not accepted by the medical and scientific establishment, in the first two years of its publication DMSMH sold over 100,000 copies.", "''Publishers Weekly'' posthumously awarded Hubbard a plaque to acknowledge DMSMH appearing on its bestseller list for one hundred consecutive weeks.", "Publication of DMSMH brought in a flood of revenue, which Hubbard used to establish Dianetics foundations in six major American cities.", "Two of the strongest initial supporters of Dianetics in the 1950s were John W. Campbell, editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'', and Joseph Augustus Winter, a writer and medical physician.", "Campbell published some of Hubbard's short stories and Winter hoped that his colleagues would likewise be attracted to Hubbard's Dianetics system.Readers formed groups to study and practice Dianetics technique.", "According to sociologist Roy Wallis, this period was one of \"excited experimentation\" and Hubbard's work was regarded as \"an initial exploration to be developed further by others\".", "Per Wallis, it was Dianetics' popularity as a lay psychotherapy that contributed to the Dianetics Foundation's downfall.", "Most people read the book, tried it out, then put it down.", "The remaining practitioners had no ties to the Foundation.", "Factions formed and followers challenged Hubbard's movement and his authority.", "The craze of 1950–51 was dead by 1952.In 1951, with debts piled up and facing bankruptcy, Don Purcell, a wealthy Dianetics follower from Wichita, bailed out the foundation.", "It was short-lived, however, and the foundation fell to bankruptcy in 1952.Hubbard fled to Phoenix, Arizona, having lost the foundation, the rights to Dianetics, and the copyrights to DMSMH, though in 1954 Purcell gave the copyrights back to Hubbard.In Phoenix, Hubbard created \"Scientology\"; it's techniques were intended to rehabilitate a person so that they might reach their full potential as a spiritual being.", "Dianetics was incorporated into Scientology.", "In 1963 and in 1969, Hubbard modified Dianetics into \"Standard Dianetics\".", "In 1978, Hubbard introduced \"New Era Dianetics\" (NED), said to permanently free someone from his \"reactive mind\".", "Hubbard later introduced New Era Dianetics for OTs.", "These steps are on The Bridge to Total Freedom." ], [ "Concepts", "In the book, ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'', Hubbard describes techniques that he suggests can rid individuals of fears and psychosomatic illnesses.", "A basic idea in Dianetics is that the mind consists of two parts: the \"analytical mind\" and the \"reactive mind\".", "The \"reactive mind\", the mind which operates when a person is physically unconscious, acts as a record of shock, trauma, pain, and otherwise harmful memories.", "Experiences such as these, stored in the \"reactive mind\" are dubbed \"engrams\".", "Dianetics is proposed as a method to erase these engrams in the reactive mind to achieve a state of clear.In Dianetics, the unconscious or reactive mind is described as a collection of \"mental image pictures\", which contain the recorded experience of past moments of unconsciousness, including all sensory perceptions and feelings involved, ranging from pre-natal experiences, infancy and childhood, to even the traumatic feelings associated with events from past lives and extraterrestrial cultures.", "The type of mental image picture created during a period of unconsciousness involves the exact recording of a painful experience.", "Hubbard called this phenomenon an engram, and defined it as \"a complete recording of a moment of unconsciousness containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions.", "\"Hubbard proposed that these engrams caused \"aberrations\" (deviations from rational thinking) in the mind, which produced lasting adverse physical and emotional effects (cf.", "conversion disorder).", "When the analytical (conscious) mind shut down during these moments, events and perceptions of this period were stored as engrams in the unconscious or reactive mind.", "In Hubbard's earliest publications on the subject, engrams were variously referred to as \"Norns\", \"Impediments\", and \"comanomes\" before \"engram\" was adapted from its existing usage at the suggestion of Joseph Augustus Winter, MD.", "Some commentators noted Dianetics's blend of science fiction and occult orientations at the time.Hubbard claimed that these engrams are the cause of almost all psychological and physical problems.", "In addition to physical pain, engrams could include words or phrases spoken in the vicinity while the patient was unconscious.", "For instance, Winter cites the example of a patient with a persistent headache supposedly tracing the problem to a doctor saying, \"Take him now\", during the patient's birth.", "Hubbard similarly claimed that leukemia is traceable to \"an engram containing the phrase 'It turns my blood to water.", "While it is sometimes claimed that the Church of Scientology no longer stands by Hubbard's claims that Dianetics can treat physical conditions, it still publishes them: \"when the knee injuries of the past are located and discharged, the arthritis ceases, no other injury takes its place and the person is finished with arthritis of the knee.\"", "\"The reactive mind can give a man arthritis, bursitis, asthma, allergies, sinusitis, coronary trouble, high blood pressure ... And it is the only thing in the human being which can produce these effects ...", "Discharge the content of the reactive mind and the arthritis vanishes, myopia gets better, heart illness decreases, asthma disappears, stomachs function properly and the whole catalog of ills goes away and stays away.", "\"According to scholar Regis Dericqeobourg, Dianetics was first presented as a psychotherapy that focused on recalling an individual's past experiences as a source of origination for someone's physical and mental impairments, as well as \"inappropriate behavior.\"", "In the form of counseling that Hubbard called \"auditing,\" \"auditors attempt to wash away associated emotional burdens and therein are supposed to cure people from their troubles\".", "Eventually, psychologists and psychiatrists began to doubt the validity of Dianetics, leading Hubbard to the formation of Scientology as spirituality.Some of the psychometric ideas in Dianetics, in particular the E-meter, can be traced to Carl Jung.", "Basic concepts, including conversion disorder, are derived from Sigmund Freud, whom Hubbard credited as an inspiration and source.", "Freud had speculated 40 years previously that traumas with similar content would join together as \"chains\" of incidents, embedded in the unconscious mind, to cause irrational responses in the individual.", "Such a chain would be relieved by inducing the patient to remember the earliest trauma, \"with an accompanying expression of emotion.", "\"According to Bent Corydon, Hubbard created the illusion that Dianetics was the first psychotherapy to address traumatic experiences in their own time, but others had done so before as standard procedure.", "One treatment method Hubbard drew from in developing Dianetics was abreaction therapy.", "Abreaction is a psychoanalytical term that means bringing to consciousness, and thus adequate expression, material that has been unconscious.", "\"It includes not only the recollection of forgotten memories and experience, but also their reliving with appropriate emotional display and discharge of effect.", "This process is usually facilitated by the patient's gaining awareness of the causal relationship between the previously undischarged emotion and his symptoms.", "\"According to Hubbard, before Dianetics psychotherapists had dealt with very light and superficial incidents (e.g., an incident that reminds the patient of a moment of loss), but with Dianetic therapy, the patient could actually erase moments of pain and unconsciousness.", "He emphasized: \"The discovery of the engram is entirely the property of Dianetics.", "Methods of its erasure are also owned entirely by Dianetics\".While 1950 style Dianetics was in some respects similar to older therapies, with the development of New Era Dianetics in 1978, the similarity vanished.", "New Era Dianetics uses an E-Meter and a rote procedure for running ''chains'' of related traumatic incidents.Dianetics clarifies the understanding of psychosomatic illness in terms of ''predisposition'', ''precipitation'', and ''prolongation''.With the use of Dianetics techniques, Hubbard claimed, the reactive mind could be processed and all stored engrams could be refiled as experience.", "The central technique was \"auditing\", a two-person question-and-answer method designed to isolate and dissipate engrams (or \"mental masses\").", "An auditor addresses questions to a subject, observes and records the subject's responses, and returns repeatedly to experiences or areas under discussion that appear painful until the troubling experience has been identified and confronted.", "Through repeated applications of this method, the reactive mind could be \"cleared\" of its content having outlived its usefulness in the process of evolution; a person who has completed this process would be \"Clear\".The benefits of going Clear, according to Hubbard, were dramatic.", "A Clear would have no compulsions, repressions, psychoses or neuroses, and would enjoy a near-perfect memory as well as a rise in IQ of as much as 50 points.", "He also claimed that \"the atheist is activated by engrams as thoroughly as the zealot\".", "He further claimed that widespread application of Dianetics would result in \"A world without insanity, without criminals and without war.", "\"One of the key ideas of Dianetics, according to Hubbard, is the fundamental existential command to survive.", "According to Hugh B.", "Urban, this would serve as the foundation of a big part of later Scientology." ], [ "Procedure", "Hubbard demonstrating Dianetics technique at a seminar in Los Angeles in 1950The procedure of Dianetics therapy (known as ''auditing'') is a two-person activity.", "One person, the \"auditor\", guides the other person, the ''preclear''.", "The preclear's job is to look at the mind and talk to the auditor.", "The auditor acknowledges what the preclear says and controls the process so the preclear may put his full attention on his work.The auditor and preclear sit down in chairs facing each other.", "The process then follows in eleven distinct steps:# The auditor assures the preclear that he will be fully aware of everything that happens during the session.# The preclear is instructed to close his eyes for the session, entering a state of \"dianetic reverie\", signified by \"a tremble of the lashes\".", "During the session, the preclear remains in full possession of his will and retains full recall thereafter.# The auditor installs a \"canceller\", an instruction intended to absolutely cancel any form of positive suggestion that could accidentally occur.", "This is done by saying \"In the future, when I utter the word 'cancelled,' everything I have said to you while you are in a therapy session will be cancelled and will have no force with you.", "Any suggestion I may have made to you will be without force when I say the word 'cancelled.'", "Do you understand?", "\"# The auditor then asks the preclear to locate an exact record of something that happened to the preclear in his past: \"Locate an incident that you feel you can comfortably face.", "\"# The preclear is invited by the auditor to \"Go through the incident and say what is happening as you go along.", "\"# The auditor instructs the preclear to recall as much as possible of the incident, going over it several times \"until the preclear is cheerful about it\".# When the preclear is cheerful about an incident, the auditor instructs the preclear to locate another incident: \"Let's find another incident that you feel you can comfortably face.\"", "The process outlined at steps 5 and 6a then repeats until the auditing session's time limit (usually two hours or so) is reached.# The preclear is then instructed to \"return to present time\".# The auditor checks to make sure that the preclear feels himself to be in \"present time\", i.e., not still recalling a past incident.# The auditor gives the preclear the canceller word: \"Very good.", "Cancelled.", "\"# The auditor tells the preclear to feel alert and return to full awareness of his surroundings: \"When I count from five to one and snap my fingers you will feel alert.", "Five, four, three, two, one.\"", "(snaps fingers)A few transcripts of auditing sessions with confidential information redacted have been published as demonstration examples.", "Some extracts can be found in Winter's book ''A Doctor's Report on Dianetics''.", "Other, more comprehensive, transcripts of auditing sessions carried out by Hubbard himself can be found in volume 1 of the ''Research & Discovery Series'' (Bridge Publications, 1980).", "Examples of public group processing sessions can be found throughout Hubbard's many recorded lectures." ], [ "Therapeutic claims", "In August 1950, amidst the success of ''Dianetics'', Hubbard held a demonstration in Los Angeles' Shrine Auditorium where he presented a young woman called Sonya Bianca (a pseudonym) to a large audience including many reporters and photographers as \"the world's first Clear\".", "Despite Hubbard's claim that she had \"full and perfect recall of every moment of her life\", Bianca proved unable to answer questions from the audience testing her memory and analytical abilities, including the question of the color of Hubbard's tie.", "Hubbard explained Bianca's failure to display her promised powers of recall to the audience by saying that he had used the word \"now\" in calling her to the stage, and thus inadvertently froze her in \"present time\", which blocked her abilities.", "Later, in the late 1950s, Hubbard would claim that several people had reached the state of Clear by the time he presented Bianca as the world's first; these others, Hubbard said, he had successfully cleared in the late 1940s while working ''incognito'' in Hollywood posing as a swami.", "In 1966, Hubbard declared South African Scientologist John McMaster to be the first true Clear.Hubbard claimed, in an interview with ''The New York Times'' in November 1950, that \"he had already submitted proof of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations.\"", "He added that the public as well as proper organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail.", "In January 1951, the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of Elizabeth, New Jersey, published ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results'', a booklet providing the results of psychometric tests conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy.", "It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured \"aberrations\" including manic depression, asthma, arthritis, colitis and \"overt homosexuality\", and that after Dianetic processing, test subjects experienced significantly increased scores on a standardized IQ test.", "The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself (\"Case 1080A, R. L.\").The authors provide no qualifications, although they are described in Hubbard's book ''Science of Survival'' (where some results of the same study were reprinted) as psychotherapists.", "Critics of Dianetics are skeptical of this study, both because of the bias of the source and because the researchers appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics without considering possible outside factors; in other words, the report lacks any scientific controls.", "Winter was originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, but by the end of 1950 had cut ties with Hubbard and written an account of his personal experiences with Dianetics.", "He described Hubbard as \"absolutistic and authoritarian\", and criticized the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for failing to undertake \"precise scientific research into the functioning of the mind\".", "He also recommended that auditing be done by experts only and that it was dangerous for laymen to audit each other.", "Hubbard writes: \"Again, Dianetics is not being released to a profession, for no profession could encompass it.\"" ], [ "Scientific rejection", "Hubbard's original book on Dianetics attracted highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and organizations.", "The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1950 calling \"attention to the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations.\"", "Subsequently, Dianetics has achieved no acceptance as a scientific theory, and scientists cite Dianetics as an example of a pseudoscience.Few scientific investigations into the effectiveness of Dianetics have been published.", "Professor John A. Lee states in his 1970 evaluation of Dianetics:The MEDLINE database records two independent scientific studies on Dianetics, both conducted in the 1950s under the auspices of New York University.", "Harvey Jay Fischer tested Dianetic therapy against three claims made by proponents and found it does not effect any significant changes in intellectual functioning, mathematical ability, or the degree of personality conflicts; Jack Fox tested Hubbard's thesis regarding recall of engrams, with the assistance of the Dianetic Research Foundation, and could not substantiate it.Commentators from a variety of backgrounds have described Dianetics as an example of pseudoscience.", "For example, philosophy professor Robert Carroll points to Dianetics' lack of empirical evidence:The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators.", "Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer Martin Gardner asserts that \"nothing could be clearer from the above dialogue than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it.", "\"Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of hypnosis.", "Hubbard, who had previously used hypnosis for entertainment purposes, strongly denied this connection and cautioned against hypnosis in Dianetics auditing.", "Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling of well-being reported by preclear at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic suggestion.", "Other researchers have identified quotations in Hubbard's work suggesting evidence that false memories were created in ''Dianetics'', specifically in the form of birth and pre-birth memories.According to an article by physician Martin Gumpert, \"Hubbard's concept of psychosomatic disease is definitely wrong.", "Psychosomatic ailments are not simply caused by emotional disturbances: they are diseases in which the emotional and the organic factor are closely involved and interdependent.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Auditing (Scientology)* Bibliography of Scientology* Co-counselling" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Behard, Richard: (May 6, 1991).", "\"The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power\".", "''Time''.", "* Breuer J, Freud S, \"Studies in Hysteria\", Vol II of the ''Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'' (Hogarth Press, London, 1955).", "* Fischer, Harvey Jay: \"Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation.", "A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality. \"", "Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University* Fox, Jack et al.", ": ''An Experimental Investigation of Hubbard's Engram Hypothesis (Dianetics)'' in Psychological Newsletter, 1959, 10 131-134 * Freeman, Lucy: \"Psychologists act against Dianetics\", ''The New York Times'', 9 September 1950* Lee, John A.: ''Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy'', 1970, Ontario* Miscavige, David: Speech to the International Association of Scientologists, 8 October 1993* O'Brien, Helen: ''Dianetics in Limbo''.", "Whitmore, Philadelphia, 1966* Streissguth, Thomas: ''Charismatic Cult Leaders''.", "The Oliver Press, Inc., 1995* van Vogt, A.E.", ": ''Dianetics and the Professions'', 1953* Williamson, Jack: ''Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction''.", "Bluejay Books, New York, 1984" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Data warehouse" ], [ "Introduction", "Data Warehouse and Data mart overview, with Data Marts shown in the top right.In computing, a '''data warehouse''' ('''DW''' or '''DWH'''), also known as an '''enterprise data warehouse''' ('''EDW'''), is a system used for reporting and data analysis and is considered a core component of business intelligence.", "Data warehouses are central repositories of integrated data from one or more disparate sources.", "They store current and historical data in one single place that are used for creating analytical reports for workers throughout the enterprise.", "This is beneficial for companies as it enables them to interrogate and draw insights from their data and make decisions.The basic architecture of a data warehouseThe data stored in the warehouse is uploaded from the operational systems (such as marketing or sales).", "The data may pass through an operational data store and may require data cleansing for additional operations to ensure data quality before it is used in the data warehouse for reporting.", "Extract, transform, load (ETL) and extract, load, transform (ELT) are the two main approaches used to build a data warehouse system." ], [ "ETL-based data warehousing", "The typical extract, transform, load (ETL)-based data warehouse uses staging, data integration, and access layers to house its key functions.", "The staging layer or staging database stores raw data extracted from each of the disparate source data systems.", "The integration layer integrates disparate data sets by transforming the data from the staging layer, often storing this transformed data in an operational data store (ODS) database.", "The integrated data are then moved to yet another database, often called the data warehouse database, where the data is arranged into hierarchical groups, often called dimensions, and into facts and aggregate facts.", "The combination of facts and dimensions is sometimes called a star schema.", "The access layer helps users retrieve data.The main source of the data is cleansed, transformed, catalogued, and made available for use by managers and other business professionals for data mining, online analytical processing, market research and decision support.", "However, the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform, and load data, and to manage the data dictionary are also considered essential components of a data warehousing system.", "Many references to data warehousing use this broader context.", "Thus, an expanded definition of data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository, and tools to manage and retrieve metadata." ], [ "ELT-based data warehousing", "ELT-based data warehouse architectureELT-based data warehousing gets rid of a separate ETL tool for data transformation.", "Instead, it maintains a staging area inside the data warehouse itself.", "In this approach, data gets extracted from heterogeneous source systems and are then directly loaded into the data warehouse, before any transformation occurs.", "All necessary transformations are then handled inside the data warehouse itself.", "Finally, the manipulated data gets loaded into target tables in the same data warehouse." ], [ "Benefits", "A data warehouse maintains a copy of information from the source transaction systems.", "This architectural complexity provides the opportunity to:* Integrate data from multiple sources into a single database and data model.", "More congregation of data to single database so a single query engine can be used to present data in an ODS.", "* Mitigate the problem of database isolation level lock contention in transaction processing systems caused by attempts to run large, long-running analysis queries in transaction processing databases.", "* Maintain data history, even if the source transaction systems do not.", "* Integrate data from multiple source systems, enabling a central view across the enterprise.", "This benefit is always valuable, but particularly so when the organization has grown by merger.", "* Improve data quality, by providing consistent codes and descriptions, flagging or even fixing bad data.", "* Present the organization's information consistently.", "* Provide a single common data model for all data of interest regardless of the data's source.", "* Restructure the data so that it makes sense to the business users.", "* Restructure the data so that it delivers excellent query performance, even for complex analytic queries, without impacting the operational systems.", "* Add value to operational business applications, notably customer relationship management (CRM) systems.", "* Make decision–support queries easier to write.", "* Organize and disambiguate repetitive data." ], [ "Generic", "The environment for data warehouses and marts includes the following:* Source systems that provide data to the warehouse or mart;* Data integration technology and processes that are needed to prepare the data for use;* Different architectures for storing data in an organization's data warehouse or data marts;* Different tools and applications for a variety of users;* Metadata, data quality, and governance processes must be in place to ensure that the warehouse or mart meets its purposes.In regards to source systems listed above, R. Kelly Rainer states, \"A common source for the data in data warehouses is the company's operational databases, which can be relational databases\".Regarding data integration, Rainer states, \"It is necessary to extract data from source systems, transform them, and load them into a data mart or warehouse\".Rainer discusses storing data in an organization's data warehouse or data marts.Metadata is data about data.", "\"IT personnel need information about data sources; database, table, and column names; refresh schedules; and data usage measures\".Today, the most successful companies are those that can respond quickly and flexibly to market changes and opportunities.", "A key to this response is the effective and efficient use of data and information by analysts and managers.", "A \"data warehouse\" is a repository of historical data that is organized by the subject to support decision-makers in the organization.", "Once data is stored in a data mart or warehouse, it can be accessed." ], [ "Related systems (data mart, OLAP, OLTP, predictive analytics)", "A data mart is a simple form of a data warehouse that is focused on a single subject (or functional area), hence they draw data from a limited number of sources such as sales, finance or marketing.", "Data marts are often built and controlled by a single department within an organization.", "The sources could be internal operational systems, a central data warehouse, or external data.", "Denormalization is the norm for data modeling techniques in this system.", "Given that data marts generally cover only a subset of the data contained in a data warehouse, they are often easier and faster to implement.+ Difference between data warehouse and Attribute Data warehouse Data mart Scope of the data enterprise-wide department-wide Number of subject areas multiple single How difficult to build difficult easy How much time takes to build more less Amount of memory larger limitedTypes of data marts include dependent, independent, and hybrid data marts.Online analytical processing (OLAP) is characterized by a relatively low volume of transactions.", "Queries are often very complex and involve aggregations.", "For OLAP systems, response time is an effective measure.", "OLAP applications are widely used by Data Mining techniques.", "OLAP databases store aggregated, historical data in multi-dimensional schemas (usually star schemas).", "OLAP systems typically have a data latency of a few hours, as opposed to data marts, where latency is expected to be closer to one day.", "The OLAP approach is used to analyze multidimensional data from multiple sources and perspectives.", "The three basic operations in OLAP are Roll-up (Consolidation), Drill-down, and Slicing & Dicing.Online transaction processing (OLTP) is characterized by a large number of short on-line transactions (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).", "OLTP systems emphasize very fast query processing and maintaining data integrity in multi-access environments.", "For OLTP systems, effectiveness is measured by the number of transactions per second.", "OLTP databases contain detailed and current data.", "The schema used to store transactional databases is the entity model (usually 3NF).", "Normalization is the norm for data modeling techniques in this system.Predictive analytics is about finding and quantifying hidden patterns in the data using complex mathematical models that can be used to predict future outcomes.", "Predictive analysis is different from OLAP in that OLAP focuses on historical data analysis and is reactive in nature, while predictive analysis focuses on the future.", "These systems are also used for customer relationship management (CRM)." ], [ "History", "The concept of data warehousing dates back to the late 1980s when IBM researchers Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy developed the \"business data warehouse\".", "In essence, the data warehousing concept was intended to provide an architectural model for the flow of data from operational systems to decision support environments.", "The concept attempted to address the various problems associated with this flow, mainly the high costs associated with it.", "In the absence of a data warehousing architecture, an enormous amount of redundancy was required to support multiple decision support environments.", "In larger corporations, it was typical for multiple decision support environments to operate independently.", "Though each environment served different users, they often required much of the same stored data.", "The process of gathering, cleaning and integrating data from various sources, usually from long-term existing operational systems (usually referred to as legacy systems), was typically in part replicated for each environment.", "Moreover, the operational systems were frequently reexamined as new decision support requirements emerged.", "Often new requirements necessitated gathering, cleaning and integrating new data from \"data marts\" that was tailored for ready access by users.Additionally, with the publication of The IRM Imperative (Wiley & Sons, 1991) by James M. Kerr, the idea of managing and putting a dollar value on an organization's data resources and then reporting that value as an asset on a balance sheet became popular.", "In the book, Kerr described a way to populate subject-area databases from data derived from transaction-driven systems to create a storage area where summary data could be further leveraged to inform executive decision-making.", "This concept served to promote further thinking of how a data warehouse could be developed and managed in a practical way within any enterprise.Key developments in early years of data warehousing:* 1960s – General Mills and Dartmouth College, in a joint research project, develop the terms ''dimensions'' and ''facts''.", "* 1970s – ACNielsen and IRI provide dimensional data marts for retail sales.", "* 1970s – Bill Inmon begins to define and discuss the term Data Warehouse.", "* 1975 – Sperry Univac introduces MAPPER (MAintain, Prepare, and Produce Executive Reports), a database management and reporting system that includes the world's first 4GL.", "It is the first platform designed for building Information Centers (a forerunner of contemporary data warehouse technology).", "* 1983 – Teradata introduces the DBC/1012 database computer specifically designed for decision support.", "* 1984 – Metaphor Computer Systems, founded by David Liddle and Don Massaro, releases a hardware/software package and GUI for business users to create a database management and analytic system.", "* 1988 – Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy publish the article \"An architecture for a business and information system\" where they introduce the term \"business data warehouse\".", "* 1990 – Red Brick Systems, founded by Ralph Kimball, introduces Red Brick Warehouse, a database management system specifically for data warehousing.", "* 1991 - James M. Kerr authors The IRM Imperative, which suggests data resources could be reported as an asset on a balance sheet, furthering commercial interest in the establishment of data warehouses.", "* 1991 – Prism Solutions, founded by Bill Inmon, introduces Prism Warehouse Manager, software for developing a data warehouse.", "* 1992 – Bill Inmon publishes the book ''Building the Data Warehouse''.", "* 1995 – The Data Warehousing Institute, a for-profit organization that promotes data warehousing, is founded.", "* 1996 – Ralph Kimball publishes the book ''The Data Warehouse Toolkit''.", "* 1998 – Focal modeling is implemented as an ensemble (hybrid) data warehouse modeling approach, with Patrik Lager as one of the main drivers.", "* 2000 – Dan Linstedt releases in the public domain the Data vault modeling, conceived in 1990 as an alternative to Inmon and Kimball to provide long-term historical storage of data coming in from multiple operational systems, with emphasis on tracing, auditing and resilience to change of the source data model.", "* 2008 – Bill Inmon, along with Derek Strauss and Genia Neushloss, publishes \"DW 2.0: The Architecture for the Next Generation of Data Warehousing\", explaining his top-down approach to data warehousing and coining the term, data-warehousing 2.0.", "* 2008 – Anchor modeling was formalized in a paper presented at the International Conference on Conceptual Modeling, and won the best paper award* 2012 – Bill Inmon develops and makes public technology known as \"textual disambiguation\".", "Textual disambiguation applies context to raw text and reformats the raw text and context into a standard data base format.", "Once raw text is passed through textual disambiguation, it can easily and efficiently be accessed and analyzed by standard business intelligence technology.", "Textual disambiguation is accomplished through the execution of textual ETL.", "Textual disambiguation is useful wherever raw text is found, such as in documents, Hadoop, email, and so forth.", "* 2013 – Data vault 2.0 was released, having some minor changes to the modeling method, as well as integration with best practices from other methodologies, architectures and implementations including agile and CMMI principles" ], [ "Information storage", "===Facts===A fact is a value, or measurement, which represents a fact about the managed entity or system.Facts, as reported by the reporting entity, are said to be at raw level; e.g., in a mobile telephone system, if a BTS (base transceiver station) receives 1,000 requests for traffic channel allocation, allocates for 820, and rejects the remaining, it would report three '''facts''' or measurements to a management system:* * * Facts at the raw level are further aggregated to higher levels in various dimensions to extract more service or business-relevant information from it.", "These are called aggregates or summaries or aggregated facts.For instance, if there are three BTS in a city, then the facts above can be aggregated from the BTS to the city level in the network dimension.", "For example:* * ===Dimensional versus normalized approach for storage of data===There are three or more leading approaches to storing data in a data warehouse – the most important approaches are the dimensional approach and the normalized approach.The dimensional approach refers to Ralph Kimball's approach in which it is stated that the data warehouse should be modeled using a Dimensional Model/star schema.", "The normalized approach, also called the 3NF model (Third Normal Form), refers to Bill Inmon's approach in which it is stated that the data warehouse should be modeled using an E-R model/normalized model.====Dimensional approach====In a dimensional approach, transaction data is partitioned into \"facts\", which are generally numeric transaction data, and \"dimensions\", which are the reference information that gives context to the facts.", "For example, a sales transaction can be broken up into facts such as the number of products ordered and the total price paid for the products, and into dimensions such as order date, customer name, product number, order ship-to and bill-to locations, and salesperson responsible for receiving the order.A key advantage of a dimensional approach is that the data warehouse is easier for the user to understand and to use.", "Also, the retrieval of data from the data warehouse tends to operate very quickly.", "Dimensional structures are easy to understand for business users, because the structure is divided into measurements/facts and context/dimensions.", "Facts are related to the organization's business processes and operational system whereas the dimensions surrounding them contain context about the measurement (Kimball, Ralph 2008).", "Another advantage offered by dimensional model is that it does not involve a relational database every time.", "Thus, this type of modeling technique is very useful for end-user queries in data warehouse.The model of facts and dimensions can also be understood as a data cube.", "Where the dimensions are the categorical coordinates in a multi-dimensional cube, the fact is a value corresponding to the coordinates.The main disadvantages of the dimensional approach are the following:# To maintain the integrity of facts and dimensions, loading the data warehouse with data from different operational systems is complicated.# It is difficult to modify the data warehouse structure if the organization adopting the dimensional approach changes the way in which it does business.====Normalized approach====In the normalized approach, the data in the data warehouse are stored following, to a degree, database normalization rules.", "Tables are grouped together by ''subject areas'' that reflect general data categories (e.g., data on customers, products, finance, etc.).", "The normalized structure divides data into entities, which creates several tables in a relational database.", "When applied in large enterprises the result is dozens of tables that are linked together by a web of joins.", "Furthermore, each of the created entities is converted into separate physical tables when the database is implemented (Kimball, Ralph 2008).The main advantage of this approach is that it is straightforward to add information into the database.", "Some disadvantages of this approach are that, because of the number of tables involved, it can be difficult for users to join data from different sources into meaningful information and to access the information without a precise understanding of the sources of data and of the data structure of the data warehouse.Both normalized and dimensional models can be represented in entity–relationship diagrams as both contain joined relational tables.", "The difference between the two models is the degree of normalization (also known as Normal Forms).", "These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and there are other approaches.", "Dimensional approaches can involve normalizing data to a degree (Kimball, Ralph 2008).In ''Information-Driven Business'', Robert Hillard proposes an approach to comparing the two approaches based on the information needs of the business problem.", "The technique shows that normalized models hold far more information than their dimensional equivalents (even when the same fields are used in both models) but this extra information comes at the cost of usability.", "The technique measures information quantity in terms of information entropy and usability in terms of the Small Worlds data transformation measure." ], [ "Design methods", "===Bottom-up design===In the ''bottom-up'' approach, data marts are first created to provide reporting and analytical capabilities for specific business processes.", "These data marts can then be integrated to create a comprehensive data warehouse.", "The data warehouse bus architecture is primarily an implementation of \"the bus\", a collection of conformed dimensions and conformed facts, which are dimensions that are shared (in a specific way) between facts in two or more data marts.===Top-down design===The ''top-down'' approach is designed using a normalized enterprise data model.", "\"Atomic\" data, that is, data at the greatest level of detail, are stored in the data warehouse.", "Dimensional data marts containing data needed for specific business processes or specific departments are created from the data warehouse.===Hybrid design===Data warehouses often resemble the hub and spokes architecture.", "Legacy systems feeding the warehouse often include customer relationship management and enterprise resource planning, generating large amounts of data.", "To consolidate these various data models, and facilitate the extract transform load process, data warehouses often make use of an operational data store, the information from which is parsed into the actual data warehouse.", "To reduce data redundancy, larger systems often store the data in a normalized way.", "Data marts for specific reports can then be built on top of the data warehouse.A hybrid (also called ensemble) data warehouse database is kept on third normal form to eliminate data redundancy.", "A normal relational database, however, is not efficient for business intelligence reports where dimensional modelling is prevalent.", "Small data marts can shop for data from the consolidated warehouse and use the filtered, specific data for the fact tables and dimensions required.", "The data warehouse provides a single source of information from which the data marts can read, providing a wide range of business information.", "The hybrid architecture allows a data warehouse to be replaced with a master data management repository where operational (not static) information could reside.The data vault modeling components follow hub and spokes architecture.", "This modeling style is a hybrid design, consisting of the best practices from both third normal form and star schema.", "The data vault model is not a true third normal form, and breaks some of its rules, but it is a top-down architecture with a bottom up design.", "The data vault model is geared to be strictly a data warehouse.", "It is not geared to be end-user accessible, which, when built, still requires the use of a data mart or star schema-based release area for business purposes." ], [ "Data warehouse characteristics", "There are basic features that define the data in the data warehouse that include subject orientation, data integration, time-variant, nonvolatile data, and data granularity.===Subject-oriented===Unlike the operational systems, the data in the data warehouse revolves around the subjects of the enterprise.", "Subject orientation is not database normalization.", "Subject orientation can be really useful for decision-making.Gathering the required objects is called subject-oriented.===Integrated===The data found within the data warehouse is integrated.", "Since it comes from several operational systems, all inconsistencies must be removed.", "Consistencies include naming conventions, measurement of variables, encoding structures, physical attributes of data, and so forth.===Time-variant===While operational systems reflect current values as they support day-to-day operations, data warehouse data represents a long time horizon (up to 10 years) which means it stores mostly historical data.", "It is mainly meant for data mining and forecasting.", "(E.g.", "if a user is searching for a buying pattern of a specific customer, the user needs to look at data on the current and past purchases.", ")===Nonvolatile===The data in the data warehouse is read-only, which means it cannot be updated, created, or deleted (unless there is a regulatory or statutory obligation to do so)." ], [ "Data warehouse options", "===Aggregation===In the data warehouse process, data can be aggregated in data marts at different levels of abstraction.", "The user may start looking at the total sale units of a product in an entire region.", "Then the user looks at the states in that region.", "Finally, they may examine the individual stores in a certain state.", "Therefore, typically, the analysis starts at a higher level and drills down to lower levels of details.===Virtualization===With data virtualization, the data used remains in its original locations and real-time access is established to allow analytics across multiple sources creating a virtual data warehouse.", "This can aid in resolving some technical difficulties such as compatibility problems when combining data from various platforms, lowering the risk of error caused by faulty data, and guaranteeing that the newest data is used.", "Furthermore, avoiding the creation of a new database containing personal information can make it easier to comply with privacy regulations.", "However, with data virtualization, the connection to all necessary data sources must be operational as there is no local copy of the data, which is one of the main drawbacks of the approach." ], [ "Data warehouse architecture", "The different methods used to construct/organize a data warehouse specified by an organization are numerous.", "The hardware utilized, software created and data resources specifically required for the correct functionality of a data warehouse are the main components of the data warehouse architecture.", "All data warehouses have multiple phases in which the requirements of the organization are modified and fine-tuned." ], [ "Versus operational system", "Operational systems are optimized for the preservation of data integrity and speed of recording of business transactions through use of database normalization and an entity–relationship model.", "Operational system designers generally follow Codd's 12 rules of database normalization to ensure data integrity.", "Fully normalized database designs (that is, those satisfying all Codd rules) often result in information from a business transaction being stored in dozens to hundreds of tables.", "Relational databases are efficient at managing the relationships between these tables.", "The databases have very fast insert/update performance because only a small amount of data in those tables is affected each time a transaction is processed.", "To improve performance, older data are usually periodically purged from operational systems.Data warehouses are optimized for analytic access patterns.", "Analytic access patterns generally involve selecting specific fields and rarely if ever , which selects all fields/columns, as is more common in operational databases.", "Because of these differences in access patterns, operational databases (loosely, OLTP) benefit from the use of a row-oriented DBMS whereas analytics databases (loosely, OLAP) benefit from the use of a column-oriented DBMS.", "Unlike operational systems which maintain a snapshot of the business, data warehouses generally maintain an infinite history which is implemented through ETL processes that periodically migrate data from the operational systems over to the data warehouse." ], [ "Evolution in organization use", "These terms refer to the level of sophistication of a data warehouse:; Offline operational data warehouse: Data warehouses in this stage of evolution are updated on a regular time cycle (usually daily, weekly or monthly) from the operational systems and the data is stored in an integrated reporting-oriented database.", "; Offline data warehouse: Data warehouses at this stage are updated from data in the operational systems on a regular basis and the data warehouse data are stored in a data structure designed to facilitate reporting.", "; On-time data warehouse: Online Integrated Data Warehousing represent the real-time Data warehouses stage data in the warehouse is updated for every transaction performed on the source data; Integrated data warehouse: These data warehouses assemble data from different areas of business, so users can look up the information they need across other systems." ], [ "See also", "* List of business intelligence software* Data mesh, a domain-oriented data architecture paradigm for managing big data* Marketing.xml, a standard used for importing marketing data into a data warehouse (2010)* Virtual Database Manager, represents non-relational data in a virtual data warehouse" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Davenport, Thomas H. and Harris, Jeanne G. ''Competing on Analytics: The New Science of Winning'' (2007) Harvard Business School Press.", "* Ganczarski, Joe.", "''Data Warehouse Implementations: Critical Implementation Factors Study'' (2009) VDM Verlag * Kimball, Ralph and Ross, Margy.", "''The Data Warehouse Toolkit'' Third Edition (2013) Wiley, * Linstedt, Graziano, Hultgren.", "''The Business of Data Vault Modeling'' Second Edition (2010) Dan linstedt, * William Inmon.", "''Building the Data Warehouse'' (2005) John Wiley and Sons," ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disperser" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''disperser''' is a one-sided extractor.", "Where an extractor requires that every event gets the same probability under the uniform distribution and the extracted distribution, only the latter is required for a disperser.", "So for a disperser, an event we have:'''Definition (Disperser):''' ''A'' ''-disperser is a function''''such that for every distribution'' ''on'' ''with'' ''the support of the distribution'' ''is of size at least'' ." ], [ "Graph theory", "An '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-disperser''' is a bipartite graph with ''N'' vertices on the left side, each with degree ''D'', and ''M'' vertices on the right side, such that every subset of ''K'' vertices on the left side is connected to more than (1 − ''e'')''M'' vertices on the right.An extractor is a related type of graph that guarantees an even stronger property; every '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-extractor''' is also an '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-disperser'''." ], [ "Other meanings", "A disperser is a high-speed mixing device used to disperse or dissolve pigments and other solids into a liquid." ], [ "See also", "*Expander graph" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Devonian" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Devonian''' ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era during the Phanerozoic eon, spanning 60.3 million years from the end of the preceding Silurian period at million years ago (Ma), to the beginning of the succeeding Carboniferous period at Ma.", "It is named after Devon, South West England, where rocks from this period were first studied.The first significant evolutionary radiation of life on land occurred during the Devonian, as free-sporing land plants (pteridophytes) began to spread across dry land, forming extensive coal forests which covered the continents.", "By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of vascular plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants (pteridospermatophytes) appeared.", "This rapid evolution and colonization process, which had begun during the Silurian, is known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution.", "The earliest land animals, predominantly arthropods such as myriapods, arachnids and hexapods, also became well-established early in this period, after beginning their colonization of land at least from the Ordovician period.Fishes, especially jawed fish, reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the '''Age of Fishes'''.", "The armored placoderms began dominating almost every known aquatic environment.", "In the oceans, cartilaginous fishes such as primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician.", "Tetrapodomorphs, which include the ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates (i.e.", "tetrapods), began diverging from freshwater lobe-finned fish as their more robust and muscled pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into forelimbs and hindlimbs, though they were not fully established for life on land until the Late Carboniferous.The first ammonites, a subclass of cephalopod molluscs, appeared.", "Trilobites, brachiopods and the great coral reefs were still common during the Devonian.", "The Late Devonian extinction, which started about 375 Ma, severely affected marine life, killing off most of the reef systems, most of the jawless fish, half of all placoderms, and nearly all trilobites save for a few species of the order Proetida.", "The subsequent end-Devonian extinction, which occurred at around 359 Ma, further impacted the ecosystems and completed the extinction of all calcite sponge reefs and placoderms.Devonian palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent Gondwana to the south, the small continent of Siberia to the north, and the medium-sized continent of Laurussia to the east.", "Major tectonic events include the closure of the Rheic Ocean, the separation of South China from Gondwana, and the resulting expansion of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean.", "The Devonian experienced several major mountain-building events as Laurussia and Gondwana approached; these include the Acadian Orogeny in North America and the beginning of the Variscan Orogeny in Europe.", "These early collisions preceded the formation of the single supercontinent Pangaea in the Late Paleozoic." ], [ "History of definition", "The rocks of Lummaton Quarry in Torquay in Devon played an early role in defining the Devonian PeriodThe period is named after Devon, a county in southwestern England, where a controversial argument in the 1830s over the age and structure of the rocks found distributed throughout the county was eventually resolved by the definition of the Devonian Period in the geological timescale.", "The Great Devonian Controversy was a long period of vigorous argument and counter-argument between the main protagonists of Roderick Murchison with Adam Sedgwick against Henry De la Beche supported by George Bellas Greenough.", "Murchison and Sedgwick won the debate and named the period they proposed as the Devonian System.While the rock beds that define the start and end of the Devonian Period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain.", "According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian Ma, to the beginning of the Carboniferous Ma – in North America, at the beginning of the Mississippian subperiod of the Carboniferous.In 19th-century texts the Devonian has been called the \"Old Red Age\", after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in the United Kingdom as the Old Red Sandstone in which early fossil discoveries were found.", "Another common term is \"Age of the Fishes\", referring to the evolution of several major groups of fish that took place during the period.", "Older literature on the Anglo-Welsh basin divides it into the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian, and Farlovian stages, the latter three of which are placed in the Devonian.The Devonian has also erroneously been characterised as a \"greenhouse age\", due to sampling bias: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the strata of western Europe and eastern North America, which at the time straddled the Equator as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where fossil signatures of widespread reefs indicate tropical climates that were warm and moderately humid.", "In fact the climate in the Devonian differed greatly during its epochs and between geographic regions.", "For example, during the Early Devonian, arid conditions were prevalent through much of the world including Siberia, Australia, North America, and China, but Africa and South America had a warm temperate climate.", "In the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common." ], [ "Subdivisions{{anchor\|subdivisions}}", "The Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle and Late subdivisions.", "The rocks corresponding to those epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle and Upper parts of the Devonian System.", ";Early DevonianThe Early Devonian lasted from to Ma.", "It began with the Lochkovian Stage to Ma, which was followed by the Pragian from to Ma and then by the Emsian, which lasted until the Middle Devonian began, Ma.During this time, the first ammonoids appeared, descending from bactritoid nautiloids.", "Ammonoids during this time period were simple and differed little from their nautiloid counterparts.", "These ammonoids belong to the order Agoniatitida, which in later epochs evolved to new ammonoid orders, for example Goniatitida and Clymeniida.", "This class of cephalopod molluscs would dominate the marine fauna until the beginning of the Mesozoic Era.", ";Middle DevonianThe Middle Devonian comprised two subdivisions: first the Eifelian, which then gave way to the Givetian Ma.", "During this time the jawless agnathan fishes began to decline in diversity in freshwater and marine environments partly due to drastic environmental changes and partly due to the increasing competition, predation, and diversity of jawed fishes.", "The shallow, warm, oxygen-depleted waters of Devonian inland lakes, surrounded by primitive plants, provided the environment necessary for certain early fish to develop such essential characteristics as well developed lungs, and the ability to crawl out of the water and onto the land for short periods of time.", ";Late DevonianFinally, the Late Devonian started with the Frasnian, to Ma, during which the first forests took shape on land.", "The first tetrapods appeared in the fossil record in the ensuing Famennian subdivision, the beginning and end of which are marked with extinction events.", "This lasted until the end of the Devonian, Ma." ], [ "Climate", "The Devonian was a relatively warm period, although significant glaciers may have existed during the Early and Middle Devonian.", "The temperature gradient from the equator to the poles was not as large as it is today.", "The weather was also very arid, mostly along the equator where it was the driest.", "Reconstruction of tropical sea surface temperature from conodont apatite implies an average value of in the Early Devonian.", "Early Devonian mean annual surface temperatures were approximately 16 °C.", "levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian Period.", "The newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere, which were then buried into sediments.", "This may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around .", "The Late Devonian warmed to levels equivalent to the Early Devonian; while there is no corresponding increase in concentrations, continental weathering increases (as predicted by warmer temperatures); further, a range of evidence, such as plant distribution, points to a Late Devonian warming.", "The climate would have affected the dominant organisms in reefs; microbes would have been the main reef-forming organisms in warm periods, with corals and stromatoporoid sponges taking the dominant role in cooler times.", "The warming at the end of the Devonian may even have contributed to the extinction of the stromatoporoids.", "At the terminus of the Devonian, Earth rapidly cooled into an icehouse, marking the beginning of the Late Paleozoic icehouse." ], [ "Paleogeography", "The Devonian world involved many continents and ocean basins of various sizes.", "The largest continent, Gondwana, was located entirely within the Southern Hemisphere.", "It corresponds to modern day South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India, as well as minor components of North America and Asia.", "The second-largest continent, Laurussia, was northwest of Gondwana, and corresponds to much of modern-day North America and Europe.", "Various smaller continents, microcontinents, and terranes were present east of Laurussia and north of Gondwana, corresponding to parts of Europe and Asia.", "The Devonian Period was a time of great tectonic activity, as the major continents of Laurussia and Gondwana drew closer together.Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay under shallow seas, where tropical reef organisms lived.", "The enormous \"world ocean\", Panthalassa, occupied much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as wide swathes east of Gondwana and west of Laurussia.", "Other minor oceans were the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and Rheic Ocean.=== Laurussia ===Continental boundary of Laurussia (Euramerica) and its constituents, superimposed onto modern coastlinesBy the early Devonian, the continent Laurussia (also known as Euramerica) was fully formed through the collision of the continents Laurentia (modern day North America) and Baltica (modern day northern and eastern Europe).", "The tectonic effects of this collision continued into the Devonian, producing a string of mountain ranges along the southeastern coast of the continent.", "In present-day eastern North America, the Acadian Orogeny continued to raise the Appalachian Mountains.", "Further east, the collision also extended the rise of the Caledonian Mountains of Great Britain and Scandinavia.", "As the Caledonian Orogeny wound down in the later part of the period, orogenic collapse facilitated a cluster of granite intrusions in Scotland.Most of Laurussia was located south of the equator, but in the Devonian it moved northwards and began to rotate counterclockwise towards its modern position.", "While the most northern parts of the continent (such as Greenland and Ellesmere Island) established tropical conditions, most of the continent was located within the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn, which (as nowadays) is a result of the convergence of two great air-masses, the Hadley cell and the Ferrel cell.", "In these near-deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidised iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions.", "The abundance of red sandstone on continental land also lends Laurussia the name \"the Old Red Continent\".", "For much of the Devonian, the majority of western Laurussia (North America) was covered by subtropical inland seas which hosted a diverse ecosystem of reefs and marine life.", "Devonian marine deposits are particularly prevalent in the midwestern and northeastern United States.", "Devonian reefs also extended along the southeast edge of Laurussia, a coastline now corresponding to southern England, Belgium, and other mid-latitude areas of Europe.In the Early and Middle Devonian, the west coast of Laurussia was a passive margin with broad coastal waters, deep silty embayments, river deltas and estuaries, found today in Idaho and Nevada.", "In the Late Devonian, an approaching volcanic island arc reached the steep slope of the continental shelf and began to uplift deep water deposits.", "This minor collision sparked the start of a mountain-building episode called the Antler orogeny, which extended into the Carboniferous.", "Mountain building could also be found in the far northeastern extent of the continent, as minor tropical island arcs and detached Baltic terranes re-join the continent.", "Deformed remnants of these mountains can still be found on Ellesmere Island and Svalbard.", "Many of the Devonian collisions in Laurussia produce both mountain chains and foreland basins, which are frequently fossiliferous.=== Gondwana ===The Early-Middle Devonian world, with major continents Gondwana (Go), Euramerica/Laurussia (Eu), and Siberia (Si)Gondwana was by far the largest continent on the planet.", "It was completely south of the equator, although the northeastern sector (now Australia) did reach tropical latitudes.", "The southwestern sector (now South America) was located to the far south, with Brazil situated near the South Pole.", "The northwestern edge of Gondwana was an active margin for much of the Devonian, and saw the accretion of many smaller land masses and island arcs.", "These include Chilenia, Cuyania, and Chaitenia, which now form much of Chile and Patagonia.", "These collisions were associated with volcanic activity and plutons, but by the Late Devonian the tectonic situation had relaxed and much of South America was covered by shallow seas.", "These south polar seas hosted a distinctive brachiopod fauna, the Malvinokaffric Realm, which extended eastward to marginal areas now equivalent to South Africa and Antarctica.", "Malvinokaffric faunas even managed to approach the South Pole via a tongue of Panthalassa which extended into the Paraná Basin.The northern rim of Gondwana was mostly a passive margin, hosting extensive marine deposits in areas such as northwest Africa and Tibet.", "The eastern margin, though warmer than the west, was equally active.", "Numerous mountain building events and granite and kimberlite intrusions affected areas equivalent to modern day eastern Australia, Tasmania, and Antarctica.=== Asian terranes ===The earth at 380 Ma, centered on the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, which fully opened during the DevonianSeveral island microcontinents (which would later coalesce into modern day Asia) stretched over a low-latitude archipelago to the north of Gondwana.", "They were separated from the southern continent by an oceanic basin: the Paleo-Tethys.", "Although the western Paleo-Tethys Ocean had existed since the Cambrian, the eastern part only began to rift apart as late as the Silurian.", "This process accelerated in the Devonian.", "The eastern branch of the Paleo-Tethys was fully opened when South China and Annamia (a terrane equivalent to most of Indochina), together as a unified continent, detached from the northeastern sector of Gondwana.", "Nevertheless, they remained close enough to Gondwana that their Devonian fossils were more closely related to Australian species than to north Asian species.", "Other Asian terranes remained attached to Gondwana, including Sibumasu (western Indochina), Tibet, and the rest of the Cimmerian blocks.World map at 400 Ma (Early Devonian), showing continents and terranes with modern continent borders superimposedWhile the South China-Annamia continent was the newest addition to the Asian microcontinents, it was not the first.", "North China and the Tarim Block (now northwesternmost China) were located westward and continued to drift northwards, powering over older oceanic crust in the process.", "Further west was a small ocean (the Turkestan Ocean), followed by the larger microcontinents of Kazakhstania, Siberia, and Amuria.", "Kazakhstania was a volcanically active region during the Devonian, as it continued to assimilate smaller island arcs.", "The island arcs of the region, such as the Balkhash-West Junggar Arc, exhibited biological endemism as a consequence of their location.Siberia was located just north of the equator as the largest landmass in the Northern Hemisphere.", "At the beginning of the Devonian, Siberia was inverted (upside down) relative to its modern orientation.", "Later in the period it moved northwards and began to twist clockwise, though it was not near its modern location.", "Siberia approached the eastern edge of Laurussia as the Devonian progressed, but it was still separated by a seaway, the Ural Ocean.", "Although Siberia's margins were generally tectonically stable and ecologically productive, rifting and deep mantle plumes impacted the continent with flood basalts during the Late Devonian.", "The Altai-Sayan region was shaken by volcanism in the Early and Middle Devonian, while Late Devonian magmatism was magnified further to produce the Vilyuy Traps, flood basalts which may have contributed to the Late Devonian Mass Extinction.", "The last major round of volcanism, the Yakutsk Large Igneous Province, continued into the Carboniferous to produce extensive kimberlite deposits.Similar volcanic activity also affected the nearby microcontinent of Amuria (now Manchuria, Mongolia and their vicinities).", "Though certainly close to Siberia in the Devonian, the precise location of Amuria is uncertain due to contradictory paleomagnetic data.=== Closure of the Rheic Ocean ===The Rheic Ocean, which separated Laurussia from Gondwana, was wide at the start of the Devonian, having formed after the drift of Avalonia away from Gondwana.", "It steadily shrunk as the period continued, as the two major continents approached near the equator in the early stages of the assembly of Pangaea.", "The closure of the Rheic Ocean began in the Devonian and continued into the Carboniferous.", "As the ocean narrowed, endemic marine faunas of Gondwana and Laurussia combined into a single tropical fauna.", "The history of the western Rheic Ocean is a subject of debate, but there is good evidence that Rheic oceanic crust experienced intense subduction and metamorphism under Mexico and Central America.The closure of the eastern part of the Rheic Ocean is associated with the assemblage of central and southern Europe.", "In the early Paleozoic, much of Europe was still attached to Gondwana, including the terranes of Iberia, Armorica (France), Palaeo-Adria (the western Mediterranean area), Bohemia, Franconia, and Saxothuringia.", "These continental blocks, collectively known as the Armorican Terrane Assemblage, split away from Gondwana in the Silurian and drifted towards Laurussia through the Devonian.", "Their collision with Laurussia leads to the beginning of the Variscan Orogeny, a major mountain-building event which would escalate further in the Late Paleozoic.", "Franconia and Saxothuringia collided with Laurussia near the end of the Early Devonian, pinching out the easternmost Rheic Ocean.", "The rest of the Armorican terranes followed, and by the end of the Devonian they were fully connected with Laurussia.", "This sequence of rifting and collision events led to the successive creation and destruction of several small seaways, including the Rheno-Hercynian, Saxo-Thuringian, and Galicia-Moldanubian oceans.", "Their sediments were eventually compressed and completely buried as Gondwana fully collided with Laurussia in the Carboniferous." ], [ "Life", "===Marine biota===Spindle diagram for the evolution of vertebratesSea levels in the Devonian were generally high.", "Marine faunas continued to be dominated by conodonts, bryozoans, diverse and abundant brachiopods, the enigmatic hederellids, microconchids, and corals.", "Lily-like crinoids (animals, their resemblance to flowers notwithstanding) were abundant, and trilobites were still fairly common.", "Bivalves became commonplace in deep water and outer shelf environments.", "The first ammonites also appeared during or slightly before the early Devonian Period around 400 Ma.", "Bactritoids make their first appearance in the Early Devonian as well; their radiation, along with that of ammonoids, has been attributed by some authors to increased environmental stress resulting from decreasing oxygen levels in the deeper parts of the water column.", "Among vertebrates, jawless armored fish (ostracoderms) declined in diversity, while the jawed fish (gnathostomes) simultaneously increased in both the sea and fresh water.", "Armored placoderms were numerous during the early ages of the Devonian Period and became extinct in the Late Devonian, perhaps because of competition for food against the other fish species.", "Early cartilaginous (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes (Osteichthyes) also become diverse and played a large role within the Devonian seas.", "The first abundant genus of cartilaginous fish, ''Cladoselache'', appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period.", "The great diversity of fish around at the time has led to the Devonian being given the name \"The Age of Fishes\" in popular culture.The Devonian period saw the development of early sharks, armoured placoderms and various lobe-finned fishes including the tetrapod transitional speciesDiorama of a Devonian seafloorThe Devonian saw significant expansion in the diversity of nektonic marine life driven by the abundance of planktonic microorganisms in the free water column as well as high ecological competition in benthic habitats, which were extremely saturated; this diversification has been labeled the ''Devonian Nekton Revolution'' by many researchers.", "However, other researchers have questioned whether this revolution existed at all; a 2018 study found that although the proportion of biodiversity constituted by nekton increased across the boundary between the Silurian and Devonian, it decreased across the span of the Devonian, particularly during the Pragian, and that the overall diversity of nektonic taxa did not increase significantly during the Devonian compared to during other geologic periods, and was in fact higher during the intervals spanning from the Wenlock to the Lochkovian and from the Carboniferous to the Permian.", "The study's authors instead attribute the increased overall diversity of nekton in the Devonian to a broader, gradual trend of nektonic diversification across the entire Palaeozoic.===Reefs===A now-dry barrier reef, located in present-day Kimberley Basin of northwest Australia, once extended , fringing a Devonian continent.", "Reefs are generally built by various carbonate-secreting organisms that can erect wave-resistant structures near sea level.", "Although modern reefs are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous algae, Devonian reefs were either microbial reefs built up mostly by autotrophic cyanobacteria or coral-stromatoporoid reefs built up by coral-like stromatoporoids and tabulate and rugose corals.", "Microbial reefs dominated under the warmer conditions of the early and late Devonian, while coral-stromatoporoid reefs dominated during the cooler middle Devonian.===Terrestrial biota===''Prototaxites milwaukeensis'', a large fungus, initially thought to be a marine alga, from the Middle Devonian of WisconsinBy the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land.", "The moss forests and bacterial and algal mats of the Silurian were joined early in the period by primitive rooted plants that created the first stable soils and harbored arthropods like mites, scorpions, trigonotarbids and myriapods (although arthropods appeared on land much earlier than in the Early Devonian and the existence of fossils such as ''Protichnites'' suggest that amphibious arthropods may have appeared as early as the Cambrian).", "By far the largest land organism at the beginning of this period was the enigmatic ''Prototaxites'', which was possibly the fruiting body of an enormous fungus, rolled liverwort mat, or another organism of uncertain affinities that stood more than tall, and towered over the low, carpet-like vegetation during the early part of the Devonian.", "Also, the first possible fossils of insects appeared around 416 Ma, in the Early Devonian.", "Evidence for the earliest tetrapods takes the form of trace fossils in shallow lagoon environments within a marine carbonate platform/shelf during the Middle Devonian, although these traces have been questioned and an interpretation as fish feeding traces (''Piscichnus'') has been advanced.====The greening of land====The Devonian Period marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by plants.", "With large land-dwelling herbivores not yet present, large forests grew and shaped the landscape.Many Early Devonian plants did not have true roots or leaves like extant plants, although vascular tissue is observed in many of those plants.", "Some of the early land plants such as ''Drepanophycus'' likely spread by vegetative growth and spores.", "The earliest land plants such as ''Cooksonia'' consisted of leafless, dichotomous axes with terminal sporangia and were generally very short-statured, and grew hardly more than a few centimetres tall.", "Fossils of ''Armoricaphyton chateaupannense'', about 400 million years old, represent the oldest known plants with woody tissue.", "By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperms evolved.", "Most of these plants had true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall.", "The earliest-known trees appeared in the Middle Devonian.", "These included a lineage of lycopods and another arborescent, woody vascular plant, the cladoxylopsids and progymnosperm ''Archaeopteris''.", "These tracheophytes were able to grow to large size on dry land because they had evolved the ability to biosynthesize lignin, which gave them physical rigidity and improved the effectiveness of their vascular system while giving them resistance to pathogens and herbivores.", "These are the oldest-known trees of the world's first forests.", "By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared.", "This rapid appearance of many plant groups and growth forms has been referred to as the Devonian Explosion or the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution.The 'greening' of the continents acted as a carbon sink, and atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide may have dropped.", "This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive extinction event.", "(''See'' Late Devonian extinction).====Animals and the first soils====Primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure.", "The evolving co-dependence of insects and seed plants that characterized a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the Late Devonian Epoch.", "The development of soils and plant root systems probably led to changes in the speed and pattern of erosion and sediment deposition.", "The rapid evolution of a terrestrial ecosystem that contained copious animals opened the way for the first vertebrates to seek terrestrial living.", "By the end of the Devonian, arthropods were solidly established on the land.===Gallery===File:D Terrelli.png\|''Dunkleosteus'', one of the largest armoured fish ever to roam the planet, lived during the Late DevonianFile:Titanichthys clarkii reconstruction.png\|Titanichthys, a planktivorous arthrodire from the Famennian of the Cleveland Shale of Ohio.File:Eastmanosteus pustulosus.jpg\|Lower jaw of ''Eastmanosteus pustulosus'' from the Middle Devonian of WisconsinFile:Onychodus.jpg\|Tooth of the lobe-finned fish ''Onychodus'' from the Middle Devonian of WisconsinFile:Bothriolepis_canadensis.jpg\|Bothriolepis, a diverse antiarch genus that lived from the Mid to Late Devonian.File:Devonianfishes ntm 1905 smit 1929.gif\|Shark-like ''Cladoselache'', several lobe-finned fishes, including ''Eusthenopteron'' that was an early marine tetrapodomorph, and the placoderm ''Bothriolepis'' in a painting from 1905File:Melocrinites nodosus spinosus.jpg\|''Melocrinites nodosus spinosus'', a spiny, stalked crinoid from the Middle Devonian of WisconsinFile:PhacopidDevonian.jpg\|Enrolled phacopid trilobite from the Devonian of OhioFile:AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg\|The common tabulate coral ''Aulopora'' from the Middle Devonian of Ohio – view of colony encrusting a brachiopod valveFile:Tropidoleptus carinatus.jpg\|''Tropidoleptus carinatus'', an orthid brachiopod from the Middle Devonian of New YorkFile:Pleurodictyum americanum Kashong.jpg\|''Pleurodictyum americanum'', Kashong Shale, Middle Devonian of New YorkFile:HederelloidSEM.jpg\|SEM image of a hederelloid from the Devonian of Michigan (largest tube diameter is 0.75 mm)File:HederellaOH3.jpg\|Devonian spiriferid brachiopod from Ohio which served as a host substrate for a colony of hederelloidsFile:Prototaxites Dawson1888.PNG\|Prototaxites, an 8-meter genus of fungus." ], [ "Late Devonian extinction", "The Late Devonian is characterised by three episodes of extinction (\"Late D\")The Late Devonian extinction is not a single event, but rather is a series of pulsed extinctions at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, and the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary.", "Together, these are considered one of the \"Big Five\" mass extinctions in Earth's history.", "The Devonian extinction crisis primarily affected the marine community, and selectively affected shallow warm-water organisms rather than cool-water organisms.", "The most important group to be affected by this extinction event were the reef-builders of the great Devonian reef systems.Amongst the severely affected marine groups were the brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites, and acritarchs, and the world saw the disappearance of an estimated 96% of vertebrates like conodonts and bony fishes, and all of the ostracoderms and placoderms.", "Land plants as well as freshwater species, such as our tetrapod ancestors, were relatively unaffected by the Late Devonian extinction event (there is a counterargument that the Devonian extinctions nearly wiped out the tetrapods).The reasons for the Late Devonian extinctions are still unknown, and all explanations remain speculative.", "Canadian paleontologist Digby McLaren suggested in 1969 that the Devonian extinction events were caused by an asteroid impact.", "However, while there were Late Devonian collision events (see the Alamo bolide impact), little evidence supports the existence of a large enough Devonian crater." ], [ "See also", "* .", "One of the largest exposed Devonian fossil beds in the world.", "* * * ''(with link directory)''* , a Devonian trilobite;Categories:" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * – site introduces the Devonian* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dungeon Master (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''Dungeon Master''' is the organizer of a ''Dungeons & Dragons'' role-playing game.", "'''Dungeon Master''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Games", "* ''Dungeon Master'' (video game), a 1987 video game series* ''The Dungeon Master'' (video game), a 1983 video game for the ZX Spectrum* ''Zork III: The Dungeon Master'', a 1982 interactive fiction game" ], [ "Film and television", "* Dungeon Master, a character in ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (TV series)* ''The Dungeonmaster'', a 1984 film* ''The Dungeon Masters'', a 2008 documentary film" ], [ "Other uses", "Dungeon monitor, or dungeon master, a person charged with supervising a playspace at BDSM events ''The Dungeon Master: The Disappearance of James Dallas Egbert III'', a 1985 non-fiction book by William Dear" ], [ "See also", "* Dungeon (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Thompson (explorer)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Thompson''' (30 April 1770 – 10 February 1857) was an Anglo-Canadian fur trader, surveyor, and cartographer, known to some native people as \"Koo-Koo-Sint\" or \"the Stargazer\".", "Over Thompson's career, he travelled across North America, mapping of the continent along the way.", "For this historic feat, Thompson has been described as the \"greatest practical land geographer that the world has produced\"." ], [ "Early life", "Grey Coat Hospital, front entrance, taken in 1880David Thompson was born in Westminster, Middlesex, to recent Welsh migrants David and Ann Thompson.", "When Thompson was two, his father died.", "Due to his widowed mother not having financial resources, she placed Thompson, 29 April 1777, the day before his seventh birthday, and his older brother in the Grey Coat Hospital, a school for the disadvantaged of Westminster.", "Thompson graduated to the Grey Coat mathematical school, well known for teaching navigation and surveying.", "He received an education for the Royal Navy: including mathematics of trigonometry and geometry, practical navigation including using of nautical instruments, finding latitudes and longitudes and making navigational calculations from observing the sun, moon and tide, and drawing maps and charts, taking land measurements, and sketching landscapes.", "He later built on these skills to make his career.", "In 1784, when Thompson was 14, the Grey Coat treasurer paid the Hudson's Bay Company the sum of five pounds, upon which the youth became an apprentice employee of the company, contracted for a period of seven years to be trained as a clerk.", "He set sail on a ship to North America on 28 May of that year, leaving England." ], [ "Hudson's Bay Company (HBC)", "On 2 September 1784, Thompson arrived in Churchill (now in Manitoba) and was put to work as a clerk/secretary, copying the personal papers of the governor of Fort Churchill, Samuel Hearne.", "The next year he was transferred to nearby York Factory, and over the next few years spent time as a secretary at Cumberland House, Saskatchewan, and South Branch House of the Hudson Bay Company before being transferred to Manchester House in 1787.During those years he learned to keep accounts and other records, calculate values of furs (It was noted that he also had several expensive beaver pelts at that time even when a secretary's job would not pay terribly well), track supplies and other duties.On 23 December 1788, Thompson seriously fractured his tibia, forcing him to spend the next two winters at Cumberland House convalescing.", "It was during this time that he greatly refined and expanded his mathematical, astronomical, and surveying skills under the tutelage of Hudson's Bay Company surveyor Philip Turnor.", "It was also during this time that he lost sight in his right eye.In 1790, with his apprenticeship nearing its end, Thompson requested a set of surveying tools in place of the typical parting gift of fine clothes offered by the company to those completing their indenture.", "He received both.", "He entered the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company as a fur trader.", "In 1792 he completed his first significant survey, mapping a route to Lake Athabasca (where today's Alberta/Saskatchewan border is located).", "Between February and May 1793, Thompson made 34 observations of the longitude of Cumberland House using lunar distances.", "The mean of these observations was 102°12′ W, about 2' east of the modern value.", "The mean error of the 34 observations was about 15' of longitude.", "Broughton (2009) notes that the precision of the type of sextant used by Thompson was 15\" of arc, corresponding to 7.5' of longitude giving an absolute limit to the precision of an individual observation.", "The error in Thompson's mean was several times less than this.", "The time he took on these observations, about 3 hours of calculation each, indicates that he understood the power of averages.In recognition of his map-making and surveying skills, the company promoted Thompson to the surveyor in 1794.He continued working for the Hudson's Bay Company until 23 May 1797 when, frustrated by an order to cease surveying and focus on the fur trade, he left.", "He walked in the snow in order to enter the employ of the competition, the North West Company.", "There he continued to work as a fur trader and surveyor." ], [ "North West Company", "Thompson's decision to defect to the North West Company (NWC) in 1797 without providing the customary one-year notice was not well received by his former employers.", "But the North West Company was more supportive of Thompson pursuing his work on surveying and mapping the interior of what was to become Canada, as they judged it in the company's interest to know the exact locations of their settlements and the distances between them.", "In 1797, Thompson was sent south by his employers to survey part of the Canada-US boundary along the water routes from Lake Superior to Lake of the Woods to satisfy unresolved questions of territory arising from the Jay Treaty between Great Britain and the United States after the American Revolutionary War.By 1798 Thompson had completed a survey of from Grand Portage, through Lake Winnipeg, to the headwaters of the Assiniboine and Mississippi rivers, as well as two sides of Lake Superior.", "In 1798, the company sent him to Red Deer Lake (Lac La Biche in present-day Alberta) to establish a trading post.", "(The English translation of Lac la Biche: Red Deer Lake, was first recorded on the Mackenzie map of 1793.)", "Thompson spent the next few seasons trading based in Fort George (now in Alberta), and during this time led several expeditions into the Rocky Mountains.On 10 July 1804, at the annual meeting of the North West Company in Kaministiquia, Thompson was made a full partner of the company.", "He became a 'wintering partner', who was based in the field rather than Montreal, and was granted two of the 92 NWC's shares worth more than £4,000.He spent the next few seasons based there managing the fur trading operations, but still finding time to expand his surveys of the waterways around Lake Superior.", "At the 1806 company meeting, officers decided to send Thompson back into the interior.", "Concern over the United States-backed expedition of Lewis and Clark prompted the North West Company to charge Thompson with the task of finding a route to the Pacific to open up the lucrative trading territories of the Pacific Northwest." ], [ "Columbia River travels", "David Thompson navigated the entire length of Columbia River in 1811.This map of the Columbia and its tributaries shows modern political boundaries.After the general meeting in 1806, Thompson travelled to Rocky Mountain House and prepared for an expedition to follow the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean.", "In June 1807 Thompson crossed the Rocky Mountains and spent the summer surveying the Columbia basin; he continued to survey the area over the next few seasons.", "Thompson mapped and established trading posts in Northwestern Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Western Canada.", "Trading posts he founded included Kootenae House, Kullyspell House and Saleesh House; the latter two were the first trading posts west of the Rockies in Idaho and Montana, respectively.", "These posts established by Thompson extended North West Company fur trading territory into the Columbia Basin drainage area.", "The maps he made of the Columbia River basin east of the Cascade Mountains were of such high quality and detail that they continued to be useful into the 20th-century.In early 1810, Thompson was returning eastward toward Montreal but, while en route at Rainy Lake, received orders to return to the Rocky Mountains and establish a route to the mouth of the Columbia.", "The North West Company was responding to the plans of American entrepreneur John Jacob Astor to send a ship around the Americas to establish a fur trading post of the Pacific Fur Company on the Pacific Coast.", "During his return, Thompson was delayed by an angry group of Peigan natives at Howse Pass.", "He was ultimately forced to seek a new route across the Rocky Mountains and found one through the Athabasca Pass.David Thompson was the first European to navigate the full length of the Columbia River.", "Between Kettle Falls (3 July 1811) and the Junction of the Columbia and Snake Rivers (9 July), he was travelling through country that had never been visited by Europeans, and took time to visit the villages along the way to establish good relations, helped by copious quantities of tobacco.", "In 1805 Lewis and Clark had descended the Snake River, and continued down the Columbia.", "On reaching the junction Thompson erected a pole and a notice claiming the country for Great Britain and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a trading post at the site.", "This notice was found later that year by Astor company workers looking to establish an inland fur post, contributing to their selection of a more northerly site at Fort Okanogan.", "The North West Company established its post of Fort Nez Percés near the Snake River confluence several years later.", "Continuing down the Columbia, Thompson passed over the Celilo Falls, almost losing the canoe on the rocks, and portaged around the rapids of The Dalles and the Cascades Rapids.", "On 14 July 1811, Thompson reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia, arriving two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the ''Tonquin''.Before returning upriver and across the mountains, Thompson hired Naukane, a Native Hawaiian Takane labourer brought to Fort Astoria by the Pacific Fur Company's ship ''Tonquin''.", "Naukane, known as Coxe to Thompson, accompanied Thompson across the continent to Lake Superior before journeying on to England.Thompson wintered at Saleesh House before beginning his final journey in 1812 back to Montreal, where the North West Company was based.In his published journals, Thompson recorded seeing large footprints (“which measured fourteen inches in length by eight inches in breadth”) near what is now Jasper, Alberta, in 1811.It has been suggested that these prints were similar to what has since been called the sasquatch.", "However, Thompson noted that these tracks showed \"a small Nail at the end of each toe\", which led him to surmise it was a bear, but he had doubts, saying, \"I held it to be the track of a large old grizzled bear; yet the shortness of the nails, the ball of the foot, and its great size was not that of a Bear\".The years 1807-1812 are the most carefully scrutinized in his career and comprise his most enduring historical legacy, due to his development of the commercial routes across the Rockies, and his mapping of the lands they traverse." ], [ "Appearance and personality", "David Thompson late in lifeIn 1820, the English geologist, John Jeremiah Bigsby, attended a dinner party given by The Hon.", "William McGillivray at his home, Chateau St. Antoine, one of the early estates in Montreal's Golden Square Mile.", "He describes the party and some of the guests in his entertaining book ''The Shoe and Canoe'', giving an excellent description of David Thompson:" ], [ "Marriage and children", "On 10 June 1799 at Île-à-la-Crosse, Thompson married Charlotte Small, a thirteen-year-old Métis daughter of Scottish fur trader Patrick Small and a Cree mother.", "Their marriage was formalised thirteen years later at the Scotch Presbyterian Church in Montreal on 30 October 1812.He and Charlotte had 13 children together; five of them were born before he left the fur trade.", "The family did not adjust easily to life in Eastern Canada; they lived in Montreal while he was travelling.", "Two of the children, John (aged 5) and Emma (aged 7), died of round worms, a common parasite.", "By the time of Thompson's death, the couple had been married 57 years, the longest marriage known in Canada pre-Confederation." ], [ "Later life", "Map of the North-West Territory of the Province of Canada, stretching from the Fraser River on the west to Lake Superior on the east.", "By David Thompson, 1814.Upon his arrival back in Montreal, Thompson retired with a generous pension from the North West Company.", "He settled in nearby Terrebonne and worked on completing his great map, a summary of his lifetime of exploring and surveying the interior of North America.", "The map covered the wide area stretching from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and was given by Thompson to the North West Company.", "Thompson's 1814 map, his greatest achievement, was so accurate that 100 years later it was still the basis for many of the maps issued by the Canadian government.", "It now resides in the Archives of Ontario.In 1815, Thompson moved his family to Williamstown, Upper Canada, and a few years later was employed to survey the newly established borders with the United States from Lake of the Woods to the Eastern Townships of Quebec, established by Treaty of Ghent after the War of 1812.In 1843 Thompson completed his atlas of the region from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean.Afterwards, Thompson returned to a life as a land owner, but soon financial misfortune would ruin him.", "By 1831 he was so deeply in debt he was forced to take up a position as a surveyor for the British American Land Company to provide for his family.", "His luck continued to worsen and he was forced to move in with his daughter and son-in-law in 1845.He began work on a manuscript chronicling his life exploring the continent, but this project was left unfinished when his sight failed him completely in 1851." ], [ "Death and afterward", "Postage stamp commemorating David Thompson's lifeThe land mass mapped by Thompson amounted to of wilderness (one-fifth of the continent).", "His contemporary, the great explorer Alexander Mackenzie, remarked that Thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years.Despite these significant achievements, Thompson died in Montreal in near obscurity on 10 February 1857, his accomplishments almost unrecognised.", "He never finished the book of his 28 years in the fur trade, based on his 77 field notebooks, before he died.", "In the 1890s geologist J.B. Tyrrell resurrected Thompson's notes and in 1916 published them as ''David Thompson's Narrative'', as part of the General Series of the Champlain Society.", "Further editions and re-examinations of Thompson's life and works were published in 1962 by Richard Glover, in 1971 by Victor Hopwood, and in 2015 by William Moreau.Lac la Biche, where he landed on 4 October 1798.Thompson's body was interred in Montreal's Mount Royal Cemetery in an unmarked grave.", "It was not until 1926 that efforts by J.B. Tyrrell and the Canadian Historical Society resulted in the placing of a tombstone to mark his grave.", "The next year, Thompson was named a National Historic Person by the federal government, one of the earliest such designations.", "A federal plaque reflecting that status is located at Jasper National Park, Alberta.", "Meantime, Thompson's achievements are central reasons for other national historic designations:* David Thompson on the Columbia River National Historic Event, marked at Castlegar, BC* Athabasca Pass National Historic Site (NHS), at Jasper National Park* Boat Encampment NHS, BC* Howse Pass NHS, Banff National Park, Alberta* Kootenae House NHS, BC* Rocky Mountain House NHS, AlbertaDavid & Charlotte Thompson's gravestone in Mount Royal CemeteryIn 1957, one hundred years after his death, Canada's post office department honoured him with his image on a postage stamp.", "The David Thompson Highway in Alberta was named in his honour, along with David Thompson High School situated on the side of the highway near Leslieville, Alberta.", "There are also two David Thompson Secondary Schools, one in Vancouver, BC, and one in Invermere, BC.His prowess as a geographer is now well-recognized.", "He has been called \"the greatest land geographer that the world has produced.", "\"There is a monument dedicated to David Thompson (maintained by the state of North Dakota) near the former town site of the ghost town Verendrye, North Dakota, located approximately north and west of Karlsruhe, North Dakota.", "Thompson Falls, Montana, and British Columbia's Thompson River and Thompson Falls on the Blaeberry River are also named after the explorer.David Thompson Memorial, Verendrye, North DakotaThe year 2007 marked the 150th year of Thompson's death and the 200th anniversary of his first crossing of the Rocky Mountains.", "Commemorative events and exhibits were planned across Canada and the United States from 2007 to 2011 as a celebration of his accomplishments.In 2007, a commemorative plaque was placed on a wall at the Grey Coat Hospital, the school for the disadvantaged of Westminster David Thompson attended as a boy, by English author and TV presenter Ray Mears.Thompson was the subject of a 1964 National Film Board of Canada short film ''David Thompson: The Great Mapmaker '', as well as the BBC2 programme ''Ray Mears' Northern Wilderness'' (Episode 5), broadcast in November 2009.He's also the subject of 2010 KSPS-TV film '''Uncharted Territory: David Thompson on the Columbia Plateau'''.He is referenced in the 1981 folk song \"Northwest Passage\" by Stan Rogers.The national park service, Parks Canada, announced in 2018 that it had named its new research vessel , to be used for underwater archaeology, including sea floor mapping, and for marine science in the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic Oceans, and the Great Lakes.", "It will be the main platform for research on the Wrecks of HMS ''Erebus'' and HMS ''Terror'' National Historic Site.The David Thompson Astronomical Observatory at Fort William Historical Park was named to commemorate David Thompson and his discoveries." ], [ "See also", "* Exploration of North America* Fur trade" ], [ "Works", "* 1814: Map of the North-West Territory of the Province of Canada* 1897: ''New light on the early history of the greater Northwest'' (edited by Elliott Coues) Volume I; Volume II; Volume III* 1916: '' David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America, 1784–1812'' (edited by J.B. Tyrrell)* 1950: '' David Thompson's journals relating to Montana and adjacent regions, 1808–1812'' (edited by M. Catherine White)* 1962: '' David Thompson's narrative, 1784–1812'' (edited by Richard Glover)* 1974: ''David Thompson's journal of the international boundary survey, 1817–1827: western Lake Erie, August–September 1819'' (edited by Clarke E. Leverette)* 1993: ''Columbia Journals'' (edited by Barbara Belyea)* 2006: \" Moccasin Miles – The Travels of Charlotte Small Thompson 1799–1812 \" Contemporary and Historical Maps: Charlotte Small (S. Leanne Playter/Andreas N. Korsos\|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting)* 2006/2007: \"David Thompson in Alberta 1787–1812\"; \"David Thompson on the Columbia River 1807–1812\"; \"The Explorations and Travels of David Thompson 1784–1812\"; \"Posts and Forts of the North American Fur Trade 1600–1870\" Contemporary and Historical Maps: David Thompson (Andreas N. Korsos\|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting)* 2010 : Official Documentary of Thompson was released by national geographic, ca." ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes", "* * * * * 2006: \"Moccasin Miles – The Travels of Charlotte Small Thompson 1799–1812\" Contemporary and Historical Maps: Charlotte Small (S. Leanne Playter/Andreas N. Korsos\|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting)" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection* * * * " ], [ "External links", " David Thompson's Narrative of His Explorations in Western America 1784–1812 Vol's I and II, Champlain Society 1916, PDF (B/W) 25.1 MB* Complete text of David Thompson's ''Narrative'' (Tyrrell edition) Champlain Society digital collection* Complete text of David Thompson's ''Narrative'' (Glover edition) Champlain Society digital collection* * Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''* '' David Thompson: Map Maker, Explorer and Visionary'', online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website* DavidThompson200: bicentennial commemorations of Thompson's explorations* KSPS Public TV (PBS), , Narrative of David Thompson's life and travels.", "/ Feb 2011* The Writings of David Thompson edited by William E. Moreau.", "Three volumes.", "* David Thompson Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dioscoreales" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dioscoreales''' are an order of monocotyledonous flowering plants, organized under modern classification systems, such as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group or the Angiosperm Phylogeny Web.", "Among monocot plants, Dioscoreales are grouped with the lilioid monocots, wherein they are a sister group to the Pandanales.", "In total, the order Dioscoreales comprises three families, 22 genera and about 850 species.Dioscoreales contains the family Dioscoreaceae, which notably includes the yams (''Dioscorea'') and several other bulbous and tuberous plants, some of which are heavily cultivated as staple food sources in certain countries.", "Certain species are found solely in arid climates (incl.", "parts of Southern Africa), and have adapted to this harsh environment as caudex-forming, perennial caudiciformes, including ''Dioscorea elephantipes'', the \"elephant's foot\" or \"elephant-foot yam\".Older systems tended to place all lilioid monocots with reticulate veined leaves (such as Smilacaceae and Stemonaceae together with Dioscoraceae) in Dioscoreales; as currently circumscribed by phylogenetic analysis, using combined morphology and molecular methods, Dioscreales now contains many reticulate-veined vines within the Dioscoraceae, as well as the myco-heterotrophic Burmanniaceae and the autotrophic Nartheciaceae." ], [ "Description", "Dioscoreales are vines or herbaceous forest floor plants.", "They may be achlorophyllous or saprophytic.", "Synapomorphies include tuberous roots, glandular hairs, seed coat characteristics and the presence of calcium oxalate crystals.", "Other characteristics of the order include the presence of saponin steroids, annular vascular bundles that are found in both the stem and leaf.", "The leaves are often unsheathed at the base, have a distinctive petiole and reticulate veined lamina.", "Alternatively they may be small and scale-like with a sheathed base.", "The flowers are actinomorphic, and may be bisexual or dioecious, while the flowers or inflorescence bear glandular hairs.", "The perianth may be conspicuous or reduced and the style is short with well developed style branches.", "The tepals persist in the development of the fruit, which is a dry capsule or berry.", "In the seed, the endotegmen is tanniferous and the embryo short.All of the species except the genera placed in Nartheciaceae express simultaneous microsporogenesis.", "Plants in Nartheciaceae show successive microsporogenesis which is one of the traits indicating that the family is sister to all the other members included in the order." ], [ "Taxonomy", "=== Pre-Darwinian ===For the early history from Lindley (1853) onwards, see Caddick ''et al.''", "(2000) Table 1, Caddick et al.", "(2002a) Table 1 and Table 2 in Bouman (1995).", "The taxonomic classification of Dioscoreales has been complicated by the presence of a number of morphological features reminiscent of the dicotyledons, leading some authors to place the order as intermediate between the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons.''D.", "polystachya'') in Hooker's ''A General System of Botany'' 1873 While Lindley did not use the term \"Dioscoreales\", he placed the family Dioscoraceae together with four other families in what he referred to as an Alliance (the equivalent of the modern Order) called Dictyogens.", "He reflected the uncertainty as to the place of this Alliance by placing it as a class of its own between Endogens (monocots) and Exogens (dicots) The botanical authority is given to von Martius (1835) by APG for his description of the family Dioscoreae or ''Ordo'', while other sources cite Hooker (Dioscoreales Hook.f.)", "for his use of the term \"Dioscorales\" in 1873 with a single family, Dioscoreae.", "However, in his more definitive work, the ''Genera plantara'' (1883), he simply placed Dioscoraceae in the Epigynae \"Series\".===Post-Darwinian===Although Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) preceded Bentham and Hooker's publication, the latter project was commenced much earlier and George Bentham was initially sceptical of Darwinism.", "The new phyletic approach changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata, but this did little to further define the circumscription of Dioscoreaceae.", "The major works in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century employing this approach were in the German literature.", "Authors such as Eichler, Engler and Wettstein placed this family in the Liliiflorae, a major subdivision of monocotyledons.", "it remained to Hutchinson (1926) to resurrect the Dioscoreales to group Dioscoreaceae and related families together.", "Hutchinson's circumscription of Dioscoreales included three other families in addition to Dioscoreaceae, Stenomeridaceae, Trichopodaceae and Roxburghiaceae.", "Of these only Trichopodaceae was included in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification (see below), but was subsumed into Dioscoraceae.", "Stenomeridaceae, as ''Stenomeris'' was also included in Dioscoreaceae as subfamily Stenomeridoideae, the remaining genera being grouped in subfamily Dioscoreoideae.", "Roxburghiaceae on the other hand was segregated in the sister order Pandanales as Stemonaceae.", "Most taxonomists in the twentieth century (the exception was the 1981 Cronquist system which placed most such plants in order Liliales, subclass Liliidae, class Liliopsida=monocotyledons, division Magnoliophyta=angiosperms) recognised Dioscoreales as a distinct order, but demonstrated wide variations in its composition.Dahlgren, in the second version of his taxonomic classification (1982) raised the Liliiflorae to a superorder and placed Dioscoreales as an order within it.", "In his system, Dioscoreales contained only three families, Dioscoreaceae, Stemonaceae (''i.e.''", "Hutchinson's Roxburghiaceae) and Trilliaceae.", "The latter two families had been treated as a separate order (Stemonales, or Roxburghiales) by other authors, such as Huber (1969).", "The APG would later assign these to Pandanales and Liliales respectively.", "Dahlgren's construction of Dioscoreaceae included the Stenomeridaceae and Trichopodaceae, doubting these were distinct, and Croomiaceae in Stemonaceae.", "Furthermore, he expressed doubts about the order's homogeneity, especially Trilliaceae.", "The Dioscoreales at that time were marginally distinguishable from the Asparagales.", "In his examination of Huber's Stemonales, he found that the two constituent families had as close an affinity to Dioscoreaceae as to each other, and hence included them.", "He also considered closely related families and their relationship to Dioscoreales, such as the monogeneric Taccaceae, then in its own order, Taccales.", "Similar considerations were discussed with respect to two Asparagales families, Smilacaceae and Petermanniaceae.In Dahlgren's third and final version (1985) that broader circumscription of Dioscoreales was created within the superorder Lilianae, subclass Liliidae (monocotyledons), class Magnoliopsida (angiosperms) and comprised the seven families Dioscoreaceae, Petermanniaceae, Smilacaceae, Stemonaceae, Taccaceae, Trichopodaceae and Trilliaceae.", "Thismiaceae has either been treated as a separate family closely related to Burmanniaceae or as a tribe (Thismieae) within a more broadly defined Burmanniaceae, forming a separate order, Burmanniales, in the Dahlgren system.", "The related Nartheciaceae were treated as tribe Narthecieae within the Melanthiaceae in a third order, the Melanthiales, by Dahlgren.", "Dahlgren considered the Dioscoreales to most strongly resemble the ancestral monocotyledons, and hence sharing \"dicotyledonous\" characteristics, making it the most central monocotyledon order.", "Of these seven families, Bouman considered Dioscoreaceae, Trichopodaceae, Stemonaceae and Taccaceae to represent the \"core\" families of the order.", "However, that study also indicated both a clear delineation of the order from other orders particularly Asparagales, and a lack of homogeneity within the order.=== Molecular phylogenetics and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ===The increasing availability of molecular phylogenetics methods in addition to morphological characteristics in the 1990s led to major reconsiderations of the relationships within the monocotyledons.", "In that large multi-institutional examination of the seed plants using the plastid gene ''rbc''L the authors used Dahlgren's system as their basis, but followed Thorne (1992) in altering the suffixes of the superorders from \"''-iflorae''\" to \"''-anae''\".", "This demonstrated that the Lilianae comprised three lineages corresponding to Dahlgren's orders Dioscoreales, Liliales, and Asparagaless.Under the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system of 1998, which took Dahlgren's system as a basis, the order was placed in the monocot clade and comprised the five families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae, Thismiaceae and Trichopodaceae.In APG II (2003), a number of changes were made to Dioscoreales, as a result of an extensive study by Caddick and colleagues (2002), using an analysis of three genes, ''rbc''L, ''atp''B and 18S rDNA, in addition to morphology.", "These studies resulted in a re-examination of the relationships between most of the genera within the order.", "Thismiaceae was shown to be a sister group to Burmanniaceae, and so was included in it.", "The monotypic families Taccaceae and Trichopodaceae were included in Dioscoreaceae, while Nartheciaceae could also be grouped within Dioscoreales.", "APG III (2009) did not change this, so the order now comprises three families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae.Although further research on the deeper relationships within Dioscoreales continues, the APG IV (2016) authors felt it was still premature to propose a restructuring of the order.", "Specifically these issues involve conflicting information as to the relationship between ''Thismia'' and Burmanniaceae, and hence whether Thismiaceae should be subsumed in the latter, or reinstated.=== Phylogeny ===Molecular phylogenetics in Dioscoreales poses special problems due to the absence of plastid genes in mycoheterotrophs.", "Dioscoreales is monophyletic and is placed as a sister order to Pandanales, as shown in Cladogram I.=== Evolution ===The data for the evolution of the order is collected from molecular analyses since there are no such fossils found.", "It is estimated that Dioscoreales and its sister clade Pandanales split up around 121 million years ago during Early Cretaceous when the stem group was formed.", "Then it took 3 to 6 million years for the crown group to differentiate in Mid Cretaceous.=== Subdivision ===The three families of Dioscreales constitutes about 22 genera and about 849 species making it one of the smaller monocot orders.", "Of these, the largest group is ''Dioscorea'' (yams) with about 450 species.", "By contrast the second largest genus is ''Burmannia'' with about 60 species, and most have only one or two.Some authors, preferring the original APG (1998)families, continue to treat Thismiaceae separately from Burmanniaceae and Taccaceae from Dioscoreaceae.", "But in the 2015 study of Hertwerk and colleagues, seven genera representing all three families were examined with an eight gene dataset.", "Dioscoreales was monophyletic and three subclades were represented corresponding to the APG families.", "Dioscoreaceae and Burmanniaceae were in a sister group relationship.=== Etymology ===Named after the type genus ''Dioscorea'', which in turn was named by Linnaeus in 1753 to honour the Greek physician and botanist Dioscorides." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Species from this order are distributed across all of the continents except Antarctica.", "They are mainly tropical or subtropical representatives, but some members of families Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae are found in cooler regions of Europe and North America.", "Order Dioscoreales contains plants that are able to form an underground organ for reservation of nutritions as many other monocots.", "An exception is the family Burmanniaceae which is entirely myco-heterotrophic and contains species that lack photosynthetic abilities." ], [ "Ecology", "''Narthecium ossifragum'' - bog asphodelThe three families included in order Dioscoreales also represent three different ecological groups of plants.", "Dioscoreaceae contains mainly vines (''Dioscorea'') and other crawling species (''Epipetrum'').", "Nartheciaceae on the other hand is a family composed of herbaceous plants with a rather lily-like appearance (''Aletris'') while Burmanniaceae is entirely myco-heterotrophic group." ], [ "Uses", "Many members of Dioscoreaceae produce tuberous starchy roots (yams) which form staple foods in tropical regions.", "They have also been the source of steroids for the pharmaceutical industry, including the production of oral contraceptives." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Articles and chapters ===* , In * , In ** Excerpts* * * * * * * * * * * * , In * * * === Books and symposia ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * === Databases ===* * * * === APG ===* * * " ], [ "External links", " Dioscoreales: Air potatoes and Bat flowers* Kress WJ.", "Dioscoreales.", "Encyclopædia Britannica 2016" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Default" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Default''' may refer to:" ], [ "Law", "* Default (law), the failure to do something required by law Default (finance), failure to satisfy the terms of a loan obligation or failure to pay back a loan Default judgment, a binding judgment in favor of either party based on some failure to take action by the other party** Default rule, a rule of law that can be overridden by a contract, trust, will, or other legally effective agreement" ], [ "Science, technology", "* Default (computer science), a preset setting or value that will be used if no choice is done during program use or installation and setup* Default password, allows the device to be accessed during its initial setup, or after resetting to factory defaults* defaults (software), a command line utility for plist (preference) files for macOS and GNUstep" ], [ "Music", "* \"Default\" (Atoms for Peace song), 2012* Default (band), a Canadian post-grunge and alternative rock band* \"Default\" (Django Django song), 2012* ''By Default'', a 2016 album by Band of Skulls" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Default'' (2014 film), an American action thriller film* ''Default'' (2018 film), a South Korean drama film* Default (tennis), a disqualification in the game of tennis" ], [ "See also", "* * Walkover or win by default, in sport" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deposition" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deposition''' may refer to:* Deposition (law), taking testimony outside of court* Deposition (politics), the removal of a person of authority from political power* Deposition (university), a widespread initiation ritual for new students practiced from the Middle Ages until the 18th century" ], [ "Art", "* Deposition from the Cross, the depiction of the removal of Jesus from the cross* ''Deposition'' (Bellini), a 1515–16 painting by Giovanni Bellini and his workshop* ''Deposition of Christ'' (Bronzino), a 1545 oil painting* ''The Deposition'' (Michelangelo), a 1547–55 marble sculpture* ''The Deposition from the Cross'' (Pontormo), a 1528 oil painting* ''Deposition from the Cross'', Volterra (Rosso Fiorentino)* ''The Deposition'' (Raphael), a 1507 oil painting* ''The Deposition'' (Rubens), a 1602 painting by Peter Paul Rubens (previously attributed to van Dyck) now in the Galleria Borghese* ''Deposition'' (Rogier van der Weyden) or ''The Descent from the Cross'', an oil painting, c.1435* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1615), a 1615 painting by Anthony van Dyck, now in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1618), a 1618-20 painting, now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1619), a c.1619 painting, now in the Ashmolean Museum* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1629), a c.1629 painting, now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1629-30) or ''Lamentation over the Dead Christ'', lost 1945* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1634), a 1634 painting, now in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1635), a 1635 painting, now in the now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp* ''Deposition'' (van Dyck, 1640), a 1634-40 painting, now in the Valdes Izaguirre collection" ], [ "Science", "* Deposition (chemistry), molecules settling out of a solution* Deposition (geology), material such as sediment being added to a landform* Deposition (phase transition), the process by which a gas is transformed into a solid* Deposition (aerosol physics), a process where aerosol particles set down onto surfaces" ], [ "Technology", "* Cathodic arc deposition, a physical vapor deposition technique using an electric arc to vaporize material from a cathode target* Chemical vapor deposition, a chemical process used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films* Electron beam-induced deposition, a process of decomposing gaseous molecules by an electron beam* Electrospark deposition, a micro-welding manufacturing process typically used to repair damage to mechanical components* Electrophoretic deposition* Ion beam-assisted deposition, a combination of ion implantation with a physical vapor deposition technique* Molecular vapor deposition, the gas-phase reaction between surface reactive chemicals and an appropriately receptive surface* Nanoparticle deposition, the process of attaching nanoparticles to solid surfaces called substrates to create coatings of nanoparticles* Particle deposition, the spontaneous attachment of particles to surfaces* Physical vapor deposition, a variety of vacuum deposition methods used to produce thin films and coatings* Pulsed laser deposition, a physical vapor deposition technique using a high-power pulsed laser beam in a vacuum chamber" ], [ "Other uses", "* Defrocking or deposition, the opposite of ordination in many Christian churches* \"Depositions\" (''Superstore''), an episode of the TV series ''Superstore''* \"The Deposition\" (''The Office''), an episode of the TV series ''The Office''" ], [ "See also", "* Depo (disambiguation)* Deposit (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dentistry" ], [ "Introduction", "An oral surgeon and dental assistant removing a wisdom tooth'''Dentistry''', also known as '''dental medicine''' and '''oral medicine''', is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth.", "It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the mouth, most commonly focused on dentition (the development and arrangement of teeth) as well as the oral mucosa.", "Dentistry may also encompass other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint.", "The practitioner is called a dentist.The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization, with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC to 5500 BC.", "Dentistry is thought to have been the first specialization in medicine which has gone on to develop its own accredited degree with its own specializations.", "Dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology (the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions.", "However, some specialties such as oral and maxillofacial surgery (facial reconstruction) may require both medical and dental degrees to accomplish.", "In European history, dentistry is considered to have stemmed from the trade of barber surgeons.Dental treatments are carried out by a dental team, which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries (dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, as well as dental therapists).", "Most dentists either work in private practices (primary care), dental hospitals, or (secondary care) institutions (prisons, armed forces bases, etc.", ").The modern movement of evidence-based dentistry calls for the use of high-quality scientific research and evidence to guide decision-making such as in manual tooth conservation, use of fluoride water treatment and fluoride toothpaste, dealing with oral diseases such as tooth decay and periodontitis, as well as systematic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease, cancer, and HIV/AIDS which could also affect the oral cavity.", "Other practices relevant to evidence-based dentistry include radiology of the mouth to inspect teeth deformity or oral malaises, haematology (study of blood) to avoid bleeding complications during dental surgery, cardiology (due to various severe complications arising from dental surgery with patients with heart disease), etc." ], [ "Terminology", "The term dentistry comes from ''dentist'', which comes from French ''dentiste'', which comes from the French and Latin words for tooth.", "The term for the associated scientific study of teeth is '''odontology''' (from ) – the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth." ], [ "Dental treatment", "Dentistry usually encompasses practices related to the oral cavity.", "According to the World Health Organization, oral diseases are major public health problems due to their high incidence and prevalence across the globe, with the disadvantaged affected more than other socio-economic groups.The majority of dental treatments are carried out to prevent or treat the two most common oral diseases which are dental caries (tooth decay) and periodontal disease (gum disease or pyorrhea).", "Common treatments involve the restoration of teeth, extraction or surgical removal of teeth, scaling and root planing, endodontic root canal treatment, and cosmetic dentistryBy nature of their general training, dentists, without specialization can carry out the majority of dental treatments such as restorative (fillings, crowns, bridges), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and extraction of teeth, as well as performing examinations, radiographs (x-rays), and diagnosis.", "Dentists can also prescribe medications used in the field such as antibiotics, sedatives, and any other drugs used in patient management.", "Depending on their licensing boards, general dentists may be required to complete additional training to perform sedation, dental implants, etc.Irreversible enamel defects caused by an untreated celiac disease.", "They may be the only clue to its diagnosis, even in absence of gastrointestinal symptoms, but are often confused with fluorosis, tetracycline discoloration, acid reflux or other causes.", "The National Institutes of Health include a dental exam in the diagnostic protocol of celiac disease.", "Dentists also encourage the prevention of oral diseases through proper hygiene and regular, twice or more yearly, checkups for professional cleaning and evaluation.", "Oral infections and inflammations may affect overall health and conditions in the oral cavity may be indicative of systemic diseases, such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease or cancer.", "Many studies have also shown that gum disease is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and preterm birth.", "The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as \"oral-systemic health\"." ], [ "Education and licensing", "A sagittal cross-section of a molar tooth; 1: crown, 2: root, 3: enamel, 4: dentin and dentin tubules, 5: pulp chamber, 6: blood vessels and nerve, 7: periodontal ligament, 8: apex and periapical region, 9: alveolar boneEarly dental chair in Pioneer West Museum in Shamrock, TexasJohn M. Harris started the world's first dental school in Bainbridge, Ohio, and helped to establish dentistry as a health profession.", "It opened on 21 February 1828, and today is a dental museum.", "The first dental college, Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, opened in Baltimore, Maryland, US in 1840.The second in the United States was the Ohio College of Dental Surgery, established in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1845.The Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery followed in 1852.In 1907, Temple University accepted a bid to incorporate the school.Studies show that dentists that graduated from different countries, or even from different dental schools in one country, may make different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition.", "For example, dentists that graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) more often than dentists that graduated from Latin American or Eastern European dental schools.In the United Kingdom, the first dental schools, the London School of Dental Surgery and the Metropolitan School of Dental Science, both in London, opened in 1859.The British Dentists Act of 1878 and the 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of \"dentist\" and \"dental surgeon\" to qualified and registered practitioners.", "However, others could legally describe themselves as \"dental experts\" or \"dental consultants\".", "The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practising dentistry.", "The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practising illegally.", "Dentists in the United Kingdom are now regulated by the General Dental Council.In many countries, dentists usually complete between five and eight years of post-secondary education before practising.", "Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree.", "In a few countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least four years of postgraduate study; Dental degrees awarded around the world include the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) in North America (US and Canada), and the Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Baccalaureus Dentalis Chirurgiae (BDS, BDent, BChD, BDSc) in the UK and current and former British Commonwealth countries.All dentists in the United States undergo at least three years of undergraduate studies, but nearly all complete a bachelor's degree.", "This schooling is followed by four years of dental school to qualify as a \"Doctor of Dental Surgery\" (DDS) or \"Doctor of Dental Medicine\" (DMD).", "Specialization in dentistry is available in the fields of Anesthesiology, Dental Public Health, Endodontics, Oral Radiology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine, Orofacial Pain, Pathology, Orthodontics, Pediatric Dentistry (Pedodontics), Periodontics, and Prosthodontics." ], [ "Specialties {{anchor\|Specialities<!--alt spelling-->}}", "A modern dental clinic in Lappeenranta, FinlandSome dentists undertake further training after their initial degree in order to specialize.", "Exactly which subjects are recognized by dental registration bodies varies according to location.", "Examples include:Cosmetic dentistry- Focuses on improving the appearance of the mouth, teeth and smile.", " Anesthesiology – The specialty of dentistry that deals with the advanced use of general anesthesia, sedation and pain management to facilitate dental procedures.", "* Dental public health – The study of epidemiology and social health policies relevant to oral health.", "* Endodontics (also called ''endodontology'') – Root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp and periapical tissues.", "* Forensic odontology – The gathering and use of dental evidence in law.", "This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field.", "The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.", "* Geriatric dentistry or ''geriodontics'' – The delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.", "* Oral and maxillofacial pathology – The study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases.", "* Oral and maxillofacial radiology – The study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases.", "* Oral and maxillofacial surgery (also called ''oral surgery'') – Extractions, implants, and surgery of the jaws, mouth and face.", "* Oral biology – Research in dental and craniofacial biology* Oral Implantology – The art and science of replacing extracted teeth with dental implants.", "* Oral medicine – The clinical evaluation and diagnosis of oral mucosal diseases* Orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics – The straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth.", "* Pediatric dentistry (also called ''pedodontics'') – Dentistry for children* Periodontology (also called ''periodontics'') – The study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical) as well as placement and maintenance of dental implants* Prosthodontics (also called ''prosthetic dentistry'') – Dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants.", "** Some prosthodontists super-specialize in maxillofacial prosthetics, which is the discipline originally concerned with the rehabilitation of patients with congenital facial and oral defects such as cleft lip and palate or patients born with an underdeveloped ear (microtia).", "Today, most maxillofacial prosthodontists return function and esthetics to patients with acquired defects secondary to surgical removal of head and neck tumors, or secondary to trauma from war or motor vehicle accidents.", "* Special needs dentistry (also called ''special care dentistry'') – Dentistry for those with developmental and acquired disabilities.", "* Sports dentistry – the branch of sports medicine dealing with prevention and treatment of dental injuries and oral diseases associated with sports and exercise.", "The sports dentist works as an individual consultant or as a member of the Sports Medicine Team.", "* Veterinary dentistry – The field of dentistry applied to the care of animals.", "It is a specialty of veterinary medicine." ], [ "History", "''A wealthy patient falling over because of having a tooth extracted with such vigour by a fashionable dentist'', .", "History of Dentistry.", "''Farmer at the dentist'', Johann Liss, Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities).", "An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools.", "The Indus valley has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC, during the Stone Age.", "The Neolithic site of Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan's south western province of Balochistan) indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead-crafters.", "The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.", "The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago.", "Dentistry was practised in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had a dental abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.An ancient Sumerian text describes a \"tooth worm\" as the cause of dental caries.", "Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China.", "The legend of the worm is also found in the ''Homeric Hymns'', and as late as the 14th century AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay.Recipes for the treatment of toothache, infections and loose teeth are spread throughout the Ebers Papyrus, Kahun Papyri, Brugsch Papyrus, and Hearst papyrus of Ancient Egypt.", "The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, discusses the treatment of dislocated or fractured jaws.", "In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment.", "Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics.", "However, it is possible the prosthetics were prepared after death for aesthetic reasons.Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws.", "Some say the first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC.", "The Phoenicians crafted the oldest documented dentures during the 6th–4th century BC, fashioning them from gold wire and incorporating two ivory teeth.", "In ancient Egypt, Hesy-Ra is the first named \"dentist\" (greatest of the teeth).", "The Egyptians bound replacement teeth together with gold wire.", "Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents.", "The earliest dental amalgams were first documented in a Tang dynasty medical text written by the Chinese physician Su Kung in 659, and appeared in Germany in 1528.During the Islamic Golden Age Dentistry was discussed in several famous books of medicine such as The Canon in medicine written by Avicenna and Al-Tasreef by Al-Zahrawi who is considered the greatest surgeon of the Middle ages, Avicenna said that jaw fracture should be reduced according to the occlusal guidance of the teeth; this principle is still valid in modern times.", "Al-Zahrawi invented over 200 surgical tools that resemble the modern kind.Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses.", "During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians.", "Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection.", "Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries.", "In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac most probably invented the dental pelican (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used to perform dental extractions up until the late 18th century.", "The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 19th century.Dental needle-nose pliers designed by Fauchard in the late 17th century to use in prosthodonticsThe first book focused solely on dentistry was the \"Artzney Buchlein\" in 1530, and the first dental textbook written in English was called \"Operator for the Teeth\" by Charles Allen in 1685.In the United Kingdom, there was no formal qualification for the providers of dental treatment until 1859 and it was only in 1921 that the practice of dentistry was limited to those who were professionally qualified.", "The Royal Commission on the National Health Service in 1979 reported that there were then more than twice as many registered dentists per 10,000 population in the UK than there were in 1921.===Modern dentistry===A microscopic device used in dental analysis, It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed.", "The English physician Thomas Browne in his ''A Letter to a Friend'' ( pub.", "1690) made an early dental observation with characteristic humour:The French surgeon Pierre Fauchard became known as the \"father of modern dentistry\".", "Despite the limitations of the primitive surgical instruments during the late 17th and early 18th century, Fauchard was a highly skilled surgeon who made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watchmakers, jewelers and even barbers, that he thought could be used in dentistry.", "He introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities.", "He asserted that sugar-derived acids like tartaric acid were responsible for dental decay, and also suggested that tumors surrounding the teeth and in the gums could appear in the later stages of tooth decay.Panoramic radiograph of historic dental implants, made 1978Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he invented many methods to replace lost teeth.", "He suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone.", "He also introduced dental braces, although they were initially made of gold, he discovered that the teeth position could be corrected as the teeth would follow the pattern of the wires.", "Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces.", "His contributions to the world of dental science consist primarily of his 1728 publication Le chirurgien dentiste or The Surgeon Dentist.", "The French text included \"basic oral anatomy and function, dental construction, and various operative and restorative techniques, and effectively separated dentistry from the wider category of surgery\".A modern dentist's chairAfter Fauchard, the study of dentistry rapidly expanded.", "Two important books, ''Natural History of Human Teeth'' (1771) and ''Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Teeth'' (1778), were published by British surgeon John Hunter.", "In 1763, he entered into a period of collaboration with the London-based dentist James Spence.", "He began to theorise about the possibility of tooth transplants from one person to another.", "He realised that the chances of a successful tooth transplant (initially, at least) would be improved if the donor tooth was as fresh as possible and was matched for size with the recipient.", "These principles are still used in the transplantation of internal organs.", "Hunter conducted a series of pioneering operations, in which he attempted a tooth transplant.", "Although the donated teeth never properly bonded with the recipients' gums, one of Hunter's patients stated that he had three which lasted for six years, a remarkable achievement for the period.Major advances in science were made in the 19th century, and dentistry evolved from a trade to a profession.", "The profession came under government regulation by the end of the 19th century.", "In the UK, the Dentist Act was passed in 1878 and the British Dental Association formed in 1879.In the same year, Francis Brodie Imlach was the first ever dentist to be elected President of the Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh), raising dentistry onto a par with clinical surgery for the first time.===Hazards in modern dentistry===Long term occupational noise exposure can contribute to permanent hearing loss, which is referred to as noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus.", "Noise exposure can cause excessive stimulation of the hearing mechanism, which damages the delicate structures of the inner ear.", "NIHL can occur when an individual is exposed to sound levels above 90 dBA according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).", "Regulations state that the permissible noise exposure levels for individuals is 90 dBA.", "For the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), exposure limits are set to 85 dBA.", "Exposures below 85 dBA are not considered to be hazardous.", "Time limits are placed on how long an individual can stay in an environment above 85 dBA before it causes hearing loss.", "OSHA places that limitation at 8 hours for 85 dBA.", "The exposure time becomes shorter as the dBA level increases.Within the field of dentistry, a variety of cleaning tools are used including piezoelectric and sonic scalers, and ultrasonic scalers and cleaners.", "While a majority of the tools do not exceed 75 dBA, prolonged exposure over many years can lead to hearing loss or complaints of tinnitus.", "Few dentists have reported using personal hearing protective devices, which could offset any potential hearing loss or tinnitus.===Evidence-based dentistry===There is a movement in modern dentistry to place a greater emphasis on high-quality scientific evidence in decision-making.", "Evidence-based dentistry (EBD) uses current scientific evidence to guide decisions.", "It is an approach to oral health that requires the application and examination of relevant scientific data related to the patient's oral and medical health.", "Along with the dentist's professional skill and expertise, EBD allows dentists to stay up to date on the latest procedures and patients to receive improved treatment.", "A new paradigm for medical education designed to incorporate current research into education and practice was developed to help practitioners provide the best care for their patients.", "It was first introduced by Gordon Guyatt and the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada in the 1990s.", "It is part of the larger movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices, especially since a major part of dentistry involves dealing with oral and systemic diseases.", "Other issues relevant to the dental field in terms of evidence-based research and evidence-based practice include population oral health, dental clinical practice, tooth morphology etc.", "A Dental Chair at the University of Michigan School of Dentistry" ], [ "Ethical and medicolegal issues", "Dentistry is unique in that it requires dental students to have competence-based clinical skills that can only be acquired through supervised specialized laboratory training and direct patient care.", "This necessitates the need for a scientific and professional basis of care with a foundation of extensive research-based education.", "According to some experts, the accreditation of dental schools can enhance the quality and professionalism of dental education." ], [ "See also", "* List of dental organizationsDental aerosolDental instrumentBy countryDentistry in CanadaDentistry in the PhilippinesDentistry in IsraelDentistry in the United KingdomDentistry in the United States" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diameter" ], [ "Introduction", "Circle with In geometry, a '''diameter''' of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the centre of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle.", "It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle.", "Both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere.In more modern usage, the length of a diameter is also called the diameter.", "In this sense one speaks of diameter rather than diameter (which refers to the line segment itself), because all diameters of a circle or sphere have the same length, this being twice the radius :For a convex shape in the plane, the diameter is defined to be the largest distance that can be formed between two opposite parallel lines tangent to its boundary, and the is often defined to be the smallest such distance.", "Both quantities can be calculated efficiently using rotating calipers.", "For a curve of constant width such as the Reuleaux triangle, the width and diameter are the same because all such pairs of parallel tangent lines have the same distance.For an ellipse, the standard terminology is different.", "A diameter of an ellipse is any chord passing through the centre of the ellipse.", "For example, conjugate diameters have the property that a tangent line to the ellipse at the endpoint of one diameter is parallel to the conjugate diameter.", "The longest diameter is called the major axis.The word \"diameter\" is derived from (), \"diameter of a circle\", from (), \"across, through\" and (), \"measure\".", "It is often abbreviated or" ], [ "Generalizations", "The definitions given above are only valid for circles, spheres and convex shapes.", "However, they are special cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of -dimensional (convex or non-convex) object, such as a hypercube or a set of scattered points.", "The or of a subset of a metric space is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset.", "Explicitly, if is the subset and if is the metric, the diameter isIf the metric is viewed here as having codomain (the set of all real numbers), this implies that the diameter of the empty set (the case ) equals (negative infinity).", "Some authors prefer to treat the empty set as a special case, assigning it a diameter of which corresponds to taking the codomain of to be the set of nonnegative reals.For any solid object or set of scattered points in -dimensional Euclidean space, the diameter of the object or set is the same as the diameter of its convex hull.", "In medical parlance concerning a lesion or in geology concerning a rock, the diameter of an object is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the object.In differential geometry, the diameter is an important global Riemannian invariant.In planar geometry, a diameter of a conic section is typically defined as any chord which passes through the conic's centre; such diameters are not necessarily of uniform length, except in the case of the circle, which has eccentricity" ], [ "Symbol", "Sign ⌀ in a technical drawingSign from an AutoCAD drawing in dim.shx font with an angle 16°.", "This font does not contain .The symbol or variable for diameter, , is sometimes used in technical drawings or specifications as a prefix or suffix for a number (e.g.", "\"⌀ 55 mm\"), indicating that it represents diameter.", "For example, photographic filter thread sizes are often denoted in this way.In German, the diameter symbol (German ''Durchmesserzeichen'') is also used as an average symbol (''Durchschnittszeichen'').=== Encodings ===The symbol has a Unicode code point at , in the Miscellaneous Technical set.", "On an Apple Macintosh, the diameter symbol can be entered via the character palette (this is opened by pressing in most applications), where it can be found in the Technical Symbols category.", "In Unix/Linux/ChromeOS systems, it is generated using .", "It can be obtained in Unix-like operating systems using a Compose key by pressing, in sequence, .", "In Windows, it can be entered in most programs with Alt code 8960.The character will sometimes not display correctly, however, since many fonts do not include it.", "In many situations, the Nordic letter ø at Unicode is an acceptable substitute.", "It can be entered on a Macintosh by pressing (the letter o, not the number 0).", "In Unix/Linux/ChromeOS systems, it is generated using or .", "AutoCAD uses available as a shortcut string .In Microsoft Word, the diameter symbol can be acquired by typing and then pressing .In LaTeX, the diameter symbol can be obtained with the command \\diameter from the \"wasysym\" package." ], [ "Diameter vs. radius", "The diameter of a circle is exactly twice its radius.", "However, this is true only for a circle, and only in the Euclidean metric.", "Jung's theorem provides more general inequalities relating the diameter to the radius." ], [ "See also", "* * Caliper, micrometer, tools for measuring diameters* * , a concept in group theory* Eratosthenes, who calculated the diameter of the Earth around 240 BC.", "* * * * * * * The diameters of a screwthread" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Direct examination" ], [ "Introduction", "The ''' direct examination''' or '''examination-in-chief''' is one stage in the process of adducing evidence from witnesses in a court of law.", "Direct examination is the questioning of a witness by the lawyer/side/party that called such witness in a trial.", "Direct examination is usually performed to elicit evidence in support of facts which will satisfy a required element of a party's claim or defense.In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking leading questions.", "This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to a favorable witness.", "An exception to this rule occurs if one side has called a witness, but it is either understood or becomes clear, that the witness is hostile to the calling lawyer's side of the controversy, the lawyer who called the witness may then ask the court to declare the person on the stand a hostile witness.", "If the court does so, the lawyer may thereafter ask witness leading questions during direct examination.The techniques of direct examination are taught in courses on trial advocacy.", "Each direct examination is integrated with the overall case strategy through either a theme and theory or, with more advanced strategies, a line of effort." ], [ "See also", "* *" ], [ "Reference List" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Alcohol intoxication" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alcohol intoxication''', also known in overdose as '''alcohol poisoning''', commonly described as '''drunkenness''' or '''inebriation''', is the behavior and physical effects caused by a recent consumption of alcohol.", "In addition to the toxicity of ethanol, the main psychoactive component of alcoholic beverages, other physiological symptoms may arise from the activity of acetaldehyde, a metabolite of alcohol.", "These effects may not arise until hours after ingestion and may contribute to the condition colloquially known as a hangover.Symptoms of intoxication at lower doses may include mild sedation and poor coordination.", "At higher doses, there may be slurred speech, trouble walking, and vomiting.", "Extreme doses may result in a respiratory depression, coma, or death.", "Complications may include seizures, aspiration pneumonia, injuries including suicide, and low blood sugar.", "Alcohol intoxication can lead to alcohol-related crime with perpetrators more likely to be intoxicated than victims.Alcohol intoxication typically begins after two or more alcoholic drinks.", "Alcohol has the potential for abuse.", "Risk factors include a social situation where heavy drinking is common and a person having an impulsive personality.", "Diagnosis is usually based on the history of events and physical examination.", "Verification of events by witnesses may be useful.", "Legally, alcohol intoxication is often defined as a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of greater than 5.4–17.4 mmol/L (25–80 mg/dL or 0.025–0.080%).", "This can be measured by blood or breath testing.", "Alcohol is broken down in the human body at a rate of about 3.3 mmol/L (15 mg/dL) per hour, depending on an individual's metabolic rate (metabolism).Management of alcohol intoxication involves supportive care.", "Typically this includes putting the person in the recovery position, keeping the person warm, and making sure breathing is sufficient.", "Gastric lavage and activated charcoal have not been found to be useful.", "Repeated assessments may be required to rule out other potential causes of a person's symptoms.Acute intoxication has been documented throughout history, and alcohol remains one of the world's most widespread recreational drugs.", "Some religions consider alcohol intoxication to be a sin." ], [ "Symptoms", "''Wine is a Mocker'' by Jan Steen 1663Alcohol intoxication leads to negative health effects due to the recent drinking of ethanol (alcohol).", "When severe it may become a medical emergency.", "Some effects of alcohol intoxication, such as euphoria and lowered social inhibition, are central to alcohol's desirability." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "Stage Three of the Five stages of inebriation, 1863–1868, by Charles Percy PickeringAlcohol is metabolized by a normal liver at the rate of about 8 grams of pure ethanol per hour.", "8 grams or is one British standard unit.", "An \"abnormal\" liver with conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, gall bladder disease, and cancer is likely to result in a slower rate of metabolism.Ethanol is metabolised to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), which is found in many tissues, including the gastric mucosa.", "Acetaldehyde is metabolised to acetate by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), which is found predominantly in liver mitochondria.", "Acetate is used by the muscle cells to produce acetyl-CoA using the enzyme acetyl-CoA synthetase, and the acetyl-CoA is then used in the citric acid cycle.As drinking increases, people become sleepy or fall into a stupor.", "After a very high level of consumption, the respiratory system becomes depressed and the person will stop breathing.", "Comatose patients may aspirate their vomit (resulting in vomitus in the lungs, which may cause \"drowning\" and later pneumonia if survived).", "CNS depression and impaired motor coordination along with poor judgment increase the likelihood of accidental injury occurring.", "It is estimated that about one-third of alcohol-related deaths are due to accidents and another 14% are from intentional injury.In addition to respiratory failure and accidents caused by its effects on the central nervous system, alcohol causes significant metabolic derangements.", "Hypoglycaemia occurs due to ethanol's inhibition of gluconeogenesis, especially in children, and may cause lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, and acute kidney injury.", "Metabolic acidosis is compounded by respiratory failure.", "Patients may also present with hypothermia.===Mechanism===In the past, alcohol was believed to be a non-specific pharmacological agent affecting many neurotransmitter systems in the brain.", "However, molecular pharmacology studies have shown that alcohol has only a few primary targets.", "In some systems, these effects are facilitatory, and in others inhibitory.Among the neurotransmitter systems with enhanced functions are: GABAA, 5-HT3 receptor agonism (responsible for GABAergic (GABAA receptor PAM), glycinergic, and cholinergic effects), nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.Among those that are inhibited are: NMDA, dihydropyridine-sensitive L-type Ca2+ channels and G-protein-activated inwardly rectifying K+ channels.Alcohol is also converted into phosphatidylethanol (a lipid metabolite) by phospholipase D2, and this metabolite has been shown to directly bind to and regulate ion channels.", "The result of these direct effects is a wave of further indirect effects involving a variety of other neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems, leading finally to the behavioural or symptomatic effects of alcohol intoxication.The order in which different types of alcoholic beverages are consumed (\"Grape or grain but never the twain\" and \"Beer before wine and you'll feel fine; wine before beer and you'll feel queer\") does not have any effect.===GABAA receptors===Ethanol binding to GABAA receptorMany of the effects of activating GABAA receptors have the same effects as that of ethanol consumption.", "Some of these effects include anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, and hypnotic effects, cognitive impairment, and motor incoordination.", "This correlation between activating GABAA receptors and the effects of ethanol consumption have led to the study of ethanol and its effects on GABAA receptors.", "It has been shown that ethanol does in fact exhibit positive allosteric binding properties to GABAA receptors.", "However, its effects are limited to pentamers containing the δ-subunit rather than the γ-subunit.", "GABAA receptors containing the δ-subunit have been shown to be located exterior to the synapse and are involved with tonic inhibition rather than its γ-subunit counterpart, which is involved in phasic inhibition.", "The δ-subunit has been shown to be able to form the allosteric binding site which makes GABAA receptors containing the δ-subunit more sensitive to ethanol concentrations, even to moderate social ethanol consumption levels (30mM).", "While it has been shown by Santhakumar et al.", "that GABAA receptors containing the δ-subunit are sensitive to ethanol modulation, depending on subunit combinations receptors could be more or less sensitive to ethanol.", "It has been shown that GABAA receptors that contain both δ and β3-subunits display increased sensitivity to ethanol.", "One such receptor that exhibits ethanol insensitivity is α3-β6-δ GABAA.", "It has also been shown that subunit combination is not the only thing that contributes to ethanol sensitivity.", "Location of GABAA receptors within the synapse may also contribute to ethanol sensitivity." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Alcohol intoxication is described as a mental and behavioural disorder by the International Classification of Diseases.", "(ICD-10).", "Definitive diagnosis relies on a blood test for alcohol, usually performed as part of a toxicology screen.", "Law enforcement officers in the United States and other countries often use breathalyzer units and field sobriety tests as more convenient and rapid alternatives to blood tests.", "There are also various models of breathalyzer units that are available for consumer use.", "Because these may have varying reliability and may produce different results than the tests used for law-enforcement purposes, the results from such devices should be conservatively interpreted.Many informal intoxication tests exist, which, in general, are unreliable and not recommended as deterrents to excessive intoxication or as indicators of the safety of activities such as motor vehicle driving, heavy equipment operation, machine tool use, etc.For determining whether someone is intoxicated by alcohol by some means other than a blood-alcohol test, it is necessary to rule out other conditions such as hypoglycemia, stroke, usage of other intoxicants, mental health issues, and so on.", "It is best if their behavior has been observed while the subject is sober to establish a baseline.", "Several well-known criteria can be used to establish a probable diagnosis.", "For a physician in the acute-treatment setting, acute alcohol intoxication can mimic other acute neurological disorders or is frequently combined with other recreational drugs that complicate diagnosis and treatment." ], [ "Management", "Acute alcohol poisoning is a medical emergency due to the risk of death from respiratory depression or aspiration of vomit if vomiting occurs while the person is unresponsive.", "Emergency treatment strives to stabilize and maintain an open airway and sufficient breathing while waiting for the alcohol to metabolize.", "This can be done by removal of any vomit or, if the person is unconscious or has impaired gag reflex, intubation of the trachea.Other measures may include* Administer the vitamin thiamine to prevent Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, which can cause a seizure (more usually a treatment for chronic alcoholism, but in the acute context usually co-administered to ensure maximal benefit).", "* Hemodialysis if the blood concentration is very high at >130 mmol/L (>600 mg/dL)* Provide oxygen therapy as needed via nasal cannula or non-rebreather mask.", "* Administration of intravenous fluids in cases involving hypoglycemia and electrolyte imbalance.", "* While the medication metadoxine may speed the breakdown of alcohol, use in alcohol intoxication requires further study as of 2017.It is approved in a number of countries in Europe, as well as India and Brazil.Additional medication may be indicated for treatment of nausea, tremor, and anxiety." ], [ "Clinical findings", "===Hospital admissions===Alcohol intoxication was found to be prevalent in clinical populations within the United States involving people treated for trauma and in the age group of people aged within their 18th - 24th years (in a study of a group for the years 1999 - 2004).", "In the United States during the years 2010 - 2012, acute intoxication was found to be the direct cause of an average of 2,221 deaths, in the sample group of those aged within their 15th year or older.", "The same mortality route is thought to cause indirectly more than 30,000 deaths per year.===Prognosis===alcohol withdrawal, otherwise known as ''delirium tremens''A normal liver detoxifies the blood of alcohol over a period of time that depends on the initial level and the patient's overall physical condition.", "An abnormal liver will take longer but still succeeds, provided the alcohol does not cause liver failure.People having drunk heavily for several days or weeks may have withdrawal symptoms after the acute intoxication has subsided.A person consuming a dangerous amount of alcohol persistently can develop memory blackouts and idiosyncratic intoxication or pathological drunkenness symptoms.", "Long-term persistent consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol can cause liver damage and have other deleterious health effects." ], [ "Society and culture", "A 1936 anti-drinking poster by Aart van DobbenburghAlcohol intoxication is a risk factor in some cases of catastrophic injury, in particular for unsupervised recreational activity.", "A study in the province of Ontario based on epidemiological data from 1986, 1989, 1992, and 1995 states that 79.2% of the 2,154 catastrophic injuries recorded for the study were preventable, of which 346 (17%) involved alcohol consumption.", "The activities most commonly associated with alcohol-related catastrophic injury were snowmobiling (124), fishing (41), diving (40), boating (31) and canoeing (7), swimming (31), riding an all-terrain vehicle (24), and cycling (23).", "These events are often associated with unsupervised young males, often inexperienced in the activity, and may result in drowning.", "Alcohol use is also associated with unsafe sex.===Legal issues===A drunk-driving simulator in MontrealLaws on drunkenness vary.", "In the United States, it is a criminal offense for a person to be drunk while driving a motorized vehicle, except in Wisconsin, where it is only a fine for the first offense.", "It is also a criminal offense to fly an aircraft or (in some American states) to assemble or operate an amusement park ride while drunk.", "Similar laws also exist in the United Kingdom and most other countries.In some countries, it is also an offense to serve alcohol to an already-intoxicated person, and, often, alcohol can only be sold by persons qualified to serve responsibly through alcohol server training.The blood alcohol content (BAC) for legal operation of a vehicle is typically measured as a percentage of a unit volume of blood.", "This percentage ranges from 0.00% in Romania and the United Arab Emirates; to 0.05% in Australia, South Africa, Germany, Scotland, and New Zealand (0.00% for underage individuals); to 0.08% in England and Wales, the United States and Canada.The United States Federal Aviation Administration prohibits crew members from performing their duties within eight hours of consuming an alcoholic beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, or with a BAC greater than 0.04%.In the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, public intoxication is a crime (also known as \"being drunk and disorderly\" or \"being drunk and incapable\").In some countries, there are special facilities, sometimes known as \"drunk tanks\", for the temporary detention of persons found to be drunk.===Religious views======= Christianity ====''Drunkenness of Noah'' by Giovanni Bellini''Lot and his daughters'' by Hendrick GoltziusSome religious groups permit the consumption of alcohol; some permit consumption but prohibit intoxication; others prohibit any amount of alcohol consumption altogether.", "Many denominations of Christianity, such as Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Lutheranism, use wine as a part of the Eucharist and permit its consumption, but consider it sinful to become intoxicated.In the Bible, the Book of Proverbs contains several chapters related to the negative effects of drunkenness and warns to stay away from intoxicating beverages.", "The Book of Genesis refers to the use of wine by Lot's daughters to rape him.", "The Book of Leviticus tells the story of Nadab and Abihu, the eldest sons of Aaron, who were killed for serving in the Temple in Jerusalem after drinking wine, presumably while intoxicated.", "It continues to discuss monasticism, in which drinking wine is prohibited.", "The story of Samson in the Book of Judges tells of a monk from the Israelite tribe of Dan who is prohibited from cutting his hair and drinking wine.", "Romans 13:13–14, 1 Corinthians 6:9–11, Galatians 5:19–21 and Ephesians 5:18 are among a number of other Bible passages that speak against intoxication.", "While Proverbs 31:4 warns against kings and other rulers drinking wine and similar alcoholic beverages, Proverbs 31:6–7 promotes giving such beverages to the perishing and wine to those whose lives are bitter as a coping mechanism against the likes of poverty and other troubles.Some Protestant Christian denominations prohibit the consumption of alcohol based upon biblical passages that condemn drunkenness, but others allow a moderate rate of consumption.In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, alcohol consumption is forbidden, and teetotalism has become a distinguishing feature of its members.", "Jehovah's Witnesses allow moderate alcohol consumption among its members.==== Islam ====In the Quran, there is a prohibition on the consumption of grape-based alcoholic beverages, and intoxication is considered an abomination in the hadith of Muhammad.", "The schools of thought of Islamic jurisprudence have interpreted this as a strict prohibition of the consumption of all types of alcohol and declared it to be ''haram'' (), although other uses may be permitted.==== Buddhism ====Immortal supported and escorted by a demon, by Guo Xu, Ming dynasty China.In Buddhism, in general, the consumption of intoxicants is discouraged for both monastics and lay followers.", "Many Buddhists observe a basic code of ethics known as the five precepts, of which the fifth precept is an undertaking to refrain from the consumption of intoxicating substances (except for medical reasons).", "In the ''bodhisattva'' vows of the ''Brahmajala Sutra'', observed by Mahayana Buddhist communities, distribution of intoxicants is likewise discouraged, as well as consumption.==== Hinduism ====In the Gaudiya Vaishnavism branch of Hinduism, one of the four regulative principles forbids the taking of intoxicants, including alcohol.==== Judaism ====Lot and his daughters, from an illustrated TorahIn Judaism, in accordance with the biblical stance against drinking, wine drinking is not permitted for priests and monks.", "The biblical command to sanctify the Sabbath and other holidays has been interpreted as having three ceremonial meals with wine or grape juice, known as ''Kiddush''.", "A number of Jewish marriage ceremonies end with the bride and groom drinking a shared cup of wine after reciting seven blessings; this occurs after a fasting day in some Ashkenazi traditions.", "It has been customary and in many cases even mandated to drink moderately so as to stay sober, and only after the prayers are over.During the Seder on Passover, there is an obligation to drink four ceremonial cups of wine while reciting the Haggadah.", "It has been assumed as the source of the wine-drinking ritual at communion in some Christian groups.", "During Purim, there is an obligation to become intoxicated; however, as with many other decrees, this has been avoided in many communities by allowing sleep during the day as a replacement.During the U.S.", "Prohibition era in the 1920s, a rabbi from the Reform Judaism movement proposed using grape juice for the ritual instead of wine.", "Although refuted at first, the practice became widely accepted by orthodox Jews as well." ], [ "Other animals", "In the film ''Animals Are Beautiful People'', an entire section was dedicated to showing many different animals including monkeys, elephants, hogs, giraffes, and ostriches, eating over-ripe marula tree fruit causing them to sway and lose their footing in a manner similar to human drunkenness.", "Birds may become intoxicated with fermented berries and some die colliding with hard objects when flying under the influence.In elephant warfare, practiced by the Greeks during the Maccabean revolt and by Hannibal during the Punic wars, it has been recorded that the elephants would be given wine before the attack, and only then would they charge forward after being agitated by their driver.It is a regular practice to give small amounts of beer to race horses in Ireland.", "Ruminant farm animals have natural fermentation occurring in their stomach, and adding alcoholic beverages in small amounts to their drink will generally do them no harm, and will not cause them to become drunk.Alcoholic beverages are extremely harmful to dogs, and often for reasons of additives such as xylitol, an artificial sweetener in some mixers.", "Dogs can absorb ethyl alcohol in dangerous amounts through their skin as well as through drinking the liquid or consuming it in foods.", "Even fermenting bread dough can be dangerous to dogs.", "In 1999, one of the royal footmen for Britain's Queen Elizabeth II was demoted from Buckingham Palace due to his \"party trick\" of spiking the meals and drinks of the Queen's pet corgi dogs with alcohol which in turn would lead the dogs to run around drunk." ], [ "See also", "* ''A Night of Serious Drinking''* Alcohol and sex* Alcohol enema* Alcohol flush reaction* Disulfiram-alcohol reaction* Driving under the influence* ''In vino veritas''* Long-term effects of alcohol consumption* Low alcoholic drinks* Short-term effects of alcohol consumption" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bales, Robert F. \"Attitudes toward Drinking in the Irish Culture\".", "In: Pittman, David J. and Snyder, Charles R.", "(Eds.)", "''Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns''.", "New York: Wiley, 1962, pp. 157–187.", "* Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr., ''God Gave Wine: What the Bible Says about Alcohol''.", "Lincoln, Calif.: Oakdown, 2001.", "* Rorabaugh, W.J.", "\"The Alcoholic Republic,\" Chapter 2 & 5, Oxford University Press.", "* Sigmund, Paul.", "''St.", "Thomas Aquinas On Politics and Ethics''.", "W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1988, p. 77.", "* Walton, Stuart.", "''Out of It.", "A Cultural History of Intoxication''.", "Penguin Books, 2002..* Slingerland, Edward.", "''Drunk: How We Sipped, Danced, and Stumbled Our Way to Civilization''.", "Little, Brown Spark, 2021." ], [ "External links", "* Alcohol overdose: NIAAA* Alcohol poisoning: NHS Choices" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Data compression" ], [ "Introduction", "In information theory, '''data compression''', '''source coding''', or '''bit-rate reduction''' is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation.", "Any particular compression is either lossy or lossless.", "Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy.", "No information is lost in lossless compression.", "Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information.", "Typically, a device that performs data compression is referred to as an encoder, and one that performs the reversal of the process (decompression) as a decoder.The process of reducing the size of a data file is often referred to as data compression.", "In the context of data transmission, it is called source coding: encoding is done at the source of the data before it is stored or transmitted.", "Source coding should not be confused with channel coding, for error detection and correction or line coding, the means for mapping data onto a signal.Compression is useful because it reduces the resources required to store and transmit data.", "Computational resources are consumed in the compression and decompression processes.", "Data compression is subject to a space-time complexity trade-off.", "For instance, a compression scheme for video may require expensive hardware for the video to be decompressed fast enough to be viewed as it is being decompressed, and the option to decompress the video in full before watching it may be inconvenient or require additional storage.", "The design of data compression schemes involves trade-offs among various factors, including the degree of compression, the amount of distortion introduced (when using lossy data compression), and the computational resources required to compress and decompress the data." ], [ "Lossless", "Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible.", "Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy.", "For example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels; instead of coding \"red pixel, red pixel, ...\" the data may be encoded as \"279 red pixels\".", "This is a basic example of run-length encoding; there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy.The Lempel–Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage.", "DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow.", "In the mid-1980s, following work by Terry Welch, the Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) algorithm rapidly became the method of choice for most general-purpose compression systems.", "LZW is used in GIF images, programs such as PKZIP, and hardware devices such as modems.", "LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data.", "For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input.", "The table itself is often Huffman encoded.", "Grammar-based codes like this can compress highly repetitive input extremely effectively, for instance, a biological data collection of the same or closely related species, a huge versioned document collection, internet archival, etc.", "The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string.", "Other practical grammar compression algorithms include Sequitur and Re-Pair.The strongest modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching.", "The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as an indirect form of statistical modelling.", "In a further refinement of the direct use of probabilistic modelling, statistical estimates can be coupled to an algorithm called arithmetic coding.", "Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a finite-state machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols.", "It can achieve superior compression compared to other techniques such as the better-known Huffman algorithm.", "It uses an internal memory state to avoid the need to perform a one-to-one mapping of individual input symbols to distinct representations that use an integer number of bits, and it clears out the internal memory only after encoding the entire string of data symbols.", "Arithmetic coding applies especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the statistics vary and are context-dependent, as it can be easily coupled with an adaptive model of the probability distribution of the input data.", "An early example of the use of arithmetic coding was in an optional (but not widely used) feature of the JPEG image coding standard.", "It has since been applied in various other designs including H.263, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and HEVC for video coding.Archive software typically has the ability to adjust the \"dictionary size\", where a larger size demands more random-access memory during compression and decompression, but compresses stronger, especially on repeating patterns in files' content." ], [ "Lossy", "MP3, an example of a lossy file format compared to WAV.In the late 1980s, digital images became more common, and standards for lossless image compression emerged.", "In the early 1990s, lossy compression methods began to be widely used.", "In these schemes, some loss of information is accepted as dropping nonessential detail can save storage space.", "There is a corresponding trade-off between preserving information and reducing size.", "Lossy data compression schemes are designed by research on how people perceive the data in question.", "For example, the human eye is more sensitive to subtle variations in luminance than it is to the variations in color.", "JPEG image compression works in part by rounding off nonessential bits of information.", "A number of popular compression formats exploit these perceptual differences, including psychoacoustics for sound, and psychovisuals for images and video.Most forms of lossy compression are based on transform coding, especially the discrete cosine transform (DCT).", "It was first proposed in 1972 by Nasir Ahmed, who then developed a working algorithm with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973, before introducing it in January 1974.DCT is the most widely used lossy compression method, and is used in multimedia formats for images (such as JPEG and HEIF), video (such as MPEG, AVC and HEVC) and audio (such as MP3, AAC and Vorbis).Lossy image compression is used in digital cameras, to increase storage capacities.", "Similarly, DVDs, Blu-ray and streaming video use lossy video coding formats.", "Lossy compression is extensively used in video.In lossy audio compression, methods of psychoacoustics are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the audio signal.", "Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques; speech coding is distinguished as a separate discipline from general-purpose audio compression.", "Speech coding is used in internet telephony, for example, audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by the audio players.Lossy compression can cause generation loss." ], [ "Theory", "The theoretical basis for compression is provided by information theory and, more specifically, Shannon's source coding theorem; domain-specific theories include algorithmic information theory for lossless compression and rate–distortion theory for lossy compression.", "These areas of study were essentially created by Claude Shannon, who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s.", "Other topics associated with compression include coding theory and statistical inference.=== Machine learning ===There is a close connection between machine learning and compression.", "A system that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution).", "Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history).", "This equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for \"general intelligence\".An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature space vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature spaces.", "For each compressor C(.)", "we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.)", "maps an input string x, corresponding to the vector norm ~x.", "An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM.According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the best possible compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x.", "For example, in that model, a zip file's compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it without both, but there may be an even smaller combined form.Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include VP9, NVIDIA Maxine, AIVC, AccMPEG.", "Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV, TensorFlow, MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression.In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping similar data points into clusters.", "This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression.=== Data differencing ===Data compression can be viewed as a special case of data differencing.", "Data differencing consists of producing a ''difference'' given a ''source'' and a ''target,'' with patching reproducing the ''target'' given a ''source'' and a ''difference.''", "Since there is no separate source and target in data compression, one can consider data compression as data differencing with empty source data, the compressed file corresponding to a difference from nothing.", "This is the same as considering absolute entropy (corresponding to data compression) as a special case of relative entropy (corresponding to data differencing) with no initial data.The term ''differential compression'' is used to emphasize the data differencing connection." ], [ "Uses", "=== Image ===Entropy coding originated in the 1940s with the introduction of Shannon–Fano coding, the basis for Huffman coding which was developed in 1950.Transform coding dates back to the late 1960s, with the introduction of fast Fourier transform (FFT) coding in 1968 and the Hadamard transform in 1969.An important image compression technique is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a technique developed in the early 1970s.", "DCT is the basis for JPEG, a lossy compression format which was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) in 1992.JPEG greatly reduces the amount of data required to represent an image at the cost of a relatively small reduction in image quality and has become the most widely used image file format.", "Its highly efficient DCT-based compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos.Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed in 1984.It is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987.DEFLATE, a lossless compression algorithm specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.Wavelet compression, the use of wavelets in image compression, began after the development of DCT coding.", "The JPEG 2000 standard was introduced in 2000.In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms.", "JPEG 2000 technology, which includes the Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004.=== Audio ===Audio data compression, not to be confused with dynamic range compression, has the potential to reduce the transmission bandwidth and storage requirements of audio data.", "Audio compression formats compression algorithms are implemented in software as audio codecs.", "In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy is reduced, using methods such as coding, quantization, DCT and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to represent the uncompressed data.Lossy audio compression algorithms provide higher compression and are used in numerous audio applications including Vorbis and MP3.These algorithms almost all rely on psychoacoustics to eliminate or reduce fidelity of less audible sounds, thereby reducing the space required to store or transmit them.The acceptable trade-off between loss of audio quality and transmission or storage size depends upon the application.", "For example, one 640 MB compact disc (CD) holds approximately one hour of uncompressed high fidelity music, less than 2 hours of music compressed losslessly, or 7 hours of music compressed in the MP3 format at a medium bit rate.", "A digital sound recorder can typically store around 200 hours of clearly intelligible speech in 640 MB.Lossless audio compression produces a representation of digital data that can be decoded to an exact digital duplicate of the original.", "Compression ratios are around 50–60% of the original size, which is similar to those for generic lossless data compression.", "Lossless codecs use curve fitting or linear prediction as a basis for estimating the signal.", "Parameters describing the estimation and the difference between the estimation and the actual signal are coded separately.A number of lossless audio compression formats exist.", "See list of lossless codecs for a listing.", "Some formats are associated with a distinct system, such as Direct Stream Transfer, used in Super Audio CD and Meridian Lossless Packing, used in DVD-Audio, Dolby TrueHD, Blu-ray and HD DVD.Some audio file formats feature a combination of a lossy format and a lossless correction; this allows stripping the correction to easily obtain a lossy file.", "Such formats include MPEG-4 SLS (Scalable to Lossless), WavPack, and OptimFROG DualStream.When audio files are to be processed, either by further compression or for editing, it is desirable to work from an unchanged original (uncompressed or losslessly compressed).", "Processing of a lossily compressed file for some purpose usually produces a final result inferior to the creation of the same compressed file from an uncompressed original.", "In addition to sound editing or mixing, lossless audio compression is often used for archival storage, or as master copies.==== Lossy audio compression ====Comparison of spectrograms of audio in an uncompressed format and several lossy formats.", "The lossy spectrograms show bandlimiting of higher frequencies, a common technique associated with lossy audio compression.Lossy audio compression is used in a wide range of applications.", "In addition to standalone audio-only applications of file playback in MP3 players or computers, digitally compressed audio streams are used in most video DVDs, digital television, streaming media on the Internet, satellite and cable radio, and increasingly in terrestrial radio broadcasts.", "Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression than lossless compression, by discarding less-critical data based on psychoacoustic optimizations.Psychoacoustics recognizes that not all data in an audio stream can be perceived by the human auditory system.", "Most lossy compression reduces redundancy by first identifying perceptually irrelevant sounds, that is, sounds that are very hard to hear.", "Typical examples include high frequencies or sounds that occur at the same time as louder sounds.", "Those irrelevant sounds are coded with decreased accuracy or not at all.Due to the nature of lossy algorithms, audio quality suffers a digital generation loss when a file is decompressed and recompressed.", "This makes lossy compression unsuitable for storing the intermediate results in professional audio engineering applications, such as sound editing and multitrack recording.", "However, lossy formats such as MP3 are very popular with end-users as the file size is reduced to 5-20% of the original size and a megabyte can store about a minute's worth of music at adequate quality.Several proprietary lossy compression algorithms have been developed that provide higher quality audio performance by using a combination of lossless and lossy algorithms with adaptive bit rates and lower compression ratios.", "Examples include aptX, LDAC, LHDC, MQA and SCL6.===== Coding methods =====To determine what information in an audio signal is perceptually irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) to convert time domain sampled waveforms into a transform domain, typically the frequency domain.", "Once transformed, component frequencies can be prioritized according to how audible they are.", "Audibility of spectral components is assessed using the absolute threshold of hearing and the principles of simultaneous masking—the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency—and, in some cases, temporal masking—where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time.", "Equal-loudness contours may also be used to weigh the perceptual importance of components.", "Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called psychoacoustic models.Other types of lossy compressors, such as the linear predictive coding (LPC) used with speech, are source-based coders.", "LPC uses a model of the human vocal tract to analyze speech sounds and infer the parameters used by the model to produce them moment to moment.", "These changing parameters are transmitted or stored and used to drive another model in the decoder which reproduces the sound.Lossy formats are often used for the distribution of streaming audio or interactive communication (such as in cell phone networks).", "In such applications, the data must be decompressed as the data flows, rather than after the entire data stream has been transmitted.", "Not all audio codecs can be used for streaming applications.Latency is introduced by the methods used to encode and decode the data.", "Some codecs will analyze a longer segment, called a ''frame'', of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time to decode.", "The inherent latency of the coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is a two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality.In contrast to the speed of compression, which is proportional to the number of operations required by the algorithm, here latency refers to the number of samples that must be analyzed before a block of audio is processed.", "In the minimum case, latency is zero samples (e.g., if the coder/decoder simply reduces the number of bits used to quantize the signal).", "Time domain algorithms such as LPC also often have low latencies, hence their popularity in speech coding for telephony.", "In algorithms such as MP3, however, a large number of samples have to be analyzed to implement a psychoacoustic model in the frequency domain, and latency is on the order of 23 ms.===== Speech encoding =====Speech encoding is an important category of audio data compression.", "The perceptual models used to estimate what aspects of speech a human ear can hear are generally somewhat different from those used for music.", "The range of frequencies needed to convey the sounds of a human voice is normally far narrower than that needed for music, and the sound is normally less complex.", "As a result, speech can be encoded at high quality using a relatively low bit rate.This is accomplished, in general, by some combination of two approaches:* Only encoding sounds that could be made by a single human voice.", "* Throwing away more of the data in the signal—keeping just enough to reconstruct an \"intelligible\" voice rather than the full frequency range of human hearing.The earliest algorithms used in speech encoding (and audio data compression in general) were the A-law algorithm and the μ-law algorithm.==== History ====Solidyne 922: The world's first commercial audio bit compression sound card for PC, 1990Early audio research was conducted at Bell Labs.", "There, in 1950, C. Chapin Cutler filed the patent on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM).", "In 1973, Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) was introduced by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan.Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression, with linear predictive coding (LPC).", "Initial concepts for LPC date back to the work of Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966.During the 1970s, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs developed a form of LPC called adaptive predictive coding (APC), a perceptual coding algorithm that exploited the masking properties of the human ear, followed in the early 1980s with the code-excited linear prediction (CELP) algorithm which achieved a significant compression ratio for its time.", "Perceptual coding is used by modern audio compression formats such as MP3 and AAC.Discrete cosine transform (DCT), developed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974, provided the basis for the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) used by modern audio compression formats such as MP3, Dolby Digital, and AAC.", "MDCT was proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A.", "B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986.The world's first commercial broadcast automation audio compression system was developed by Oscar Bonello, an engineering professor at the University of Buenos Aires.In 1983, using the psychoacoustic principle of the masking of critical bands first published in 1967, he started developing a practical application based on the recently developed IBM PC computer, and the broadcast automation system was launched in 1987 under the name Audicom.35 years later, almost all the radio stations in the world were using this technology manufactured by a number of companies because the inventor refuses to get invention patents for his work.", "He prefers declaring it of Public Domain publishing itA literature compendium for a large variety of audio coding systems was published in the IEEE's ''Journal on Selected Areas in Communications'' (''JSAC''), in February 1988.While there were some papers from before that time, this collection documented an entire variety of finished, working audio coders, nearly all of them using perceptual techniques and some kind of frequency analysis and back-end noiseless coding.=== Video ===Uncompressed video requires a very high data rate.", "Although lossless video compression codecs perform at a compression factor of 5 to 12, a typical H.264 lossy compression video has a compression factor between 20 and 200.The two key video compression techniques used in video coding standards are the DCT and motion compensation (MC).", "Most video coding standards, such as the H.26x and MPEG formats, typically use motion-compensated DCT video coding (block motion compensation).Most video codecs are used alongside audio compression techniques to store the separate but complementary data streams as one combined package using so-called ''container formats''.==== Encoding theory ====Video data may be represented as a series of still image frames.", "Such data usually contains abundant amounts of spatial and temporal redundancy.", "Video compression algorithms attempt to reduce redundancy and store information more compactly.Most video compression formats and codecs exploit both spatial and temporal redundancy (e.g.", "through difference coding with motion compensation).", "Similarities can be encoded by only storing differences between e.g.", "temporally adjacent frames (inter-frame coding) or spatially adjacent pixels (intra-frame coding).", "Inter-frame compression (a temporal delta encoding) (re)uses data from one or more earlier or later frames in a sequence to describe the current frame.", "Intra-frame coding, on the other hand, uses only data from within the current frame, effectively being still-image compression.The intra-frame video coding formats used in camcorders and video editing employ simpler compression that uses only intra-frame prediction.", "This simplifies video editing software, as it prevents a situation in which a compressed frame refers to data that the editor has deleted.Usually, video compression additionally employs lossy compression techniques like quantization that reduce aspects of the source data that are (more or less) irrelevant to the human visual perception by exploiting perceptual features of human vision.", "For example, small differences in color are more difficult to perceive than are changes in brightness.", "Compression algorithms can average a color across these similar areas in a manner similar to those used in JPEG image compression.", "As in all lossy compression, there is a trade-off between video quality and bit rate, cost of processing the compression and decompression, and system requirements.", "Highly compressed video may present visible or distracting artifacts.Other methods other than the prevalent DCT-based transform formats, such as fractal compression, matching pursuit and the use of a discrete wavelet transform (DWT), have been the subject of some research, but are typically not used in practical products.", "Wavelet compression is used in still-image coders and video coders without motion compensation.", "Interest in fractal compression seems to be waning, due to recent theoretical analysis showing a comparative lack of effectiveness of such methods.===== Inter-frame coding =====In inter-frame coding, individual frames of a video sequence are compared from one frame to the next, and the video compression codec records the differences to the reference frame.", "If the frame contains areas where nothing has moved, the system can simply issue a short command that copies that part of the previous frame into the next one.", "If sections of the frame move in a simple manner, the compressor can emit a (slightly longer) command that tells the decompressor to shift, rotate, lighten, or darken the copy.", "This longer command still remains much shorter than data generated by intra-frame compression.", "Usually, the encoder will also transmit a residue signal which describes the remaining more subtle differences to the reference imagery.", "Using entropy coding, these residue signals have a more compact representation than the full signal.", "In areas of video with more motion, the compression must encode more data to keep up with the larger number of pixels that are changing.", "Commonly during explosions, flames, flocks of animals, and in some panning shots, the high-frequency detail leads to quality decreases or to increases in the variable bitrate.==== Hybrid block-based transform formats ====Processing stages of a typical video encoderToday, nearly all commonly used video compression methods (e.g., those in standards approved by the ITU-T or ISO) share the same basic architecture that dates back to H.261 which was standardized in 1988 by the ITU-T.", "They mostly rely on the DCT, applied to rectangular blocks of neighboring pixels, and temporal prediction using motion vectors, as well as nowadays also an in-loop filtering step.In the prediction stage, various deduplication and difference-coding techniques are applied that help decorrelate data and describe new data based on already transmitted data.Then rectangular blocks of remaining pixel data are transformed to the frequency domain.", "In the main lossy processing stage, frequency domain data gets quantized in order to reduce information that is irrelevant to human visual perception.In the last stage statistical redundancy gets largely eliminated by an entropy coder which often applies some form of arithmetic coding.In an additional in-loop filtering stage various filters can be applied to the reconstructed image signal.", "By computing these filters also inside the encoding loop they can help compression because they can be applied to reference material before it gets used in the prediction process and they can be guided using the original signal.", "The most popular example are deblocking filters that blur out blocking artifacts from quantization discontinuities at transform block boundaries.==== History ====In 1967, A.H. Robinson and C. Cherry proposed a run-length encoding bandwidth compression scheme for the transmission of analog television signals.", "The DCT, which is fundamental to modern video compression, was introduced by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974.H.261, which debuted in 1988, commercially introduced the prevalent basic architecture of video compression technology.", "It was the first video coding format based on DCT compression.", "H.261 was developed by a number of companies, including Hitachi, PictureTel, NTT, BT and Toshiba.The most popular video coding standards used for codecs have been the MPEG standards.", "MPEG-1 was developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video.", "It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, which was developed by a number of companies, primarily Sony, Thomson and Mitsubishi Electric.", "MPEG-2 became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television.", "In 1999, it was followed by MPEG-4/H.263.It was also developed by a number of companies, primarily Mitsubishi Electric, Hitachi and Panasonic.H.264/MPEG-4 AVC was developed in 2003 by a number of organizations, primarily Panasonic, Godo Kaisha IP Bridge and LG Electronics.", "AVC commercially introduced the modern context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) and context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC) algorithms.", "AVC is the main video encoding standard for Blu-ray Discs, and is widely used by video sharing websites and streaming internet services such as YouTube, Netflix, Vimeo, and iTunes Store, web software such as Adobe Flash Player and Microsoft Silverlight, and various HDTV broadcasts over terrestrial and satellite television.===Genetics===Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype.", "In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression.", "HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and is less computationally intensive than the leading general-purpose compression utilities.", "For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF-based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset.", "Other algorithms developed in 2009 and 2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes).", "For a benchmark in genetics/genomics data compressors, see" ], [ "Outlook and currently unused potential", "It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1.It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007, but when the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of Shannon information." ], [ "See also", "* HTTP compression* Kolmogorov complexity* Lhasa (computing)* Minimum description length* Modulo-N code* Motion coding* Range coding* Set redundancy compression* Sub-band coding* Universal code (data compression)* Vector quantization" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * EBU subjective listening tests on low-bitrate audio codecs* Audio Archiving Guide: Music Formats (Guide for helping a user pick out the right codec)* * hydrogenaudio wiki comparison* Introduction to Data Compression by Guy E Blelloch from CMU* Explanation of lossless signal compression method used by most codecs* * * What is Run length Coding in video compression" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "The earliest known human settlements in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been dated back to the Middle Stone Age, approximately 90,000 years ago.", "The first real states, such as the Kongo, the Lunda, the Luba and Kuba, appeared south of the equatorial forest on the savannah from the 14th century onwards.The Kingdom of Kongo controlled much of western and central Africa including what is now the western portion of the DR Congo between the 14th and the early 19th centuries.", "At its peak it had many as 500,000 people, and its capital was known as Mbanza-Kongo (south of Matadi, in modern-day Angola).", "In the late 15th century, Portuguese sailors arrived in the Kingdom of Kongo, and this led to a period of great prosperity and consolidation, with the king's power being founded on Portuguese trade.", "King Afonso I (1506–1543) had raids carried out on neighboring districts in response to Portuguese requests for slaves.", "After his death, the kingdom underwent a deep crisis.The Atlantic slave trade occurred from approximately 1500 to 1850, with the entire west coast of Africa targeted, but the region around the mouth of the Congo suffered the most intensive enslavement.", "Over a strip of coastline about long, about 4 million people were enslaved and sent across the Atlantic to sugar plantations in Brazil, the US and the Caribbean.", "From 1780 onwards, there was a higher demand for slaves in the US which led to more people being enslaved.", "By 1780, more than 15,000 people were shipped annually from the Loango Coast, north of the Congo.In 1870, explorer Henry Morton Stanley arrived in and explored what is now the DR Congo.", "Belgian colonization of DR Congo began in 1885 when King Leopold II founded and ruled the Congo Free State.", "However, de facto control of such a huge area took decades to achieve.", "Many outposts were built to extend the power of the state over such a vast territory.", "In 1885, the Force Publique was set up, a colonial army with white officers and black soldiers.", "In 1886, Leopold made Camille Jansen the first Belgian governor-general of Congo.", "Over the late 19th century, various Christian (including Catholic and Protestant) missionaries arrived intending to convert the local population.", "A railway between Matadi and Stanley Pool was built in the 1890s.", "Reports of widespread murder, torture, and other abuses in the rubber plantations led to international and Belgian outrage and the Belgian government transferred control of the region from Leopold II and established the Belgian Congo in 1908.Following unrest, Belgium granted Congo independence in 1960.However, the Congo remained unstable, leading to the Congo Crisis, where the regional governments of Katanga and South Kasai attempted to gain independence with Belgian support.", "Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba tried to suppress secession with the aid of the Soviet Union as part of the Cold War, causing the United States to support a coup led by Colonel Joseph Mobutu.", "Lumumba was handed over to the Katangan government and executed in 1961.The secessionist movements were later defeated by the Congolese government as were the Soviet-backed Simba rebels.", "Following the end of the Congo Crisis in 1965, Joseph Kasa-Vubu was deposed and Mobutu seized complete power of the country and then renamed it Zaire.", "He sought to Africanize the country, changing his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, and demanded that African citizens change their Western names to traditional African names.", "Mobutu sought to repress any opposition to his rule, which he successfully did throughout the 1980s.", "However, with his regime weakened in the 1990s, Mobutu was forced to agree to a power-sharing government with the opposition party.", "Mobutu remained the head of state and promised elections within the next two years that never took place.During the First Congo War, Rwanda invaded Zaire, in which Mobutu lost his power during this process.", "In 1997, Laurent-Désiré Kabila took power and renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "Afterwards, the Second Congo War broke out, resulting in a regional war in which many different African nations took part and in which millions of people were killed or displaced.", "Laurent-Désiré Kabila was assassinated by his own bodyguard in 2001, and his son, Joseph, succeeded him and was later elected president by the Congolese government in 2006.Joseph Kabila quickly sought peace.", "Foreign soldiers remained in the Congo for a few years and a power-sharing government between Joseph Kabila and the opposition party was set up.", "Joseph Kabila later resumed complete control over the Congo and was re-elected in a disputed election in 2011.In 2018, Félix Tshisekedi was elected president; in the first peaceful transfer of power since independence." ], [ "Early history", "Map of the Kingdom of KongoThe area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 90,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the Semliki harpoon at Katanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, which is believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish.The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the 14th to the early 19th century.", "Until the arrival of the Portuguese it was the dominant force in the region along with the Kingdom of Luba, the Kingdom of Lunda, the Mongo people and the Anziku Kingdom." ], [ "Colonial rule", "===Congo Free State (1885–1908)===Children mutilated during King Leopold II's ruleThe Congo Free State was a privately controlled by Leopold II of Belgium through the ''Association Internationale africaine'', a non-governmental organization.", "Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman.", "The state included the entire area of the present the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "Under Leopold II, the Congo Free State became one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century.", "The report of the British Consul Roger Casement led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for cold-blooded killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1900, including a Belgian national who caused the shooting of at least 122 Congolese natives.", "Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably.", "The first census was only done in 1924, so it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period.", "Roger Casement's famous 1904 report estimated ten million people.", "According to Casement's report, indiscriminate \"war\", starvation, reduction of births and Tropical diseases caused the country's depopulation.", "European and U.S. press agencies exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in 1900.By 1908 public and diplomatic pressure had led Leopold II to annex the Congo as the Belgian Congo colony.===Belgian Congo (1908–60)===On 15 November 1908 King Leopold II of Belgium formally relinquished personal control of the Congo Free State.", "The renamed Belgian Congo was put under the direct administration of the Belgian government and its Ministry of Colonies.Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the \"colonial trinity\" (''trinité colonial'') of state, missionary and private company interests.", "The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialized.", "The interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied; the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population.", "The country was split into nesting, hierarchically organized administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set \"native policy\" (''politique indigène'')—in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favored the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight.", "There was also a high degree of racial segregation.", "Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum, but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks.During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of urbanization and the colonial administration began various development programs aimed at making the territory into a \"model colony\".", "Notable advances were made in treating diseases such as African trypanosomiasis.", "One of the results of these measures was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African ''évolués'' in the cities.", "By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labor force twice as large as that in any other African colony.", "The Congo's rich natural resources, including uranium—much of the uranium used by the U.S. nuclear programme during World War II was Congolese—led to substantial interest in the region from both the Soviet Union and the United States as the Cold War developed.=== Rise in Congolese political activity ===During the latter stages of World War II a new social stratum emerged in the Congo, known as the ''évolué''s.", "Forming an African middle class in the colony, they held skilled positions (such as clerks and nurses) made available by the economic boom.", "While there were no universal criteria for determining ''évolué status'', it was generally accepted that one would have \"a good knowledge of French, adhere to Christianity, and have some form of post-primary education.\"", "Early on in their history, ''évolué''s sought to use their unique status to earn special privileges in the Congo.", "Since opportunities for upward mobility through the colonial structure were limited, the ''évolué'' class institutionally manifested itself in elite clubs through which they could enjoy trivial privileges that made them feel distinct from the Congolese \"masses\".", "Additional groups, such as labor unions, alumni associations, and ethnic syndicates, provided other Congolese the means of organization.", "Among the most important of these was the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO), representing the Kongo people of the Lower Congo.", "However, they were restricted in their actions by the administration.", "While white settlers were consulted in the appointment of certain officials, the Congolese had no means of expressing their beliefs through the governing structures.", "Though native chiefs held legal authority in some jurisdictions, in practice they were used by the administration to further its own policies.Up into the 1950s, most ''évolué''s were concerned only with social inequalities and their treatment by the Belgians.", "Questions of self-government were not considered until 1954 when ABAKO requested that the administration consider a list of suggested candidates for a Léopoldville municipal post.", "That year the association was taken over by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, and under his leadership, it became increasingly hostile to the colonial authority and sought autonomy for the Kongo regions in the Lower Congo.", "In 1956 a group of Congolese intellectuals under the tutelage of several European academics issued a manifesto calling for a transition to independence over the course of 30 years.", "The ABAKO quickly responded with a demand for \"immediate independence\".", "The Belgian government was not prepared to grant the Congo independence and even when it started realizing the necessity of a plan for decolonization in 1957, it was assumed that such a process would be solidly controlled by Belgium.", "In December 1957 the colonial administration instituted reforms that permitted municipal elections and the formation of political parties.", "Some Belgian parties attempted to establish branches in the colony, but these were largely ignored by the population in favour of Congolese-initiated groups.", "Nationalism fermented in 1958 as more ''évolué''s began interacting with others outside of their own locales and started discussing the future structures of a post-colonial Congolese state.", "Nevertheless, most political mobilisation occurred along tribal and regional divisions.", "In Katanga, various tribal groups came together to form the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) under the leadership of Godefroid Munongo and Moïse Tshombe.", "Hostile to immigrant peoples, it advocated provincial autonomy and close ties with Belgium.", "Most of its support was rooted in individual chiefs, businessmen, and European settlers of southern Katanga.", "It was opposed by Jason Sendwe's Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT).Patrice Lumumba, founding member and leader of the MNCIn October 1958 a group of Léopoldville ''évolués'' including Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Iléo established the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC).", "Diverse in membership, the party sought to peacefully achieve Congolese independence, promote the political education of the populace, and eliminate regionalism.", "The MNC drew most of its membership from the residents of the eastern city of Stanleyville, where Lumumba was well known, and from the population of the Kasai Province, where efforts were directed by a Muluba businessman, Albert Kalonji.", "Belgian officials appreciated its moderate and anti-separatist stance and allowed Lumumba to attend the All-African Peoples' Conference in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958 (Kasa-Vubu was informed that the documents necessary for his travel to the event were not in order and was not permitted to go).", "Lumumba was deeply impressed by the Pan-Africanist ideals of Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah and returned to the Congo with a more radical party programme.", "He reported on his trip during a widely attended rally in Léopoldville and demanded the country's \"genuine\" independence.Fearing that they were being overshadowed by Lumumba and the MNC, Kasa-Vubu and the ABAKO leadership announced that they would be hosting their own rally in the capital on 4 January 1959.The municipal government (under Belgian domination) was given short notice, and communicated that only a \"private meeting\" would be authorised.", "On the scheduled day of the rally the ABAKO leadership told the crowd that had gathered that the event was postponed and that they should disperse.", "The mass was infuriated and instead began hurling stones at the police and pillaging European property, initiating three days of violent and destructive riots.", "The Force Publique, the colonial army, was called into service and suppressed the revolt with considerable brutality.", "In wake of the riots Kasa-Vubu and his lieutenants were arrested.", "Unlike earlier expressions of discontent, the grievances were conveyed primarily by uneducated urban residents, not ''évolué''s.", "Popular opinion in Belgium was one of extreme shock and surprise.", "An investigative commission found the riots to be the culmination of racial discrimination, overcrowding, unemployment, and wishes for more political self-determination.", "On 13 January the administration announced several reforms, and the Belgian King, Baudouin, declared that independence would be granted to the Congo in the future.Meanwhile, discontent surfaced among the MNC leadership, who were bothered by Lumumba's domination over the party's politics.", "Relations between Lumumba and Kalonji also grew tense, as the former was upset with how the latter was transforming the Kasai branch into an exclusively Luba group and antagonising other tribes.", "This culminated into the split of the party into the MNC-Lumumba/MNC-L under Lumumba and the MNC-Kalonji/MNC-K under Kalonji and Iléo.", "The latter began advocating federalism.", "Adoula left the organisation.", "Alone to lead his own faction and facing competition from ABAKO, Lumumba became increasingly insistent in his demands for independence.", "Following an October riot in Stanleyville he was arrested.", "Nevertheless, the influence of himself and the MNC-L continued to grow rapidly.", "The party advocated for a strong unitary state, nationalism, and the termination of Belgian rule and began forming alliances with regional groups, such as the Kivu-based Centre du Regroupement Africain (CEREA).", "Though the Belgians supported a unitary system over the federal models suggested by ABAKO and CONAKAT, they and more moderate Congolese were unnerved by Lumumba's increasingly extremist attitudes.", "With the implicit support of the colonial administration, the moderates formed the Parti National du Progrès (PNP) under the leadership of Paul Bolya and Albert Delvaux.", "It advocated centralisation, respect for traditional elements, and close ties with Belgium.", "In southern Léopoldville Province, a socialist-federalist party, the Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA) was founded.", "Antoine Gizenga served as its president, and Cléophas Kamitatu was in charge of the Léopoldville Province chapter." ], [ "Independence and the Congo Crisis (1960–65)", "Following the riots in Leopoldville (4–7 January 1959) and in Stanleyville (31 October 1959), the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country in the face of rising demands for independence.", "Belgian and Congolese political leaders held a Round Table Conference in Brussels beginning on 18 January 1960.At the end of the conference, on 27 January 1960, it was announced that elections would be held in the Congo on 22 May 1960, and full independence granted on 30 June 1960.The elections produced the nationalist Patrice Lumumba as prime minister, and Joseph Kasavubu as president.On independence the country adopted the name \"Republic of the Congo\" (République du Congo).", "The French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name Republic of the Congo upon its independence, so the two countries were more commonly known as Congo-Léopoldville and Congo-Brazzaville, after their capital cities.In 1960, the country was very unstable—regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government—and with the departure of the Belgian administrators, almost no skilled bureaucrats remained in the country.", "The first Congolese graduated from university only in 1956, and very few in the new nation had any idea how to manage a country of such size.On 5 July 1960, a military mutiny by Congolese soldiers against their European officers broke out in the capital and rampant looting began.", "On 11 July 1960 the richest province of the country, Katanga, seceded under Moise Tshombe.", "The United Nations sent 20,000 peacekeepers to protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order.", "Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country.", "In this period Congo's second richest province, Kasai, also announced its independence on 8 August 1960.After trying to get help from the United States and the United Nations, Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the USSR for assistance.", "Nikita Khrushchev agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors.", "The United States viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in sub-Saharan Africa.", "UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country.", "The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader.", "President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets.", "The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence.On 23 August, the Congolese armed forces invaded South Kasai and perpetrated massacres against the Luba people.", "Lumumba was dismissed from office on 5 September 1960 by Kasavubu who publicly blamed him for the massacres in South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country.", "On 14 September 1960, with CIA support, Colonel Joseph Mobutu overthrew the government and arrested Lumumba.", "A technocratic government, the College of Commissioners-General, was established.On 17 January 1961 Mobutu sent Lumumba to Élisabethville (now Lubumbashi), capital of Katanga.", "In full view of the press he was beaten and forced to eat copies of his own speeches.", "For three weeks afterward, he was not seen or heard from.", "Then Katangan radio announced implausibly that he had escaped and been killed by villagers.", "It was soon clear that in fact he had been tortured and killed along with two others shortly after his arrival.", "In 2001, a Belgian inquiry established that he had been shot by Katangan gendarmes in the presence of Belgian officers, under Katangan command.", "Lumumba was beaten, placed in front of a firing squad with two allies, cut up, buried, dug up and what remained was dissolved in acid.In Stanleyville, those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under Antoine Gizenga which lasted from 31 March 1961 until it was reintegrated on 5 August 1961.After some reverses, UN and Congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of South Kasai on 30 December 1961, and Katanga on 15 January 1963.Beginning in 1964, in the east of the country, Soviet and Cuban backed rebels called the Simbas rose up, taking a significant amount of territory and proclaiming a communist \"People's Republic of the Congo\" in Stanleyville.", "As the Congolese government was reclaiming territory from the Simbas, the rebels resorted to taking the local white population hostage.", "Belgian and American forces pushed the Simbas out of Stanleyville in November 1964 during a hostage rescue operation.", "Congolese government forces, supported by European mercenaries, fully defeated the Simba rebels by November 1965.The Simba rebels executed 20,000 Congolese and 392 Western hostages, including 268 Belgians, during the rebellion.", "Tens of thousands of people were killed in total during the suppression of the Simbas." ], [ "Zaire (1965–1997)", "Mobutu Sese SekoUnrest and rebellion plagued the government until November 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for the next five years.", "Mobutu quickly consolidated his power, despite the Stanleyville mutinies of 1966 and 1967, and was elected unopposed as president in a sham election in 1970 for a seven-year term.Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, President Mobutu renamed the country the \"Republic of Zaire\" in 1971 and required citizens to adopt African names and drop their French-language ones.", "The name comes from Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word ''nzere'' or ''nzadi'' (\"river that swallows all rivers\").", "Among other changes, Leopoldville became Kinshasa and Katanga Shaba.Ugandan President Idi Amin Visits Zaire and Meets Mobutu during The Shaba I ConflictRelative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan Front for Congolese National Liberation rebels, based in the Angolan People's Republic, launched the Shaba I and II invasions into the southeast Shaba region.", "These rebels were driven out with the aid of French and Belgian paratroopers plus Moroccan troops.", "An Inter-African Force remained in the region for some time afterwards.Zaire remained a one-party state in the 1980s.", "Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), were active.", "Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased.", "In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his own massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use.In April 1990, Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with free elections and a constitution.", "As details of the reforms were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting Kinshasa to protest their unpaid wages.", "Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties.", "The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya as its chairman, along with Étienne Tshisekedi, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister.", "By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister.", "The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo Wa Dondo as prime minister.", "Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next two years, they never took place." ], [ "Civil wars (1996–2003)", "===First Congo War (1996–97)===By 1996, tensions from the war and genocide in neighboring Rwanda had spilled over into Zaire.", "Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe) who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursions into Rwanda.", "In October 1996Rwandan forces attacked refugee camps in the Ruzizi Plain near the intersection of the Congolese, Rwandan and Burundi borders meet, scattering refugees.", "They took Uvira, then Bukavu, Goma and Mugunga.Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire.", "In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks.", "When the Zairian government began to escalate the massacres in November 1996, Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu.The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda.", "This coalition, led by Laurent-Desire Kabila, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL).", "The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997.Various Zairean politicians who had unsuccessfully opposed the dictatorship of Mobutu for many years now saw an opportunity for them in the invasion of Zaire by two of the region's strongest military forces.", "Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country on 16 May.", "The AFDL entered Kinshasa unopposed a day later, and Kabila named himself president, reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "He marched into Kinshasa on 20 May and consolidated power around himself and the AFDL.In September 1997, Mobutu died in exile in Morocco.===Second Congo War (1998–2003)===Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country, and lost his allies.", "To counterbalance the power and influence of Rwanda in DRC, Ugandan troops created another rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba.", "They attacked in August 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops.", "Soon afterwards, Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe became involved militarily in the Congo, with Angola and Zimbabwe supporting the government.", "While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months.Kabila was assassinated in 2001 by a bodyguard called Rashidi Kasereka, 18, who was then shot dead, according to Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo.", "Another account of the assassination says that the real killer escaped.Kabila was succeeded by his son, Joseph.", "Upon taking office, Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war.", "Kabila partly succeeded when a further peace deal was brokered between him, Uganda, and Rwanda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops.Currently, the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country.", "There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country, including diamonds, copper, zinc, and coltan.", "The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops.", "Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders, held in Sun City, lasted a full six weeks, beginning in April 2002.In June, they signed a peace accord under which Kabila would share power with former rebels.", "By June 2003, all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo.Few people in the Congo have been unaffected by the conflict.", "A survey conducted in 2009 by the ICRC and Ipsos shows that three-quarters (76%) of the people interviewed have been affected in some way–either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed conflict.The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo.", "Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo.", "The United Nations Security Council and the U.N. Secretary-General have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population, but have shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas where the worst violence in the country took place.", "In particular Rwanda and Uganda have escaped any significant sanction for their role." ], [ "Joseph Kabila period", "===Transitional government (2003–2006)===DR Congo had a transitional government in July 2003 until the election was over.", "A constitution was approved by voters and on 30 July 2006 the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960.Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba 20%.", "That was the origin of a fight between the two parties from 20 to 22 August 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa.", "Sixteen people died before policemen and MONUC took control of the city.", "A new election was held on 29 October 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote.", "Bemba has decried election \"irregularities\".", "On 6 December 2006 Joseph Kabila was sworn in as president.===Kabila overstays his term===In December 2011, Joseph Kabila was re-elected for a second term as president.", "After the results were announced on 9 December, there was violent unrest in Kinshasa and Mbuji-Mayi, where official tallies showed that a strong majority had voted for the opposition candidate Étienne Tshisekedi.", "Official observers from the Carter Center reported that returns from almost 2,000 polling stations in areas where support for Tshisekedi was strong had been lost and not included in the official results.", "They described the election as lacking credibility.", "On 20 December, Kabila was sworn in for a second term, promising to invest in infrastructure and public services.", "However, Tshisekedi maintained that the result of the election was illegitimate and said that he intended also to \"swear himself in\" as president.On 19 January 2015 protests led by students at the University of Kinshasa broke out.", "The protests began following the announcement of a proposed law that would allow Kabila to remain in power until a national census can be conducted (elections had been planned for 2016).", "By Wednesday 21 January clashes between police and protesters had claimed at least 42 lives (although the government claimed only 15 people had been killed).Similarly, in September 2016, violent protests were met with brutal force by the police and Republican Guard soldiers.", "Opposition groups claim 80 dead, including the Students' Union leader.", "From Monday 19 September Kinshasa residents, as well as residents elsewhere in Congo, were mostly confined to their homes.", "Police arrested anyone remotely connected to the opposition as well as innocent onlookers.", "Government propaganda, on television, and actions of covert government groups in the streets, acted against opposition as well as foreigners.", "The president's mandate was due to end on 19 December 2016, but no plans were made to elect a replacement at that time and this caused further protests." ], [ "Félix Tshisekedi presidency (2019–present)", "On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held.", "On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote.", "He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019.in the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff.", "In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison.", "However, Kamerhe was released in December 2021.The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services.", "However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power.", "In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly.", "The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out.", "In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila.", "President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila.", "In January 2021, DRC's President Félix Tshisekedi pardoned all those convicted in the murder of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 2001.Colonel Eddy Kapend and his co-defendants, who have been incarcerated for 15 years, were released.After the 2023 presidential election, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term.", "On 31 December 2023, officials said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote.", "Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun." ], [ "Continued conflicts", "The inability of the state and the world's largest United Nations peacekeeping force to provide security throughout the vast country has led to the emergence of up to 120 armed groups by 2018, perhaps the largest number in the world.", "Armed groups are often accused of being proxies or being supported by regional governments interested in Eastern Congo's vast mineral wealth.", "Some argue that much of the lack of security by the national army is strategic on the part of the government, who let the army profit from illegal logging and mining operations in return for loyalty.", "Different rebel groups often target civilians by ethnicity and militias often become oriented around ethnic local militias known as \"Mai-Mai\".===Conflict in Kivu (2004–present)=======Tutsi led insurgency====Flag of CNDPLaurent Nkunda with other soldiers from RCD-Goma who were integrated into the army defected and called themselves the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP).", "Starting in 2004, CNDP, believed to be backed by Rwanda as a way to tackle the Hutu group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), rebelled against the government, claiming to protect the Banyamulenge (Congolese Tutsis).", "In 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants.", "The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government where its soldiers would be integrated into the national army.In April 2012, the leader of the CNDP, Bosco Ntaganda and troops loyal to him mutinied, claiming a violation of the peace treaty and formed a rebel group, the March 23 Movement (M23), which was believed to be backed by Rwanda.", "On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of Goma, a provincial capital with a population of one million people.", "The UN authorized the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB), which was the first UN peacekeeping force with a mandate to neutralize opposition rather than a defensive mandate, and the FIB quickly defeated M23.The FIB was then to fight the FDLR but were hampered by the efforts of the Congolese government, who some believe tolerate the FDLR as a counterweight to Rwandan interests.", "Since 2017, fighters from M23, most of whom had fled into Uganda and Rwanda (both were believed to have supported them), started crossing back into DRC with the rising crisis over Kabila's extension of his term limit.After rising insecurity, President Tshisekedi declared a \"state of siege\" or state of emergency in North Kivu, as well as Ituri province, in the first such declaration since the country's independence.", "The military and police took over positions from civilian authorities and some saw it as a powerplay since the civilian officials were part of the opposition to the President.", "A similar declaration was avoided for South Kivu, in a move believed to avoid antagonizing armed groups with ties to regional powers such as Rwanda.====Mai Mai insurgencies====Ethnic conflict in Kivu has often involved the Congolese Tutsis known as Banyamulenge, a cattle herding group of Rwandan origin derided as outsiders, and other ethnic groups who consider themselves indigenous.", "Additionally, neighboring Burundi and Rwanda, who have a thorny relationship, are accused of being involved, with Rwanda accused of training Burundi rebels who have joined with Mai Mai against the Banyamulenge and the Banyamulenge is accused of harboring the RNC, a Rwandan opposition group supported by Burundi.", "In June 2017, the group was formed called the National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo (CNPSC) or Alliance of Article 64, a reference to Article 64 of the constitution, which says the people have an obligation to fight the efforts of those who seek to take power by force, in reference to President Kabila.", "It is one of three alliances of various Mai-Mai militias and is led by Bembe warlord William Yakutumba whose Mai-Mai Yakutumba is the largest component of the CNPSC and has had friction with the Congolese Tutsis.", "was formed and even briefly capturing a few strategic towns.", "In May 2019, Banyamulenge fighters killed a Banyindu traditional chief, Kawaza Nyakwana.", "Later in 2019, a coalition of militias from the Bembe, Bafuliru and Banyindu are estimated to have burnt more than 100, mostly Banyamulenge, villages and stole tens of thousands of cattle from the largely cattle-herding Banyamulenge.", "About 200,000 people fled their homes.Clashes between Hutu militias and militias of other ethnic groups has also been prominent.", "In 2012, the Congolese army in its attempt to crush the Rwandan backed and Tutsi-dominated CNDP and M23 rebels, empowered and used Hutu groups such as the FDLR and a Hutu dominated Maï Maï Nyatura as proxies in its fight.", "The Nyatura and FDLR even arbitrarily executed up to 264 mostly Tembo civilians in 2012.In 2015, the army then launched an offensive against the FDLR militia.", "The FDLR and Nyatura were accused of killing Nande people and of burning their houses.", "The Nande-dominate UPDI militia, a Nande militia called Mai-Mai Mazembe and a militia dominated by Nyanga people, the \"Nduma Defense of Congo\" (NDC), also called Maï-Maï Sheka and led by Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga, are accused of attacking Hutus.", "In North Kivu, in 2017, an alliance of Mai-Mai groups called the National Movement of Revolutionaries (MNR) began attacks in June 2017 includes Nande Mai-Mai leaders from groups such as Corps du Christ and Mai-Mai Mazembe.", "Another alliance of Mai-Mai groups is CMC which brings together Hutu militia Nyatura and are active along the border between North Kivu and South Kivu.", "In September 2019, the army declared it had killed Sylvestre Mudacumura, head of the FDLR, and in November that year the army declared it had killed Juvenal Musabimana, who had led a splinter group of the FDLR.====Allied Democratic Forces insurgency====The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) has been waging an insurgency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is blamed for the Beni massacre in 2016.While the Congolese army maintains that the ADF is an Islamist insurgency, most observers feel that they are only a criminal group interested in gold mining and logging.", "In March 2021, the United States claimed that the ADF was linked to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant as part of the Islamic State's Central Africa Province.", "By 2021, the ADF was considered the deadliest of the many armed groups in the east of the country.===Conflict in Katanga===In Northern Katanga Province starting in 2013, the Pygmy Batwa people, whom the Luba people often exploit and allegedly enslave, rose up into militias, such as the \"Perci\" militia, and attacked Luba villages.", "A Luba militia known as \"Elements\" or \"Elema\" attacked back, notably killing at least 30 people in the \"Vumilia 1\" displaced people camp in April 2015.Since the start of the conflict, hundreds have been killed and tens of thousands have been displaced from their homes.", "The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns.Elema also began fighting the government mainly with machetes, bows and arrows in Congo's Haut Katanga and Tanganyika provinces.", "The government forces fought alongside a tribe known as the Abatembo and targeting civilians of the Luba and the Tabwa tribes who were believed to be sympathetic to the Elema.===Conflict in Kasai===Kasaï-Central province, where the Kamwina Nsapu militia clashes with security forces began.In the Kasaï-Central province, starting in 2016, the largely Luba Kamwina Nsapu militia led by Kamwina Nsapu attacked state institutions.", "The leader was killed by authorities in August 2016 and the militia reportedly took revenge by attacking civilians.", "By June 2017, more than 3,300 people had been killed and 20 villages have been completely destroyed, half of them by government troops.", "The militia has expanded to the neighboring Kasai-Oriental area, Kasaï and Lomami.The UN discovered dozens of mass graves.", "There was an ethnic nature to the conflict with the rebels being mostly Luba and Lulua and have selectively killed non-Luba people while the government allied militia, the Bana Mura, constituting people from the Chokwe, Pende, and Tetela, have committed ethnically motivated attacks against the Luba and Lulua.===Conflict in Ituri===The Ituri conflict in the Ituri region of the north-eastern DRC involved fighting between the agriculturalist Lendu and pastoralist Hema ethnic groups, who together made up around 40% of Ituri's population, with other groups including the Ndo-Okebo and the Nyali.", "During Belgian rule, the Hema were given privileged positions over the Lendu while long time leader Mobutu Sese Seko also favored the Hema.", "While \"Ituri conflict\" often refers to the major fighting from 1999 to 2003, fighting has existed before and continues since that time.", "During the Second Congolese Civil War, Ituri was considered the most violent region.", "An agricultural and religious group from the Lendu people known as the \"Cooperative for the Development of Congo\" or CODECO allegedly reemerged as a militia in 2017 and began attacking the Hema as well as the Alur people to control the resources in the region, with the Ndo-Okebo and the Nyali also involved in the violence.", "After disagreements over negotiating with the government and the killing of CODECO's leader, Ngudjolo Duduko Justin, in March 2020, the group splintered and violence spread into new areas.", "In late 2020, CODECO briefly held the capital of the province, Bunia, but retreated.", "In June 2019, attacks by CODECO led to 240 people being killed and more than 300,000 people fleeing.The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), mostly active in North and South Kivu has also been involved in Ituri province.", "President Tshisekedi declared a \"state of siege\" or state of emergency in the province in May 2021 to tackle ADF.", "However, ADF killed 57 civilians in one attack in the same month in one of its deadliest single attacks.", "30 people were massacred in September 2021 by the ADF.", "The President is accused of promoting former rebel leaders and generals accused of war crimes to be in charge of the province.===Conflict in the Northwest=======Dongo Conflict====In October 2009 a conflict started in Dongo, Sud-Ubangi District where clashes had broken out over access to fishing ponds.====Yumbi Massacre (2018)====Nearly 900 people were killed between 16 and 17 December 2018 around Yumbi, a few weeks before the Presidential election, when mostly those of the Batende tribe massacred mostly those of the Banunu tribe.", "About 16,000 fled to neighboring Republic of the Congo.", "It was alleged that it was a carefully planned massacre, involving elements of the national military." ], [ "See also", "Economic history of the Democratic Republic of the CongoFormer place names in the Democratic Republic of the CongoHistory of AfricaList of heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the CongoList of heads of government of the Democratic Republic of the CongoPolitics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo* Cities in DR Congo: Bukavu history and timeline Goma history and timeline Kinshasa history and timeline Kisangani history and timeline Lubumbashi history and timeline" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * ** " ], [ "External links", " BBC, Country profile: Democratic Republic of Congo* BBC, DR Congo: Key facts* BBC, Q&A: DR Congo conflict* Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo* BBC, In pictures: Congo crisis* Kivu Security Tracker - data on armed groups and casualty figures" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is the largest country of sub-Saharan Africa, occupying some .", "Most of the country lies within the vast hollow of the Congo River basin.", "The vast, low-lying central area is a plateau-shaped basin sloping toward the west, covered by tropical rainforest and criss-crossed by rivers.", "The forest center is surrounded by mountainous terraces in the west, plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest.", "Dense grasslands extend beyond the Congo River in the north.", "High mountains of the Ruwenzori Range (some above ) are found on the eastern borders with Rwanda and Uganda (see Albertine Rift montane forests for a description of this area)." ], [ "Geographic regions", "Ituri RainforestMasisi TerritoryLake Kivu in North Kivu provinceSeveral major geographic regions may be defined in terms of terrain and patterns of natural vegetation, namely the central Congo Basin, the uplands north and south of the basin, and the eastern highlands.The country's core region is the central Congo Basin.", "Having an average elevation of about , it measures roughly , constituting about a third of the DRC's territory.", "Much of the forest within the basin is swamp, and still more of it consists of a mixture of marshes and firm land.North and south of the basin lie higher plains and, occasionally, hills covered with varying mixtures of savanna grasses and woodlands.", "The southern uplands region, like the basin, constitutes about a third of the DRC's territory.", "The area slopes from south to north, starting at about near the Angolan border and falling to about near the basin.", "Vegetation cover in the southern uplands territory is more varied than that of the northern uplands.", "In some areas, woodland is dominant; in others, savanna grasses predominate.", "South of the basin, along the streams flowing into the Kasai River are extensive gallery forests.", "In the far southeast, most of the former Katanga Province is characterized by somewhat higher plateaus and low mountains.", "The westernmost section of the DRC, a partly forested panhandle reaching the Atlantic Ocean, is an extension of the southern uplands that drops sharply to a very narrow shore about long.In the much narrower northern uplands, the cover is largely savanna, and woodlands are rarer.", "The average elevation of this region is about , but it rises as high as where it meets the western edge of the eastern highlands.The eastern highlands region is the highest and most rugged portion of the country.", "It extends for more than from above Lake Albert to the country's southern tip and varies in width from .", "Its hills and mountains range in altitude from about to more than .", "The western arm of the Great Rift Valley forms a natural eastern boundary to this region.", "The eastern border of the DRC extends through the valley and its system of lakes, which are separated from each other by plains situated between high mountain ranges.In this region, changes in elevation bring marked changes in vegetation, which ranges from montane savanna to heavy montane forest.", "The Rwenzori Mountains between lakes Albert and Edward constitutes the highest range in Africa.", "The height and location of these mountains on the equator make for a varied and spectacular flora." ], [ "Rivers and lakes", "Relief map of the DRCThe Congo River and its tributaries drain this basin and provide the country with the most extensive network of navigable waterways in Africa.", "wide at the mid-point of its length, the river carries a volume of water that is second only to the Amazon's.", "Its flow is unusually regular because it is fed by rivers and streams from both sides of the equator; the complementary alternation of rainy and dry seasons on each side of the equator guarantees a regular supply of water for the main channel.", "At points where navigation is blocked by rapids and waterfalls, the sudden descent of the river creates a hydroelectric potential greater than that found in any other river system on earth.Most of the DRC is served by the Congo River system, a fact that has facilitated both trade and outside penetration.", "Its network of waterways is dense and evenly distributed through the country, with three exceptions: northeastern Mayombe in Kongo Central in the west, which is drained by a small coastal river called the Shilango; a strip of land on the eastern border adjoining lakes Edward and Albert, which is part of the Nile River basin; and a small part of the extreme southeastern DRC, which lies in the Zambezi River basin and drains into the Indian Ocean.Most of the DRC's lakes are also part of the Congo River basin.", "In the west are Lac Mai-Ndombe and Lac Tumba, which are remnants of a huge interior lake that once occupied the entire basin prior to the breach of the basin's edge by the Congo River and the subsequent drainage of the interior.", "In the southeast, Lake Mweru straddles the border with Zambia.", "On the eastern frontier, Lac Kivu, Central Africa's highest lake and a key tourist center, and Lake Tanganyika, just south of Lac Kivu, both feed into the Lualaba River, the name often given to the upper extension of the Congo River.", "Only the waters of the eastern frontier's northernmost great lakes, Edward and Albert, drain north, into the Nile Basin." ], [ "Climate", "Democratic Republic of the Congo map of Köppen climate classification zonesClimate ranges from tropical rain forest in the Congo River basin to tropical wet-and-dry in the southern uplands to tropical highland in eastern areas above in elevation.", "In general, temperatures and humidity are quite high.", "The highest and least variable temperatures are to be found in the equatorial forest, where daytime highs range between , and nighttime lows rarely go below .", "The average annual temperature is about .", "In the southern uplands, particularly in the far southeast Katanga region, winters are cool and dry, whereas summers are warm and damp.", "The area embracing the chain of lakes from Lake Albert to Lake Tanganyika in the eastern highlands has a moist climate and a narrow but not excessively warm temperature range.", "The mountain sections are cooler, but humidity increases with altitude until the saturation point is reached; a nearly constant falling mist prevails on some slopes, particularly in the Rwenzori Mountains.The seasonal pattern of rainfall is affected by the DRC's straddling of the equator.", "In the third of the country that lies north of the equator, the dry season (roughly early November to late March) corresponds to the rainy season in the southern two-thirds.", "There is a great deal of variation, however, and a number of places on either side of the equator have two wet and two dry seasons.", "Rainfall averages range from about .", "Annual rainfall is highest in the heart of the Congo River basin and in the highlands west of Bukavu and with some variation tends to diminish in direct relation to distance from these areas.", "The only areas marked by long four-month to five-month dry seasons and occasional droughts are parts of the Southeast." ], [ "Data", "Location of the DRC on a world map'''Area:'''''total:''2,344,858 km2''land:''2,267,048 km2''water:''77,810 km2Idjwi in South Kivu.", "'''Area - comparative:'''The 11th-largest country in the world (and 2nd in Africa); it is smaller than Algeria but larger than Greenland and Saudi Arabia.", "It is about a quarter the size of the United States as a whole.Mount Nyiragongo, which last erupted in 2021.Salonga National Park.", "'''Land boundaries:'''''total:''10,481 km''border countries:''\"Angola 2,646 km, Burundi 236 km, Central African Republic 1,747 km, Republic of the Congo 1,229 km, Rwanda 221 km, South Sudan 714 km, Tanzania 479 km, Uganda 877 km, Zambia 2,332 km\"'''Coastline:'''.", "'''Maritime claims:'''''territorial sea:''''exclusive economic zone:''boundaries with neighbors'''Climate:'''tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler-cold and wetter in eastern highlands and the Ruwenzori Range; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October'''Terrain:'''vast central plateau covered by tropical rainforest, surrounded by mountains in the west, plains and savanna in the south/southwest, and grasslands in the north.", "The high mountains of the Ruwenzori Range on the eastern borders.", "'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Atlantic Ocean 0 m''highest point:''Pic Marguerite on Mont Ngaliema (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m'''Natural resources:'''cobalt, copper, niobium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, uranium, coal, hydropower, timber'''Land use:'''''arable land:''3.09% ''permanent crops:''0.36%96.55 (2012 est.", ")'''Irrigated land:'''105 km2 (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:'''1,283 km3 (2011)" ], [ "Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)", "''total:''0.68 km3/yr (68%/21%/11%)''per capita:''11.25 m3/yr (2005)'''Natural hazards:'''periodic droughts in south; Congo River floods (seasonal); in the east, in the Albertine Rift, there are active volcanoes" ], [ "Environment", "The endangered mountain gorilla, half of its population live in the DRC's Virunga National Park, making the park a critical habitat for these animals.=== Current issues ===Poaching threatens wildlife populations (for example, the painted hunting dog, ''Lycaon pictus'', is now considered extirpated from the Congo due to human overpopulation and poaching); water pollution; deforestation (chiefly due to land conversion to agriculture by indigenous farmers); refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan — a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage=== Environment - international agreements ===''party to:''Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands''signed, but not ratified:''Environmental Modification'''Geography:'''D.R.", "Congo is one of six African states that straddles the equator; it's the largest African state that has the equator passing through it.", "Very narrow strip of land that controls the lower Congo River and is the only outlet to South Atlantic Ocean; dense tropical rainforest in the central river basin and eastern highlands." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point - unnamed location on the border with the Central African Republic in the Bomu river immediately west of the town of Mbaga in CAR, Orientale Province* Easternmost point - at the point where the northern section of the border with Uganda enters Lake Albert immediately west of Mahagi Port, Orientale Province* Southernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Zambia immediately to north-west of the Zambian town of Ndabala, Katanga province* Westernmost point - the point at which the border with Cabinda enters the Atlantic Ocean, Bas-Congo province" ], [ "See also", "* Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo* Democratic Republic of the Congo* Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "Democratic Republic of the Congos population between 1960 and 2017.Demographic features of the population of the Democratic Republic of the Congo include ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named.", "The most numerous people are the Luba, Mongo, and Kongo.Although 700 local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French, and the intermediary languages Kikongo ya leta, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala." ], [ "Population", "Historical population of the DR CongoThe CIA World Factbook estimated the population to be over 105 million as of 2022 (the exact number being 108,407,721), now exceeding that of Vietnam (with 98,721,275 inhabitants as of 2020) and ascending the country to the rank of 14th most populous in the world.", "The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 46.38%, 51.15% of the population was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.47% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 195012 184 00043.752.53.8 195513 580 00043.853.13.1 196015 368 00043.853.32.9 196517 543 00043.953.22.8 197020 267 00044.452.82.8 197523 317 00044.952.32.8 198027 019 00045.451.82.8 198531 044 00046.151.12.8 199036 406 00047.050.22.8 199544 067 00047.949.42.7 200049 626 00048.049.42.7 200557 421 00047.549.92.7 201065 966 00046.351.12.7 2020101 780 26346.451.22.5Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Post-censal estimates.)", "(Provisional.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 50 286 000 51 472 000 101 758 000 100 0–4 9 956 000 9 780 000 19 736 000 19.40 5–9 8 046 000 7 978 000 16 024 000 15.75 10–14 6 638 000 6 588 000 13 226 000 13.00 15–19 5 280 000 5 250 000 10 530 000 10.35 20–24 4 224 000 4 272 000 8 496 000 8.35 25–29 3 621 000 3 603 000 7 224 000 7.10 30–34 3 017 000 3 037 000 6 054 000 5.95 35–39 2 565 000 2 728 000 5 293 000 5.20 40–44 2 011 000 2 059 000 4 070 000 4.00 45–49 1 307 000 1 493 000 2 800 000 2.75 50–54 1 056 000 1 287 000 2 343 000 2.30 55–59 704 000 926 000 1 630 000 1.60 60–64 704 000 926 000 1 630 000 1.60 65-69 553 000 721 000 1 274 000 1.25 70-74 302 000 412 000 714 000 0.70 75+ 302 000 412 000 714 000 0.70Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 24 640 000 24 346 000 48 986 000 48.14 15–64 24 489 000 25 581 000 50 070 000 49.20 65+ 1 157 000 1 545 000 2 702 000 2.66===Census===The first and so far only census conducted in DR Congo dates from 1984." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is incomplete.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy1950 566,000 326,000 239,00046.026.619.55.97179.938.311951 579,000 328,000 251,00046.126.220.05.97178.538.441952 592,000 327,000 264,00046.225.620.65.97175.838.851953 607,000 329,000 278,00046.425.121.25.98173.339.141954 619,000 330,000 289,00046.324.721.65.98171.039.471955 632,000 333,000 299,00046.324.421.95.98168.839.721956 646,000 336,000 311,00046.424.122.35.99166.739.981957 663,000 338,000 325,00046.523.722.86.01164.740.321958 681,000 343,000 338,00046.723.523.26.04162.940.501959 698,000 348,000 349,00046.823.423.46.07161.240.641960 716,000 354,000 362,00046.923.223.76.08159.840.861961 738,000 370,000 368,00047.123.623.56.11159.640.241962 761,000 378,000 383,00047.423.523.86.13158.140.341963 785,000 385,000 400,00047.523.324.26.16156.540.601964 808,000 403,000 406,00047.723.824.06.18155.740.051965 833,000 404,000 429,00047.923.224.76.21153.140.701966 859,000 397,000 462,00047.922.125.86.24149.542.051967 885,000 405,000 480,000 48.021.926.06.27147.342.311968 910,000 411,000 500,00047.921.626.36.30145.142.711969 935,000 418,000 517,00047.821.426.46.32142.742.981970 959,000 425,000 534,00047.621.126.56.34140.543.281971 985,000 431,000 554,00047.520.826.86.38138.343.661972 1,006,000 437,000 569,00047.320.526.86.40136.443.931973 1,026,000 445,000 582,00047.020.426.66.41134.744.101974 1,047,000 451,000 597,00046.720.126.66.42133.344.411975 1,070,000 460,000 610,00046.420.026.46.42132.144.471976 1,091,000 468,000 623,00046.119.826.36.43130.944.661977 1,111,000 476,000 634,00045.819.626.16.43129.844.761978 1,134,000 491,000 643,00045.619.725.86.44129.144.541979 1,184,000 496,000 688,00045.919.226.76.46126.945.211980 1,227,000 507,000 720,00046.019.027.06.47125.145.471981 1,260,000 517,000 744,00045.918.827.16.49123.545.721982 1,293,000 526,000 766,00045.818.627.26.50121.945.921983 1,333,000 535,000 798,00045.918.527.56.55120.346.181984 1,377,000 545,000 832,00046.218.327.96.60118.746.451985 1,433,000 559,000 873,00046.518.228.46.65117.446.621986 1,480,000 571,000 910,00046.718.028.76.69116.146.911987 1,529,000 579,000 950,00046.817.729.16.74114.947.341988 1,568,000 588,000 980,00046.517.429.16.73113.747.771989 1,610,000 596,000 1,014,00046.317.129.16.74112.648.171990 1,652,000 604,000 1,047,00046.016.829.26.70111.348.601991 1,713,000 617,000 1,097,00046.116.629.56.69110.148.951992 1,761,000 629,000 1,132,00045.916.429.56.67108.949.241993 1,804,000 638,000 1,165,00045.716.229.56.64108.149.551994 1,878,000 653,000 1,225,00045.916.029.96.67107.049.881995 2,046,000 682,000 1,364,00047.115.731.46.71105.750.411996 2,083,000 730,000 1,353,00046.816.430.46.72106.449.311997 2,067,000 707,000 1,360,00045.815.730.26.73103.750.401998 2,071,000 729,000 1,342,00045.115.929.26.73101.549.701999 2,128,000 739,000 1,389,00045.015.629.46.7299.549.952000 2,189,000 712,000 1,477,00045.014.630.46.7297.351.782001 2,245,000 721,000 1,525,00044.814.430.46.7095.052.122002 2,310,000 733,000 1,577,00044.714.230.56.6792.652.332003 2,372,000 738,000 1,634,00044.513.930.76.6489.952.832004 2,426,000 738,000 1,688,00044.313.530.86.6287.253.432005 2,499,000 743,000 1,757,00044.213.131.16.6084.653.932006 2,592,000 746,000 1,846,00044.412.831.66.5982.054.532007 2,675,000 756,000 1,920,00044.412.531.86.5879.454.922008 2,767,000 764,000 2,003,00044.412.332.26.5877.055.342009 2,867,000 771,000 2,096,00044.612.032.66.5974.555.842010 2,957,000 774,000 2,183,00044.511.732.96.5972.256.422011 3,069,000 776,000 2,293,00044.711.333.46.5870.057.072012 3,171,000 793,000 2,378,00044.611.233.56.5668.057.252013 3,247,000 797,000 2,450,00044.210.933.46.5365.957.762014 3,345,000 802,000 2,543,00044.010.633.46.4864.058.302015 3,433,000 818,000 2,615,00043.610.433.26.4462.258.492016 3,532,000 820,000 2,712,00043.410.133.36.3960.459.072017 3,647,000 832,000 2,815,00043.39.933.46.3558.659.412018 3,748,000 835,000 2,913,00043.09.633.46.3056.959.942019 3,839,000 844,000 2,995,00042.79.433.36.2555.560.282020 3,930,000 886,000 3,044,00042.39.532.86.2153.959.742021 4,035,000 931,000 3,104,00042.09.732.36.1652.359.19 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000 people); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000 people); NC = natural change (per 1000 people), also equals CBR minus CDR; IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Fertility and Births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR) for urban and rural areas:The Wanted Fertility Rate is an estimate of what the fertility rate would be if all unwanted births were avoided.", "Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2007 44,1 6,3 (5,6) 40,4 5,4 (4,8) 46,8 7,0 (6,2) 2013-14 44,1 6,6 (5,7) 40,5 5,4 (4,6) 45,9 7,3 (6,5)Fertility data per province, as of 2014: Province Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49Kinshasa 4.2 5.7 4.8Bas-Congo 6.0 12.6 6.5Bandundu 6.3 12.1 6.1Équateur 7.0 14.3 6.5Orientale 5.9 11.6 5.3Nord-Kivu 6.5 9.7 6.7Sud-Kivu 7.7 12.5 7.4Maniema 6.9 14.8 7.0Katanga 7.8 12.8 7.3Kasaï Oriental 7.3 12.4 7.5Kasaï Occidental 8.2 14.2 7.5=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy in DR Congo since 1950Life expectancy in DR Congo since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195539.061955–1960 40.551960–1965 41.631965–1970 42.991970–1975 44.771975–1980 45.631980–1985 47.131985–1990 48.251990–1995 49.591995–2000 48.892000–2005 51.842005–2010 55.482010–2015 58.10" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Over 250 ethnic groups and 450 tribes (ethnic subgroups) populate the Democratic Republic of Congo.", "These ethnic groups are from the Bantu, Sudanic, Nilotic, Ubangian and Pygmy linguistic groups.", "Because of this diversity, there is no dominant ethnic group in Congo, however the following ethnic groups account for 51.5% of the population:Breakdown of the largest ethnic groups in DRC- Luba-Kasaï- Kongo- Mongo- Lubakat- Lulua- Tetela- Nande- Ngbandi- Ngombe- Yaka- NgbakaSee below for a more detailed list of Congolese ethnic groups.Bantu peoples::Ambala, Ambuun, Angba, Babindi, Baboma, Baholo, Bangala, Bango, Bapindi, Batsamba, Bazombe, Bemba, Bembe, Bira, Bowa, Dikidiki, Dzing, Fuliru, Havu, Hema, Hima, Hunde, Iboko, Kanioka, Kaonde, Kongo, Kuba, Kumu, Kwango, Lengola, Lokele, Luba, Lunda, Lupu, Lwalwa, Mbala, Mbole, Mbuza (Budja), Mongo, Nande, Ngoli, Bangoli, Ngombe, Nkumu, Nyanga, Pende, Popoi, Poto, Sango, Shi, Nyindu, Songo, Sukus, Tabwa, Chokwe, Téké, Tembo, Tetela, Topoke, Ungana, Vira, Wakuti, Yaka, Yakoma, Yanzi, Yéké, Yela, etc.Central Sudanic::Manvu, Mbunja, Moru-Mangbetu, LugbaraNilotic peoples ::Alur, Bari, Kakwa, LogoUbangian:Azande, Banda, Ngbandi, Ngbaka Pygmy peoples ::Mbuti, Twa, Baka, BabingaMore than 600,000 pygmies (around 1% of the total population) are believed to live in DR Congo, mainly in forests, where they survive by hunting wild animals and gathering fruits." ], [ "Languages", "The four major languages in the DRC are French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca, or trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Swahili), Kikongo ya leta, and Tshiluba.", "In total, there are over 200 ethnic languages.French is generally the language of instruction in schools.", "English is taught as a compulsory foreign language in Secondary and High Schools around the country.", "It is a required subject in the Faculty of Economics at major universities around the country and there are numerous language schools in the country that teach it.", "Former President Kabila himself is fluent in both English and French, as was his father." ], [ "Religions", "Christian church in KisanganiA survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Surveys program in 2013–2014 indicated that Christians constituted 93.7% of the population (Catholics 29.7%, Protestants 26.8%, and other Christians 37.2%).", "An indigenous religion, Kimbanguism, was practiced by 2.8% of the population, while Muslims make up 1.2%.Another estimate (by the Pew Research Center in 2010) found Christianity was followed by 95.8% of the population.The CIA The World Factbook gives the following percentages: Roman Catholic 29.9%, Protestant 26.7%, Kimbanguist 2.8%, Other Christian 36.5%, Islam 1.3%, Other (includes Syncretic Sects and Indigenous beliefs) 2.7%.The Joshua Project, a Christian missionary organisation, gives the following percentages: Roman Catholic 43.9%, Protestant 24.8%, Other Christian 23.7%, Muslim 1.6%, Non-religious 0.6%, Hindu 0.1% other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs 5.3%." ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesPopulation pyramid of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2020These are some other demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 9 seconds\tOne death every 38 seconds\tOne net migrant every 111 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 11 secondsThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:108,407,721 (2022 est.", "):85,281,024 (July 2018 est.", "):''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and gender than would otherwise be expected (July 2017 est.", ")===Religions===Roman Catholic 29.9%, Protestant 26.7%, other Christian 36.5%, Kimbanguist 2.8%, Muslim 1.3%, other (includes syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs) 1.2%, none 1.3%, unspecified 0.2% (2014 est.", ")===Age structure===:''0-14 years:'' 46.38% (male 23,757,297/female 23,449,057):''15-24 years:'' 19.42% (male 9,908,686/female 9,856,841):''25-54 years:'' 28.38% (male 14,459,453/female 14,422,912):''55-64 years:'' 3.36% (male 1,647,267/female 1,769,429):''65 years and over:'' 2.47% (male 1,085,539/female 1,423,782) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 41.25% (male 17,735,697 /female 17,446,866):''15-24 years:'' 21.46% (male 9,184,871 /female 9,117,462):''25-54 years:'' 30.96% (male 13,176,714 /female 13,225,429):''55-64 years:'' 3.63% (male 1,472,758 /female 1,625,637):''65 years and over:'' 2.69% (male 974,293 /female 1,321,297) (2018 est.", ")===Median age===Kongo youth and adults in KinshasaAmani festival in GomaFamily in Rutshuru, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo:total: 16.7 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 222nd:male: 16.5 years:female: 16.8 years (2020 est.", "):total: 18.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 206th:male: 18.6 years:female: 19 years (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:40.08 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 7th:40.1 births/1,000 population (2020 est.", ")===Death rate===:7.94 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 95th:9.1 deaths/1,000 population (2020 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===:5.63 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 3rd:5.7 children born/woman (2020 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:3.14% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 9th:2.33% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 31st:2.42% (2016)===Mother's mean age at first birth===:19.9 years (2013/14 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:28.1% (2017/18):20.4% (2013/14)===Net migration rate===:-0.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 131st:-0.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 105th:-0.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population''note'': fighting between the Congolese Government and Uganda- and Rwanda-backed Congolese rebels spawned a regional war in DRC in August 1998, which left 2.33 million Congolese internally displaced and caused 412,000 Congolese refugees to flee to surrounding countries (2011 est.", ")Given the situation in the country and the condition of state structures, it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable data however evidence suggests that DRC continues to be a destination country for immigrants in spite of recent declines.", "Immigration is seen to be very diverse in nature, with refugees and asylum-seekers - products of the numerous and violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region - constituting an important subset of the population in the country.Additionally, the country's large mine operations attract migrant workers from Africa and beyond and there is considerable migration for commercial activities from other African countries and the rest of the world, but these movements are not well studied.", "Transit migration towards South Africa and Europe also plays a role.", "Immigration in the DRC has decreased steadily over the past two decades, most likely as a result of the armed violence that the country has experienced.According to the International Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants in the DRC has declined from just over 1 million in 1960, to 754,000 in 1990, to 480,000 in 2005, to an estimated 445,000 in 2010.Valid figures are not available on migrant workers in particular, partly due to the predominance of the informal economy in the DRC.", "Data are also lacking on irregular immigrants, however given neighbouring country ethnic links to nationals of the DRC, irregular migration is assumed to be a significant phenomenon in the country.Figures on the number of Congolese nationals abroad vary greatly depending on the source, from 3 to 6 million.", "This discrepancy is due to a lack of official, reliable data.", "Emigrants from the DRC are above all long-term emigrants, the majority of which live within Africa and to a lesser extent in Europe; 79.7% and 15.3% respectively, according to estimates on 2000 data.", "Most Congolese emigrants however, remain in Africa, with new destination countries including South Africa and various points en route to Europe.In addition to being a host country, the DRC has also produced a considerable number of refugees and asylum-seekers located in the region and beyond.", "These numbers peaked in 2004 when, according to UNHCR, there were more than 460,000 refugees from the DRC; in 2008, Congolese refugees numbered 367,995 in total, 68% of which were living in other African countries.===Religions===:Roman Catholic (55.8%), Other Christian (39.1%), Folk religion (2.5%), Islam (2.1%), None (0.5%)===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 97.5 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 91.5 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 6 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 16.8 (2015 est.", ")===Gender ratio===:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female:15–64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female:65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2011 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 61.83 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 216th:male: 60.03 years:female: 63.69 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 58.1 years (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 213rd:male: 56.5 years (2018 est.", "):female: 59.7 years (2018 est.", "):total population: 56.93 years:male: 55.39 years:female: 58.51 years (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 46.8% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 4.33% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 44.5% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 4.53% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===HIV/AIDS===:Adult prevalence rate: 0.7% (2017 est.", "):People living with HIV/AIDS: 390,000 (2017 est.", "):Deaths: 17,000 (2017 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:Degree of risk: very high:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever and ebola.", ":Vectorborne diseases: malaria, plague, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high risks in some locations:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2005)===Nationality===:Noun: Congolese (singular and plural):Adjective: Congolese or Congo===Literacy===:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba:Total population: 77%:Male: 88.5%:Female: 66.5% (2016 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 10 years (2013):male: 11 years (2013):female: 9 years (2013)===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 8.7% (2012 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 134th:male: 11.3% (2012 est.", "):female: 6.8% (2012 est.)" ], [ "Congolese diaspora", "The table below shows DRC born people who have emigrated abroad in selected Western countries (although it excludes their descendants).", "Rank Country Region Year DRC born population 1 Europe 2010 59,641 2 Europe 2015 44,715 3 North America 2021 39,475 4 North America 2011-13 20,410 5 Europe 2011 19,193 6 Europe 2011 (foreign citizens) 9,299 7 Europe 2011 6,724 8 Europe 2015 6,010 9 Europe 2015 4,973 10 Europe 2015 3,092 11 Oceania 2011 2,576 12 Europe 2015 2,210 13 South America 2020 2,064 14 Europe 2013 1,494 15 Europe 2015 1,523 16 Europe 2015 1,264 17 Europe 2015 1,258These are only estimates and do not account for Congolese migrants residing illegally in these and other countries." ], [ "See also", "Congolese ethnic groups:AlurAzandeChokweHemaKakwaLenduLubaMangbetuTwaYakaLundaOther articles Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* , International Rescue Committee, January 2008 (estimates 5.4 million excess deaths above sub-Saharan average from 1998 to 2007)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo''' has declined drastically around the 1980s, despite being home to vast potential in natural resources and mineral wealth; their gross domestic product is $69.474 billion as of 2023.At the time of its independence in 1960, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa.", "It boasted a thriving mining sector and its agriculture sector was relatively productive.", "Since then, decades of corruption, war, and political instability have been a severe detriment to further growth, today leaving DRC with a GDP per capita and a HDI rating that rank among the world's lowest and make the DRC one of the most fragile and according to United Nations, least developed countries in the world.Despite this the DRC is quickly modernizing; it tied with Malaysia for the largest positive change in HDI development in 2016.Government projects include strengthening the health system for maternal and child health, expansion of electricity access, water supply reconstructions, and urban and social rehabilitation programs." ], [ "Economic implications of conflicts", "The two recent conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars), which began in 1996, have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, have increased external debt, and have resulted in deaths of more than five million people from war, and associated famine and disease.", "Malnutrition affects approximately two-thirds of the country's population.Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of GDP in 1997.In 1996, agriculture employed 66% of the work force.Rich in minerals, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s.", "The economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining.", "However, much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data.In 2006 Transparency International ranked the Democratic Republic of the Congo 156 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index, tying Bangladesh, Chad, and Sudan with a 2.0 rating.", "President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001.The conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo were over water, minerals, and other resources.", "Political agendas have worsened the economy, as in times of crisis, the elite benefit while the general populace suffers.", "This is worsened as a result of corrupt national and international corporations.", "The corporations instigate and allow the fighting for resources because they benefit from it.", "A large proportion of fatalities in the country are attributed to a lack of basic services.", "The influx of refugees since the war in 1998 only serves to worsen the issue of poverty.", "Money of the taxpayers in the DRC is often misappropriated by the corrupt leaders of the country, who use the money to benefit themselves instead of the citizens of the DRC.", "The DRC is consistently rated the lowest on the UN Human Development Index." ], [ "Economic history", "Change in per capita GDP of Congo, 1950–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.Evolution of the DRC's GDP.=== After Leopold ===Forced labor (slavery) was important for the rural sector.", "The corporations that dominated the economy were mostly owned by Belgium, but British capital also played an important role.", "The 1950s were a period of rising income and expectations.", "Congo was said to have the best public health system in Africa, but there was also a huge wealth disparity.", "Belgian companies favored workers in certain areas more and exported them to work in different areas, restricting opportunities for others.", "Favored groups also received better education and were able to secure jobs for people in the same ethnic group which increased tensions.", "In 1960 there were only 16 university graduates out of a population of 20 million.", "Belgium still had economic power and independence gave little opportunity for improvement.", "Common refrains included \"no elite, no trouble\" and \"before independence = after independence\".", "When the Belgians left, most of the government officials and educated residents left with them.", "Before independence, there were just 3 out of 5000 government jobs held by Congolese people.", "The resulting loss of institutional knowledge and human capital crippled the government.Congolese exports in 2006.===Zaire===After the Congo Crisis, Mobutu arose as the country's sole ruler and stabilized the country politically.", "Economically, however, the situation continued to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that from 1960.Starting in 1976 the IMF provided stabilizing loans to the dictatorship.", "Much of the money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle.", "This was not a secret as the 1982 report by IMF's envoy Erwin Blumenthal documented.", "He stated, it is \"alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire’s economy\".", "Blumenthal indicated that there was \"no chance\" that creditors would ever recover their loans.", "Yet the IMF and the World Bank continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or \"wasted on elephant projects\".", "\"Structural adjustment programmes\" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.===1990s===Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth.", "A number of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of American dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted.", "The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure.", "Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability.Although depreciated, congolese francs have been stable for few years (Ndonda, 2014)===2000s===Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops.", "A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Kabila has begun implementing reforms.DRC's economic growth decelerated from its pre-COVID level of 4.4% in 2019, to an estimated 0.8% in 2020.Growth was driven by the extractives sector which, helped by robust demand from China, expanded by 6.9% in 2020 (compared to 1% in 2019).", "Meanwhile, non-mining sectors contracted by 1.6% (vs. growth of 5.7% in 2019) due to pandemic-related mobility restrictions, weaker trading activities and constrained government spending.", "Private consumption and government investment fell in 2020 by an estimated 1.0 and 10.2%, respectively.====Special economic zones====The DRC is embarking on the establishment of special economic zones (SEZ) to encourage the revival of its industry.", "The first SEZ was planned to come into being in 2012 in N'Sele, a commune of Kinshasa, and will focus on agro-industries.", "The Congolese authorities also planned to open another zone dedicated to mining (Katanga) and a third dedicated to cement (in the Bas-Congo).", "There are three phases to the program that each have their own objectives.", "Phase I was the precursor to the actual investment in the Special Economic Zone where policymakers agreed to the framework, the framework was studied for its establishment, and to predict the potential market demand for the land.", "Stage one of Phase II involved submitting laws for the Special Economic Zone, finding good sites for businesses, and currently there is an effort to help the government attract foreign investment.", "Stage two of Phase II hasn't been started yet and it involves assisting the government in creating framework for the country, creating an overall plan for the site, figuring out what the environmental impact of the project will be, and guessing how much it will cost and what the return can be made on the investment.", "Phase III involves the World Bank creating a transaction phase that will keep everything competitive.", "The program is looking for options to hand over the program to the World Bank which could be very beneficial for the western part of the country." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.YearGDP (in bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth (real)Inflation (in Percent)Government debt (in % of GDP)198019.668368.62.4%40.0%...198527.280431.90.5%23.5%...199031.579541.4−6.6%81.3%...199524.452225.02.8%541.8%...200020.338819.1−8.1%550.0%135%200527.645312.76.1%21.5%101%200629.947815.45.3%12.8%104%200732.650618.66.3%16.7%87%200835.353222.76.2%18.0%74%200936.653518.62.9%46.1%85%201039.756322.37.1%23.5%31%201143.359726.46.9%15.0%25%201247.263230.17.1%0.9%23%201352.167634.98.5%0.9%20%201458.073238.49.5%1.2%18%201562.776840.26.9%1.0%16%201665.077338.12.4%18.2%17%201768.579039.53.4%41.5%16%" ], [ "Economic implications of instability", "Ongoing conflicts dramatically reduced government revenue and increased external debt.", "As Reyntjens wrote, \"Entrepreneurs of insecurity are engaged in extractive activities that would be impossible in a stable state environment.", "The criminalization context in which these activities occur offers avenues for considerable factional and personal enrichment through the trafficking of arms, illegal drugs, toxic products, mineral resources and dirty money.\"", "Ethnic rivalries were made worse because of economic interests and looting and coltan smuggling took place.", "Illegal monopolies formed in the country where they used forced labor for children to mine or work as soldiers.", "National parks were overrun with people looking to exploit minerals and resources.", "Increased poverty and hunger from the war and that increased the hunting of rare wildlife.", "Education was denied when the country was under foreign control and very few people make money off the minerals in the country.", "The national resources are not the root cause for the continued fighting in the region, however, the competition has become an incentive to keep fighting.1 The DRC's level of economic freedom is one of the lowest in the world, putting it in the repressed category.", "The armed militias fight with the government in the eastern section of the country over the mining sector or the corruption of the government, and weak policies lead to the instability of the economy.", "Human rights abuses also ruin economic activity; the DRC has a 7% unemployment rate, but still has one of the lowest GDP's per capita in the world.", "A major problem for people trying to start their own companies is that the minimum amount of capital needed to launch the company is five times the average annual income, and prices are regulated by the government, which almost forces people to have to work for the larger, more corrupt businesses; otherwise, they won't have work.", "It is hard for the DRC to encourage foreign trade because of the regulatory barriers." ], [ "International relations", "Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth.", "A number of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in January 1999 banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted.", "The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure.", "Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability.", "125 companies in 2003 contributed to the conflict in DRC showing the corruption.===World Bank===With the help of the International Development Association the DRC has worked toward the reestablishment of social services.", "This is done by giving 15 million people access to basic health services and giving bed nets to prevent malaria from spreading to people.", "With the Emergency Demobilization and Reintegration Program more than 107,000 adults and 34,000 child soldiers stood down their militarized posture.", "The travel time from Lubumbashi to Kasomeno in Katanga went down from seven days to two hours because of the improved roads which led to the decrease of prices of main goods by 60%.", "With the help of the IFC, KfW, and the EU the DRC improved its businesses by reducing the time it took to create a business by 51%, reducing the time it took to get construction permits by 54%, and reducing the number of taxes from 118 to 30.Improvements in health have been noticeable specifically that deliveries attended by trained staff jumped from 47 to 80%.", "In education 14 million textbooks were provided to children, completion rates of school have increased, and higher education was made available to students that chose to pursue it.===International Monetary Fund===The IMF plans on giving the DRC a $1 billion loan after its two-year suspension after it failed to give details about a mining deal from one of its state owned mines and an Israeli billionaire, Dan Gertler.", "The loan may be necessary for the country because there will be elections in December 2016 for the next president and the cost of funding this would range around $1.1 billion.", "The biggest problem with the vote is getting a country of 68 million people the size of Western Europe to polling stations with less than 1,860 miles of paved roads." ], [ "Sectors", "===Agriculture===Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of the GDP in 1997.Main cash crops include coffee, palm oil, rubber, cotton, sugar, tea, and cocoa.", "Food crops include cassava, plantains, maize, groundnuts, and rice.", "In 1996, agriculture employed 66% of the work force.The Democratic Republic of Congo produced, in 2018:* 29.9 million tons of cassava (3rd largest producer in the world, second only to Nigeria and Thailand);* 4.7 million tons of plantain (largest producer in the world);* 2 million tons of maize;* 1.1 million tons of palm oil;* 990 thousand tons of rice;* 384 thousand tons of sweet potato;* 309 thousand tons of banana;* 307 thousand tons of peanut;* 213 thousand tons of mango (including mangosteen and guava);* 213 thousand tons of papaya;* 205 thousand tons of beans;* 186 thousand tons of pineapple;* 168 thousand tons of orange;* 101 thousand tons of potato;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, such as coffee (29 thousand tons), cocoa (3.6 thousand tons), natural rubber (14 thousand tons) and tea (3.6 thousand tons).===Fishing===The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50 percent of Africa's forests and a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a United Nations report on the country's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa.", "Fish are the single most important source of animal protein in the DRC.", "Total production of marine, river, and lake fisheries in 2003 was estimated at 222,965 tons, all but 5,000 tons from inland waters.", "PEMARZA, a state agency, carries on marine fishing.===Forestry===Forests cover 60 percent of the total land area.", "There are vast timber resources, and commercial development of the country's 61 million hectares (150 million acres) of exploitable wooded area is only beginning.", "The Mayumbe area of Bas-Congo was once the major center of timber exploitation, but forests in this area were nearlydepleted.", "The more extensive forest regions of the central cuvette and of the Ubangi River valley have increasingly been tapped.Roundwood removals were estimated at 72,170,000 m2 in 2003, about 95 percent for fuel.", "Some 14 species are presently being harvested.", "Exports of forest products in 2003 totalled $25.7 million.", "Foreign capital is necessary in order for forestry to expand, and the government recognizes that changes in tax structure and export procedures will be needed to facilitate economic growth.===Mining===Rich in minerals, the DRC has a difficult history of predatory mineral extraction, which has been at the heart of many struggles within the country for many decades, but particularly in the 1990s.", "Although the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the second largest country in Africa who has historically relied heavily on mining, is no longer reflected in the GDP data as the mining industry has suffered from long-term \"uncertain legal framework, corruption, and a lack of transparency in government policy.\"", "The informal sector .In her book entitled ''The Real Economy of Zaire'', MacGaffey described a second, often illegal economy, \"system D\", which is outside the official economy (MacGaffey 1991:27).", "and therefore is not reflected in the GDP." ], [ "Exploitation of mineral substances by companies", "The economy of the second largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining.", "The Congo is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and industrial diamonds.", "The Congo has 70% of the world's coltan, and more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves., mostly in the form of small, industrial diamonds.", "The coltan is a major source of tantalum, which is used in the fabrication of electronic components in computers and mobile phones.", "In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but, to date, mining has been done on a small scale.", "Manono in Central DRC has a significant deposit of lithium and tin with tantalum and niobium and is being developed by an Australian company.", "Production is expected in 2023.Smuggling of the conflict minerals, coltan and cassiterite (ores of tantalum and tin, respectively), has helped fuel the war in the Eastern Congo.Today's larger mining companies are making changes and adhering to global demand for ESG ( Environmental, Social and Governance) and IRMA (Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance).", "One such globally recognised certification is the 3T iTSCi, the only widely implemented and accepted mineral traceability and due diligence system in the region for the 3T minerals – Tin, Tantalum and Tungsten, an internationally recognised certification for responsible mining and traceability under the 2010 Dodd-Frank Act.", "Today four central African countries including the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) provides legitimate and ethical 3T minerals.", "ITSCI is the only industry initiative with standards 100% aligned with the OECD Guidance.", "Much has been done in the last 15 years, providing artisanal and small-scale miners a support network through iTSCi, to build the foundations and regulate the industry.", "At the end of 2019 ITSCI has seen to 2000 mines, employment of around 80,000 miners, and the supply of over 2000 tonnes of tin, tantalum and tungsten minerals per month; the initiative has come a long way in the last decade.", "A report had been done by Pact in 2015, detailing iTSCi's progress over the previous five years, it discusses the successes, the challenges ahead and the work yet to be done.", "Entitled '' Unconflicted: Making Conflict-Free Mining a Reality in the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi.", "''===Copper and cobalt===Katanga Mining Limited, a London-based company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world.", "After a major rehabilitation program, the company restarted copper production in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008.===Informal sector===Much economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data." ], [ "Transport", "All aboard - a train from Lubumbashi arriving in Kindu on a newly refurbished line.Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo has always been difficult.", "The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country.", "Furthermore, chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict has led to serious under-investment over many years.On the other hand, the Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways, and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two-thirds of the country." ], [ "See also", "Democratic Republic of the CongoList of companies based in the Democratic Republic of the CongoMining industry of the Democratic Republic of the CongoUnited Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * Democratic Republic of the Congo latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* Dias, Elizabeth (24 July 2009).", "\"First Blood Diamonds, Now Blood Computers?\".", "''Time''.", "* Oasis Kodila Tedika et Francklin Kyayima Muteba, The sources of growth in DRC before independence.", "A cointegration analysis, CRE Working paper, n°02/10, juin 2010* Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon (2007): The Dark Side of Globalization.", "The Vicious Cycle of Exploitation from World Market Integration: Lesson from the Congo, Working Papers in Economics and Statistics 31-2007* * \"The lucrative mining industry is unscrupulous, environmentally disastrous, and a linchpin of Congo’s economy.", "How can it be reformed?\"", "Review of 5 books on the topic." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of the Democratic Republic of Congo''' take place in a framework of a republic in transition from a civil war to a semi-presidential republic.On 18 and 19 December 2005, a successful nationwide referendum was carried out on a draft constitution, which set the stage for elections in 2006.The voting process, though technically difficult due to the lack of infrastructure, was facilitated and organized by the Congolese Independent Electoral Commission with support from the UN mission to the Congo (MONUC).", "Early UN reports indicate that the voting was for the most part peaceful, but spurred violence in many parts of the war-torn east and the Kasais.In 2006, many Congolese complained that the constitution was a rather ambiguous document and were unaware of its contents.", "This is due in part to the high rates of illiteracy in the country.", "However, interim President Kabila urged Congolese to vote 'Yes', saying the constitution is the country's best hope for peace in the future.", "25 million Congolese turned out for the two-day balloting.", "According to results released in January 2006, the constitution was approved by 84% of voters.", "The new constitution also aims to decentralize authority, dividing the vast nation into 25 semi-autonomous provinces, drawn along ethnic and cultural lines.The country's first democratic elections in four decades were held on 30 July 2006." ], [ "Political history", "From the day of the arguably ill-prepared independence of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the tensions between the powerful leaders of the political elite, such as Joseph Kasa Vubu, Patrice Lumumba, Moise Tshombe, Joseph Mobutu and others, jeopardize the political stability of the new state.", "From Tshombe's secession of the Katanga, to the assassination of Lumumba, to the two coups d'état of Mobutu, the country has known periods of true nationwide peace, but virtually no period of genuine democratic rule.===The Mobutu era===The regime of '''President Mobutu Sese Seko''' lasted 32 years (1965–1997), during which all but the first seven years the country was named Zaire.", "His dictatorship operated as a one-party state, which saw most of the powers concentrated between President Mobutu, who was simultaneously the head of both the party and the state through the Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR), and a series of essentially rubber-stamping institutions.One particularity of the Regime was the claim to be thriving for an ''authentic'' system, different from Western or Soviet influences.", "This lasted roughly between the establishment of Zaire in 1971, and the official beginning of the transition towards democracy, on 24 April 1990.This was true at the regular people's level as everywhere else.", "People were ordered by law to drop their Western Christian names; the titles Mr. and Mrs. were abandoned for the male and female versions of the French word for \"citizen\"; Men were forbidden to wear suits, and women to wear pants.", "At the institutional level, many of the institutions also changed denominations, but the end result was a system that borrowed from both systems:The MPR's '''Central Committee''': Under the system of the \"party-state\", this committee had a higher position in the institutional make-up than the government or cabinet.", "It had both executive oversight authority, and in practice, binding legislative authority, as it dictated the party platform.", "Mobutu headed the Central Committee as Founding-President.", "The Vice-President of the Central Committee was essentially the country's Vice President, without the succession rights.", "The '''Executive Council''': Known elsewhere as the Government or the Cabinet, this council was the executive authority in the country, made of '''State Commissioners''' (known elsewhere as ministers).", "For a long period of time, Mobutu was the sole leader of the Executive Council.", "He eventually would appoint '''First State Commissioners''' (known elsewhere as prime ministers) with largely coordinating powers and very little executive power.", "The last \"First State Commissioner\" was Kengo Wa Dondo.", "The '''Legislative Council''': essentially the rubber-stamp parliament, it was made up of '''People Commissioners''' (known elsewhere as MPs), who were sometimes elected, as individual members of the MPR, and always on the party platform.", "The '''Supreme Court''': As the judiciary, this court was seemingly the only independent branch of government, but in effect it was subordinate to a '''Judicial Council''' over which the regime had a very strong influence.Every corporation, whether financial or union, as well as every division of the administration, was set up as branches of the party.", "CEOs, union leaders, and division directors were each sworn-in as section presidents of the party.", "Every aspect of life was regulated to some degree by the party, and the will of its founding-president, Mobutu Sese Seko.Most of the petty aspects of the regime disappeared after 1990 with the beginning of the democratic transition.", "Democratization would prove to be fairly short-lived, as Mobutu's power plays dragged it in length until ultimately 1997, when forces led by Laurent Kabila eventually successfully toppled the regime, after a 9-month-long military campaign.===The Kabilas' governments and war===The government of former president Mobutu Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion led by Laurent Kabila in May 1997, with the support of Rwanda and Uganda.", "They were later to turn against Kabila and backed a rebellion against him in August 1998.Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to support the Kinshasa regime.", "A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999 by the DROC, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, and Congolese armed rebel groups, but fighting continued.Under Laurent Kabila's regime, all executive, legislative, and military powers were first vested in the President, Laurent-Désiré Kabila.", "The judiciary was independent, with the president having the power to dismiss or appoint.", "The president was first head of a 26-member cabinet dominated by the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL).", "Towards the end of the 90s, Laurent Kabila created and appointed a Transitional Parliament, with a seat in the buildings of the former Katanga Parliament, in the southern town of Lubumbashi, in a move to unite the country, and to legitimate his regime.", "Kabila was assassinated on 16 January 2001 and his son Joseph Kabila was named head of state ten days later.The younger Kabila continued with his father's Transitional Parliament, but overhauled his entire cabinet, replacing it with a group of technocrats, with the stated aim of putting the country back on the track of development, and coming to a decisive end of the Second Congo War.", "In October 2002, the new president was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces to withdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and set up a Transition Government, the make-up of which would allow representation for all negotiating parties.", "Two founding documents emerged from this: The Transition Constitution, and the Global and Inclusive Agreement, both of which describe and determine the make-up and organization of the Congolese institutions, until planned elections in July 2006, at which time the provisions of the new constitution, democratically approved by referendum in December 2005, will take full effect and that is how it happened.Under the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement, signed on 17 December 2002, in Pretoria, there was to be one President and four Vice-Presidents, one from the government, one from the Rally for Congolese Democracy, one from the MLC, and one from civil society.", "The position of Vice-President expired after the 2006 elections.After being for three years (2003–06) in the interregnum between two constitutions, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is now under the regime of the Constitution of the Third Republic.", "The constitution, adopted by referendum in 2005, and promulgated by President Joseph Kabila in February 2006, establishes a decentralized semi-presidential republic, with a separation of powers between the three branches of government - executive, legislative and judiciary, and a distribution of prerogatives between the central government and the provinces.In September 2016, violent protests were met with brutal force by the police and Republican Guard soldiers.", "Opposition groups claim 80 dead, including the Students' Union leader.", "From Monday 19 September Kinshasa residents, as well as residents elsewhere in Congo, where mostly confined to their homes.", "Police arrested anyone remotely connected to the opposition as well as innocent onlookers.", "Government propaganda, on television, and actions of covert government groups in the streets, acted against opposition as well as foreigners.", "The president's mandate was due to end on 19 December 2016, but no plans were made to elect a replacement at that time and this caused further protests.As of 8 August 2017 there are 54 political parties legally operating in the Congo.On 15 December 2018 US State Department announced it had decided to evacuate its employees’ family members from Democratic Republic of Congo just before the Congolese elections to choose a successor to President Joseph Kabila.=== Félix Tshisekedi Presidency (2019-) ===On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held.", "On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote.", "He was officially sworn in as President on 24 January 2019.In the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff.", "In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison.The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services.", "However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power.", "In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly.", "The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out.", "In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila.", "President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila.After the 2023 presidential election, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term.", "On 31 December 2023, official said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote.", "Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun.", "In January, following the election, the major opposition candidate, Moise Katumbi was momentarily placed under house arrest but this was quickly rectified by the governor of Haut-Katanga province." ], [ "Executive branch", "Since the July 2006 elections, the country is led by a semi-presidential, strongly-decentralized state.", "The executive at the central level, is divided between the President, and a Prime Minister appointed by him/her from the party having the majority of seats in Parlement.", "Should there be no clear majority, the President can appoint a \"government former\" that will then have the task to win the confidence of the National Assembly.", "The President appoints the government members (ministers) at the proposal of the Prime Minister.", "In coordination, the President and the government have the charge of the executive.", "The Prime minister and the government are responsible to the lower-house of Parliament, the National Assembly.At the province level, the Provincial legislature (Provincial Assembly) elects a governor, and the governor, with his government of up to 10 ministers, is in charge of the provincial executive.", "Some domains of government power are of the exclusive provision of the Province, and some are held concurrently with the Central government.", "This is not a Federal state however, simply a decentralized one, as the majority of the domains of power are still vested in the Central government.", "The governor is responsible to the Provincial Assembly.===Criticisms===The semi-presidential system has been described by some as \"conflictogenic\" and \"dictatogenic\", as it ensures frictions, and a reduction of pace in government life, should the President and the Prime Minister be from different sides of the political arena.", "This was seen several times in France, a country that shares the semi-presidential model.", "It was also, arguably, in the first steps of the Congo into independence, the underlying cause of the crisis between Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa Vubu, who ultimately dismissed each other, in 1960.In January 2015 the 2015 Congolese protests broke out in the country's capital following the release of a draft law that would extend the presidential term limits and allow Joseph Kabila to run again for office." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Palais du Peuple, seat of the parliament in Kinshasa=== Under the Transition Constitution ===The Inter-Congolese dialogue, that set-up the transitional institutions, created a bicameral parliament, with a National Assembly and Senate, made up of appointed representatives of the parties to the dialogue.", "These parties included the preceding government, the rebel groups that were fighting against the government, with heavy Rwandan and Ugandan support, the internal opposition parties, and the Civil Society.", "At the beginning of the transition, and up until recently, the National Assembly is headed by the MLC with Speaker Hon.", "Olivier Kamitatu, while the Senate is headed by a representative of the Civil Society, namely the head of the Church of Christ in Congo, Mgr.", "Pierre Marini Bodho.", "Hon.", "Kamitatu has since left both the MLC and the Parliament to create his own party, and ally with current President Joseph Kabila.", "Since then, the position of Speaker is held by Hon.", "Thomas Luhaka, of the MLC.Aside from the regular legislative duties, the Senate had the charge to draft a new constitution for the country.", "That constitution was adopted by referendum in December 2005, and decreed into law on 18 February 2006.===Under the New Constitution===The Parliament of the third republic is also bicameral, with a National Assembly and a Senate.", "Members of the National Assembly, the lower - but the most powerful - house, are elected by direct suffrage.", "Senators are elected by the legislatures of the 26 provinces." ], [ "Judicial branch", "===Under the Transition Constitution======Under the New Constitution===The Congolese Judicial Branch Consists of a Supreme Court, which handles federal crimes." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "===Under the Transition Constitution===10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville): Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Équateur, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Katanga, Kinshasa, Maniema, North Kivu, Orientale.Each province is divided into districts and cities.===Under the New Constitution===25 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and city (ville): Bas-Uele \| Équateur \| Haut-Lomami \| Haut-Katanga \| Haut-Uele \| Ituri \| Kasaï \| Kasaï oriental \| Kongo central \| Kwango \| Kwilu \| Lomami \| Lualaba \| Lulua \| Mai-Ndombe \| Maniema \| Mongala \| North Kivu \| Nord-Ubangi Sankuru \| South Kivu \| Sud-Ubangi \| Tanganyika \| Tshopo \| Tshuapa \| KinshasaEach province is divided into territories and cities." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Presidential elections======Parliamentary elections===" ], [ "International organization participation", "ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, CEEAC, CEPGL, East African Community, ECA, FAO, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: Two state-owned radio stations are supplemented by more than 100 private radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007); 27 stations (2005); 13 stations: 3 AM, 11 FM, and 2 shortwave (2001); 16 stations: 3 AM, 12 FM, and 1 shortwave (1999).", "* Radios: 18.0 million (1997).", "* Television stations: One state-owned TV broadcast station with near national coverage; more than a dozen privately owned TV stations with two having near national coverage (2007); 23 stations (2005); 4 stations (2001); 20 stations (1999).", "* Television sets: 6.5 million (1997).Radio is the dominant medium; a handful of stations, including state-run Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), broadcast across the country.", "The United Nations Mission (MONUSCO) and a Swiss-based NGO, Fondation Hirondelle, operate one of country's leading stations, Radio Okapi.", "The network employs mostly-Congolese staff and aims to bridge political divisions.", "Radio France Internationale (RFI), which is widely available on FM, is the most popular news station.", "The BBC broadcasts on FM in Kinshasa (92.7), Lubumbashi (92.0), Kisangani (92.0), Goma (93.3) and Bukavu (102.2).=== Radio Okapi ===Radio Okapi was first established in February 2002 by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic of Republic of Congo (MONUC).", "Radio Okapi provides news, music, and political information to all corners of the Democratic Republic of Congo.", "The major purpose behind Radio Okapi is to provide all DRC citizens with radio services regardless of political affiliation.", "The FM waves Radio Okapi provided were aimed to be free of hate speech.", "Most importantly, Radio Okapi caters to the various different ethnicities within the DRC.", "This is done through the broadcasting of content in 5 of major languages spoken in the DRC.", "These five languages are French, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo.===Most viewed channels TV=== Position Channel Share of total viewing (%) 1 RTNC 20.8 2 RT Mwangaza 4.5 3 Digital Congo TV 4.0 4 Malaika TV 3.3 5 TV5 Monde 3.0 6 Canal+ 2.5 7 Tele50 2.0 8 RTG@ 1.6 9 RT Océan Pacifique 1.4 10 RT Debout Kasai 1.0" ], [ "Political Uses of Media", "=== Hate Speech ===Specific media platforms in the Democratic Republic of Congo have used its platforms for the dissemination of hate speech.", "Media in the DRC has propagated hatred and ethnic divisions by reinforcing nationalistic sentiments.", "Numerous media outlets are owned by presidential candidates and their supporters.", "This increases the probability that news will tend to favor the political base of these presidential candidates.", "These presidential candidates use their media platforms to attack political opponents which include ethnically charged hate speech.", "The result of such propaganda is evident in recent conflicts between ethnic groups, Hema and Lendu.", "The conflict was fueled by hate speech on media platforms.", "As a result, the conflict between these ethnic groups has transformed to one of the bloodiest conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo.=== Combating Hate Speech ===Peacekeeping agencies in the Democratic Republic of Congo observed the dangerous risk hate speech posed to communal welfare in the region.", "In order to combat such harmful speech, Non-governmental agencies (NGO's) began promoting large scale media campaigns.", "Campaigns consisted of several different radio programs aimed at reconciliation and peacekeeping.", "Research concluded that such programs showed measurable positive effects." ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code: +243* International call prefix: 00* Main lines: 58,200 lines in use, 161st in the world (2012); 20,000 lines in use (2000); ** 36,000 lines in use (1995).", "* Mobile cellular: 19.5 million lines, 52nd in the world (2012); 2.6 million lines (2005); 15,000 lines (2000); 10,000 lines (1995).", "* Telephone system: barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations; inadequate fixed line infrastructure, state-owned operator providing less than 1 fixed-line connection per 1000 persons; given the inadequate fixed-line infrastructure, the use of mobile-cellular services has surged and mobile teledensity is roughly 20 per 100 persons (2011).", "* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011)." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .cd (formerly .zr).", "* Internet users: 1.2 million users, 110th in the world; 1.7% of the population, 202nd in the world (2012); 290,000 users, 132nd in the world (2008); ** 50,000 users (2002).", "* Internet hosts: 2,515 hosts, 159th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 21,248 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.3 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers: 188 ISPs (2005); 1 ISP (1999).=== Internet cables ===* List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa * West Africa Cable System (WACS), a fibre optic submarine communications cable linking countries along the west coast of Africa with the United Kingdom, was connected in early 2013." ], [ "Internet Censorship and Surveillance", "After the First Congo War (1996-1997) and Second Congo War (1998-2003), the nation transitioned to a renewed national unity under the rule of President Joseph Kabila and 4 vice presidents, all from former rebel and political opposition groups.", "The establishment of a democratic model required checks on corruption in public finance and natural resources, executive political parties, and hyperlocal militias and bandits.", "Peace agreements, in turn, did not end state violence, hence the need for absolute clarity to the public.", "The right to report on hostile resolutions was adopted in a 2002 resolution as a part of the eventual Inter-Congolese Dialogue.", "This accord declared that “independent, free, responsible and efficient media are a guarantee for public freedoms, the smooth running of democracy and social cohesion”, giving the voters direct insight into public figures, programs, and overall transparency.", "Article 27, 28, and Clause 29 established individual freedom of expression, moral press freedom, and the public right to information, respectively.", "During the time of continuing 2002 conflict, radios served as stages for peace songs and “come-home” messaging.", "Hosts had conversations with military and government officials, army members, and rebels to discuss the challenges of peace talks and demobilization.", "Censorship was lenient as long as radio personnel covered both sides.Major exceptions to the right of free press imminently ensued.", "In 1996, censorship had begun to target Congo's artistic freedoms.", "Beyond broadcasts and news, the nation began to censor those who expressed political sentiments through music.", "The National Censorship Commission banned six songs that mentioned common opposition outcries relating to employment opportunities, civilian killings, corruption, and faltering human rights.", "If these songs are played on the radio, the artists may be fined up to $500 per song in accordance with a 1996 censorship decree.", "Freedom of the press was restricted for artists offending political elites or speaking against Congolese leaders and parties.", "For those using telecommunications as an outlet, interference was backed by such legislation.", "Open discussion about political corruption or unmentioned events, such as riots or uprisings against the ruling party, are avoided in news media but continuously active on pavement radio." ], [ "Intentional Shutdowns", " The Congolese government performed a series of intentional internet shutdowns.", "The first was conducted in December 2011 and lasted approximately 25 days.", "During the 25 days, Short Message Service otherwise known as SMS was the only one affected by the shutdown.", "According to an article by CIPESA, \"One of the reasons cited by the government for blocking communication was to prevent the spread of fake results over the internet before the electoral commission announced official results\"Unlike the first shutdown the second intentional shutdown had a broader range of impact.The second intentional shutdown occurred in January 2015.The Congolese government directed telecommunication companies within the country to halt all its services.", "Not only was SMS affected, but the entire internet itself.", "This action by the government came on the eve of political protest on a proposed electoral bill.The most recent government shutdown occurred on December 19, 2016.This was an important date as President Joseph Kabila was supposed to step down as head of state.", "In order to quell, political upheaval the Congolese government ordered telecom operators to block social media in the country.In September 2016, the government cut the signals of the Radio France Internationale (RFI) and United Nations Radio Okapi (UNRO).", "Later, the general and program director of the Radio-Télévision Manika de Kolwezi was arrested after intentionally broadcasting a phone interview with Katumbi, the opposition leader.", "The censorship of human freedoms of expression to information was condemned by the Congo's United Nations on Human Rights.", "Kabila was given until December 19, 2016, to step down.", "If he decided not to, precautionary measures were set to counter organization and public protests.", "The government ordered a temporary blocking of images, videos, and voiceovers on social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and WhatsApp right after Kabila was to step down.", "Digital media was the central counter to government oversight and regulation seen in other telecommunication outlets.", "Media was used in lieu of radio broadcasting to avoid self-censorship, financial restraints that may affect networks, or news station shutdowns.", "Removing the intermediary for independent journalism and coverage prevented communication among those who wanted to organize and speak out against Kabila.", "Black-outs were utilized to prevent anticipated politically motivated violence.", "Additionally, the then Telecommunications Minister Thomas Luhaka was “not informed” of such interference by the government." ], [ "See also", "* Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), the state-run national broadcaster.", "* Internet freedom in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "* Media of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " NIC.cd, domain name registrar for the .cd domain." ], [ "Images", "File:1955 telecommunications map Atlas General du Congo 742.jpg\|Map of telecommunications in the Congo, 1955" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "A diagrammatic map of ground and water transport in the DR Congo in 2000 (roads) and 2006 (waterways and railways)Ground '''transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo''' (DRC) has always been difficult.", "The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country.", "Furthermore, chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict has led to serious under-investment over many years.On the other hand, the DRC has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways, and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two-thirds of the country." ], [ "Transport problems", "As an illustration of transport difficulties in the DRC, even before wars damaged the infrastructure, the so-called \"national\" route, used to get supplies to Bukavu from the seaport of Matadi, consisted of the following:Matadi to Kinshasa – railKinshasa to Kisangani – river boatKisangani to Ubundu – railUbundu to Kindu – river boatKindu to Kalemie – railKalemie to Kalundu (the lake port at Uvira) – boat on Lake TanganyikaKalundu to Bukavu – roadIn other words, goods had to be loaded and unloaded eight times and the total journey would take many months.Truck stuck in the mud after a heavy rainMany of the routes listed below are in poor condition and may be operating at only a fraction of their original capacity (if at all), despite recent attempts to make improvements.", "Up to 2006 the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) had an operation in Congo to support humanitarian relief agencies working there, and its bulletins and maps about the transport situation are archived on ReliefWeb.The First and Second Congo Wars saw great destruction of transport infrastructure from which the country has not yet recovered.", "Many vehicles were destroyed or commandeered by militias, especially in the north and east of the country, and the fuel supply system was also badly affected.", "Consequently, outside of Kinshasa, Matadi and Lubumbashi, private and commercial road transport is almost non-existent and traffic is scarce even where roads are in good condition.", "The few vehicles in use outside these cities are run by the United Nations, aid agencies, the DRC government, and a few larger companies such as those in the mining and energy sectors.", "High-resolution satellite photos on the Internet show large cities such as Bukavu, Butembo and Kikwit virtually devoid of traffic, compared to similar photos of towns in neighbouring countries.Air transport is the only effective means of moving between many places within the country.", "The Congolese government, the United Nations, aid organisations and large companies use air rather than ground transport to move personnel and freight.", "The UN operates a large fleet of aircraft and helicopters, and compared to other African countries the DRC has a large number of small domestic airlines and air charter companies.", "The transport (and smuggling) of minerals with a high value for weight is also carried out by air, and in the east, some stretches of paved road isolated by destroyed bridges or impassable sections have been turned into airstrips.For the ordinary citizen though, especially in rural areas, often the only options are to cycle, walk or go by dugout canoe.Some parts of the DRC are more accessible from neighbouring countries than from Kinshasa.", "For example, Bukavu itself and Goma and other north-eastern towns are linked by paved road from the DRC border to the Kenyan port of Mombasa, and most goods for these cities have been brought via this route in recent years.", "Similarly, Lubumbashi and the rest of Katanga Province is linked to Zambia, through which the paved highway and rail networks of Southern Africa can be accessed.", "Such links through neighbouring countries are generally more important for the east and south-east of the country, and are more heavily used, than surface links to the capital." ], [ "Major infrastructure programs", "In 2007 China agreed to lend the DRC US$5bn for two major transport infrastructure projects to link mineral-rich Katanga, specifically Lubumbashi, by rail to an ocean port (Matadi) and by road to the Kisangani river port, and to improve its links to the transport network of Southern Africa in Zambia.", "The two projects would also link the major parts of the country not served by water transport, and the main centres of the economy.", "Loan repayments will be from concessions for raw materials which China desperately needs: copper, cobalt, gold and nickel, as well as by toll revenues from the road and railway.", "In the face of reluctance by the international business community to invest in DRC, this represents a revitalisation of DRC's infrastructure much needed by its government.The China Railway Seventh Group Co. Ltd will be in charge of the contract, under signed by the China Railway Engineering Corporation, with construction to be started from June 2008." ], [ "Railways", "Train from Lubumbashi arriving in Kindu on newly refurbished line" ], [ "Highways", "The Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa — a total of 2250 km, of which only 1226 km is in good condition (see below).", "To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2500 km (e.g.", "Matadi to Lubumbashi, 2700 km by road).", "The figure of 2250 km converts to 35 km of paved road per 1,000,000 of population.", "Comparative figures for Zambia and Botswana are 721 km and 3427 km respectively.===Categories===The road network is theoretically divided into four categories (national roads, priority regional roads, secondary regional roads and local roads), however, the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) reports that this classification is of little practical use because some roads simply do not exist.", "For example, National Road 9 is not operational and cannot be detected by remote sensing methods.The two principal highways are: National Road No.", "1 connecting the Atlantic seaports with Kinshasa and southeast Katanga, the most important economic area of the country due to its copper and other mines.", "* National Road No.", "2, Mbuji-Mayi–Bukavu–Goma–Beni* Note that the so-called Kinshasa Highway is not a physical road but a metaphor applied to the route by which AIDS is believed to have been spread east through Uganda and Kenya and neighbouring countries by truck drivers from the Congo.", "In the DR Congo the only highway which physically matches the route is National Road No.", "2, and most passengers and freight moving between Kinshasa and that road go by boat along the Congo River.===Inventory===The road between Kikwit and Idiofa.The total road network in 2005, according to the UNJLC, consisted of:''paved:'' 2,801 km''unpaved:'' 15,000 km''tracks'' 43,000 km''country roads'' 21,000 km''local roads or footpaths'' 90,000 km''total:'' 171,250 kmThe UNJLC also points out that the pre-Second Congo War network no longer exists, and is dependent upon 20,000 bridges and 325 ferries, most of which are in need of repair or replacement.", "In contrast, a Democratic Republic of the Congo government document shows that, also in 2005, the network of main highways in good condition was as follows:* ''paved: 1,226 km''''unpaved: 607 km''The 2000 Michelin ''Motoring and Tourist Map 955 of Southern and Central Africa'', which categorizes roads as \"surfaced\", \"improved\" (generally unsurfaced but with gravel added and graded), \"partially improved\" and \"earth roads\" and \"tracks\" shows that there were 2694 km of paved highway in 2000.These figures indicate that, compared to the more recent figures above, there has been a deterioration this decade, rather than improvement.===International highways===Three routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo: Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No.", "1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km on one of the only paved sections in fair condition.", "* Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east–west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function.", "* Beira-Lobito Highway: this east–west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border." ], [ "Waterways", "The DRC has more navigable rivers and moves more passengers and goods by boat and ferry than any other country in Africa.", "Kinshasa, with 7 km of river frontage occupied by wharfs and jetties, is the largest inland waterways port on the continent.", "However, much of the infrastructure — vessels and port handling facilities — has, like the railways, suffered from poor maintenance and internal conflict.The total length of waterways is estimated at 16,238 km including the Congo River, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes.The 1000-kilometre Kinshasa-Kisangani route on the Congo River is the longest and best-known.", "It is operated by river tugs pushing several barges lashed together, and for the hundreds of passengers and traders these function like small floating towns.", "Rather than mooring at riverside communities along the route, traders come out by canoe and small boat alongside the river barges and transfer goods on the move.Most waterway routes do not operate to regular schedules.", "It is common for an operator to moor a barge at a riverside town and collect freight and passengers over a period of weeks before hiring a river tug to tow or push the barge to its destination.", "* Description of Inland Waterways in the Congo from the UN Joint Logistics Centre===International links via inland waterways===* Kinshasa is linked to Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo) by regular boat and ferry services 3.5 km across the Congo River.", "* Kinshasa and other river ports via the Ubangui River to Bangui (Central African Republic).", "* Goma and Bukavu on Lake Kivu to Gisenyi, Kibuye and Cyangugu in Rwanda.", "* Kalemie, Kulundu-Uvira and Moba on Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma (Tanzania), Bujumbura (Burundi) and Mpulungu (Zambia).", "* Kasenga and Pweto on the Luapula River-Lake Mweru system to Nchelenge, Kashikishi and Kashiba in Zambia.", "Lake Albert: two small ports on the DRC side, Kisenye near Bunia and Mahadi-Port in the north can link to Ugandan ports at Butiaba and Pakwach (served by Uganda Railways) on the Albert Nile, which is navigable as far as Nimule in southern Sudan.", "Water transport is conducted principally in small craft, and commercial water transport is relatively absent.", " Lake Edward: located within national parks, settlements are small, water transport is conducted principally in small craft, commercial water transport is absent.===Domestic links via inland waterways===The middle Congo River and its tributaries from the east are the principal domestic waterways in the DRC.", "The two principal river routes are:Kinshasa to Mbandaka and Kisangani on the River CongoKinshasa to Ilebo on the Kasai RiverSee the diagrammatic transport map above for other river waterways.The most-used domestic lake waterways are:Kalemie to Kalundu-Uvira on Lake TanganyikaBukavu to Goma on Lake KivuFimi River to Inongo on Lake Mai-NdombeIrebu on the Congo to Bikoro on Lake TumbaKasenga to Pweto on the Luapula-Mweru systemKisenye to Mahadi-Port on Lake Albert.Most large Congo river ferry boats were destroyed during the civil war.", "Only smaller boats are running and they are irregular.===Ports and harbors=======Atlantic Ocean====* Matadi - largest port, and railhead for portage railway to Kinshasa - draft: 6.4 m* Banana - oil terminal for pipeline to Kinshasa* Boma - second-largest port====Inland river ports====* Bumba* Ilebo - railhead* Kindu - railhead* Kinshasa - railhead* Kisangani - railhead* Mbandaka* N'dangi - former military harbor====Lake Tanganyika====* Kalemie - railhead* Kalundu-Uvira* Moba====Lake Kivu====* Bukavu* Idjwi* Goma" ], [ "Pipelines", "petroleum products 390 km" ], [ "Merchant marine", "1 petroleum tanker" ], [ "Airports", "Due to the lack of roads, operating railroads and ferry transportation many people traveling around the country fly on aircraft.", "As of 2016 the country does not have an international passenger airline and relies on foreign-based airlines for international connections.", "Congo Airways provides domestic flights and are based at Kinshasa's N'djili Airport which serves as the country's main international airport.", "Lubumbashi International Airport in the country's south-east is also serviced by several international airlines.===Airports - with paved runways===''total:''24''over 3,047 m:''4''2,438 to 3,047 m:''2''1,524 to 2,437 m:''16''914 to 1,523 m:''2 (2002 est.", ")===Airports - with unpaved runways===''total:''205''1,524 to 2,437 m:''19''914 to 1,523 m:''95''under 914 m:''91 (2002 est.)" ], [ "Transport safety and incidents", "All air carriers certified by the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been banned from operating at airports in the European Community by the European Commission because of inadequate safety standards.===2010===* Kasai River disaster.", "A passenger ferry capsized on the Kasai River in July with at least 80 dead.===2008===* 2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash - April 15 plane crash killed at least 18 people after taking off from the Goma International Airport, tearing the roofs off houses as it plowed through a densely populated marketplace near the runway.===2007===* August 1 train derailment killed 100, many riding on roof.===2005===* Kindu rail accident, on November 29, at least 60 people were killed" ], [ "Rocketry", "The Democratic Republic of the Congo has a rocketry program called Troposphere." ], [ "See also", "* Congo River* Democratic Republic of the Congo* Lake Chad replenishment project (possible waterway, proposed waterflow is the same waterflow 100 m3/s as in the Moscow Canal)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Congo Road Trip\", ''PRI's The World'', November 25, 2011" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo''' ( FARDC) is the state organisation responsible for defending the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "The FARDC was rebuilt patchily as part of the peace process which followed the end of the Second Congo War in July 2003.The majority of FARDC members are land forces, but it also has a small air force and an even smaller navy.", "In 2010–2011 the three services may have numbered between 144,000 and 159,000 personnel.", "In addition, there is a presidential force called the Republican Guard, but it and the Congolese National Police (PNC) are not part of the Armed Forces.The government in the capital city Kinshasa, the United Nations, the European Union, and bilateral partners which include Angola, South Africa, and Belgium are attempting to create a viable force with the ability to provide the Democratic Republic of Congo with stability and security.", "However, this process is being hampered by corruption, inadequate donor coordination, and competition between donors.", "The various military units now grouped under the FARDC banner are some of the most unstable in Africa after years of war and underfunding.To assist the new government, since February 2000 the United Nations has had the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (now called MONUSCO), which currently has a strength of over 16,000 peacekeepers in the country.", "Its principal tasks are to provide security in key areas, such as the South Kivu and North Kivu in the east, and to assist the government in reconstruction.", "Foreign rebel groups are also in the Congo, as they have been for most of the last half-century.", "The most important is the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), against which Laurent Nkunda's troops were fighting, but other smaller groups such as the anti-Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army are also present.The legal standing of the FARDC was laid down in the Transitional Constitution, articles 118 and 188.This was then superseded by provisions in the 2006 Constitution, articles 187 to 192.Law 04/023 of 12 November 2004 establishes the General Organisation of Defence and the Armed Forces.", "In mid-2010, the Congolese Parliament was debating a new defence law, provisionally designated Organic Law 130." ], [ "History", "=== Background ===Congolese soldiers of the colonial-era ''Force Publique'' pictured in 1928The first organised Congolese troops, known as the , were created in 1888 when King Leopold II of Belgium, who held the Congo Free State as his private property, ordered his Secretary of the Interior to create military and police forces for the state.", "In 1908, under international pressure, Leopold ceded administration of the colony to the government of Belgium as the Belgian Congo.", "It remained under the command of a Belgian officer corps through to the independence of the colony in 1960.Throughout 1916 and 1917, the ''Force Publique'' saw combat in Cameroun, and successfully invaded and conquered areas of German East Africa, notably present day Rwanda, during World War I.", "Elements of the ''Force Publique'' were also used to form Belgian colonial units that fought in the East African Campaign during World War II.===Independence and revolt===At independence on 30 June 1960, the army suffered from a dramatic deficit of trained leaders, particularly in the officer corps.", "This was because the ''Force Publique'' had always only been officered by Belgian or other expatriate whites.", "The Belgian Government made no effort to train Congolese commissioned officers until the very end of the colonial period, and in 1958, only 23 African cadets had been admitted even to the military secondary school.", "The highest rank available to Congolese was adjutant, which only four soldiers achieved before independence.", "Though 14 Congolese cadets were enrolled in the Royal Military Academy in Brussels in May, they were not scheduled to graduate as second lieutenants until 1963.Ill-advised actions by Belgian officers led to an enlisted ranks' rebellion on 5 July 1960, which helped spark the Congo Crisis.", "Lieutenant General Émile Janssens, the ''Force Publique'' commander, wrote during a meeting of soldiers that 'Before independence=After Independence', pouring cold water on the soldiers' desires for an immediate raise in their status.Historian Louis-François Vanderstraeten says that on the morning of 8 July 1960, following a night during which all control had been lost over the soldiers, numerous ministers arrived at Camp Leopold with the aim of calming the situation.", "Both Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa-Vubu eventually arrived, and the soldiers listened to Kasa-Vubu \"religiously.\"", "After his speech, Kasa-Vubu and the ministers present retired into the camp canteen to hear a delegation from the soldiers.", "Vanderstraeten says that, according to Joseph Ileo, their demands (''revendications'') included the following:that the defence portfolio not be given to the Prime Ministerthat the name ''Force Publique'' be changed to ''Armée Nationale Congolaise'' (ANC)and that the commander-in-chief and chief of staff should not necessarily be BelgiansThe \"laborious\" discussions which then followed were later retrospectively given the label of an \"extraordinary ministerial council.\"", "Gérard-Libois writes that \"...the special meeting of the council of ministers took steps for the immediate Africanisation of the officer corps and named Victor Lundula, who was born in Kasai and was burgomaster of Jadotville, as Commander-in-Chief of the ANC; Colonel Joseph-Désiré Mobutu as chief of staff; and the Belgian, Colonel Henniquiau, as chief advisor to the ANC\".", "Thus General Janssens was dismissed.", "Both Lundula and Mobutu were former sergeants of the ''Force Publique''.On 8–9 July 1960, the soldiers were invited to appoint black officers, and \"command of the army passed securely into the hands of former sergeants,\" as the soldiers in general chose the most-educated and highest-ranked Congolese army soldiers as their new officers.", "Most of the Belgian officers were retained as advisors to the new Congolese hierarchy, and calm returned to the two main garrisons at Leopoldville and Thysville.", "The ''Force Publique'' was renamed the ''Armée nationale congolaise'' (ANC), or Congolese National Armed Forces.", "However, in Katanga Belgian officers resisted the Africanisation of the army.There was a ''Force Publique'' mutiny at Camp Massart, in Elizabethville, on 9 July 1960; five or seven Europeans were killed.", "The army revolt and resulting rumours caused severe panic across the country, and Belgium despatched troops and the naval Task Group 218.2 to protect its citizens.", "Belgian troops intervened in Elisabethville and Luluabourg (10 July), Matadi (11 July), Leopoldville (13 July) and elsewhere.", "There were immediate suspicions that Belgium planned to re-seize their former colony whilst doing so.", "Large numbers of Belgian colonists fled the country.", "At the same time, on 11 July, Moise Tshombe declared the independence of Katanga Province in the south-east, closely backed by remaining Belgian administrators and soldiers.Armée nationale congolaise (ANC) armoured vehicles during the Congo CrisisOn 14 July 1960, in response to requests by Prime Minister Lumumba, the UN Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 143.This called upon Belgium to remove its troops and for the UN to provide military assistance to the Congolese forces to allow them \"to meet fully their tasks\".", "Lumumba demanded that Belgium remove its troops immediately, threatening to seek help from the Soviet Union if they did not leave within two days.", "The UN reacted quickly and established the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC).", "The first UN troops arrived the next day but there was instant disagreement between Lumumba and the UN over the new force's mandate.", "Because the Congolese army had been in disarray since the mutiny, Lumumba wanted to use the UN troops to subdue Katanga by force.", "Lumumba became extremely frustrated with the UN's unwillingness to use force against Tshombe and his secession.", "He cancelled a scheduled meeting with Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld on 14 August and wrote a series of angry letters instead.", "To Hammarskjöld, the secession of Katanga was an internal Congolese matter and the UN was forbidden to intervene by Article 2 of the United Nations Charter.", "Disagreements over what the UN force could and could not do continued throughout its deployment.A total of 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo by 20 July 1960.The first contingent of Belgian forces had left Leopoldville on 16 July upon the arrival of the United Nations troops.", "Following assurances that contingents of the Force would arrive in sufficient numbers, the Belgian authorities agreed to withdraw all their forces from the Leopoldville area by 23 July.", "The last Belgian troops left the country by 23 July, as United Nations forces continued to deploy throughout the Congo.", "The build of ONUC continued, its strength increasing to over 8,000 by 25 July and to over 11,000 by 31 July 1960.A basic agreement between the United Nations and the Congolese Government on the operation of the Force was agreed by 27 July.", "On 9 August, Albert Kalonji proclaimed the independence of South Kasai.ANC parade in 1960During the crucial period of July–August 1960, Mobutu built up \"his\" national army by channeling foreign aid to units loyal to him, by exiling unreliable units to remote areas, and by absorbing or dispersing rival armies.", "He tied individual officers to him by controlling their promotion and the flow of money for payrolls.", "Researchers working from the 1990s have concluded that money was directly funnelled to the army by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, the UN, and Belgium.", "Despite this, by September 1960, following the four-way division of the country, there were four separate armed forces: Mobotu's ANC itself, numbering about 12,000, the South Kasai Constabulary loyal to Albert Kalonji (3,000 or less), the Katanga Gendarmerie which were part of Moise Tshombe's regime (totalling about 10,000), and the Stanleyville dissident ANC loyal to Antoine Gizenga (numbering about 8,000).In August 1960, due to the rejection of requests for UN assistance to suppress the South Kasai and Katanga revolts, Lumumba's government decided to request Soviet help.", "De Witte writes that \"Leopoldville asked the Soviet Union for planes, lorries, arms, and equipment...Shortly afterwards, on 22 or 23 August, about 1,000 soldiers left for Kasai.\"", "On 26–27 August, the ANC seized Bakwanga, Albert Kalonji's capital in South Kasai, without serious resistance and, according to de Witte, \"in the next two days it temporarily put an end to the secession of Kasai.", "\"At this point, the Library of Congress Country Study for the Congo says, that on 5 September 1960:\"Kasavubu also appointed Mobutu as head of the ANC.", "Joseph Ileo was chosen as the new prime minister and began trying to form a new government.", "Lumumba and his cabinet responded by accusing Kasa-Vubu of high treason and voted to dismiss him.", "Parliament refused to confirm the dismissal of either Lumumba or Kasavubu and sought to bring about a reconciliation between them.", "After a week's deadlock, Mobutu announced on 14 September that he was assuming power until 31 December 1960, in order to \"neutralize\" both Kasavubu and Lumumba.\"", "Mobutu formed the College of Commissioners-General, a technocratic government of university graduates.In early January 1961, ANC units loyal to Lumumba invaded northern Katanga to support a revolt of Baluba tribesmen against Tshombe's secessionist regime.", "On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to major-general; De Witte argues that this was a political move, \"aimed to strengthen the army, the president's sole support, and Mobutu's position within the army.", "\"United Nations Security Council Resolution 161 of 21 February 1961, called for the withdrawal of Belgian officers from command positions in the ANC, and the training of new Congolese officers with UN help.", "ONUC made a number of attempts to retrain the ANC from August 1960 to June 1963, often been set back by political changes.", "By March 1963 however, after the visit of Colonel Michael Greene of the United States Army, and the resulting \"Greene Plan\", the pattern of bilaterally agreed military assistance to various Congolese military components, instead of a single unified effort, was already taking shape.Congolese soldiers with seized rebel propaganda in 1964In early 1964, a new crisis broke out as Congolese rebels calling themselves \"Simba\" (Swahili for \"Lion\") rebelled against the government.", "They were led by Pierre Mulele, Gaston Soumialot and Christophe Gbenye who were former members of Gizenga's Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA).", "The rebellion affected Kivu and Eastern (Orientale) provinces.", "By August they had captured Stanleyville and set up a rebel government there.", "As the rebel movement spread, discipline became more difficult to maintain, and acts of violence and terror increased.", "Thousands of Congolese were executed, including government officials, political leaders of opposition parties, provincial and local police, school teachers, and others believed to have been Westernised.", "Many of the executions were carried out with extreme cruelty, in front of a monument to Lumumba in Stanleyville.", "Tshombe decided to use foreign mercenaries as well as the ANC to suppress the rebellion.", "Mike Hoare was employed to create the English-speaking 5 Commando at Kamina, with the assistance of a Belgian officer, Colonel Frederic Vanderwalle, while 6 Commando (Congo) was French-speaking and originally under the command of a Belgian Army colonel, Lamouline.", "By August 1964, the mercenaries, with the assistance of other ANC troops, were making headway against the Simba rebellion.", "Fearing defeat, the rebels started taking hostages of the local white population in areas under their control.", "These hostages were rescued in Belgian airdrops (Operations Dragon Rouge and Dragon Noir) over Stanleyville and Paulis airlifted by U.S. aircraft.", "The operation coincided with the arrival of mercenary units (seemingly including the hurriedly formed 5th Mechanised Brigade) at Stanleyville which was quickly captured.", "It took until the end of the year to completely put down the remaining areas of rebellion during \"Operation South\".After five years of turbulence, in 1965 Mobutu used his position as ANC Chief of Staff to seize power in the 1965 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup d'état.", "Although Mobutu succeeded in taking power, his position was soon threatened by the Stanleyville mutinies, also known as the Mercenaries' Mutinies, which were eventually suppressed.As a general rule, since that time, the armed forces have not intervened in politics as a body, rather being tossed and turned as ambitious men have shaken the country.", "In reality, the larger problem has been the misuse and sometimes abuse of the military and police by political and ethnic leaders.On 16 May 1968 a parachute brigade of two regiments (each of three battalions) was formed which eventually was to grow in size to a full division.===Zaire 1971–1997===The country was renamed Zaire in 1971 and the army was consequently designated the (FAZ).", "In 1971 the army's force consisted of the 1st Groupement at Kananga, with one guard battalion, two infantry battalions, and a gendarmerie battalion attached, and the 2nd Groupement (Kinshasa), the 3rd Groupement (Kisangani), the 4th Groupement (Lubumbashi), the 5th Groupement (Bukavu), the 6th Groupement (Mbandaka), and the 7th Groupement (Boma).", "Each was about the size of a brigade, and commanded by aging generals who have had no military training, and often not much positive experience, since they were NCOs in the Belgian Force Publique.'", "By the late 1970s the number of groupements reached nine, one per administrative region.", "The parachute division (Division des Troupes Aéroportées Renforcées de Choc, DITRAC) operated semi-independently from the rest of the army.In July 1972 a number of the aging generals commanding the ''groupements'' were retired.", "Général d'armée Louis Bobozo, and Generaux de Corps d'Armée Nyamaseko Mata Bokongo, Nzoigba Yeu Ngoli, Muke Massaku, Ingila Grima, Itambo Kambala Wa Mukina, Tshinyama Mpemba, and General de Division Yossa Yi Ayira, the last having been commander of the Kamina base, were all retired on 25 July 1972.Taking over as military commander-in-chief, now titled Captain General, was newly promoted General de Division Bumba Moaso, former commander of the parachute division.A large number of countries supported the FAZ in the early 1970s.", "Three hundred Belgian personnel were serving as staff officers and advisors throughout the Ministry of Defence, Italians were supporting the Air Force, Americans were assisting with transport and communications, Israelis with airborne forces training, and there were British advisors with the engineers.", "In 1972 the state-sponsored political organisation, the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR), resolved at a party congress to form activist cells in each military unit.", "The decision caused consternation among the officer corps, as the army had been apolitical (and even anti-political) since before independence.On 11 June 1975 several military officers were arrested in what became known as the ''coup monté et manqué.''", "Amongst those arrested were Générals Daniel Katsuva wa Katsuvira, Land Forces Chief of Staff, Utshudi Wembolenga, Commandant of the 2nd Military Region at Kalemie; Fallu Sumbu, Military Attaché of Zaïre in Washington, Colonel Mudiayi wa Mudiayi, the military attaché of Zaïre in Paris, the military attache in Brussels, a paracommando battalion commander, and several others.", "The regime alleged these officers and others (including Mobutu's ''secrétaire particulier'') had plotted the assassination of Mobutu, high treason, and disclosure of military secrets, among other offences.", "The alleged coup was investigated by a revolutionary commission headed by Boyenge Mosambay Singa, at that time head of the Gendarmerie.", "Writing in 1988, Michael Schatzberg said the full details of the coup had yet to emerge.", "Meitho, writing many years later, says the officers were accused of trying to raise Mobutu's ''secrétaire particulier'', Colonel Omba Pene Djunga, from Kasai, to power.Zairian troops in Southern Shaba, April 1977In late 1975, Mobutu, in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government in Angola and thwart the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)'s drive for power, deployed FAZ armoured cars, paratroopers, and three infantry battalions to Angola in support of the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA).On 10 November 1975, an anti-Communist force made up of 1,500 FNLA fighters, 100 Portuguese Angolan soldiers, and two FAZ battalions passed near the city of Quifangondo, only north of Luanda, at dawn on 10 November.", "The force, supported by South African aircraft and three 140 mm artillery pieces, marched in a single line along the Bengo River to face an 800-strong Cuban force across the river.", "Thus the Battle of Quifangondo began.", "The Cubans and MPLA fighters bombarded the FNLA with mortar and 122 mm rockets, destroying most of the FNLA's armoured cars and six Jeeps carrying antitank rockets in the first hour of fighting.Mobutu's support for the FNLA policy backfired when the MPLA won in Angola.", "The MPLA, then, acting ostensibly at least as the Front for Congolese National Liberation, occupied Zaire's southeastern Katanga Province, then known as Shaba, in March 1977, facing little resistance from the FAZ.", "This invasion is sometimes known as Shaba I. Mobutu had to request assistance, which was provided by Morocco in the form of regular troops who routed the MPLA and their Cuban advisors out of Katanga.", "Also important were Egyptian pilots who flew Zaire's Mirage 5 combat aircraft.", "The humiliation of this episode led to civil unrest in Zaire in early 1978, which the FAZ had to put down.leftThe poor performance of Zaire's military during Shaba I gave evidence of chronic weaknesses.", "One problem was that some of the Zairian soldiers in the area had not received pay for extended periods.", "Senior officers often kept the money intended for the soldiers, typifying a generally disreputable and inept senior leadership in the FAZ.", "As a result, many soldiers simply deserted rather than fight.", "Others stayed with their units but were ineffective.", "During the months following the Shaba invasion, Mobutu sought solutions to the military problems that had contributed to the army's dismal performance.", "He implemented sweeping reforms of the command structure, including wholesale firings of high-ranking officers.", "He merged the military general staff with his own presidential staff and appointed himself chief of staff again, in addition to the positions of minister of defence and supreme commander that he already held.", "He also redeployed his forces throughout the country instead of keeping them close to Kinshasa, as had previously been the case.", "The Kamanyola Division, at the time considered the army's best formation, and considered the president's own, was assigned permanently to Shaba.", "In addition to these changes, the army's strength was reduced by 25 percent.", "Also, Zaire's allies provided a large influx of military equipment, and Belgian, French, and American advisers assisted in rebuilding and retraining the force.Despite these improvements, a second invasion by the former Katangan gendarmerie, known as Shaba II in May–June 1978, was only dispersed with the despatch of the French 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment and a battalion of the Belgian Paracommando Regiment.", "Kamanyola Division units collapsed almost immediately.", "French units fought the Battle of Kolwezi to recapture the town from the FLNC.", "The U.S. provided logistical assistance.In July 1975, according to the IISS Military Balance, the FAZ included 14 infantry battalions, seven \"Guard\" battalions, and seven other infantry battalions variously designated as \"parachute\" (or possibly \"commando\"; probably the units of the parachute brigade originally formed in 1968).", "There were also an armoured car regiment and a mechanised infantry battalion.", "Organisationally, the army was made up of the parachute division and the seven ''groupements.''", "In addition to these units, a tank battalion was reported to have formed by 1979.In January 1979 ''General de Division'' Mosambaye Singa Boyenge was named as both military region commander and Region Commissioner for Shaba.In 1984, a militarised police force, the Civil Guard, was formed.", "It was eventually commanded by Général d'armée Kpama Baramoto Kata.Thomas Turner wrote in the mid-1990s that \"major acts of violence, such as the killings that followed the \"Kasongo uprising\" in Bandundu Region in 1978, the killings of diamond miners in Kasai-Oriental Region in 1979, and, more recently, the massacre of students in Lubumbashi in 1990, continued to intimidate the population.", "\"+ Ground Forces Order of Battle, 1988 Formation Location Size Notes Special Presidential Division Kinshasa 5,200 Five battalions, 'appears combat ready' Kamanyola Division Shaba 4,100 14th Bde only combat ready formation Kinshasa/Kamina 3,800 See State Dept 1978KINSHA06951 (1978).", "'High state of combat readiness' 32nd Parachute Brigade Kinshasa 1,000 Still forming, to be deployed to Kitona.", "Separate 2008 French source says the brigade was never fully established.", "1st Armoured Brigade Mbanza-Ngungu 1,300 Only 30 of apx 100 tanks operational 41st Commando Brigade Kisangani 1,200 Three battalions deployed along Eastern borders 13th Infantry Brigade Kalemie 1,500 'One of the most neglected units in the Zairean ground forces.'", "21st Infantry Brigade Around Lubumbashi 1,700 See State Dept 1979LUBUMB01982 (1979).", "'Modest combat capability' 22nd Light Infantry Brigade Kamina base 2,500 'Role undefined'The authors of the Library of Congress Country Study on Zaire commented in 1992–93 that: \"The maintenance status of equipment in the inventory has traditionally varied, depending on a unit's priority and the presence or absence of foreign advisers and technicians.", "A considerable portion of military equipment is not operational, primarily as a result of shortages of spare parts, poor maintenance, and theft.", "For example, the tanks of the 1st Armoured Brigade often have a nonoperational rate approaching 70 to 80 percent.", "After a visit by a Chinese technical team in 1985, most of the tanks operated, but such an improved status generally has not lasted long beyond the departure of the visiting team.", "Several factors complicate maintenance in Zairian units.", "Maintenance personnel often lack the training necessary to maintain modern military equipment.", "Moreover, the wide variety of military equipment and the staggering array of spare parts necessary to maintain it not only clog the logistic network but also are expensive.The most important factor that negatively affects maintenance is the low and irregular pay that soldiers receive, resulting in the theft and sale of spare parts and even basic equipment to supplement their meager salaries.", "When not stealing spare parts and equipment, maintenance personnel often spend the better part of their duty day looking for other ways to profit.", "American maintenance teams working in Zaire found that providing a free lunch to the work force was a good, sometimes the only, technique to motivate personnel to work at least half of the duty day.The army's logistics corps was tasked.. to provide logistic support and conduct direct, indirect, and depot-level maintenance for the FAZ.", "But because of Zaire's lack of emphasis on maintenance and logistics, a lack of funding, and inadequate training, the corps is understaffed, underequipped, and generally unable to accomplish its mission.", "It is organised into three battalions assigned to Mbandaka, Kisangani, and Kamina, but only the battalion at Kamina is adequately staffed; the others are little more than skeleton\" units.The poor state of discipline of the Congolese forces became apparent again in 1990.Foreign military assistance to Zaire ceased following the end of the Cold War and Mobutu deliberately allowed the military's condition to deteriorate so that it did not threaten his hold on power.", "Protesting low wages and lack of pay, paratroopers began looting Kinshasa in September 1991 and were only stopped after intervention by French ('Operation Baumier') and Belgian ('Operation Blue Beam') forces.Map of the DR of CongoIn 1993, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies, the 25,000-member FAZ ground forces consisted of one infantry division (with three infantry brigades); one airborne brigade (with three parachute battalions and one support battalion); one special forces (commando/counterinsurgency) brigade; the Special Presidential Division; one independent armoured brigade; and two independent infantry brigades (each with three infantry battalions, one support battalion).", "These units were deployed throughout the country, with the main concentrations in Shaba Region (approximately half the force).", "The Kamanyola Division, consisting of three infantry brigades operated generally in western Shaba Region; the 21st Infantry Brigade was located in Lubumbashi; the 13th Infantry Brigade was deployed throughout eastern Shaba; and at least one battalion of the 31st Airborne Brigade stayed at Kamina.", "The other main concentration of forces was in and around Kinshasa: the 31st Airborne Brigade was deployed at N'djili Airport on the outskirts of the capital; the Special Presidential Division (DSP) resided adjacent to the presidential compound; and the 1st Armoured Brigade was at Mbanza-Ngungu (in Bas-Congo, approximately southwest of Kinshasa).", "Finally the 41st Commando Brigade was at Kisangani.This superficially impressive list of units overstates the actual capability of the armed forces at the time.", "Apart from privileged formations such as the Presidential Division and the 31st Airborne Brigade, most units were poorly trained, divided and so badly paid that they regularly resorted to looting.", "What operational abilities the armed forces had were gradually destroyed by politicisation of the forces, tribalisation, and division of the forces, included purges of suspectedly disloyal groups, intended to allow Mobutu to divide and rule.", "All this occurred against the background of increasing deterioration of state structures under the kleptocratic Mobutu regime.===Mobutu's overthrow and after===Much of the origins of the recent conflict in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo stems from the turmoil following the Rwandan genocide of 1994, which then led to the Great Lakes refugee crisis.", "Within the largest refugee camps, beginning in Goma in Nord-Kivu, were Rwandan Hutu fighters, who were eventually organised into the Rassemblement Démocratique pour le Rwanda, who launched repeated attacks into Rwanda.", "Rwanda eventually backed Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his quickly-organised Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) in invading Zaire, aiming to stop the attacks on Rwanda in the process of toppling Mobutu's government.", "When the militias rebelled, backed by Rwanda, the FAZ, weakened as is noted above, proved incapable of mastering the situation and preventing the overthrow of Mobutu in 1997.The Battle of Kinsangani took place in March 1997 during this war.", "The AFDL rebels, created by the Rwandan Patriotic Front, took the city defended by the Zairian Armed Forces (FAZ), loyal to President Mobutu.", "Before the battle itself, the air force, Serbian mercenaries and Rwandan Hutu militiamen were not enough to make up for the FAZ's lack of fighting spirit.", "After the war, elements of the Mobutu-loyal FAZ managed to retreat into northern Congo, and from there into Sudan while attempting to escape the AFDL.", "Allying themselves with the Sudanese government which was fighting its own civil war at the time, these FAZ troops were destroyed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army during Operation Thunderbolt near Yei in March 1997.When Kabila took power in 1997, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo and so the name of the national army changed once again, to the ''Forces armées congolaises'' (FAC).", "Tanzania sent six hundred military advisors to train Kabila's new army in May 1997.", "(Prunier says that the instructors were still at the Kitona base when the Second Congo War broke out, and had to be quickly returned to Tanzania.", "Prunier said \"South African aircraft carried out the evacuation after a personal conversation between President Mkapa and not-yet-president Thabo Mbeki.", "Command over the armed forces in the first few months of Kabila's rule was vague.", "Gérard Prunier writes that \"there was no minister of defence, no known chief of staff, and no ranks; all officers were Cuban-style 'commanders' called 'Ignace', 'Bosco', Jonathan', or 'James', who occupied connecting suites at the Intercontinental Hotel and had presidential list cell-phone numbers.", "None spoke French or Lingala, but all spoke Kinyarwanda, Swahili, and, quite often, English.\"", "On being asked by Belgian journalist Colette Braeckman what was the actual army command structure apart from himself, Kabila answered 'We are not going to expose ourselves and risk being destroyed by showing ourselves openly... .", "We are careful so that the true masters of the army are not known.", "It is strategic.", "Please, let us drop the matter.'", "Kabila's new ''Forces armées congolaises'' were riven with internal tensions.", "The new FAC had Banyamulenge fighters from South Kivu, ''kadogo'' child soldiers from various eastern tribes, such as Thierry Nindaga, Safari Rwekoze, etc... the mostly Lunda Katangese Tigers of the former FNLC, and former FAZ personnel.", "Mixing these disparate and formerly warring elements together led to mutiny.", "On 23 February 1998, a mostly Banyamulenge unit mutiniued at Bukavu after its officers tried to disperse the soldiers into different units spread all around the Congo.", "By mid-1998, formations on the outbreak of the Second Congo War included the Tanzanian-supported 50th Brigade, headquartered at Camp Kokolo in Kinshasa, and the 10th Brigade – one of the best and largest units in the army – stationed in Goma, as well as the 12th Brigade in Bukavu.", "The declaration of the 10th Brigade's commander, former DSP officer Jean-Pierre Ondekane, on 2 August 1998 that he no longer recognised Kabila as the state's president was one of the factors in the beginning of the Second Congo War.According to ''Jane's'', the FAC performed poorly throughout the Second Congo War and \"demonstrated little skill or recognisable military doctrine\".", "At the outbreak of the war in 1998 the Army was ineffective and the DRC Government was forced to rely on assistance from Angola, Chad, Namibia and Zimbabwe.", "As well as providing expeditionary forces, these countries unsuccessfully attempted to retrain the DRC Army.", "North Korea and Tanzania also provided assistance with training.", "During the first year of the war the Allied forces defeated the Rwandan force which had landed in Bas-Congo and the rebel forces south-west of Kinshasa and eventually halted the rebel and Rwandan offensive in the east of the DRC.", "These successes contributed to the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed in July 1999.Following the Lusaka Agreement, in mid-August 1999 President Kabila issued a decree dividing the country into eight military regions.", "The first military region, Congolese state television reported, would consist of the two Kivu provinces, Orientale Province would form the second region, and Maniema and Kasai-Oriental provinces the third.", "Katanga and Équateur would fall under the fourth and fifth regions, respectively, while Kasai-Occidental and Bandundu would form the sixth region.", "Kinshasa and Bas-Congo would form the seventh and eighth regions, respectively.", "In November 1999 the Government attempted to form a 20,000-strong paramilitary force designated the People's Defence Forces.", "This force was intended to support the FAC and national police but never became effective.===1999–present===The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was not successful in ending the war, and fighting resumed in September 1999.The FAC's performance continued to be poor and both the major offensives the Government launched in 2000 ended in costly defeats.", "President Kabila's mismanagement was an important factor behind the FAC's poor performance, with soldiers frequently going unpaid and unfed while the Government purchased advanced weaponry which could not be operated or maintained.", "The defeats in 2000 are believed to have been the cause of President Kabila's assassination in January 2001.Following the assassination, Joseph Kabila assumed the presidency and was eventually successful in negotiating an end to the war in 2002–2003.The December 2002 Global and All-Inclusive Agreement devoted Chapter VII to the armed forces.", "It stipulated that the armed forces chief of staff, and the chiefs of the army, air force, and navy were not to come from the same warring faction.", "The new \"national, restructured and integrated\" army would be made up from Kabila's government forces (the FAC), the RCD, and the MLC.", "Also stipulated in VII(b) was that the RCD-N, RCD-ML, and the Mai-Mai would become part of the new armed forces.", "An intermediate mechanism for physical identification of the soldiers, and their origin, date of enrolment, and unit was also called for (VII(c)).", "It also provided for the creation of a ''Conseil Superieur de la Defense'' (Superior Defence Council) which would declare states of siege or war and give advice on security sector reform, disarmament/demobilization, and national defence policy.A decision on which factions were to name chiefs of staff and military regional commanders was announced on 19 August 2003 as the first move in military reform, superimposed on top of the various groups of fighters, government and former rebels.", "Negotiations had been ongoing since June 2003.Kabila was able to name the armed forces chief of staff, Lieutenant General Liwanga Mata, who previously served as navy chief of staff under Laurent Kabila.", "Kabila was able to name the air force commander (John Numbi), the RCD-Goma received the Land Force commander's position (Sylvain Buki) and the MLC the navy (Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa).", "Three military regional commanders were nominated by the former Kinshasa government, two commanders each by the RCD-Goma and the MLC, and one region commander each by the RCD-K/ML and RCD-N.", "However these appointments were announced for Kabila's ''Forces armées congolaises'' (FAC), not the later FARDC.", "However, troop deployment on the ground did not change substantially until the year afterward.Congolese troops raise the flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2010On 24 January 2004, a decree created the ''Structure Militaire d'Intégration'' (SMI, Military Integration Structure).", "Together with the SMI, CONADER also was designated to manage the combined ''tronc commun'' DDR element and military reform programme.", "The first post-Sun City military law appears to have been passed on 12 November 2004, which formally created the new national Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC).", "Included in this law was article 45, which recognised the incorporation of a number of armed groups into the FARDC, including the former government army Forces Armées Congolaises (FAC), ex-FAZ personnel also known as former President Mobutu's 'les tigres', the RCD-Goma, RCD-ML, RCD-N, MLC, the Mai-Mai, as well as other government-determined military and paramilitary groups.Turner writes that the two most prominent opponents of military integration (''brassage'') were Colonel Jules Mutebusi, a Munyamulenge from South Kivu, and Laurent Nkunda, a Rwandaphone Tutsi who Turner says was allegedly from Rutshuru in North Kivu.", "In May–June 2004 Mutebusi led a revolt against his superiors from Kinshasa in South Kivu.", "Nkunda began his long series of revolts against central authority by helping Mutebusi in May–June 2004.In November 2004 a Rwandan government force entered North Kivu to attack the FDLR, and, it seems, reinforced and resupplied RCD-Goma (ANC) at the same time.", "Mutebutsi and Nkunda were seemingly supported by both the Rwandan government, the FARDC regional commander, General Obed Rwisbasira, and the RCD-Goma governor of North Kivu, Eugene Serufuli.", "Neither government figure did anything to prevent Nkunda's march south to Bukavu with his military force.", "In mid-December, civilians at Kanyabayonga, Buramba, and Nyabiondo in North Kivu were killed, tortured, and raped, seemingly deliberately targeted on ethic grounds (the victims came almost exclusively from the Hunde and Nande ethnic groups).", "Kabila despatched 10,000 government troops to the east in response, launching an operation 11 December that was called \"Operation Bima\".", "Its only major success was the capture of Walikale from RCD-Goma (ANC) troops.There was another major personnel reshuffle on 12 June 2007.FARDC chief General Kisempia Sungilanga Lombe was replaced with General Dieudonne Kayembe Mbandankulu.", "General Gabriel Amisi Kumba retained his post as Land Forces commander.", "John Numbi, a trusted member of Kabila's inner circle, was shifted from air force commander to Police Inspector General.", "U.S. diplomats reported that the former Naval Forces Commander Maj. General Amuli Bahigua (ex-MLC) became the FARDC's Chief of Operations; former FARDC Intelligence Chief General Didier Etumba (ex-FAC) was promoted to vice admiral and appointed Commander of Naval Forces; Maj. General Rigobert Massamba (ex-FAC), a former commander of the Kitona air base, was appointed as Air Forces Commander; and Brig.", "General Jean-Claude Kifwa, commander of the Republican Guard, was appointed as a regional military commander.FARDC soldiers near Goma in May 2013Due to significant delays in the DDR and integration process, of the eighteen brigades, only seventeen have been declared operational, over two and a half years after the initial target date.", "Responding to the situation, the Congolese Minister of Defence presented a new defence reform master plan to the international community in February 2008.Essentially the three force tiers all had their readiness dates pushed back: the first, territorial forces, to 2008–12, the mobile force to 2008–10, and the main defence force to 2015.Much of the east of the country remains insecure, however.", "In the far northeast this is due primarily to the Ituri conflict.", "In the area around Lake Kivu, primarily in North Kivu, fighting continues among the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and between the government FARDC and Laurent Nkunda's troops, with all groups greatly exacerbating the issues of internal refugees in the area of Goma, the consequent food shortages, and loss of infrastructure from the years of conflict.", "In 2009, several United Nations officials stated that the army is a major problem, largely due to corruption that results in food and pay meant for soldiers being diverted and a military structure top-heavy with colonels, many of whom are former warlords.", "In a 2009 report itemizing FARDC abuses, Human Rights Watch urged the UN to stop supporting government offensives against eastern rebels until the abuses ceased.Caty Clement wrote in 2009:\"One of the most notable FARDC corruption schemes was known as 'Opération Retour' (Operation Return).", "Senior officers ordered the soldiers' pay to be sent from Kinshasa to the commanders in the field, who took their cut and returned the remainder to their commander in Kinshasa instead of paying the soldiers.", "To ensure that foot soldiers would be paid their due, in late 2005, EUSEC suggested separating the chain of command from the chain of payment.", "The former remained within Congolese hands, while the EU mission delivered salaries directly to the newly 'integrated' brigades.", "Although efficient in the short term, this solution raises the question of sustainability and ownership in the long term.", "Once soldiers' pay could no longer be siphoned off via 'Opération Retour', however, two other budgetary lines, the 'fonds de ménage' and logistical support to the brigades, were soon diverted.", "\"In 2010, thirty FARDC officers were given scholarships to study in Russian military academies.", "This is part of a greater effort by Russia to help improve the FARDC.", "A new military attaché and other advisers from Russia visited the DRC.On 22 November 2012, Gabriel Amisi Kumba was suspended from his position in the Forces Terrestres by president Joseph Kabila due to an inquiry into his alleged role in the sale of arms to various rebel groups in the eastern part of the country, which may have implicated the rebel group M23.In December 2012 it was reported that members of Army units in the north east of the country are often not paid due to corruption, and these units rarely made against villages by the Lord's Resistance Army.The FARDC deployed 850 soldiers and 150 PNC police officers as part of an international force in the Central African Republic, which the DRC borders to the north.", "The country had been in a state of civil war since 2012, when the president was ousted by rebel groups.", "The DRC was urged by French president François Hollande to keep its troops in CAR.In July 2014, the Congolese army carried out a joint operation with UN troops in the Masisi and Walikale territories of the North Kivu province.", "In the process, they liberated over 20 villages and a mine from the control of two rebel groups, the Mai Mai Cheka and the Alliance for the Sovereign and Patriotic Congo.The UN published a report in October 2017 announcing that the FARDC no longer employed child soldiers but was still listed under militaries that committed sexual violations against children.Troops operating with MONUSCO in North Kivu were attacked by likely rebels from the Allied Democratic Forces on 8 December 2017.After a protracted firefight the troops suffered 5 dead along with 14 dead among the UN force." ], [ "Structure", "Gén.", "Kisempia Sungilanga, former Chief of Staff of the FARDC, in December 2006.The President Félix Tshisekedi is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.", "The Minister of Defence, formally Ministers of Defence and Veterans (Ancien Combattants) is Crispin Atama Tabe, who succeeded former minister Aimé Ngoy Mukena.The Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp in the Kinshasa suburb of Ngaliema hosts the defence department and the Chiefs of Staff central command headquarters of the FARDC.", "Jane's data from 2002 appears inaccurate; there is at least one ammunition plant in Katanga.Below the Chief of Staff, the current organisation of the FARDC is not fully clear.", "There is known to be a Military Intelligence branch – Service du Renseignement militaire (SRM), the former DEMIAP.", "The FARDC is known to be broken up into the Land Forces (''Forces Terrestres''), Navy and Air Force.", "The Land Forces are distributed around ten military regions, up from the previous eight, following the ten provinces of the country.", "There is also a training command, the Groupement des Écoles Supérieurs Militaires (GESM) or Group of Higher Military Schools, which, in January 2010, was under the command of Major General Marcellin Lukama.", "The Navy and Air Forces are composed of various ''groupments'' (see below).", "There is also a central logistics base.", "The United Nations Mine Action Service supervised the construction of a new ammunition depot on the outskirts of Kisangani and handed it over to the MOD in October 2013.It should be made clear also that Joseph Kabila does not trust the military; the Republican Guard is the only component he trusts.", "Major General John Numbi, former Air Force chief, now inspector general of police, ran a parallel chain of command in the east to direct the 2009 Eastern Congo offensive, Operation Umoja Wetu; the regular chain of command was by-passed.", "Previously Numbi negotiated the agreement to carry out the ''mixage'' process with Laurent Nkunda.", "Commenting on a proposed vote of no confidence in the Minister of Defence in September 2012, Baoudin Amba Wetshi of ''lecongolais.cd'' described Ntolo as a \"scapegoat\".", "Wetshi said that all key military and security questions were handled in total secrecy by the President and other civil and military personalities trusted by him, such as John Numbi, Gabriel Amisi Kumba ('Tango Four'), Delphin Kahimbi, and others such as Kalev Mutond and Pierre Lumbi Okongo.===Arms and Inter-forces Services=== Signals* Engineering* Health Service* Physical Education and Sports* Military Chaplains* Military Justice* Administration* Logistics* Intelligence and Security* Military Band* Veterinary and Agricultural Service* Military Police* Civic, Patriotic Education and Social Actions* Communication and Information====General Secretariat for Defence and Veterans Affairs====The General Secretariat for Defence: is headed by a General Officer (Secretary General for Defence).", "He oversees the following departments:* Human Resources Department* Directorate of Studies, Planning and Military Cooperation* Budget and Finance Department* Directorate of Penitentiary Administration* Directorate of General Services* IT Department====Military Justice====Military Justice is an independent institution under the judiciary, responsible for upholding the law and strengthening order and discipline within the Armed Forces.====General Inspectorate====The General Inspectorate includes the following people:* Inspector General* Two Assistant Inspectors General* College of Inspectors* College of Advisers* Administrative Secretariat* Administrative, logistics and services unit===Armed Forces Chiefs of Staff===The available information on armed forces' Chiefs of Staff is incomplete and sometimes contradictory.", "In addition to armed forces chiefs of staff, in 1966 Lieutenant Colonel Ferdinand Malila was listed as Army Chief of Staff.===Command structure in January 2005===Virtually all officers have now changed positions, but this list gives an outline of the structure in January 2005.Despite the planned subdivision of the country into more numerous provinces, the actual splitting of the former provinces has not taken place.", "FARDC chief of staff: Major General Sungilanga Kisempia (PPRD)FARDC land forces chief of staff: General Sylvain Buki (RCD-G).", "Major General Gabriel Amisi Kumba appears to have been appointed to the position in August 2006, and retained this position during the personnel reshuffle of 12 June 2007.In November 2012 he was succeeded by François Olenga.", "FARDC navy chief of staff: General Major Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa (MLC) (Commander of the Kimia II operation in 2009)FARDC air force chief of staff: Brigadier General Jean Bitanihirwa Kamara (MLC).", "Military training at the ''Ecole de formation d'officiers'' (EFO), Kananga, and other courses while in the FAZ.", "Brigade commander in the MLC, then named in August 2003 \"chef d'etat-major en second\" of the FARDC air force.", "1st Military Region/Bandundu: Brigadier General Moustapha Mukiza (MLC)2nd Military Region/Bas-Congo: Unknown.", "General Jean Mankoma 2009.", "3rd Military Region/Equateur: Brigadier-General Mulubi Bin Muhemedi (PPRD)4th Military Region/Kasai-Occidental: Brigadier-General Sindani Kasereka (RCD-K/ML)5th Military Region/Kasai Oriental: General Rwabisira Obeid (RCD)6th Military Region/Katanga: Brigadier-General Nzambe Alengbia (MLC) – 62nd, 63rd, and 67th Brigades in Katanga have committed numerous acts of sexual violence against women.", "7th Military Region/Maniema: Brigadier-General Widi Mbulu Divioka (RCD-N)8th Military Region/North Kivu: General Gabriel Amisi Kumba (RCD).", "General Amisi, a.k.a.", "\"Tango Fort\" now appears to be Chief of Staff of the Land Forces.", "Brig.", "Gen. Vainqueur Mayala was Commander 8th MR in September 20089th Military Region/Province Orientale: Major-General Bulenda Padiri (Mayi–Mayi)10th Military Region/South Kivu: Major Mbuja Mabe (PPRD).", "General Pacifique Masunzu, in 2010.Region included 112th Brigade on Minembwe plateuxes.", "This grouping was \"an almost exclusively Banyamulenge brigade under the direct command of the 10th Military Region, which considered General Masunzu as its leader.", "\"===Updates to command structure in 2014===In September 2014, President Kabila reshuffled the command structure and in addition to military regions created three new 'defence zones' which would be subordinated directly to the general staff.", "The defence zones essentially created a new layer between the general staff and the provincial commanders.", "The military regions themselves were reorganised and do not correspond with the ones that existed prior to the reshuffle.", "New commanders of branches were also appointed: A Congolese military analyst based in Brussels, Jean-Jacques Wondo, provided an outline of the updated command structure of the FARDC following the shake up of the high command:Chief of General Staff: Army Gen. Didier EtumbaDeputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Lt. Gen. Bayiba Dieudonné AmuliDeputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Celestin Mbala MunsenseChief of operations: Maj. Gen. Prosper NabiolaChief of intelligence: Brig.", "Gen. Tage TageChief of administration: Constantin Claude Ilunga Kabangu Chief of logistics: Brig.", "Gen. Lutuna Charles ShabaniLand Forces Chief of Staff: Gen. Dieudonné BanzeLand Forces deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Maj. Gen. Kiama Vainqueur Mayala Land Forces deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Muyumb Obed WibatiraNavy Chief of Staff: Vice Adm. Rombault MbuayamaNavy deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Rear Adm. Jean-Marie Valentin Linguma Mata Linguma (Vice Adm. from 2018)Navy deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Rear Adm. Bruno Mayanga MuenaAir Force Chief of Staff: Brig.", "Gen. Numbi Ngoie (Maj. Gen. from 2018)Air Force deputy chief of staff for operations and intelligence: Brig.", "Gen. Maurice René Diasuka Diakiyana (Maj. Gen. from 2018)Air Force deputy chief of staff for administration and logistics: Brig.", "Gen. Jean-Paul Nganguele Mutali (Maj. Gen. from 2018)Regional commanders:'''1st Defence Zone (Bas Congo, Bandundu, Equatuer, and Kinshasa):''' Brig.", "Gen. Gabriel Amisi Kumba11th Military Region (Bandundu Province): Brig Gen. Dieudonné Kiamata Mutupeke12th Military Region (Bas-Congo Province): Brig Gen. Jonas Padiri Muhizi (Maj. Gen. from 2018)13th Military Region (Equatuer Province): Brig.", "Gen. Luboya Kashama Johnny (Maj. Gen. from 2018)14th Military Region (Kinshasa): Brig.", "Gen. Camille Bombele Luwala'''2nd Defence Zone (Kasai and Katanga):''' Maj. Gen. Jean Claude Kifwa21st Military Region (Kasai-Oriental and Kasai Occidental Provinces): Brig.", "Gen. Fall Jikabwe22nd Military Region (Katanga Province): Brig.", "Gen. Philémon Yav (Maj. Gen. from 2018)'''3rd Defence Zone (Kivu, Maneima, and Katanga):''' Maj. Gen. Leon Mush ale Tsipamba31st Military Region (Bas-Uele and Tshopo Districts): Brig.", "Gen. Bertin Baseka Kamangala32nd Military Region (Haut-Uele and Ituri Districts): Brig.", "Gen. Jean-Pierre Bongwangela33rd Military Region (Maneima and South Kivu Provinces): Brig.", "Gen. Gaetan Kakudji Bobo34th Military Region (North Kivu Province): Maj. Gen. Emmanuel Lombe===Reshuffle in 2018===The following changes were announced in July 2018.", "Chief of the General Staff: Lt. Gen. Celestin Mbala Munsense (Army Gen. from 2019)Deputy Chief of Staff for operations and intelligence: Lt. Gen. Gabriel Amisi KumbaDeputy Chief of Staff for administration and logistics: Maj. Gen. Jean-Pierre BongwangelaChief of operations: Maj. Gen. Daniel KashaleChief of intelligence: Maj. Gen. Delphin Kahimbi KasabweChief of administration: Maj. Gen. Jean-Luc YavChief of logistics: Brig.", "Gen. Kalala Kilumba" ], [ "Land forces", "A Congolese rebel photographed near the Rwandan border in 2001.Circa 2008–09, the land forces were made up of about 14 integrated brigades of fighters from all the former warring factions who went through a ''brassage'' integration process (see next paragraph) and a limited number of non-integrated brigades that remain solely made up of single factions (the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD)'s ''Armée national congolaise'', the ex-government former Congolese Armed Forces (FAC), the ex-RCD KML, the ex-Movement for the Liberation of Congo, the armed groups of the Ituri conflict (the Mouvement des Révolutionnaires Congolais (MRC), Forces de Résistance Patriotique d'Ituri (FRPI), and the Front Nationaliste Intégrationniste (FNI)), and the Mai-Mai).It appears that about the same time that Presidential Decree 03/042 of 18 December 2003 established the National Commission for Demobilisation and Reinsertion (CONADER), \"..all ex-combatants were officially declared as FARDC soldiers and the then FARDC brigades were to rest deployed until the order to leave for ''brassage''\" the military integration process.FARDC soldiers on patrol during the Ituri conflict in 2015The reform plan adopted in 2005 envisaged the formation of eighteen integrated brigades through the military integration process as its first of three stages.", "The process consisted firstly of regroupment, where fighters are disarmed.", "Then they were sent to orientation centres, run by CONADER, where fighters took the choice of either returning to civilian society or remaining in the armed forces.", "Combatants who chose demobilisation received an initial cash payment of US$110.Those who chose to stay within the FARDC were then transferred to one of six integration centres for a 45-day training course, which aimed to build integrated formations out of factional fighters previously heavily divided along ethnic, political and regional lines.", "The centres were spread out around the country at Kitona, Kamina, Kisangani, Rumangabo and Nyaleke (within the Virunga National Park) in Nord-Kivu, and Luberizi (on the border with Burundi) in South Kivu.", "The process suffered severe difficulties due to construction delays, administration errors, and the amount of travel former combatants have to do, as the three stages' centres are widely separated.", "There were three sequential buildup stages in the 2005 plan.", "Following the first 18 integrated brigades, the second goal was the formation of a ready reaction force of two to three brigades, and finally, by 2010, when MONUC was hoped to have withdrawn, the creation of a Main Defence Force of three divisions.In February 2008, then Defence Minister Chikez Diemu described the reform plan at the time as:\"The short term, 2008–2010, will see the setting in place of a Rapid Reaction Force; the medium term, 2008–2015, with a Covering Force; and finally the long term, 2015–2020, with a Principal Defence Force.\"", "Diemu added that the reform plan rests on a programme of synergy based on the four pillars of dissuasion, production, reconstruction and excellence.", "\"The Rapid Reaction Force is expected to focus on dissuasion, through a Rapid Reaction Force of 12 battalions, capable of aiding MONUC to secure the east of the country and to realise constitutional missions.", "\"Amid the other difficulties in building new armed forces for the DRC, in early 2007 the integration and training process was distorted as the DRC government under Kabila attempted to use it to gain more control over the dissident general Laurent Nkunda.", "A hastily negotiated verbal agreement in Rwanda saw three government FAC brigades integrated with Nkunda's former ANC 81st and 83rd Brigades in what was called ''mixage''.", "''Mixage'' brought multiple factions into composite brigades, but without the 45-day retraining provided by ''brassage'', and it seems that actually, the process was limited to exchanging battalions between the FAC and Nkunda brigades in North Kivu, without further integration.", "Due to Nkunda's troops having greater cohesion, Nkunda effectively gained control of all five brigades, which was not the intention of the DRC central government.", "However, after Nkunda used the ''mixage'' brigades to fight the FDLR, strains arose between the FARDC and Nkunda-loyalist troops within the brigades and they fell apart in the last days of August 2007.The International Crisis Group says that \"by 30 August 2007 Nkunda's troops had left the mixed brigades and controlled a large part of the Masisi and Rutshuru territories\" (of North Kivu).Both formally integrated brigades and the non-integrated units continue to conduct arbitrary arrests, rapes, robbery, and other crimes and these human rights violations are \"regularly\" committed by both officers and members of the rank and file.", "Members of the Army also often strike deals to gain access to resources with the militias they are meant to be fighting.Female soldiers of the FARDC on parade in 2012The various brigades and other formations and units number at least 100,000 troops.", "The status of these brigades has been described as \"pretty chaotic.\"", "A 2007 disarmament and repatriation study said \"army units that have not yet gone through the process of brassage are usually much smaller than what they ought to be.", "Some non-integrated brigades have only 500 men (and are thus nothing more than a small battalion) whereas some battalions may not even have the size of a normal company (over a 100 men).", "\"A number of outside donor countries are also carrying out separate training programmes for various parts of the Forces Terrestres (Land Forces).", "The People's Republic of China has trained Congolese troops at Kamina in Katanga from at least 2004 to 2009, and the Belgian government is training at least one \"rapid reaction\" battalion.", "When Kabila visited U.S. President George W. Bush in Washington D.C., he also asked the U.S. Government to train a battalion, and as a result, a private contractor, Protection Strategies Incorporated, started training a FARDC battalion at Camp Base, Kisangani, in February 2010.The company was supervised by United States Special Operations Command Africa.", "Three years later, the battalion broke and ran in the face of M23, raping women and young girls, looting, and carrying out arbitrary executions.", "The various international training programmes are not well integrated.===Equipment===Attempting to list the equipment available to the DRC's land forces is difficult; most figures are unreliable estimates based on known items delivered in the past.", "The figures below are from the IISS Military Balance 2014.Much of the Army's equipment is non-operational due to insufficient maintenance—in 2002 only 20 percent of the Army's armoured vehicles were estimated as being serviceable.", "Main Battle Tanks: 12–17 x Type 59 (dropped from 30 listed in 2007), 32 x T-55, 100 x T 72.Thirty T-55s and 100 T-72 were listed in 2007, thus little new information has reached the IISS in the intervening seven years.", "In 2022 the IISS listed the 12-17 Type 59s, marking them as often unserviceable; the 32 T-55s; 100 T-72s, but marking them as T-72AVs, and, in addition, 25 T-64BV-1s (page 465).", "Light tanks: 10 PT-76; 30 Type 62 (serviceability in doubt).", "\"40+\" Type 62s were listed by the ''Military Balance'' in 2007.In 2022 the IISS listed 10 PT-76s and 30 Type 62s (page 465).", "Reconnaissance vehicles: Up to 17 Panhard AML-60, 14 AML-90 armoured cars, 19 EE-9 Cascavel; 2 RAM-V-2.In 2022 the IISS listed \"up to 52\" reconnaissance vehicles, including the \"up to 17\" AML-60s; and unchanged numbers of AML-90s, the EE-9s, and the two RAM-V-2s (page 465).", "Infantry Fighting Vehicles: 20 BMP-1 (number reported unchanged since 2007).", "The same figure of BMP-1s was listed in 2022 (page 465).", "Armoured Personnel Carriers: IISS reports tracked vehicles include 3 BTR-50, 6 MT-LB, wheeled vehicles including 30-70 BTR-60; 58 Panhard M3 (serviceability in doubt), 7 TH 390 Fahd.", "Same unchanged figures were listed in 2022 (page 465)Artillery: 16 2S1 Gvozdika and 2S3 Akatsiya self-propelled; 119 towed field guns, including 77 122 mm howitzers D-30/M-1938/Type-60 and some 130 mm Type 59; 57 MRL, including 24 Type 81; 528+ mortars, 81 mm, 82 mm, 107 mm, 120 mm.In addition to these 2014 figures, in March 2010, it was reported that the DRC's land forces had ordered US$80 million worth of military equipment from Ukraine which included 20 T-72 main battle tanks, 100 trucks and various small arms.", "Tanks have been used in the Kivus in the 2005–09 period.In February 2014, Ukraine revealed that it had achieved the first export order for the T-64 tank to the DRC Land Forces for 50 T-64BV-1s.In June 2015 it was reported that Georgia had sold 12 of its Didgori-2 to the DRC for $4 million.", "The vehicles were specifically designed for reconnaissance and special operations.", "Two of the vehicles are a recently developed conversion to serve for medical field evacuation.The United Nations confirmed in 2011, both from sources in the Congolese military and from officials of the Commission nationale de contrôle des armes légères et de petit calibre et de réduction de la violence armée, that the ammunition plant called Afridex in Likasi, Katanga Province, manufactures ammunition for small arms and light weapons.===Republican Guard===In addition to the other land forces, President Joseph Kabila also has a Republican Guard presidential force (''Garde Républicaine'' or GR), formerly known as the Special Presidential Security Group (GSSP).", "FARDC military officials state that the Garde Républicaine is not the responsibility of FARDC, but of the Head of State.", "Apart from Article 140 of the Law on the Army and Defence, no legal stipulation on the DRC's Armed Forces makes provision for the GR as a distinct unit within the national army.", "In February 2005 President Joseph Kabila passed a decree which appointed the GR's commanding officer and \"repealed any previous provisions contrary\" to that decree.", "The GR, more than 10,000 strong (the ICG said 10,000 to 15,000 in January 2007), has better working conditions and is paid regularly, but still commits rapes and robberies in the vicinity of its bases.In an effort to extend his personal control across the country, Joseph Kabila has deployed the GR at key airports, ostensibly in preparation for an impending presidential visit.", "there were Guards deployed in the central prison of Kinshasa, N'djili Airport, Bukavu, Kisangani, Kindu, Lubumbashi, Matadi, and Moanda, where they appear to answer to no local commander and have caused trouble with MONUC troops there.The GR is also supposed to undergo the integration process, but in January 2007, only one battalion had been announced as having been integrated.", "Formed at a brassage centre in the Kinshasa suburb of Kibomango, the battalion included 800 men, half from the former GSSP and half from the MLC and RCD Goma.Up until June 2016, the GR comprised three brigades, the 10th Brigade at Camp Tshatshi and the 11th at Camp Kimbembe, both in Kinshasa, and the 13th Brigade at Camp Simi Simi in Kisangani.", "It was reorganised on the basis of eight fighting regiments, the 14th Security and Honor Regiment, an artillery regiment, and a command brigade/regiment from that time.===Other forces active in the country===Locations of MONUC units as at December 2009There are currently large numbers of United Nations troops stationed in the DRC.", "The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) on 31 March 2017 had a strength of over 18,316 peacekeepers (including 16,215 military personnel) and is tasked with assisting Congolese authorities to maintain security.", "The UN and foreign military aid missions, the most prominent being EUSEC RD Congo, are attempting to assist the Congolese in rebuilding the armed forces, with major efforts being made in trying to assure regular payment of salaries to armed forces personnel and also in military justice.", "Retired Canadian Lieutenant General Marc Caron also served for a time as Security Sector Reform advisor to the head of MONUC.Groups of anti-Rwandan government rebels like the FDLR, and other foreign fighters remain inside the DRC.", "The FDLR which is the greatest concern, was some 6,000 strong, in July 2007.By late 2010 the FDLR's strength however was estimated at 2,500.The other groups are smaller: the Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army, the Ugandan rebel group the Allied Democratic Forces in the remote area of Mt Rwenzori, and the Burundian Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu—Forces Nationales de Liberation (PALIPEHUTU-FNL).Finally there is a government paramilitary force, created in 1997 under President Laurent Kabila.", "The National Service is tasked with providing the army with food and with training the youth in a range of reconstruction and developmental activities.", "There is not much further information available, and no internet-accessible source details the relationship of the National Service to other armed forces bodies; it is not listed in the constitution.", "President Kabila, in one of the few comments available, says National Service will provide a gainful activity for street children.", "Obligatory civil service administered through the armed forces was also proposed under the Mobutu regime during the \"radicalisation\" programme of December 1974 – January 1975; the FAZ was opposed to the measure and the plan \"took several months to die.\"" ], [ "Air Force", "A DRC Air Force Mil Mi-8 helicopter in 2011All military aircraft in the DRC are operated by the Air Force.", "In 2007, Jane's World Air Forces stated that the Air Force had an estimated strength of 1,800 personnel and is organised into two Air Groups.", "These Groups command five wings and nine squadrons, of which not all are operational.", "1 Air Group is located at Kinshasa and consists of Liaison Wing, Training Wing and Logistical Wing and has a strength of five squadrons.", "2 Tactical Air Group is located at Kaminia and consists of Pursuit and Attack Wing and Tactical Transport Wing and has a strength of four squadrons.", "Foreign private military companies have reportedly been contracted to provide the DRC's aerial reconnaissance capability using small propeller aircraft fitted with sophisticated equipment.", "Jane's states that National Air Force of Angola fighter aircraft would be made available to defend Kinshasa if it came under attack.Like the other services, the Congolese Air Force is not capable of carrying out its responsibilities.", "Few of the Air Force's aircraft are currently flyable or capable of being restored to service and it is unclear whether the Air Force is capable of maintaining even unsophisticated aircraft.", "Moreover, Jane's stated that the Air Force's Ecole de Pilotage is 'in near total disarray' though Belgium has offered to restart the Air Force's pilot training program.In 2018 the IISS estimated that the Air Force numbered 2250 (p457); the 2020 edition carried the same number, unchanged.The IISS Military Balance 2021 said the Air Force had four Su-25s; four transport aircraft, including 2 B727s; 7 Mil Mi-24s; and three transport helicopters, with a strength of 2,550 (p.461)." ], [ "Navy", "Army patrol on Lake Kivu in 2012Before the downfall of Mobutu, a small navy operated on the Congo River.", "One of its installations was at the village of N'dangi near the presidential residence in Gbadolite.", "The port at N'dangi was the base for several patrol boats, helicopters and the presidential yacht.", "The 2002 edition of ''Jane's Sentinel'' described the Navy as being \"in a state of near total disarray\" and stated that it did not conduct any training or have operating procedures.", "The Navy shares the same discipline problems as the other services.", "It was initially placed under command of the MLC when the transition began, so the current situation is uncertain.The 2007 edition of ''Jane's Fighting Ships'' states that the Navy is organised into four commands, based at Matadi, near the coast; the capital Kinshasa, further up the Congo river; Kalemie, on Lake Tanganyika; and Goma, on Lake Kivu.", "The International Institute for Strategic Studies, in its 2007 edition of the ''Military Balance'', confirms the bases listed in ''Jane's'' and adds a fifth base at Boma, a coastal city near Matadi.", "Various sources also refer to numbered Naval Regions.", "Operations of the 1st Naval Region have been reported in Kalemie, the 4th near the northern city of Mbandaka, and the 5th at Goma.As of 2012, the Navy on paper consisted of about 6,700 personnel and up to 23 patrol craft.", "The IISS repeated the same 6,700 figure in 2018 (p457) and the 2020 edition carried the same number, unchanged.", "In reality, The IISS lists the Navy only consists of around 1,000 personnel and a total of eight patrol craft, of which only one is operational, a Shanghai II Type 062 class gunboat designated \"102\".", "There are five other 062s as well as two Swiftships which are not currently operational, though some may be restored to service in the future.", "According to ''Jane's'', the Navy also operates barges and small craft armed with machine guns." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Boshoff, Henri, ''The DDR Process in the DRC: A Never-ending Story'', Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, 2 July 2007* Canadian Government Immigration Review Board, Issue Paper: Zaire: The Balance of Power in the Regions, April 1997* Cooper, Tom, & Pit Weinert, Zaire/DR Congo since 1980 , Air Combat Information Group, 2 September 2003.Retrieved August 2007* * * * * Human Rights Watch, Democratic Republic of Congo Casualties of War: Civilians, Rule of Law, and Democratic Freedoms , Vol.", "11, No.", "1 (A), February 1999* Institute for Security Studies, Democratic Republic of Congo Security Information (updated: 12 January 2005)* International Crisis Group, Security Sector Reform in the Congo, Africa Report N°104, 13 February 2006* ''Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—Central Africa''.", "Issue 11–2002.", "* * * La Prosperite, Fardc et Police Nationale: la liste complète d'Officiers nommés, 18 June 2007* * Omasombo, Jean, ''RDC: Biography des acteurs de troiseme republique'', Royal Museum of Central Africa, 2009, 152–153.", "** * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Baaz, Maria E. and Stern, Maria (2013), \"Fearless Fighters and Submissive Wives: Negotiating Identity among Women Soldiers in the Congo (DRC)\", ''Armed Forces & Society'', 39, no.", "4.", "* Charlier, Thierry, \"Défilé militaire à Kinshasa\", in ''Raids'' magazine, no.", "294, November 2010, pp.", "46–47 ()Emizet, K. M. F., \"Explaining the rise and fall of military regimes: civil-military relations in the Congo,\" ''Armed Forces and Society'', Winter 2000Human Rights Watch, 'Soldiers who rape, commanders who condone: Sexual violence and military reform in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,' 16 July 2009Lefever, Ernest W. ''Spear and Scepter: Army, Police, and Politics in Tropical Africa'', Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C.Lemarchand, René,''The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009, pp.", "226–228.Concise general description of the FAZ in the 1990s.", "Lemarchand, René, \"Forecasting the Future of the Military in Former Belgian Africa,\" in Catherine M. Kelleher, ed., ''Political Military Systems: A Comparative Analysis'' (Sage Publications, Inc., Beverly Hills, California: 1974), pp.", "87–104Malan, Mark, 'U.S.", "Civil-Military Imbalance for Global Engagement,' Refugees International, 2008McDonald, Gordon C. ''et al.", "'', ''Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo Kinshasa)'', Washington.", "Supt.", "of Docs., U.S. Government Print.", "Off.", "1971.DA Pam 550–67.", " Meitho, Kisukula Abeli, '', L'Harmattan, Paris/Montreal, 2001, * Meitho, Kisukula Abeli \"Les armées du Congo-Zaire, un frein au developpement\"Mockler, Anthony, ''The New Mercenaries'', Corgi Books, 1985, – covers mercenary units titularly part of the Armée National Congolaise in the 1960sStephen Rookes, \"Ripe for Rebellion: Political and Military Insurgency in the Congo, 1946-1964,\" Africa@War #51, Helion & Co., c2021.", "* Spittaels, Steven and Hilgert, Filip, Mapping Conflict Motives in the Eastern DRC, IPIS, Antwerp, 4 March 2008Tshiyembe, Mwayila, ',' Editions L'Harmattan, 2005Turner, John W. ''A Continent Ablaze: The Insurgency Wars in Africa 1960 to the Present'', Arms and Armour Press, London, 1998, , further details of FAZ operations in the 1980s and onwards can be found in pages 221–225.", "" ], [ "External links", "** Loi Organique FARDC 2013 *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Denmark" ], [ "Introduction", "Denmark is a Nordic country located in Northern Europe.", "It consists of the Jutland Peninsula and several islands in the Baltic Sea, referred to as the Danish Archipelago.", "Denmark is located southwest of Sweden and due south of Norway and is bordered by the German state (and former possession) Schleswig-Holstein to the south, on Denmark's only land border, 68 kilometres (42 miles) long.Denmark borders both the Baltic and North seas along its tidal shoreline.", "Denmark's general coastline is much shorter, at , as it would not include most of the 1,419 offshore islands (each defined as exceeding 100 square metres in area) and the 180-kilometre long Limfjorden, which separates Denmark's second largest island, North Jutlandic Island, 4,686 km2 in size, from the rest of Jutland.", "No location in Denmark is further from the coast than .", "The land area of Denmark is estimated to be .", "However, it cannot be stated exactly since the ocean constantly erodes and adds material to the coastline, and there are human land reclamation projects.", "On the southwest coast of Jutland, the tide is between , and the tideline moves outward and inward on a stretch.", "A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 607 km² of tidal flats in Denmark, making it the 42nd ranked country in terms of tidal flat extent.", "Denmark has an Exclusive Economic Zone of .", "When including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, the EEZ is the 15th largest in the world with .A circle enclosing the same total area as Denmark would have a diameter of 234 km (146 miles).", "Denmark has 443 named islands (1,419 islands above 100 m2), of which 72 are inhabited (, Statistics Denmark).", "The largest islands are Zealand ''(Sjælland)'' and Funen ''(Fyn)''.", "The island of Bornholm is located east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea.", "Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; the Øresund Bridge connects Zealand with Sweden; the Great Belt Bridge connects Funen with Zealand; and the Little Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen.", "Ferries or small aircraft connect to the smaller islands.", "Main cities are the capital Copenhagen on Zealand; Århus, Aalborg and Esbjerg in Jutland; and Odense on Funen.Denmark experiences a temperate climate.", "This means that the winters are mild and windy and the summers are cool.", "The local terrain is generally flat with a few gently rolling plains.", "The territory of Denmark includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland.", "Its position gives Denmark complete control of the Danish Straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking the Baltic and North Seas.", "The country's natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, chalk, stone, gravel, and sand." ], [ "Environment", "Denmark is highly urbanised.", "Here Greater Copenhagen in the capital region.The Danish landscape is characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts.Beech is a common tree throughout Denmark's sparse woodlands.=== Climate ===File:Climate chart of Copenhagen.svg\|Climate chart of Copenhagen.File:Koppen-Geiger Map DNK present.svg\|Climate of Denmark according to the Köppen climate classification.===Land use===:'''Arable land:''' 55.99% '''Permanent crops:''' 0.14% '''Other:''' 42.87% (2012)'''Irrigated land:''' 4,354 km2 (2007)'''Total renewable water resources:''' 6 km3 (2011)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:'' 0.66 km3/yr (58%/5%/36%) ''per capita:'' 118.4 m3/yr (2009)=== Land reclamation ===In 2019, the government proposed building 9 new artificial islands, named project Holmene, which would create 3 sq km of reclaimed land, to be built from 2022-2040.In June 2021, lawmakers approved the construction of a 3 sq km island, named Lynetteholm, in the Copenhagen Harbor.", "A spokesperson for the Climate Movement in Denmark ( Klimabevægelsen i Danmark) said the organization would sue the government over environmental concerns.=== Agriculture ===Denmark has plenty of rain, flat landscape, and moderate climate.", "With 55.99% of its land considered as arable, Denmark has model characteristics for agriculture.", "61% of the country's total area is cultivated Farms in Denmark are remarkably large, averaging 172.9 acres per farm.", "Additionally, homesteads exceeding 247 acres make up more than 20% in Denmark.", "Many of these large farms harvest fruits and vegetables, the leading exports from Denmark are meat, fur, and dairy products.", "The animal's diets in Denmark consist of mainly cereals since they are the dominant field crop.", "75% of all cereal produced in Denmark is feed to the four most produced animals which are pigs, cattle, chicken and mink.", "Denmark overproduces about 66% of food production compared to their own population size (5.7 million) being that they are able to feed 15 million people.", "This is a byproduct of being highly productive within the Danish agricultural production.In 1961, Denmark's Agricultural land represented 74.5% of land area.", "Fifty-six years later to 2015, Denmark has decreased its amount of Agricultural land down to 62.1% then to 61% one year later in reference to \"Facts and Figures - Danish Agriculture and Food\" The decrease in agricultural land comes as farmers are being well educated and the intensive amount of research and development is being implemented.", "It begins with advancements in agro-technology.", "The results have improved fertilization and nutrient use on arable land.", "Digestibility and nutrient uptake are developing from the improvements of new methods that are being implemented.", "Examples of these new methods are the addition of enzymes and microbial cultures.===Natural hazards===:Flooding is a threat in some areas of the country===Current issues===:Air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions:Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea:Drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides.", "Drinking water is very safe to drink, even though Denmark, unlike most countries, has almost no cleaning of drinking water===International agreements===:* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling:* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol" ], [ "Transnational issues", "===Maritime claims===Map showing the location of Denmark including the Faroe Islands and Greenland ( pdf), collectively known as the Danish Realm.", ":'''Contiguous zone:''' :'''Continental shelf:''' 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation :'''Exclusive economic zone:''' (excludes Greenland and Faroe Islands).", ":'''Territorial sea:''' ===Other issues===:Iceland disputes the Faroe Islands' fisheries median line.", ":Iceland, Ireland and the United Kingdom dispute Denmark's claim that the Faroe Islands' continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles or about 370 km.", ":The Faroe Islands continue to study proposals for full independence.", ":Denmark is currently investigating the extent of the continental shelf of Greenland, in the hope that Greenland's Exclusive Economic Zone can be expanded.", "One of the areas investigated is the geographical North Pole." ], [ "Population", "=== Urban population ===Denmark's urban population accounts for 87.9% of its total population, with a 0.51% rate of change in urbanization.", "Copenhagen remains the largest city in Denmark with a population of 1.2 million people and a metro population of 1.99 million.", "Copenhagen became Denmark's capital in 1443 and now currently sits with a population density of 6,800 people per square kilometer.", "About a quarter of Danes live in the capital Copenhagen." ], [ "See also", "Danish RealmISO 3166-2:DKList of islands of DenmarkNUTS statistical regions of DenmarkUN/LOCODE:DK" ], [ "Notes", "=== Footnotes ====== References ===" ], [ "External links", " Map of Denmark from the Atlas “Theatrum orbis terrarum” by Abraham Ortelius.", "It's the first printed map of Denmark." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Denmark" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Denmark include ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects." ], [ "Population", "Since 1980, the number of people of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship, has remained constant at around 5 million in Denmark, and nearly all the population growth from 5.1 up to the 2018 total of 5.8 million was due to immigration.Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.Population numbers until 2100 will be increasing.", "One birth every 8 minutes\tOne death every 9 minutes\tOne net migrant every 34 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 24 minutesPopulation of Denmark, 0-2021YearPopulation 1769 797,584 1787 841,806 1801 929,001 1834 1,230,964 1840 1,289,075 1845 1,356,877 1850 1,414,648 1855 1,507,222 1860 1,608,362 1870 1,784,741 1880 1,969,039 1890 2,172,380 1901 2,449,540 1906 2,588,919 1911 2,757,076 1916 2,921,362 1921 3,267,831 1925 3,434,555 1930 3,550,656 1935 3,706,349 1940 3,844,312 1945 4,045,232 1950 4,281,275 1955 4,448,401 1960 4,585,256 1965 4,767,597 1970 4,937,579 1971 4,950,598 1972 4,975,653 1973 5,007,538 1974 5,036,184 1975 5,054,410 === Fertility ===The natural growth of the population (births minus deaths) was negative in 2022, that is, minus 1005 people.", "The last time there was a negative natural increase in the population was in 1988.During 2022, 58,430 children were born, 5,043 fewer than in 2021.In 2022, 59,435 people died, there were 2,283, or 4.0% more than in 2021.The total population in the age group 80 and over grew by 12,844 people, or 4.4%., from 2022 to 2023.During 2022, the Danish population grew by 59,234 people, so the population on January 1, 2023, consisted of 5,932,654 people.", "It was a population increase of 1.0 percent, which is higher than in 2021, when the population increase was 0.6 percent.In 2022, it is the first time in history that immigrant women from non-Western countries now have fewer children on average than women of Danish roots in Denmark.", "On average, immigrant women have 1.76 children, the descendants have an average of 1.75 children, while women of Danish roots have 1.78 children.", "This is because Ukrainians, who are categorized as non-Western, have come to Denmark in large numbers.In the same year, immigrant women from Syria had the highest TFR in Denmark, they give birth to an average of 3.7 children.", "They are followed by women from Somalia and Pakistan, 2020 figures show.Denmark had a total fertility rate of 1.55 children per woman in 2022.In 2021 the number of childless women in their 50s is the highest in seven years; 12.3 percent of women at that age have never had a child, while the 19.5 percent of 50-year-old men do not have children.=== Historical fertility rates===TFR of Denmark over time to 2016The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman.", "It is based on fairly good data for the entire period.", "Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.", "Year 18501851185218531854185518561857185818591860Total fertility rate in Denmark4.244.064.484.274.414.314.374.444.484.534.4 Year 1861186218631864186518661867186818691870Total fertility rate in Denmark4.274.174.174.064.214.324.094.183.964.1 Year 1871187218731874187518761877187818791880Total fertility rate in Denmark4.064.094.164.174.314.44.364.274.34.28 Year 1881188218831884188518861887188818891890Total fertility rate in Denmark4.344.364.294.54.394.374.284.254.214.11 Year 189118921893189418951896189718981899Total fertility rate in Denmark4.1844.164.14.094.114.024.084.01'''Total fertility rate'''1.78 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 152nd=== Average age of the mother at her first birth===In 2021 the average age of the mother at her first birth in Denmark was of 29.8 years, and the father is of 31.5 years.=== Life expectancy ===Sources: Our World In Data and the United Nations.", "'''1775–1950'''Years17751835183618371838183918401841184218431844184518461847184818491850Life expectancy in Denmark33.038.440.041.543.141.941.142.642.543.944.043.440.440.440.839.543.5Life expectancy in Denmark since 1775Years1851185218531854185518561857185818591860Life expectancy in Denmark44.543.038.544.746.146.742.540.044.445.1Years1861186218631864186518661867186818691870Life expectancy in Denmark47.647.647.240.239.842.944.945.646.146.0Years1871187218731874187518761877187818791880Life expectancy in Denmark46.147.247.546.044.445.847.347.546.244.8Years1881188218831884188518861887188818891890Life expectancy in Denmark48.346.748.548.549.649.048.746.747.847.2Years1891189218931894189518961897189818991900Life expectancy in Denmark46.847.447.149.450.852.951.853.150.651.9Years1901190219031904190519061907190819091910Life expectancy in Denmark52.654.754.855.754.356.556.154.957.458.0Years1911191219131914191519161917191819191920Life expectancy in Denmark57.058.058.958.558.456.957.356.357.057.6Years1921192219231924192519261927192819291930Life expectancy in Denmark61.760.661.261.161.961.761.261.961.962.3Years1931193219331934193519361937193819391940Life expectancy in Denmark61.862.763.664.162.963.564.065.065.866.3Years1941194219431944194519461947194819491950Life expectancy in Denmark66.067.167.466.466.167.268.570.170.170.3'''1950–2015'''Life expectancy in Denmark since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195571.11985–199074.81955–196072.11990–199575.21960–196572.41995–200076.11965–197072.92000–200577.31970–197573.62005–201078.61975–198074.22010–201580.21980–198574.4Population pyramid from 1950 to 2020=== Age structure ===:''0-14 years:'' 16.57% (male 493,829 /female 468,548):''15-24 years:'' 12.67% (male 377,094 /female 358,807):''25-54 years:'' 39.03% (male 1,147,196 /female 1,119,967):''55-64 years:'' 12.33% (male 356,860 /female 359,264):''65 years and over:'' 19.42% (male 518,200 /female 609,737) (2018 est.", "); Median age:: total: 41.9 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 35th: male: 40.8 years: female: 42.9 years (2018 est.)" ], [ "Ethnic and origin groups", "People of Danish descent as a proportion of the population regionally and nationally in 2021Persons of Danish origin over time from 1980 to 2020Non-indigenous ethnic minorities include:* Afghans* Inuit (Greenlandic) from the territory of Greenland* Turks (including Gagauz)* Arabs (i.e.", "Palestinians, followed by Moroccans, Syrians, Lebanese, Yemenis, Egyptians, Iraqis and Jordanians)* Vietnamese* Thai* Jews* Chinese* Pakistanis (including Pashtuns)* Iranians (including Kurds and Lurs)* Somalis* Ethiopians * Sudanese* Indians* Chileans (the most numerous of Latin American nationalities)* Bosniaks* Poles* Albanians* Bangladeshis* Roma* Filipinos===Historic minorities===Ethnic minorities in Denmark include a handful of groups:* Approximately 15,000 people in Denmark belong to a German minority traditionally referred to as '''''tysksindet''''' meaning \"German-minded\" in Danish, and as '''''Nordschleswiger''''' in German.", "This minority of Germans hold Danish citizenship and self-identify as Germans.", "Many of them speak German or Low German as their home language.", "There are also several thousand German citizens and other ethnic Germans residing in Denmark with no historical connection to this group.", "* An estimated 23,000 people in Denmark proper are ethnic Faroese, while 19,000 Greenlanders reside permanently in Denmark.", "Many of these use the Faroese and Greenlandic languages, respectively, as their first language.", "All residents of the Kingdom (viz.", "Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland) holds Danish citizenship, unless they inherit or otherwise receive a foreign citizenship.", "* The Danish Jews number around 6,000 in 2020 according to the organisation Jewish Community in Denmark, around 1,700 being card-carrying members of the organisation.", "* There are close to 10,000 Roma in Denmark.===Modern minorities===250x250pxDanish and foreign born population pyramid in 2023In the modern minorities, Statistics Denmark counts first-generation immigrants, second-generation (Descendants in Danish statistics classification) and third-generation (Children of descendants in Danish classification).", "Children of descendants can be either of \"Danish origin\" (if both of their parents were born in Denmark with Danish citizenship) and of \"foreign origin\" (if one of their parents is a second-generation immigrant and another first-generation).", "Therefore, this table included all people of the respective background, people who are classified as of \"foreign background\" and third-generation immigrants, who classified as of \"Danish origin\".", "Statistics Denmark denotes an immigrant's group based on their country of birth, it does this usually off of the immigrant or descendents parents, if only one such parent is known, then the group is determined by that or if no parents are known then it is assumed if the person is an immigrant that their country of origin is their country of birth.Statistics Denmark also has specific classification bands which it uses to separate different immigrant groups.", "As an example, for 'Western' immigrants and 'Non-western', the classification band is as follows:* Western countries: All 28 EU countries and Andorra, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Norway, San Marino, Switzerland, Vatican State, Canada, USA, Australia and New Zealand.", "* Non-western countries; All other countries.According to 2021 figures from Statistics Denmark, 86% of Denmark's population of over 5,840,045 was of Danish descent.", "The remaining 14% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants.", "With the same definition, the most common countries of origin were Turkey, Poland, Germany, Iraq, Romania, Syria, Somalia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Yugoslavia and its successor states.More than 817,438 individuals (14%) are migrants and their descendants (199,668 second generation migrants born in Denmark).Of these 817,438 immigrants and their descendants:* 294,798 (36.1%) have a Western background (Norway, Germany, Bosnia and Herzegovina, UK, Poland, Romania and Iceland; definition: EU countries, non-EU Nordic countries, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Switzerland, Vatican State, Canada, USA, Australia and New Zealand).", "* 522,640 (63.9%) have a non-Western background (Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Thailand and Somalia; all other countries).There were 121,183 immigrants in 2022, of these 31,381 were Ukrainian citizens, people with Ukrainian citizenship accounted for 26 percent of all immigration.", "The total population of Denmark increased in 2022 by 59,234 people, and the net immigration of Ukrainian people amounted to 45 percent of this population growth.", "Rank Country of origin Population (2008) Population (2021) Population (2023) Population (2024) 1.59,960 75,072 77,845 79,373 2.21,118 49,369 55,122 57,070 3.3,681 34,997 44,221 46,036 4.3,367 44,326 45,000 45,641 5.5,105 15,595 42,482 44,825 6.28,412 35,141 39,528 41,516 7.28,417 34,217 35,101 35,476 8.21,217 31,175 32,246 33,050 9.23,343 30,435 31,700 32,269 10.14,773 22,408 24,364 26,276 11.21,861 23,449 23,625 23,659 12.11,880 19,957 21,380 21,784 13.16,561 21,338 21,486 21,653 14.5,666 15,595 19,296 21,268 15.12,593 17,651 18,190 18,442 16.14,789 17,095 17,726 17,999 17.15,747 17,481 17,691 17,735 18.13,459 16,307 16,906 17,448 19.8,574 14,841 15,836 16,549 20.3,646 15,231 16,439 16,357 21.former 18,151 15,903 15,356 15,016 22.8,280 13,166 13,693 14,029 23.9,808 13,170 13,708 13,937 24.1,194 – 13,503 13,840 25.7,199 – 12,760 13,098 26.10,494 – 12,692 12,996 27.3,994 – 11,684 12,313 28.7,151 – 10,786 11,293 29.4,389 – 9,517 9,946 30.8,421 – 9,513 9,765Population groupsYear19811991200120112021Number%Number%Number%Number%Number% Danish descent4,968,33796.96%4,920,26795.6%4,953,26592.59%4,998,11189.88%5,022,60786%Immigrants136,2292.65%189,6493.68%308,6745.77%428,9047.71%617,77010.57% EU-2759,8081.16%61,2791.19%74,5651.39%124,0922.23%205,7313.52%Europe outside EU-2745,1480.88%55,7971.08%98,0421.83%116,3002.09%131,1892.24%Africa5,033–9,7100.18%28,1900.52%33,1350.59%46,3760.79%North America6,312–6,525–7,008–9,0680.16%10,8900.18%South and Central America2,987–4,263–6,248–9,8260.17%17,4300.29%Asia16,2000.31%50,5560.98%91,7311.71%133,2612.39%202,6253.46%Oceania571–811–1,314–2,277–2,905–Stateless9–373–367–480–352–Unknown170–335–1,209–465–272–Descendants19,4230.37%36,5530.71%87,2731.63%133,6132.40%199,6683.41% EU-276,7630.13%6,9490.13%9,6790.18%13,0970.23%28,2730.48%Europe outside EU-276,8310.13%15,3020.29%32,2370.60%46,2910.83%59,3091.01%Africa895–2,414–10,2580.19%16,6080.29%25,1880.43%North America985–926–1,004–929–1,029–South and Central America275–363–605–902–1,571–Asia3,535–10,4200.20%33,0450.61%55,2600.99%83,8151.43%Oceania93–88–129–149–196–Stateless29–56–109–237–154–Unknown17–35–207–140–133–Total5,123,989100%5,146,469100%5,349,212100%5,560,628100%5,840,045100%File:Person of Danish origin in 2023 population pyramid.svg\|Persons of Danish originFile:Western immigrant 2023 in Denmark population pyramid.svg\|Western immigrantFile:Non-Western immigrant population pyramid in 2023 in Denmark.svg\|Non-Western immigrantFile:Western descendant population pyramid in 2023 in Denmark.svg\|Western descendantFile:Non-Western descendant population pyramid in 2023 in Denmark.svg\|Non-Western descendant" ], [ "Vital statistics", "The population density is higher in Denmark than in the other Nordic countries.Data according to Statistics Denmark, which collects the official statistics for Denmark.Average population (January 1)Live birthsDeathsNat.", "changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Nat.", "change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)Total fertility rate 1900 2,432,000 72,129 40,891 31,238 29.7 16.8 12.8 4.16 1901 2,447,000 73,219 38,786 34,425 29.7 15.7 14.0 -1.7 4.14 1902 2,477,000 72,839 36,424 36,391 29.2 14.6 14.6 -2.9 4.05 1903 2,506,000 72,351 36,956 35,403 28.7 14.6 14.0 -3.6 3.96 1904 2,532,000 73,692 35,903 37,788 28.9 14.1 14.8 -3.7 3.97 1905 2,560,000 73,082 38,598 34,484 28.4 15.0 13.4 -2.1 3.87 1906 2,589,000 74,217 35,231 38,986 28.5 13.5 -2.6 15.0 3.87 1907 2,621,000 74,324 37,275 37,049 28.2 14.1 14.1 -2.3 3.81 1908 2,652,000 76,233 39,072 37,161 28.6 14.6 13.9 -0.7 3.83 1909 2,687,000 76,301 35,837 40,464 28.2 13.3 15.0 -2.0 3.78 1910 2,722,000 75,299 35,184 40,013 27.5 12.9 14.6 -1.7 3.67 1911 2,757,000 73,933 37,236 36,697 26.7 13.4 13.2 -2.0 3.60 1912 2,788,000 74,659 36,486 38,173 26.6 13.0 13.6 -2.1 3.58 1913 2,820,000 72,475 35,364 37,111 25.6 12.5 13.1 -2.1 3.43 1914 2,851,000 73,294 35,921 37,373 25.6 12.5 13.0 -0.7 3.42 1915 2,886,000 70,192 37,174 33,018 24.2 12.8 11.4 0.7 3.23 1916 2,921,000 71,559 39,265 32,294 24.4 13.4 11.0 1.7 3.23 1917 2,958,000 70,306 39,224 31,082 23.7 13.2 10.5 0.7 3.11 1918 2,991,000 72,505 39,038 33,467 24.1 13.0 11.1 0.9 3.16 1919 3,027,000 68,722 39,590 29,132 22.6 13.0 9.6 1.6 2.96 1920 3,061,000 78,230 39,841 38,389 25.4 12.9 12.5 54.1 3.29 1921 3,265,000 78,815 36,215 42,600 24.0 11.0 13.0 -0.4 3.11 1922 3,306,000 73,899 39,452 34,435 22.3 11.9 10.4 -0.1 2.87 1923 3,340,000 74,827 37,903 36,924 22.3 11.3 11.0 -1.1 2.85 1924 3,373,000 73,836 38,091 35,778 21.8 11.2 10.6 -0.8 2.78 1925 3,406,000 71,897 37,083 34,814 21.0 10.8 10.2 -0.5 2.66 1926 3,439,000 70,734 38,093 32,641 20.5 11.0 9.5 -1.4 2.58 1927 3,467,000 68,024 40,190 27,834 19.6 11.6 8.0 -2.2 2.44 1928 3,487,000 68,516 38,484 30,032 19.6 11.0 8.6 -1.7 2.43 1929 3,511,000 65,297 39,486 25,913 18.6 11.2 7.4 -1.7 2.30 1930 3,531,000 66,303 38,174 28,129 18.7 10.8 7.9 -0.5 2.29 1931 3,557,000 64,266 40,578 23,688 18.0 11.4 6.6 2.7 2.20 1932 3,590,000 64,650 39,701 24,949 17.9 11.0 6.9 1.5 2.17 1933 3,620,000 62,780 38,287 24,493 17.3 10.5 6.7 1.9 2.10 1934 3,651,000 65,116 38,050 27,066 17.8 10.4 7.4 1.4 2.15 1935 3,683,000 65,223 40,816 24,407 17.7 11.0 6.6 1.0 2.12 1936 3,711,000 66,418 40,919 25,499 17.8 11.0 6.9 0.4 2.14 1937 3,738,000 67,440 40,442 26,998 18.0 10.8 7.2 0 2.16 1938 3,765,000 68,463 39,058 29,407 18.1 10.3 7.8 -0.1 2.18 1939 3,794,000 67,914 38,535 29,379 17.8 10.1 7.7 0.7 2.16 1940 3,826,000 70,121 39,730 30,391 18.3 10.4 7.9 -1.9 2.22 1941 3,849,000 71,306 39,756 31,550 18.5 10.3 8.2 0.4 2.24 1942 3,882,000 79,545 37,527 42,018 20.4 9.6 10.8 0.5 2.50 1943 3,926,000 84,319 37,982 46,337 21.4 9.6 11.7 0.3 2.65 1944 3,973,000 90,641 41,087 49,554 22.7 10.3 12.4 0.2 2.84 1945 4,023,000 95,062 42,298 52,764 23.5 10.5 13.0 -0.1 2.98 1946 4,075,000 96,111 42,013 54,098 23.4 10.2 13.2 -1.2 3.02 1947 4,124,000 91,714 40,043 51,671 22.1 9.7 12.5 -1.8 2.90 1948 4,168,000 84,938 35,981 48,957 20.3 8.6 11.7 -1.4 2.71 1949 4,211,000 79,919 37,793 42,126 18.9 8.9 10.0 -0.3 2.58 1950 4,252,000 79,558 39,300 40,258 18.6 9.2 9.4 -1.6 2.57 1951 4,285,000 76,559 37,960 38,599 17.8 8.8 9.0 -2.0 2.50 1952 4,315,000 76,943 39,173 37,770 17.8 9.0 8.7 -0.8 2.53 1953 4,349,000 78,261 39,350 38,911 17.9 9.0 8.9 0.3 2.60 1954 4,389,000 76,365 39,885 36,480 17.3 9.1 8.3 -0.3 2.55 1955 4,424,000 76,845 38,789 38,056 17.3 8.7 8.6 -1.8 2.58 1956 4,454,000 76,725 39,588 37,137 17.2 8.9 8.3 -2.7 2.61 1957 4,479,000 75,264 41,730 33,534 16.8 9.3 7.5 -2.6 2.57 1958 4,501,000 74,681 41,560 33,121 16.5 9.2 7.3 -0.4 2.55 1959 4,532,000 73,928 42,159 31,769 16.3 9.3 7.0 0.5 2.52 1960 4,566,000 76,077 43,681 32,396 16.6 9.5 7.1 -1.0 2.57 1961 4,594,000 76,439 43,310 33,129 16.6 9.4 7.2 0.6 2.55 1962 4,630,000 77,808 45,334 32,474 16.7 9.8 7.0 0.8 2.58 1963 4,666,000 82,413 45,773 36,640 17.6 9.8 7.8 0.1 2.64 1964 4,703,000 83,356 46,811 36,545 17.7 9.9 7.7 0.4 2.60 1965 4,741,000 85,796 47,884 37,912 18.0 10.1 8.0 -0.4 2.61 1966 4,777,000 88,332 49,344 38,988 18.4 10.3 8.1 0.5 2.62 1967 4,818,000 81,410 47,836 33,574 16.8 9.9 6.9 0.4 2.35 1968 4,853,000 74,543 47,290 27,253 15.3 9.7 5.6 -0.7 2.12 1969 4,877,000 71,298 47,943 23,355 14.6 9.8 4.8 1.4 2.00 1970 4,907,000 70,802 48,233 22,569 14.3 9.7 4.6 4.4 1.95 1971 4,951,000 75,359 48,858 26,501 15.2 9.8 5.3 -0.3 2.04 1972 4,976,000 75,505 50,445 25,060 15.1 10.1 5.0 1.4 2.03 1973 5,008,000 71,895 50,526 21,369 14.3 10.1 4.3 1.3 1.9170 1974 5,036,000 71,327 51,637 19,690 14.1 10.2 3.9 -0.3 1.8968 1975 5,054,000 72,071 50,895 21,176 14.2 10.1 4.1 -1.9 1.9188 1976 5,065,000 65,267 54,001 11,266 12.9 10.6 2.2 0.4 1.7472 1977 5,078,000 61,878 50,485 11,393 12.2 9.9 2.2 1.5 1.6598 1978 5,097,000 62,036 52,864 9,172 12.2 10.4 1.8 1.1 1.6685 1979 5,112,000 59,464 54,654 4,810 11.6 10.7 0.9 1.1 1.6016 1980 5,122,000 57,293 55,939 1,354 11.2 10.9 0.3 0.1 1.5464 1981 5,124,000 53,089 56,359 -3,270 10.4 11.0 -0.6 -0.4 1.4371 1982 5,119,000 52,658 55,368 -2,710 10.3 10.8 -0.5 -0.1 1.4273 1983 5,116,000 50,822 57,156 -6,3349.9 11.2 -1.2 0.4 1.3774 1984 5,112,000 51,800 57,109 -5,309 10.1 11.2 -1.0 0.8 1.4001 1985 5,111,000 53,749 58,378 -4,629 10.5 11.4 -0.9 1.9 1.4472 1986 5,116,000 55,312 58,100 -2,788 10.8 11.3 -0.5 2.3 1.4819 1987 5,125,000 56,221 58,136 -1,915 11.0 11.3 -0.4 1.2 1.4977 1988 5,129,000 58,844 58,984 -127 11.5 11.5 -0.0 0 1.5618 1989 5,129,000 61,351 59,397 2,047 12.0 11.6 0.4 0.8 1.6212 1990 5,135,000 63,433 60,926 2,545 12.3 11.9 0.5 1.6 1.6696 1991 5,146,000 64,358 59,581 4,777 12.5 11.6 0.9 2.2 1.6844 1992 5,162,000 67,726 60,821 6,905 13.1 11.8 1.3 2.4 1.7648 1993 5,181,000 67,369 62,809 4,560 13.0 12.1 0.9 2.2 1.7512 1994 5,197,000 69,666 61,099 8,567 13.4 11.7 1.6 2.1 1.8091 1995 5,216,000 69,771 63,127 6,644 13.3 12.1 1.3 5.4 1.8097 1996 5,251,000 67,638 61,043 6,595 12.9 11.6 1.3 3.3 1.7535 1997 5,275,000 67,648 59,898 7,750 12.8 11.3 1.5 2.3 1.7562 1998 5,295,000 66,174 58,453 7,721 12.5 11.0 1.5 1.9 1.7252 1999 5,313,000 66,220 59,179 7,041 12.4 11.1 1.3 1.9 1.7383 2000 5,330,000 67,084 57,998 9,086 12.6 10.9 1.7 1.9 1.7742 2001 5,349,000 65,458 58,355 7,103 12.2 10.9 1.3 2.3 1.7450 2002 5,368,000 64,075 58,610 5,465 11.9 10.9 1.0 2.0 1.7249 2003 5,384,000 64,599 57,574 7,025 12.0 10.7 1.3 1.3 1.7599 2004 5,398,000 64,609 55,086 9,523 12.0 10.2 1.8 0.6 1.7852 2005 5,411,000 64,282 54,962 9,320 11.9 10.1 1.7 1.3 1.8021 2006 5,427,000 64,984 55,477 9,507 12.0 10.2 1.7 2.2 1.8476 2007 5,448,000 64,082 55,604 8,478 11.7 10.2 1.6 3.5 1.8435 2008 5,476,000 65,038 54,591 10,447 11.8 9.9 1.9 4.5 1.8888 2009 5,511,000 62,818 54,872 7,946 11.4 9.9 1.4 3.0 1.8396 2010 5,535,00063,41154,3689,04311.49.81.6 3.1 1.8712 2011 5,561,00058,99852,5166,48210.69.41.2 2.4 1.7524 2012 5,581,00057,91652,3255,59110.49.41.0 2.9 1.7292 2013 5,603,00055,84452,4283,4169.99.30.6 9.6 1.6687 2014 5,627,00056,87051,3405,53010.19.11.0 7.3 1.6912 2015 5,660,00058,20552,5555,65010.29.21.0 6.41.7136 2016 5,707,00061,61452,8248,79010.79.21.5 4.11.7854 2017 5,749,00061,27253,2618,01110.69.21.4 2.91.7519 2018 5,781,00061,47655,2326,24410.69.51.1 1.81.7297 2019 5,806,00061,16753,9587,20910.59.31.2 1.71.6994 2020 5,822,76360,93754,6456,29210.49.4 1.0 4.71.6747 2021 5,840,04563,47357,1526,32110.89.71.1 9.01.7241 2022 5,873,42058,43059,435-1,0059.910.0-0.11.5529 2023 5,932,65457,46958,384-9159.699.84-0.151.495920245,961,249In 2022, 45,922 (78.6%) babies were born to mothers of Danish origin, 10,039 (17.2%) to immigrant mothers and 2,469 (4.2%) to mothers who are descendants of immigrants.=== Current vital statistics ===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January – September 2022''' 44,509 44,018 +491 '''January – September 2023''' 43,645 42,843 +802 '''Difference''' -864 (-1.94%) -1,175 (-2.67%) +311===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 910 605 2 939 584 5 850 189 100 0–4 159 616 151 094 310 710 5.31 5–9 153 902 145 996 299 898 5.13 10–14 172 489 163 504 335 993 5.74 15–19 174 065 166 351 340 416 5.82 20–24 190 440 182 547 372 987 6.38 25–29 205 462 196 996 402 458 6.88 30–34 190 728 182 907 373 635 6.39 35–39 167 754 163 263 331 017 5.66 40–44 174 967 173 743 348 710 5.96 45–49 196 490 197 259 393 749 6.73 50–54 199 625 197 330 396 955 6.79 55–59 203 904 202 673 406 577 6.95 60–64 173 413 176 026 349 439 5.97 65–69 156 575 163 852 320 427 5.48 70–74 149 499 162 406 311 905 5.33 75–79 125 586 142 076 267 662 4.58 80–84 69 552 88 329 157 881 2.70 85–89 33 148 50 931 84 079 1.44 90–94 11 095 23 783 34 878 0.60 95–99 2 113 7 469 9 582 0.16 100+ 182 1 049 1 231 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 486 007 460 594 946 601 16.18 15–64 1 876 848 1 839 095 3 715 943 63.52 65+ 547 750 639 895 1 187 645 20.30" ], [ "Urban areas", "Urban area of Copenhagen.Metropolitan area of Copenhagen.East Jutland Metro.The urban area of Copenhagen consists of the contiguously built-up area of the capital of Denmark.", "The Copenhagen metropolitan area consists of 34 municipalities.", "The East Jutland metropolitan area includes 19 municipalities." ], [ "Religion", "The Church of Denmark () is state-supported and, according to statistics from January 2022, accounts for the religious affiliation of 73.2% of the population.", "Denmark has had religious freedom guaranteed since 1849 by the Constitution, and numerous other religions are officially recognised, including several Christian denominations, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu and other congregations as well as Forn Siðr, a revival of Scandinavian pagan tradition.", "The Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs recognises roughly a hundred religious congregations for tax and legal purposes such as conducting wedding ceremonies.Islam is the second largest religion in Denmark.", "In 2020, an estimated 4.4% of the Danish population were Muslims.For historical reasons, there is a formal distinction between 'approved' () and 'recognised' () congregations of faith.", "The latter include 11 traditional denominations, such as Roman Catholics, the Reformed Church, the Mosaic Congregation, Methodists and Baptists, some of whose privileges in the country date hundreds of years back.", "These have the additional rights of having priests appointed by royal resolution and to christen/name children with legal effect.", ";Religions::Evangelical Lutheran (official) 74.8%, Muslim 5.3%, other (denominations of less than 1% each, include Roman Catholic, Jehovah's Witness, Serbian Orthodox Christian, Jewish, Baptist, and Buddhist) 19.9% (2017 est.)" ], [ "Employment and income", ";Unemployment in Denmark over time;Unemployment, youth ages 15–24:total: 12% (2016 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 109th:male: 13.1% (2016 est.", "):female: 10.9% (2016 est.)" ], [ "Taxation and benefits", "Although the level of taxation in Denmark is among the highest in the world, the labor market participation rate is still high compared with other western countries.", "Municipal income tax makes up the largest part of taxation in Denmark, with central government income tax topping it up.", "These income taxes are higher than in other OECD countries.", "These direct taxes make up two thirds of the taxation on private households with indirect taxes of the central government, and municipalities (property tax), making up one third, i.e.", "with motor vehicles (passenger cars, motorcycles, commercial vehicles) sold from VAT registered dealerships – because of the registration fee – being among the most expensive in the world, with prices in Norway at the same level, and the most expensive in Singapore.", "Also VAT in Denmark is not reduced from the current 25%.", "The 25% are paid on all goods and services where VAT is applied.", "Indirect taxes are about average compared with other European OECD countries.", "Payroll taxes (Danish ''sociale afgifter'') are much lower than in other OECD countries.", "The tax structure ensures a broad tax base across the whole population.", "However, revenue from corporate taxes is lower compared with other European countries.", "Municipalities and the central government (regions are not allowed to levy any taxes, as they are financed by central government, and municipal block grants) redistribute a large amount of their tax income in transfer payments to municipalities with a low tax base and/or few tax payers.", "It is normal for children to be in nurseries, which requires a partial payment of the costs or is free of charge for low income households, and in kindergartens owned and operated, or financed, by the public sector.", "Child benefit is paid to parents for each child.", "The service to old age pensioners, and handicapped is extensive.Denmark ranks high in the Corruption Perceptions Index, although the index is criticized for being limited in scope." ], [ "Homelessness" ], [ "See also", "* Demographics of the Faroe Islands* Demographics of Greenland* Religion in Denmark* List of urban areas in the Nordic countries" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Danish Demes Regional DNA Project* National statistics* Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs – List of recognised denominations (in Danish)* Statistic info on recognised denominations (in Danish; Muslim congregations not listed)* Interactive population pyramid 1980-2070 or Befolkningsfremskrivning or google (etc.)", "\"dst.dk pyramide\", then click with your mouse on top (1st) search result.", "Population pyramid (women (right), men (left), on blue rectangle, hold mouse down, slide rectangle to the top, then click on \"LÅS\" (\"LOCK\").", "Silhouet of year 2070 appears.", "Do that with any year.", "Then click on circle with triangle in on lower right hand side of population pyramid.", "English version:click on upper right hand corner: \"ENGLISH\".", "* Institut National D'Études Démographiques Population pyramids until 2100" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Denmark" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Denmark''' is a modern high-income and highly developed mixed economy.", "The economy of Denmark is dominated by the service sector with 80% of all jobs, whereas about 11% of all employees work in manufacturing and 2% in agriculture.", "The nominal gross national income per capita was the ninth-highest in the world at $68,827 in 2023.Correcting for purchasing power, per capita income was Int$57,781 or 10th-highest globally.", "The income distribution is relatively equal but inequality has somewhat increased during the last decades.", "In 2017, Denmark had the seventh-lowest Gini coefficient (a measure of economic inequality) of the then 28 European Union countries.", "With 5,932,654 inhabitants (1 January 2023), Denmark has the 38th largest national economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP), and the 52nd largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP).Denmark has a very long tradition of adhering to a fixed exchange-rate system and still does so today.", "It is unique among OECD countries to do so while maintaining an independent currency: The Danish krone, which is pegged to the euro.", "Though eligible to join the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), Danish voters in a referendum in 2000 rejected exchanging the krone for the euro.", "Whereas Denmark's neighbours like Norway, Sweden, Poland and the United Kingdom generally follow inflation targeting in their monetary policy, the priority of Denmark's central bank is to maintain exchange rate stability.", "Consequently, the central bank has no role in a domestic stabilization policy.", "Since February 2015, the central bank has maintained a negative interest rate to contain an upward exchange rate pressure.In an international context, a relatively large proportion of the population is part of the labour force, in particular because the female participation rate is very high.", "In 2017, 78.8% of all 15-to-64-year-old people were active on the labour market, the sixth-highest number among all OECD countries.", "With a 4.8% unemployment rate, unemployment is relatively low, in comparison to other European countries where the average unemployment rate is 6.7%.", "The labour market is traditionally characterized by a high degree of union membership rates and collective agreement coverage.", "Denmark invests heavily in active labor market policies and the concept of flexicurity has been important historically.Denmark is an example of the Nordic model, characterized by an internationally high tax level, and a correspondingly high level of government-provided services (e.g.", "health care, child care and education services).", "There are also income transfers to various groups, such as retirees, disabled people, the unemployed, and students.", "Altogether, the amount of revenue from taxes paid in 2017 amounted to 46.1% of the GDP.", "The Danish fiscal policy is generally considered healthy.", "The net government debt is very close to zero, amounting to 1.3% of GDP in 2017.The Danish fiscal policy is characterized by a long-term outlook, taking into account likely future fiscal demands.", "During the 2000s, a challenge was perceived to government expenditures in future decades.", "It was ultimately a challenge to fiscal sustainability from demographic development, in particular higher longevity.", "Responding to this, age eligibility rules for receiving public age-related transfers were changed.", "Since 2012, calculations of future fiscal challenges, from both the government and independent analysts, have generally perceived Danish fiscal policy to be sustainable.", "In recent years, it was considered overly sustainable." ], [ "History", "Development of real GDP per capita, 1820 to 2018Denmark's long-term economic development has largely followed the same pattern as other Northwestern European countries.", "In most of recorded history Denmark has been an agricultural country with most of the population living on a subsistence level.", "Since the 19th century Denmark has gone through an intense technological and institutional development.", "The material standard of living has experienced formerly unknown rates of growth, and the country has been industrialized and later turned into a modern service society.Almost all of the land area of Denmark is arable.", "Unlike most of its neighbours, Denmark has not had extractable deposits of minerals or fossil fuels, except for the deposits of oil and natural gas in the North Sea, which started playing an economic role only during the 1980s.", "On the other hand, Denmark has had a logistic advantage through its long coastal line and the fact that no point on Danish land is more than 50 kilometers from the sea – an important fact for the whole period before the industrial revolution when sea transport was cheaper than land transport.", "Consequently, foreign trade has always been very important for the economic development of Denmark.", "penning from the time of Valdemar I of Denmark.Already during the Stone Age there was some foreign trade, and even though trade has made up only a very modest share of total Danish value added until the 19th century, it has been decisive for economic development, both in terms of procuring vital import goods (like metals) and because new knowledge and technological skills have often come to Denmark as a byproduct of goods exchange with other countries.", "The emerging trade implied specialization which created demand for means of payments, and the earliest known Danish coins date from the time of Svend Tveskæg around 995.Count Otto Thott was the foremost representative of mercantilist thought in Denmark.According to economic historian Angus Maddison, Denmark was the sixth-most prosperous country in the world around 1600.The population size relative to arable agricultural land was small so that the farmers were relatively affluent, and Denmark was geographically close to the most dynamic and economically leading European areas since the 16th century: the Netherlands, the northern parts of Germany, and Britain.", "Still, 80 to 85% of the population lived in small villages on a subsistence level.Mercantilism was the leading economic doctrine during the 17th and 18th century in Denmark, leading to the establishment of monopolies like Asiatisk Kompagni, development of physical and financial infrastructure like the first Danish bank Kurantbanken in 1736 and the first \"kreditforening\" (a kind of building society) in 1797, and the acquisition of some minor Danish colonies like Tranquebar.At the end of the 18th century major agricultural reforms took place that entailed decisive structural changes.", "However, the Napoleonic Wars caused Copenhagen to lose its status as an international centre of finance and trade.", "Politically, mercantilism was gradually replaced by liberal thoughts among the ruling elite.", "Following a monetary reform after the Napoleonic wars, the present Danish central bank Danmarks Nationalbank was founded in 1818.There exists national accounting data for Denmark from 1820 onwards thanks to the pioneering work of Danish economic historian Svend Aage Hansen.", "They find that there has been a substantial and permanent, though fluctuating, economic growth all the time since 1820.The period 1822–94 saw on average an annual growth in factor incomes of 2% (0.9% per capita) From around 1830 the agricultural sector experienced a major boom lasting several decades, producing and exporting grains, not least to Britain after 1846 when British grain import duties were abolished.", "When grain production became less profitable in the second half of the century, the Danish farmers made an impressive and uniquely successful change from vegetarian to animal production leading to a new boom period.", "Parallelly industrialization took off in Denmark from the 1870s.", "At the turn of the century industry (including artisanry) fed almost 30% of the population.During the 20th century agriculture slowly dwindled in importance relative to industry, but agricultural employment was only during the 1950s surpassed by industrial employment.", "The first half of the century was marked by the two world wars and the Great Depression during the 1930s.", "After World War II Denmark took part in the increasingly close international cooperation, joining OEEC/OECD, IMF, GATT/WTO, and from 1972 the European Economic Community, later European Union.", "Foreign trade increased heavily relative to GDP.", "The economic role of the public sector increased considerably, and the country was increasingly transformed from an industrial country to a country dominated by production of services.", "The years 1958–73 were an unprecedented high-growth period.", "The 1960s are the decade with the highest registered real per capita growth in GDP ever, i.e.", "4.5% annually.As a chairman of the Danish Economic Council and of several policy-preparing commissions, Professor Torben M. Andersen has played an important role in Danish economic policy debates for the last decades.During the 1970s Denmark was plunged into a crisis, initiated by the 1973 oil crisis leading to the hitherto unknown phenomenon stagflation.", "For the next decades the Danish economy struggled with several major so-called \"balance problems\": High unemployment, current account deficits, inflation, and government debt.", "From the 1980s economic policies have increasingly been oriented towards a long-term perspective, and gradually a series of structural reforms have solved these problems.", "In 1994 active labour market policies were introduced that via a series of labour market reforms have helped reducing structural unemployment considerably.", "A series of tax reforms from 1987 onwards, reducing tax deductions on interest payments, and the increasing importance of compulsory labour market-based funded pensions from the 1990s have increased private savings rates considerably, consequently transforming secular current account deficits to secular surpluses.", "The announcement of a consistent and hence more credible fixed exchange rate in 1982 has helped reducing the inflation rate.In the first decade of the 21st century new economic policy issues have emerged.", "A growing awareness that future demographic changes, in particular increasing longevity, could threaten fiscal sustainability, implying very large fiscal deficits in future decades, led to major political agreements in 2006 and 2011, both increasing the future eligibility age of receiving public age-related pensions.", "Mainly because of these changes, from 2012 onwards the Danish fiscal sustainability problem is generally considered to be solved.", "Instead, issues like decreasing productivity growth rates and increasing inequality in income distribution and consumption possibilities are prevalent in the public debate.The global Great Recession during the late 2000s, the accompanying Euro area debt crisis and their repercussions marked the Danish economy for several years.", "Until 2017, unemployment rates have generally been considered to be above their structural level, implying a relatively stagnating economy from a business-cycle point of view.", "From 2017/18 this is no longer considered to be the case, and attention has been redirected to the need of avoiding a potential overheating situation.In 2022 the popularity of Novo Nordisk's Ozempic and Wegovy for weight loss began greatly affecting the Danish economy.", "The pharmaceutical industry contributed two thirds of growth that year, and 1.7 points of the 1.9% year-over-year growth in the first quarter of 2023.Novo Nordisk's market capitalization—Europe's second-largest, after LVMH—exceeded the size of the entire national economy, and it is the largest payer of corporate taxes to the Danish state.", "Economists discussed whether the government needed to publish data including and excluding the company; as the enormous economic growth did not similarly increase employment, data including Novo Nordisk is misleading regarding the Danish business cycle.", "Some worried that the nation might become overdependent on the company, similar to what happened to the economy of Finland with Nokia, or that Novo Nordisk's success might cause Dutch disease." ], [ "Income, wealth and income distribution", "Average per capita income is high in an international context.", "According to the World Bank, gross national income per capita was the tenth-highest in the world at $55,220 in 2017.Correcting for purchasing power, income was Int$52,390 or 16th-highest among the 187 countries.During the last three decades household saving rates in Denmark have increased considerably.", "This is to a large extent caused by two major institutional changes: A series of tax reforms from 1987 to 2009 considerably reduced the effective subsidization of private debt implicit in the rules for tax deductions of household interest payments.", "Secondly, compulsory funded pension schemes became normal for most employees from the 1990s.", "Over the years, the wealth of the Danish pension funds have accumulated so that in 2016 it constituted twice the size of Denmark's GDP.", "The pension wealth consequently is a very important both for the life-cycle of a typical individual Danish household and for the national economy.", "A large part of the pension wealth is invested abroad, thus giving rise to a fair amount of foreign capital income.", "In 2015, average household assets were more than 600% of their disposable income, among OECD countries second only to the Netherlands.", "At the same time, average household gross debt was almost 300% of disposable income, which is also at the highest level in OECD.", "Household balance sheets are consequently very large in Denmark compared to most other countries.", "Danmarks Nationalbank, the Danish central bank, has attributed this to a well-developed financial system.===Income inequality===Income inequality has traditionally been low in Denmark.", "According to OECD figures, in 2000 Denmark had the lowest Gini coefficient of all countries.", "However, inequality has increased during the last decades.", "According to data from Statistics Denmark, the Gini coefficient for disposable income has increased from 22.1 in 1987 to 29.3 in 2017.The Danish Economic Council found in an analysis from 2016 that the increasing inequality in Denmark is due to several components: Pre-tax labour income is more unequally distributed today than before, capital income, which is generally less equally distributed than labour income, has increased as share of total income, and economic policy is less redistributive today, both because public income transfers play a smaller role today and because the tax system has become less progressive.In international comparisons, Denmark has a relatively equal income distribution.", "According to the CIA World Factbook, Denmark had the twentieth-lowest Gini coefficient (29.0) of 158 countries in 2016.According to data from Eurostat, Denmark was the EU country with the seventh-lowest Gini coefficient in 2017.Slovakia, Slovenia, Czechia, Finland, Belgium and the Netherlands had a lower Gini coefficient for disposable income than Denmark." ], [ "Labour market and employment", "The Danish labour market is characterized by a high degree of union membership rates and collective agreement coverage dating back from ''Septemberforliget'' (The September Settlement) in 1899 when the Danish Confederation of Trade Unions and the Confederation of Danish Employers recognized each other's right to organise and negotiate.", "The labour market is also traditionally characterized by a high degree of flexicurity, i.e.", "a combination of labour market flexibility and economic security for workers.", "The degree of flexibility is in part maintained through active labour market policies.", "Denmark first introduced active labour market policies (ALMPs) in the 1990s after an economic recession that resulted in high unemployment rates.", "Its labour market policies are decided through tripartite cooperation between employers, employees and the government.", "Denmark has one of the highest expenditures on ALMPs and in 2005, spent about 1.7% of its GDP on labour market policies.", "This was the highest amongst the OECD countries.", "Similarly, in 2010 Denmark was ranked number one amongst Nordic countries for expenditure on ALMPs.Denmark's active labour market policies particularly focus on tackling youth unemployment.", "They have had a \"youth initiative\" or the Danish Youth Unemployment Programme in place since 1996.This includes mandatory activation for those unemployed under the age of 30.While unemployment benefits are provided, the policies are designed to motivate job-seeking.", "For example, unemployment benefits decrease by 50% after 6 months.", "This is combined with education, skill development and work training programs.", "For instance, the Building Bridge to Education program was started in 2014 to provide mentors and skill development classes to youth that are at risk of unemployment.", "Such active labour market policies have been successful for Denmark in the short-term and the long-term.", "For example, 80% of participants in the Building Bridge for Education program felt that \"the initiative has helped them to move towards completing an education\".", "On a more macro scale, a study of the impact of ALMPs in Denmark between 1995 and 2005 showed that such policies had positive impact not just on employment but also on earnings.", "The effective compensation rate for unemployed workers has been declining for the last decades, however.", "Unlike in most Western countries there is no legal minimum wage in Denmark.A relatively large proportion of the population is active on the labour market, not least because of a very high female participation rate.", "The total participation rate for people aged 15 to 64 years was 78.8% in 2017.This was the 6th-highest number among OECD countries, only surpassed by Iceland, Switzerland, Sweden, New Zealand and the Netherlands.", "The average for all OECD countries together was 72.1%.According to Eurostat, the unemployment rate was 5.7% in 2017.This places unemployment in Denmark somewhat below the EU average, which was 7.6%.", "10 EU member countries had a lower unemployment rate than Denmark in 2017.Altogether, total employment in 2017 amounted to 2,919,000 people according to Statistics Denmark.The share of employees leaving jobs every year (for a new job, retirement or unemployment) in the private sector is around 30% – a level also observed in the U.K. and U.S.- but much higher than in continental Europe, where the corresponding figure is around 10%, and in Sweden.", "This attrition can be very costly, with new and old employees requiring half a year to return to old productivity levels, but with attrition bringing the number of people that have to be fired down." ], [ "Foreign trade", "As a small open economy, Denmark is very dependent on its foreign trade.", "In 2017, the value of total exports of goods and services made up 55% of GDP, whereas the value of total imports amounted to 47% of GDP.", "Trade in goods made up slightly more than 60% of both exports and imports, and trade in services the remaining close to 40%.Machinery, chemicals and related products like medicine and agricultural products were the largest groups of export goods in 2017.Service exports were dominated by freight sea transport services from the Danish merchant navy.", "Most of Denmark's most important trading partners are neighbouring countries.", "The five main importers of Danish goods and services in 2017 were Germany, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States and Norway.", "The five countries from which Denmark imported most goods and services in 2017 were Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, China and United Kingdom.After having almost consistently an external balance of payments current account deficit since the beginning of the 1960s, Denmark has maintained a surplus on its BOP current account for every year since 1990, with the single exception of 1998.In 2017, the current account surplus amounted to approximately 8% of GDP.", "Consequently, Denmark has changed from a net debtor to a net creditor country.", "By 1 July 2018, the net foreign wealth or net international investment position of Denmark was equal to 64.6% of GDP, Denmark thus having the largest net foreign wealth relative to GDP of any EU country.As the annual current account is equal to the value of domestic saving minus total domestic investment, the change from a structural deficit to a structural surplus is due to changes in these two national account components.", "In particular, the Danish national saving rate in financial assets increased by 11 per cent of GDP from 1980 to 2015.Two main reasons for this large change in domestic saving behaviour were the growing importance of large-scale compulsory pension schemes and several Danish fiscal policy reforms during the period which considerably decreased tax deductions of household interest expense, thus reducing the tax subsidy to private debt." ], [ "Currency and monetary policy", "The building of Danmarks Nationalbank, the central bank of Denmark, built by the Danish architect Arne Jacobsen.The Danish currency is the Danish krone, subdivided into 100 øre.", "The krone and øre were introduced in 1875, replacing the former rigsdaler and skilling.", "Denmark has a very long tradition of maintaining a fixed exchange-rate system, dating back to the period of the gold standard during the time of the Scandinavian Monetary Union from 1873 to 1914.After the breakdown of the international Bretton Woods system in 1971, Denmark devalued the krone repeatedly during the 1970s and the start of the 1980s, effectively maintaining a policy of \"fixed, but adjustable\" exchange rates.", "Rising inflation led to Denmark declaring a more consistent fixed exchange-rate policy in 1982.At first, the krone was pegged to the European Currency Unit or ECU, from 1987 to the Deutsche Mark, and from 1999 to the euro.Although eligible, Denmark chose not to join the European Monetary Union when it was founded.", "In 2000, the Danish government advocated Danish EMU membership and called a referendum to settle the issue.", "With a turn-out of 87.6%, 53% of the voters rejected Danish membership.", "Occasionally, the question of calling another referendum on the issue has been discussed, but since the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 opinion polls have shown a clear majority against Denmark joining the EMU, and the question is not high on the political agenda presently.Maintenance of the fixed exchange rate is the responsibility of Danmarks Nationalbank, the Danish central bank.", "As a consequence of the exchange rate policy, the bank must always adjust its interest rates to ensure a stable exchange rate and consequently cannot at the same time conduct monetary policy to stabilize e.g.", "domestic inflation or unemployment rates.", "This makes the conduct of stabilization policy fundamentally different from the situation in Denmark's neighbouring countries like Norway, Sweden, Poland and the United Kingdom, in which the central banks have a central stabilizing role.", "Denmark is presently the only OECD member country maintaining an independent currency with a fixed exchange rate.", "Consequently, the Danish krone is the only currency in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism II (ERM II), before Bulgaria and Croatia joined in 2020 (the latter uses the euro since 2023)In the first months of 2015, Denmark experienced the largest pressure against the fixed exchange rate for many years because of very large capital inflows, causing a tendency for the Danish krone to appreciate.", "Danmarks Nationalbank reacted in various ways, chiefly by lowering its interest rates to record low levels.", "On 6 February 2015 the certificates of deposit rate, one of the four official Danish central bank rates, was lowered to −0.75%.", "In January 2016 the rate was raised to −0.65%, at which level it has been maintained since then.Inflation in Denmark as measured by the official consumer price index of Statistics Denmark was 1.1% in 2017.Inflation has generally been low and stable for the last decades.", "Whereas in 1980 annual inflation was more than 12%, in the period 2000–2017 the average inflation rate was 1.8%." ], [ "Government", "===Overall organization===Since a local-government reform in 2007, the general government organization in Denmark is carried out on three administrative levels: central government, regions, and municipalities.", "Regions administer mainly health care services, whereas municipalities administer primary education and social services.", "Municipalities in principle independently levy income and property taxes, but the scope for total municipal taxation and expenditure is closely regulated by annual negotiations between the municipalities and the Finance Minister of Denmark.", "At the central government level, the Ministry of Finance carries out the coordinating role of conducting economic policy.", "In 2012, the Danish parliament passed a Budget Law (effective from January 2014) which governs the over-all fiscal framework, stating among other things that the structural deficit must never exceed 0.5% of GDP, and that Danish fiscal policy is required to be sustainable, i.e.", "have a non-negative fiscal sustainability indicator.", "The Budget Law also assigned the role of independent fiscal institution (IFI, informally known as \"fiscal watchdog\") to the already-existing independent advisory body of the Danish Economic Councils.=== Budget and fiscal position ===Danish fiscal policy is generally considered healthy.", "Government net debt was close to zero at the end of 2017, amounting to DKK 27.3 billion, or 1.3% of GDP.", "The government sector having a fair amount of financial assets as well as liabilities, government gross debt amounted to 36.1% of GDP at the same date.", "The gross EMU-debt as percentage of GDP was the sixth-lowest among all 28 EU member countries, only Estonia, Luxembourg, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Romania having a lower gross debt.", "Denmark had a government budget surplus of 1.1% of GDP in 2017.Long-run annual fiscal projections from the Danish government as well as the independent Danish Economic Council, taking into account likely future fiscal developments caused by demographic developments etc.", "(e.g.", "a likely ageing of the population caused by a considerable expansion of life expectancy), consider the Danish fiscal policy to be overly sustainable in the long run.", "In Spring 2018, the so-called Fiscal Sustainability Indicator was calculated to be 1.2 (by the Danish government) respectively 0.9% (by the Danish Economic Council) of GDP.", "This implies that under the assumptions employed in the projections, fiscal policy could be permanently loosened (via more generous public expenditures and/or lower taxes) by ca.", "1% of GDP while still maintaining a stable government debt-to-GDP ratio in the long run.===Taxation===The tax level as well as the government expenditure level in Denmark ranks among the highest in the world, which is traditionally ascribed to the Nordic model of which Denmark is an example, including the welfare state principles which historically evolved during the 20th century.", "In 2022, the official Danish tax level amounted to 42.2% of GDP.", "The all-record highest Danish tax level was 49.8% of GDP, reached in 2014 because of high extraordinary one-time tax revenues caused by a reorganization of the Danish-funded pension system.", "The Danish tax-to-GDP-ratio of 42% was the seventh-highest among all OECD countries in 2022, after France, Norway, Austria, Finland, Italy and Belgium.", "The OECD average was 34%.", "The tax structure of Denmark (the relative weight of different taxes) also differs from the OECD average, as the Danish tax system in 2015 was characterized by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income, whereas on the other hand, no revenues at all derive from social security contributions.", "A lower proportion of revenues in Denmark derive from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas the proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average.In 2016, the average marginal tax rate on labour income for all Danish tax-payers was 38.9%.", "The average marginal tax on personal capital income was 30.7%.Professor of Economics at Princeton University Henrik Kleven has suggested that three distinct policies in Denmark and its Scandinavian neighbours imply that the high tax rates cause only relatively small distortions to the economy: * widespread use of third-party information reporting for tax collection purposes (ensuring a low level of tax evasion)* broad tax bases (ensuring a low level of tax avoidance)* a strong subsidization of goods that are complementary to working (ensuring a high level of labour force participation).in 2023, Denmark considered methods to increase taxes on energy dealers.===Government Expenditures===Parallel to the high tax level, government expenditures make up a large part of GDP, and the government sector carries out many different tasks.", "By September 2018, 831,000 people worked in the general government sector, corresponding to 29.9% of all employees.", "In 2017, total government expenditure amounted to 50.9% of GDP.", "Government consumption took up precisely 25% of GDP (e.g.", "education and health care expenditure), and government investment (infrastructure etc.)", "expenditure another 3.4% of GDP.", "Personal income transfers (for e.g.", "elderly or unemployed people) amounted to 16.8% of GDP.Denmark has an unemployment insurance system called the A-kasse (''arbejdsløshedskasse'').", "This system requires a paying membership of a state-recognized unemployment fund.", "Most of these funds are managed by trade unions, and part of their expenses are financed through the tax system.", "Members of an A-kasse are not obliged to be members of a trade union.", "Not every Danish citizen or employee qualifies for a membership of an unemployment fund, and membership benefits will be terminated after 2 years of unemployment.", "A person that is not a member of an A-kasse cannot receive unemployment benefits.", "Unemployment funds do not pay benefits to sick members, who will be transferred to a municipal social support system instead.", "Denmark has a countrywide, but municipally administered social support system against poverty, securing that qualified citizens have a minimum living income.", "All Danish citizens above 18 years of age can apply for some financial support if they cannot support themselves or their family.", "Approval is not automatic, and the extent of this system has generally been diminished since the 1980s.", "Sick people can receive some financial support throughout the extent of their illness.", "Their ability to work will be re-evaluated by the municipality after 5 months of illness.The welfare system related to the labor market has experienced several reforms and financial cuts since the late 1990s due to political agendas for increasing the labor supply.", "Several reforms of the rights of the unemployed have followed up, partially inspired by the Danish Economic Council.", "Halving the time unemployment benefits can be received from four to two years, and making it twice as hard to regain this right, was implemented in 2010 for example.Disabled people can apply for permanent social pensions.", "The extent of the support depends on the ability to work, and people below 40 can not receive social pension unless they are deemed incapable of any kind of work." ], [ "Industries", "=== Agriculture ===Pasture grazing cattle (Rømø)Agriculture was once the most important industry in Denmark.", "Nowadays, it is of minor economic importance.", "In 2016, 62,000 people, or 2.5% of all employed people worked in agriculture and horticulture.", "Another 2,000 people worked in fishing.", "As value added per person is relatively low, the share of national value added is somewhat lower.", "Total gross value added in agriculture, forestry and fishing amounted to 1.6% of total output in Denmark (in 2017).", "Despite this, Denmark is still home to various types of agricultural production.", "Within animal husbandry, it includes dairy and beef cattle, pigs, poultry and fur animals (primarily mink) – all sectors that produce mainly for export.", "Regarding vegetable production, Denmark is a leading producer of grass-, clover- and horticultural seeds.", "The agriculture and food sector as a whole represented 25% of total Danish commodity exports in 2015.63% of the land area of Denmark is used for agricultural production – the highest share in the world according to a report from University of Copenhagen in 2017.The Danish agricultural industry is historically characterized by freehold and family ownership, but due to structural development farms have become fewer and larger.", "In 2020 the number of farms was approximately 33,000, of which approximately 10,000 were owned by full-time farmers.==== Animal production ====The tendency toward fewer and larger farms has been accompanied by an increase in animal production, using fewer resources per produced unit.The number of dairy farmers has reduced to about 3,800 with an average herd size of 150 cows.", "The milk quota is 1,142 tonnes.", "Danish dairy farmers are among the largest and most modern producers in Europe.", "More than half of the cows live in new loose-housing systems.", "Export of dairy products accounts for more than 20 percent of the total Danish agricultural export.", "The total number of cattle in 2011 was approximately 1.5 million.", "Of these, 565,000 were dairy cows and 99,000 were suckler cows.", "The yearly number of slaughtering of beef cattle is around 550,000.For more than 100 years the production of pigs and pig meat was a major source of income in Denmark.", "The Danish pig industry is among the world's leaders in areas such as breeding, quality, food safety, animal welfare and traceability creating the basis for Denmark being among the world's largest pig meat exporters.", "Approximately 90 percent of the production is exported.", "This accounts for almost half of all agricultural exports and for more than 5 percent of Denmark's total exports.", "About 4,200 farmers produce 28 million pigs annually.", "Of these, 20.9 million are slaughtered in Denmark.Fur animal production on an industrial scale started in the 1930s in Denmark.", "Prior to a government-mandated culling during the COVID-19 pandemic, Denmark was the world's largest producer of mink furs, with 1,400 mink farmers fostering 17.2 million mink and producing around 14 million furs of the highest quality every year (see mink industry in Denmark).", "Approximately 98 percent of the skins sold at Kopenhagen Fur Auction were exported.", "Fur ranked as Danish agriculture's third largest export article, at more than DKK 7 billion annually.", "The number of farms peaked in the late 1980s at more than 5,000 farms, but the number has declined steadily since, as individual farms grew in size.", "Danish mink farmers claim their business to be sustainable, feeding the mink food industry waste and using all parts of the dead animal as meat, bone meal and biofuel.", "Special attention is given to the welfare of the mink, and regular \"Open Farm\" arrangements are made for the general public.", "Mink thrive in, but are not a native to Denmark, and it is considered an invasive species.", "American Mink are now widespread in Denmark and continues to cause problems for the native wildlife, in particular waterfowl.", "Denmark also has a small production of fox, chinchilla and rabbit furs.Two hundred professional producers are responsible for the Danish egg production, which was 66 million kg in 2011.Chickens for slaughter are often produced in units with 40,000 broilers.", "In 2012, 100 million chickens were slaughtered.", "In the minor productions of poultry, 13 million ducks, 1.4 million geese and 5.0 million turkeys were slaughtered in 2012.==== Organic production ====Organic farming and production has increased considerably and continuously in Denmark since 1987 when the first official regulations of this particular agricultural method came into effect.", "In 2017, the export of organic products reached DK 2.95 billion, a 153% increase from 2012 five years earlier, and a 21% increase from 2016.The import of organic products has always been higher than the exports though and reached DK 3.86 billion in 2017.After some years of stagnation, close to 10% of the cultivated land is now categorized as organically farmed, and 13.6% for the dairy industry, as of 2017.Denmark has the highest retail consumption share for organic products in the world.", "In 2017, the share was at 13.3%, accounting for a total of DKK 12.1 billion.=== Natural resource extraction ===Denmark has large proven reserves of oil and natural gas in the North Sea with Esbjerg being the main city for the oil and gas industry.", "Denmark is the largest producer of oil and natural gas in the EU.", "Production has decreased in recent years, though.", "Whereas in 2006 output (measured as gross value added or GVA) in mining and quarrying industries made up more than 4% of Denmark's total GVA, in 2017 it amounted to 1.2%.", "The sector is very capital-intensive, so the share of employment is much lower: About 2,000 persons worked in the oil and gas extraction sector in 2016, and another 1,000 persons in extraction of gravel and stone, or in total about 0.1% of total employment in Denmark.=== Engineering and high-tech ===Denmark houses a number of significant engineering and high-technology firms, within the sectors of industrial equipment, aerospace, robotics, pharmaceutical and electronics.==== Electronics and industrial equipment====Danfoss, headquartered in Nordborg, designs and manufactures industrial electronics, heating and cooling equipment, as well as drivetrains and power solutions.Denmark is also a large exporter of pumps, with the company Grundfos holding 50% of the market share, manufacturing circulation pumps.=== Manufacturing ===In 2017 total output (gross value added) in manufacturing industries amounted to 14.4% of total output in Denmark.", "325,000 people or a little less than 12% of all employed persons worked in manufacturing (including utilities, mining and quarrying) in 2016.Main sub-industries are manufacture of pharmaceuticals, machinery, and food products.=== Service industry ===In 2017 total output (gross value added) in service industries amounted to 75.2% of total output in Denmark, and 79.9% of all employed people worked here (in 2016).", "Apart from public administration, education and health services, main service sub-industries were trade and transport services, and business services.=== Transport ===Copenhagen Central Station with S-Trains.Significant investment has been made in building road and rail links between Copenhagen and Malmö, Sweden (the Øresund Bridge), and between Zealand and Funen (the Great Belt Fixed Link).", "The Copenhagen Malmö Port was also formed between the two cities as the common port for the cities of both nations.The main railway operator is Danske Statsbaner (Danish State Railways) for passenger services and DB Schenker Rail for freight trains.", "The railway tracks are maintained by Banedanmark.", "Copenhagen has a small Metro system, the Copenhagen Metro and the greater Copenhagen area has an extensive electrified suburban railway network, the S-train.", "Private vehicles are increasingly used as a means of transport.", "New cars are taxed by means of a registration tax (85% to 150%) and VAT (25%).", "The motorway network now covers 1,300 km.Denmark is in a strong position in terms of integrating fluctuating and unpredictable energy sources such as wind power in the grid.", "It is this knowledge that Denmark now aims to exploit in the transport sector by focusing on intelligent battery systems (V2G) and plug-in vehicles.=== Energy ===Denmark has invested heavily in windfarms.", "In 2015, 42% of the domestic electricity consumption comes from wind.Fossil fuel consumption in Denmark.Denmark has changed its energy consumption from 99% fossil fuels (92% oil (all imported) and 7% coal) and 1% biofuels in 1972 to 73% fossil fuels (37% oil (all domestic), 18% coal and 18% natural gas (all domestic)) and 27% renewables (largely biofuels) in 2015.The goal is a full independence of fossil fuels by 2050.This drastic change was initially inspired largely by the discovery of Danish oil and gas reserves in the North Sea in 1972 and the 1973 oil crisis.", "The course took a giant leap forward in 1984, when the Danish North Sea oil and gas fields, developed by native industry in close cooperation with the state, started major productions.", "In 1997, Denmark became self-sufficient with energy and the overall emission from the energy sector began to fall by 1996.Wind energy contribution to the total energy consumption has risen from 1% in 1997 to 5% in 2015.Since 2000, Denmark has increased gross domestic product (GDP) and at the same time decreased energy consumption.", "Since 1972, the overall energy consumption has dropped by 6%, even though the GDP has doubled in the same period.", "Denmark had the 6th best energy security in the world in 2014.Denmark has had relatively high energy taxation to encourage careful use of energy since the oil crises in the 1970s, and Danish industry has adapted to this and gained a competitive edge.", "The so-called \"green taxes\" have been broadly criticised partly for being higher than in other countries, but also for being more of a tool for gathering government revenue than a method of promoting \"greener\" behaviour.+ ''' 2015 overall energy taxes, in billions DKK''' Oil Gasoline Natural gas Coal Electricity Excise&VAT 9.3 7.3 3.3 2.5 11.7Denmark has low electricity costs (including costs for cleaner energy) in EU, but general taxes (11.7 billion DKK in 2015) make the electricity price for households the highest in Europe.", ", Denmark has no environment tax on electricity.Denmark is a long-time leader in wind energy and a prominent exporter of Vestas and Siemens wind turbines, and in 2019 Denmark's exports of wind-turbine technology and services amounted to 8.9 billion.", "It has integrated fluctuating and less predictable energy sources such as wind power into the grid.", "Wind produced the equivalent of 43% of Denmark's total electricity consumption in 2017.The share of total energy production is smaller: In 2015, wind accounted for 5% of total Danish energy production.Energinet.dk is the Danish national transmission system operator for electricity and natural gas.", "The electricity grids of western Denmark and eastern Denmark were not connected until 2010 when the 600MW Great Belt Power Link went into operation.Cogeneration plants are the norm in Denmark, usually with district heating which serves 1.7 million households.Waste-to-energy incinerators produce mostly heating and hot water.", "Vestforbrænding in Glostrup Municipality operates Denmark's largest incinerator, a cogeneration plant which supplies electricity to 80,000 households and heating equivalent to the consumption in 63,000 households (2016).", "Amager Bakke is an example of a new incinerator." ], [ "Greenland and the Faroe Islands", "In addition to Denmark proper, the Kingdom of Denmark comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean: Greenland and the Faroe Islands.", "Both use the Danish krone as their currency, but form separate economies, having separate national accounts etc.", "Both countries receive an annual fiscal subsidy from Denmark which amounts to about 25% of Greenland's GDP and 11% of Faroese GDP.", "For both countries, fishing industry is a major economic activity.Neither Greenland nor the Faroe Islands are members of the European Union.", "Greenland left the European Economic Community in 1986, and the Faroe Islands declined membership in 1973, when Denmark joined." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation under 2% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP (in Bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment (in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198058.911,50471.1−0.5%11.3%5.3%n/a198164.012,49161.9−0.7%11.7%7.1%n/a198270.513,76660.43.7%10.1%7.6%n/a198375.214,68960.62.6%6.8%8.4%n/a198481.115,85859.14.2%6.3%7.9%n/a198587.017,02562.74.0%4.7%6.6%n/a198693.118,20088.14.9%3.7%5.0%n/a198795.718,681109.40.3%4.0%5.0%n/a198899.119,317115.60.0%4.5%5.7%n/a1989103.620,194112.40.6%4.8%6.8%n/a1990109.021,227138.21.5%2.6%7.2%n/a1991114.222,192139.21.4%2.4%7.9%n/a1992119.123,072152.92.0%2.1%8.6%66.81993121.923,538143.20.0%1.2%9.5%78.6%1994131.225,242156.25.3%2.0%7.7%75.2%1995138.026,452185.03.0%2.0%6.8%71.4%1996144.627,531187.62.9%2.2%6.3%68.3%1997151.828,783173.53.3%2.2%5.2%64.3%1998156.929,629177.02.2%1.8%4.9%60.3%1999164.030,860178.02.9%2.5%5.1%56.8%2000174.032,645164.23.7%2.9%4.3%52.4%2001179.433,543164.80.8%2.4%4.5%48.5%2002183.034,095178.60.5%2.4%4.6%49.1%2003187.434,811218.10.4%2.1%5.4%46.2%2004197.736,627251.42.7%1.1%5.5%44.2%2005208.838,592264.52.3%1.8%4.8%37.4%2006223.741,211282.93.9%1.9%3.9%31.5%2007231.742,538319.40.9%1.7%3.8%27.3%2008235.042,924353.4−0.5%3.4%3.5%33.3%2009225.240,863321.2−4.9%1.3%6.0%40.2%2010232.241,958322.01.9%2.3%7.5%42.6%2011240.243,194344.01.3%2.8%7.6%46.1%2012245.243,933327.10.2%2.4%7.5%44.9%2013251.544,882343.60.9%0.8%7.0%44.0%2014260.146,223353.01.6%0.6%6.5%43.9%2015267.247,202302.71.6%0.5%6.2%39.6%2016275.948,338313.12.0%0.3%6.2%37.8%2017286.849,883332.12.1%1.1%5.8%36.4%" ], [ "Major companies", "Denmark has fostered and is home to many multi-national companies.", "Many of the largest are interdisciplinary with business – and sometimes research activities – in several fields.", "The most notable companies include:;Agribusiness* Arla Foods (dairy)* Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab (DLG) (agricultural coop (Danish ''a.m.b.a.'').", "Main focus is agricultural supply and trade)* Danish Crown (meat products);Banking* Danske Bank (commercial banking and mortgage lending)* Nordea* Nykredit* Jyske Bank* Saxo Bank* Sydbank;Clothing and attire* ECCO (shoe and leather accessories manufacturer and retailer)* Bestseller;Construction* FLSmidth (global supplier of equipment and services to the cement and minerals industries)* Rockwool (mineral wool producer with production in 28 countries)* Velux (windows and skylights production, owned by Villum Foundation)* Rambøll* COWI;Energy technology* Vestas (wind turbines)* Siemens Wind Power (wind turbines)* Danfoss (climate and energy)* Grundfos (the world's largest pump manufacturer)* NKT Cables Group A/S (Power cables and subsea umbilicals, owner of subsidiary Nilfisk-Advance)* Ørsted (company) (Formerly known as DONG energy);Electronics* Linak* Bang and Olufsen (hi-fi equipment)* Ortofon* Danfoss;Food and drink* Carlsberg (brewing company)* Daloon A/S (frozen food production in Denmark and England, mostly known for spring rolls)* Chr.", "Hansen (food ingredients and enzymes)* Danisco (enzymes, biotechnology and pharmaceutical supplier);Medical equipment* Widex* William Demant;Pharmaceutical and biotechnologyMany of the largest food producers are also engaged in biotechnology and research.", "Notable companies dedicated to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology sector, includes:* H. Lundbeck* Novo Nordisk* LEO Pharma* Coloplast* Dansac (owner Hollister Inc)* Novozymes* Pharma Nord* Pharmacosmos* ALK-Abelló* Genmab* RosePharma* Santaris Pharma a/s* Veloxis Pharmaceuticals;Retail* Salling Group (retail business)* Coop Danmark, (part of the multi-sector Coop amba, formerly known as FDB until 2013)'''Software''';Transport* DSV* A. P. Moller-Maersk Group (Maersk – conglomerate: shipping)* DFDS Seaways* USTC (conglomerate: shipping, trading);Miscellaneous* ISS (facility services)* Danish Christmas Tree Growers Association representing Christmas tree production in Denmark* Lego (construction toys), as of 2014 the world's largest toy manufacturer by sales (1st half 2015:$2.1 billion (Mattel:$1.9 billion)).", "* Terma A/S, aerospace and defense=== Cooperatives ===Denmark has a long tradition for cooperative production and trade on a large scale.", "The most notable cooperative societies today includes the agricultural coop of Dansk Landbrugs Grovvareselskab (DLG), dairy producer Arla Foods and the retail cooperative Coop Danmark.", "Coop Danmark started out as ''\"Fællesforeningen for Danmarks Brugsforeninger\"'' (FDB) in 1896 and now has around 1.4 million members in Denmark as of 2017.It is part of the larger multi-sector cooperative Coop amba which has 1.7 million members in that same year.The cooperative structure also extends to both the housing and banking sector.", "Arbejdernes Landsbank, founded in 1919, is the largest bank cooperative and it is currently the 6th largest bank in the country as of 2018.The municipality of Copenhagen alone holds a total of 153 housing cooperatives and ''\"Arbejdernes Andelsboligforening Århus\"'' (AAB Århus) is the largest individual housing cooperative in Denmark, with 23,000 homes in Aarhus.=== Statistics ===In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Denmark is Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 204,853 companies followed by Services and Retail Trade with 204,050 and 30,563 companies respectively." ], [ "See also", "* List of Danish companies* Tourism in Denmark" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Lampe, Markus, and Paul Sharp. ''", "A Land of Milk and Butter: How Elites Created the Modern Danish Dairy Industry'' (U of Chicago Press, 2018) online review* Boberg-Fazlic, Nina; Jensen, Peter Sandholt; Lampe, Markus; Sharp, Paul; Skovsgaard, Christian Volmar (2023). \"'", "Getting to Denmark': the role of agricultural elites for development\".", "''Journal of Economic Growth''.", "'''28''' (4): 525–569.", "* Kærgård, Niels (2023). \"", "The Danish Economy, 1973–2009: From National Welfare State to International Market Economy\".", "''Scandinavian Journal of History''" ], [ "External links", "* Economy of Denmark* Statistics Denmark* Danmarks Nationalbank – central bank of Denmark* OECD's Denmark country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Denmark* Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State, country overview for Denmark* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Denmark* Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening Confederation of Danish Employers* Landsorganisationen i Danmark The Danish Confederation of Trade Unions* Anvendt Kommunal Forskning Danish Institute of Governmental Research* The Danish National Centre for Social Research* De økonomiske Råds sekretariat Danish Economic Councils* Economic Council of the Labour Movement* CEPOS Think Tank for a liberal economy and limited Government etc.", "* Center for Alternativ Samfundsanalyse Centre for Alternative Social Analysis* Economic History Services Encyclopedia: Denmark* Danish Top 1000 Companies* The World Factbook: Economy:Denmark" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Denmark" ], [ "Introduction", "The Great Belt Fixed Link connecting the islands of Zealand and Funen across the Great Belt was opened in 1997'''Transport in Denmark''' is developed and modern.", "The motorway network covers 1,111 km while the railway network totals 2,667 km of operational track.", "The Great Belt Fixed Link (opened in 1997) connecting the islands of Zealand and Funen and the New Little Belt Bridge (opened in 1970) connecting Funen and Jutland greatly improved the traffic flow across the country on both motorways and rail.", "The two largest airports of Copenhagen and Billund provide a variety of domestic and international connections, while ferries provide services to the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Germany, Sweden, and Norway, as well as domestic routes servicing most Danish islands." ], [ "Air", "Aalborg airport in the north of Jutland In 2011, a total of appr.", "28 million passengers used Danish airports.Copenhagen Airport is the largest airport in Scandinavia, handling approximately 29m passengers per year (2016).", "It is located at Kastrup, 8 km south-east of central Copenhagen.", "It is connected by train to Copenhagen Central Station and beyond as well as to Malmö and other towns in Sweden.For the west of the country, the major airport is Billund (3m passengers in 2016) although both Aalborg (1.4m passengers in 2011) and Aarhus (591.000 passengers in 2011) have smaller airports with regular connections to Copenhagen.=== List of airports ===Denmark's main airports are:* Copenhagen Airport (CPH), Scandinavia's busiest passenger airport located at Kastrup to the south-east of Copenhagen city and handling over 29 million passengers a year.", "* Billund Airport (BLL), in central Jutland, one of Denmark's busiest cargo centres as well as a popular charter airline destination and an airport for regular flights serving 3 million passengers a year, mainly from the western part of the country.", "* Aalborg Airport (AAL), located 5 km northwest of Aalborg, is Denmark's third busiest airport serving around 1,4 million passengers a year in connections with 25 European destinations and one of Europes busiest domestic lines to Copenhagen.", "* Aarhus Airport (AAR), located 39 km northeast of Århus, serves some 540,000 passengers a year.Other airports include: * Karup Airport (KRP) near Viborg in the west of Jutland, mainly serving Copenhagen with some 200,000 passengers a year.", "* Bornholm Airport (RNN) 5 km from the centre of Rønne in the southwest of the island of Bornholm, with several regular flights to Copenhagen a day.", "* Esbjerg Airport (EBJ), a small airport in the west of Jutland with regular flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger (although primarily serving North Sea Oilrigs).", "* Sønderborg Airport (SGD), in the very south of Jutland with connections to Copenhagen.", "* Roskilde Airport (RKE), 7 km southeast of Roskilde and some 38 km southwest of Copenhagen, serves mainly airtaxi and private business traffic." ], [ "Sea", "Being an island state with a long coastline and always close to the sea, maritime transport has always been important in Denmark.", "From the primitive dugouts of the Stone Age to the complex designs of the Viking ships in the Viking Age, often built to exactly facilitate large scale cargo and passenger transportation.", "Denmark also engaged in the large scale cargo freights and slave transports of the European colonization endeavours in the Middle Ages and operated several smaller colonies of its own across the globe by the means of seafaring.Today Denmark's ports handle some 48 million passengers and 109 million tonnes of cargo per year.===Passenger traffic===Rødbyhavn ferry terminal on Lolland Passenger traffic is made up partly of ferry crossings within Denmark, partly of international ferry crossings and partly of cruise ship passengers.", "Some short ferry routes are being electrified and several more may be eligible, as in Norway.Among the most important ports for passenger traffic (thousands of passengers per year in 2007) are:* Helsingør 10,967* Rødbyhavn 7,058* Frederikshavn 2,894* Sjællands Odde 2,233* Esbjerg 1,827* Gedser 1,612* Aarhus 1,583* Rønne 1,522* Ebeltoft 962* Copenhagen 872In 2007, 288 cruise ships visited Copenhagen, rising to 376 in 2011 before returning to around 300 the following years.", "Around 800,000 cruise passengers and 200,000 crew visit Copenhagen each year.===Cargo traffic===Among the most important ports for cargo traffic (millions of tonnes per year in 2007) are:* Fredericia 15,327* Aarhus 12,189* Copenhagen 7,379* Helsingør 4,480* Esbjerg 4,476* Kalundborg 3,714* Frederikshavn 3,200* Aalborg Portland 2,999* Aalborg 2,749* Odense 2,616===Waterways===Waterways have historically and traditionally been crucial to local transportation in Denmark proper.", "Especially the Gudenå river-system in central Jutland, has played an important role.", "The waterways were navigated by wooden barges and later on steamboats.", "A few historical steamboats are still in operation, like the SS Hjejlen from 1861 at Silkeborg.There is a 160 km natural canal through the shallow Limfjorden in northern Jutland, linking the North Sea to the Kattegat.Many waterways has formerly been redirected and led through manmade canals in the 1900s, but mainly for agricultural purposes and not to facilitate transportation on any major scale.", "Several cities have manmade canals used for transportation and traffic purposes.", "Of special mention are the canals of Copenhagen and the Odense Canal, ferrying large numbers of both tourists and local citizens.=== Merchant marine ===Denmark has a large merchant fleet relative to its size.", "In 2018, the fleet surpassed 20 million gt as the government sought to repatriate Danish-owned tonnage registered abroad, with measures including removal of the registration fee.Denmark has created its own international register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS), open to commercial vessels only.", "DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations." ], [ "Railways", "Copenhagen Central Station with S-Trains.Denmark railway networkThe largest railway operator in Denmark is Danske Statsbaner (DSB) — Danish State Railways.", "Arriva operates some routes in Jutland, and several other smaller operators provide local services.The total length of operational track is 3,476 km standard gauge, with 1,756 km electrified.The railway system is connected to Sweden by bridge in Copenhagen and ferry in Helsingør and Frederikshavn, by land to Germany in Padborg and ferry in Rødby and to Norway by ferry in Hirtshals." ], [ "Roads", "The road network in 2017 totalled 74,558 km of paved road.", "Motorways are toll-free except for the Great Belt Bridge joining Zealand and Funen and the Øresund Bridge linking Copenhagen to Malmö in Sweden.Motorway map Denmark.svg\|Motorways in Denmark." ], [ "Cycling", "Bicycling in Denmark is a common and popular utilitarian and recreational activity.", "Bicycling infrastructure is a dominant feature of both city and countryside infrastructure, with bicycle paths and bicycle ways in many places and an extensive network of bicycle routes, extending more than nationwide.", "In comparison, Denmark's coastline is .", "As a unique feature, Denmark has a VIN-system for bicycles which is mandatory by law.", "Often bicycling and bicycle culture in Denmark is compared to the Netherlands as a bicycle-nation.Bikecultureincopenhagen.jpg\|Bicycle rush hour in Copenhagen.Cycle counter.jpg\|Heavily trafficked roads in the inner cities, often have cycle lanes.", "Frederiksgade (Aarhus).JPG\|A bike road in central Aarhus.Egådalen.jpg\|A cross country bikeway route." ], [ "Pipelines", "Figures in 2015:; Crude oil: 330 km; Petroleum products: 578 km (2007); Natural gas: 1536 km" ], [ "See also", "* Denmark* Road traffic in Denmark* Hydrogen link network* Overseas constituencies Transport in the Faroe Islands Transport in Greenland" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Public transportation Route Planner* Online Map, Address lookup* Copenhagen Airports* S-train and Danish train schedules* Copenhagenize - Copenhagen Bike Culture Blog* Metro information* All railway tracks* City of Copenhagen: City of Cyclists* Truck transport Denmark" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Danish Defence" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Danish Armed Forces''' (; ; ) is the unified armed forces of the Kingdom of Denmark charged with the defence of Denmark and its self-governing territories Greenland and the Faroe Islands.", "The military also promote Denmark's wider interests, support international peacekeeping efforts and provide humanitarian aid.Since the creation of a standing military in 1510, the armed forces have seen action in many wars, most involving Sweden, but also involving the world's great powers, including the Thirty Years' War, the Great Northern War, and the Napoleonic Wars.Today, the armed forces consists of: the Royal Danish Army, Denmark's principal land warfare branch; the Royal Danish Navy, a blue-water navy with a fleet of 20 commissioned ships; and the Royal Danish Air Force, an air force with an operational fleet consisting of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft.", "The Defence also includes the Home Guard.", "Under the Danish Defence Law the Minister of Defence serves as the commander of Danish Defence (through the Chief of Defence and the Defence Command) and the Danish Home Guard (through the Home Guard Command).", "De facto the Danish Cabinet is the commanding authority of the Defence, though it cannot mobilize the armed forces, for purposes that are not strictly defence oriented, without the consent of parliament." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Christian IV of Denmark on the warship ''Trefoldigheden'' during the Battle of Colberger Heide in 1644The history of the Danish military is deeply intertwined with the nation's geopolitical dynamics and historical events.", "The modern Danish military, which traces its roots back to the early 16th century, has undergone significant transformations, reflecting changes in Denmark's territorial extent, political landscape, and strategic priorities.Early History and Territorial Influence (1510 Onwards):- The foundation of the Royal Danish Navy in 1510 marked the beginning of a formal military structure in Denmark.", "This period saw the Danish Kingdom as a considerable force in Northern Europe, holding territories like Schleswig-Holstein, Norway, and overseas colonies in Africa and the Americas.- The military power during this era was essential for protecting these territories and maintaining Denmark's influence in regional affairs.Second Schleswig War and its Aftermath:- The Second Schleswig War (1864), in which Denmark suffered defeat, had profound implications on its military and political landscape.", "This conflict, primarily over the control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, led to significant territorial losses.- The war's outcome turned the military into a politically contentious issue, sparking debates on defense strategies and military preparedness.World War I and Interwar Period:- During World War I, Denmark successfully maintained its neutrality, supported by a relatively strong military.", "This period was marked by cautious diplomacy and a focus on defending the nation's sovereignty without direct involvement in the conflict.- However, the Interwar period saw a shift in government policy towards pacifism.", "This ideological change resulted in the reduction of the military's size and capabilities, reflecting a broader European trend towards disarmament after the devastation of World War I.World War II and Organizational Transformation:- The limited state of the Danish military in 1940 became a significant concern when Denmark faced invasion and subsequent occupation by Nazi Germany.", "This period highlighted the vulnerabilities and challenges of a small, under-prepared military force.- Prior to and during World War II, the Danish military operated with distinct branches (army and navy), each with its separate ministry and even air force units.", "This fragmented structure was not conducive to effective joint operations.Post-World War II Reforms and Modernization:- Learning from the experiences of World War II, Denmark undertook a significant reorganization of its military.", "The branches were unified under the Danish Defence, established to centralize command and improve coordination in joint operations.- This reorganization marked a critical shift in Denmark's military strategy, focusing on cohesive defense planning and operational synergy between the different military branches.Contemporary Focus and International Role:- In the contemporary period, the Danish military plays a vital role in international peacekeeping and NATO operations, reflecting Denmark's commitment to global security and cooperation.- The modern Danish Defence is a testament to the nation's adaptability and resilience, evolving from its historic roots into a modern, integrated force capable of addressing both national defense needs and international responsibilities.Overall, the evolution of the Danish military is a reflection of the nation's changing geopolitical circumstances, strategic priorities, and lessons learned from historical conflicts.", "This transformation has shaped Denmark's approach to defense, emphasizing unity, coordination, and a balance between national interests and international obligations.===Cold War and international engagements===Denmark tried to remain neutral after World War II, with the proposed Scandinavian defence union.", "However, Norway resigned from the talks, and with Cold War tensions on the rise and the 1948 Easter Crisis, Denmark was forced to join the North Atlantic Treaty.", "During the Cold War, Denmark began to rebuild its military and to prepare for possible attacks by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies.", "During this time Denmark participated in a number of UN peacekeeping missions including UNEF and UNFICYP.Following the end of the Cold War, Denmark began a more active foreign policy, deciding to participate in international operations.", "This began with the participation in the Bosnian War, where the Royal Danish Army served as part of the United Nations Protection Force and were in two skirmishes.", "This was the first time the Danish Army was a part of a combat operation since World War 2.On April 29, 1994, the Royal Danish Army, while on an operation to relieve an observation post as part of the United Nations Protection Force, the Jutland Dragoon Regiment came under artillery fire from the town of Kalesija.", "The United Nations Protection Force quickly returned fire and eliminated the artillery positions.", "On October 24, 1994, the Royal Danish Army, while on an operation to reinforce an observation post in the town of Gradačac, were fired upon by a T-55 Bosnian Serb tank.", "One of the three Danish Leopard 1 tanks experienced slight damage, but all returned fired and put the T-55 tank out of action.With the September 11 attacks, Denmark joined US forces in the War on terror, participating in both the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War.", "In Afghanistan, 37 soldiers have been killed in various hostile engagements or as a result of friendly fire, and 6 have been killed in non-combat related incidents, bringing the number of Danish fatalities to 43, being the highest loss per capita within the coalition forces.", "Denmark has since participated in Operation Ocean Shield, the 2011 military intervention in Libya and the American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War." ], [ "Purpose and task", "A Danish soldier at Combined Resolve III, 2014The purpose of the Danish Defence is to prevent conflicts and war, preserve the sovereignty of Denmark, secure the continuing existence and integrity of the independent Kingdom of Denmark and further a peaceful development in the world with respect to human rights.", "This is defined in Law no.", "122 of 27 February 2001 which took effect 1 March 2001.Its primary tasks are: NATO participation in accordance with the strategy of the alliance, detect and repel any sovereignty violation of Danish territory (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), defence cooperation with non-NATO members, especially Central and East European countries, international missions in the area of conflict prevention, crisis-control, humanitarian, peacemaking, peacekeeping, participation in ''Total Defence'' in cooperation with civilian resources and finally maintenance of a sizable force to execute these tasks at all times.===Total defence===Total Defence () is \"the use of all resources in order to maintain an organized and functional society, and to protect the population and values of society\".", "This is achieved by combining the military, Home Guard, Danish Emergency Management Agency and elements of the police.", "The concept of total defence was created following World War II, where it was clear that the defence of the country could not only rely on the military, but there also need to be other measures to ensure a continuation of society.", "As a part of the Total Defence, all former conscripts can be recalled to duty, in order to serve in cases of emergency." ], [ "Defence budget", "Since 1988, Danish defence budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year white paper agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties.", "However, public opposition to increases in defence spending—during periods of economic constraints require reduced spending for social welfare — has created differences among the political parties regarding a broadly acceptable level of new defence expenditure.The latest Defence agreement (\"Defence Agreement 2018–23\") was signed 28 January 2018, and calls for an increase in spending, cyber security and capabilities to act in international operations and international stabilization efforts.", "The reaction speed is increased, with an entire brigade on standby readiness; the military retains the capability to continually deploy 2,000 soldiers in international service or 5,000 over a short time span.", "The standard mandatory conscription is expanded to include 500 more, with some of these having a longer service time, with more focus on national challenges.===Expenditures===In 2006 the Danish military budget was the fifth largest single portion of the Danish Government's total budget, significantly less than that of the Ministry of Social Affairs (≈110 billion DKK), Ministry of Employment (≈67 billion DKK), Ministry of the Interior and Health (≈66 billion DKK) and Ministry of Education (≈30 billion DKK) and only slightly larger than that of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (≈14 billion DKK).", "This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish Ministry of Defence.The Danish Defence Force, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1–5% of its expenditures, depending on the year.", "They are not deducted in this listing.Approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard.", "Depending on year, 50–53% accounts for payment to personnel, roughly 14–21% on acquiring new material, 2–8% for larger ships, building projects or infrastructure and about 24–27% on other items, including purchasing of goods, renting, maintenance, services and taxes.The remaining 5% is special expenditures to NATO, branch shared expenditures, special services and civil structures, here in including running the Danish Maritime Safety Administration, Danish Emergency Management Agency and the Administration of Conscientious Objectors ( Militærnægteradministrationen ).Because Denmark has a small and highly specialized military industry, the vast majority of Danish Defence's equipment is imported from NATO and the Nordic countries.", "'''Danish Defence expenditures (1949–1989)'''1940s1950s1960s1970s1980s49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89'''Total Budget (Billions) Kr.", "'''0.36 0.36 0.48 0.68 0.89 0.89 0.92 0.94 1.01 0.99 0.99 1.11 1.18 1.55 1.65 1.76 1.97 2.08 2.25 2.60 2.64 2.97 3.20 3.39 3.52 4.46 5.36 5.71 6.38 7.29 8.05 9.12 10.30 11.67 12.57 13.05 13.34 13.33 14.65 15.62 15.96'''Percentage of GNP'''2.0 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.6 2.7 1.6 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.0'''Defense Spending % Change''' -0.3 +0.4 +0.6 +0.7 -0.2 0.0 -0.2 +0.1 -0.2 -0.3 +0.1 -0.9 +1.4 0.0 -0.2 0.0 -0.2 0.0 +0.1 -0.3 0.0 0.0 -0.2 -0.2 +0.2 +0.2 -0.2 0.0 +0.1 0.0 +0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0-0.2 -0.1 -0.2 +0.1 +0.1 -0.1'''Danish Defence expenditures (1990–)'''1990s2000s2010s2020s90 91 92 9394 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23'''Total Budget (Billions) Kr.", "'''16.4 17.09 17.13 17.39 17.29 17.47 17.90 18.52 19.07 19.43 19.34 21.02 21.27 21.08 21.44 20.80 23.17 22.73 24.41 23.25 25.33 24.26 25.62 23.72 25.02 22.633 24.190 25.165 20.938 23.516 25.325 26.383 27.127.1'''Percentage of GNP'''2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.16 1.17 0.93 1.01 1.14 1.07 1.061.05'''Defense Spending % Change'''0.0 0.0 -0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.1 0.0 -0.1 0.0.0.0 -0.1 +0.1 -0.1 0.0.0.0 -0.2 +0.1 -0.1 +0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -0.1 0.0 -0.2 +0.06 +0.01 -0.24 +0.08 +0.13 -0.07 -0.01-0.01" ], [ "Branches", "===Royal Danish Army===Leopard 2A5DK main battle tankThe Danish Royal Army () consists of 2 brigades, organised into 3 regiments, and a number of support centres, all commanded through the Army Staff.", "The army is a mixture of Mechanized infantry and Armoured cavalry with a limited capabilities in Armoured warfare.The army also provides protection for the Danish royal family, in the form of the Royal Guard Company and the Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron.===Royal Danish Navy===''Vædderen'', a The Royal Danish Navy () consists of frigates, patrol vessels, mine-countermeasure vessels, and other miscellaneous vessels, many of which are issued with the modular mission payload system StanFlex.", "The navy's chief responsibility is maritime defence and maintaining the sovereignty of Danish, Greenlandic and Faroese territorial waters.A submarine service existed within the Royal Danish Navy for 95 years.===Royal Danish Air Force===F-16AMThe Royal Danish Air Force () consists of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft.===Danish Home Guard===The Home Guard is voluntary service responsible for defence of the country, but has since 2008 also supported the army, in Afghanistan and Kosovo." ], [ "Structure", "* Ministry of Defence : ''Forsvarsministeriet'' (''FMN'') Defence Command : ''Forsvarskommando'' (''FKO'')* Army Command : ''Hærkommandoen''* Naval Command : ''Søværnskommandoen''* Air Command : ''Flyverkommandoen''* Plans, Policy and Coordination Staff : ''Udviklings- og koordinationsstaben''* Joint Operations Staff : ''Operationsstaben''* Special Operations Command : ''Specialoperationskommandoen'' (''SOKOM'')* Joint Arctic Command : ''Arktisk Kommando'' (''AKO'') Royal Danish Defence College : ''Forsvarsakademiet'' (''FAK'')* Royal Danish Military Academy : ''Hærens Officersskole''* Royal Danish Naval Academy : ''Søværnets Officersskole''* Royal Danish Air Force Academy : ''Flyvevåbnets Officersskole''* Royal Danish Defence Language Academy : ''Forsvarets Sprogskole''* Army NCO School : ''Hærens Sergentskole''* Navy NCO School : ''Søværnets Sergentskole''* Air Force NCO School : ''Flyvevåbnets Sergentskole'' Defence Medical Command : ''Forsvarets Sanitetskommando'' (''FSK'') Defence Maintenance Service : ''Forsvarets Vedligeholdelsestjeneste'' (''FVT'') Ministry of Defence Acquisition and Logistics Organisation : ''Forsvarsministeriets Materiel- og Indkøbsstyrelse'' (''FMI'')* Defence IT Agency : ''Forsvarets Koncernfælles Informatiktjeneste'' (''FKIT'') Ministry of Defence Personnel Agency : ''Forsvarsministeriets Personalestyrelse'' (''FPS'')* Centre for Veterans Affairs : ''Veterancentret'' Ministry of Defence Estate Agency : ''Forsvarsministeriets Ejendomsstyrelse'' (''FES'') Home Guard Command : ''Hjemmeværnskommandoen'' (''HJK'') Defence Intelligence Service : ''Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste'' (''FE'') Judge Advocate Corps : ''Forsvarets Auditørkorps'' (''FAUK'') Ministry of Defence Accounting Agency : ''Forsvarsministeriets Regnskabsstyrelse'' (''FRS'') Ministry of Defence Internal Auditor : ''Forsvarets Interne Revision'' (''FIR'') Emergency Management Agency : ''Beredskabsstyrelsen'' (''BRS'') Administration of Conscientious Objector : ''Militærnægteradministrationen'' (''MNA'')** The Queen's Military Household and Her Majesty the Queen's Captain of the Royal Yacht" ], [ "Special forces", "SOCOM* Jægerkorpset: Ground-based infiltration unit.", " Frømandskorpset: Amphibious attack and infiltration unit.", " Slædepatruljen Sirius: Arctic dog sled unit patrolling the eastern border of Greenland." ], [ "Operations", "Red: national, light blue: UN, dark blue: NATO, green: coalitionsMemorial to Danish overseas military deployments in Kastellet, CopenhagenCurrent deployment of Danish forces, per 10-03-2016:===NATO===* A Challenger CL-604 MMA for maritime patrol in the Baltic Sea as part of NATO Allied Maritime Command.", "* 35 soldiers in Kosovo participating in NATO's Kosovo Force, guarding the French Camp Marechal De Lattre de Tassigny.", "* 97 people in Afghanistan as part of Resolute Support Mission.", "* HDMS ''Absalon'' patrolling the Aegean Sea for human trafficking ''(September 2016)''.===UN===* 20 people in Bamako and Gao, as part of MINUSMA.", "* 13 people in Juba, as part of UNMISS.", "* 11 people in Israel, as part of UNTSO.", "* 2 people in South Korea, as part of UNCMAC.===National Missions===* 12 men on the Sirius Patrol of Eastern Greenland.", "* A Challenger CL-604 MMA to fly patrol over Greenland.", "* Rota between HDMS ''Lauge Koch'', HDMS ''Knud Rasmussen'', HDMS ''Triton'' and HDMS ''Thetis'' to enact sovereignty patrol in the seas of Greenland and Faroe Islands.", "* A Challenger CL-604 MMA to do maritime environmental monitoring missions in the North Sea.===Coalitions===* 149 people at Al Asad Airbase in Iraq to train the local military as part of Operation Inherent Resolve.", "* 8 people operating radars as part of the radar element in Operation Inherent Resolve.", "* 20 people in UAE as part of the operator element in Operation Inherent Resolve.", "* Unknown number of Danish special forces in Senegal to train the local special forces as part of Flintlock 2016." ], [ "Personnel", "===Women in the military===Lt.", "Line Bonde, the first female fighter pilot in the Royal Danish Air ForceWomen in the military can be traced back to 1946, with the creation of ''Lottekorpset''.", "This corps allowed women to serve, however, without entering with the normal armed forces, and they were not allowed to carry weapons.", "In 1962, women were allowed in the military.Currently 1,122 or 7.3% of all personnel in the armed forces are women.", "Women do not have to serve conscription in Denmark, since 1998, it is however possible to serve under conscription-like circumstances; 17% of those serving conscription or conscription-like are women.", "Between 1991 and 31 December 2017, 1,965 women have been deployed to different international missions.", "Of those 3 women have lost their lives.", "In 1998, Police Constable Gitte Larsen was killed in Hebron on the West Bank.", "In 2003, ''Overkonstabel'' Susanne Lauritzen was killed in a traffic accident in Kosovo.", "In 2010, the first woman was killed in a combat situation, when ''Konstabel'' Sophia Bruun was killed by an IED in Afghanistan.In 2005, Line Bonde became the first female fighter pilot in Denmark.", "In 2016, Lone Træholt became the first female general.", "She was the only female general in the Danish armed forces until the army promoted Jette Albinus to the rank of brigadier general on 11 September 2017.In May 2018, the Royal Life Guards was forced to lower the height requirements for women, as the Danish Institute of Human Rights decided it was discrimination.===Conscription===Royal Life Guards standing guard at Rosenborg CastleTechnically all Danish 18-year-old males are conscripts (37,897 in 2010, of whom 53% were considered suitable for duty).", "Due to the large number of volunteers, 96-99% of the number required in the past three years, the number of men actually called up is relatively low (4,200 in 2012).", "There were additionally 567 female volunteers in 2010, who pass training on \"conscript-like\" conditions.Conscripts to Danish Defence (army, navy and air force) generally serve four months, except:* Conscripts of the Guard Hussar Regiment Mounted Squadron serve 12 months.", "* Conscripts with Cyber-conscription, who serve 10 months.", "* Conscripts aboard the Royal Yacht ''Dannebrog'' serve nine months.", "* Conscripts in the Danish Emergency Management Agency serve nine months.", "* Conscripts in the Royal Life Guards serve eight months.There has been a right of conscientious objection since 1917." ], [ "See also", "* Danish Defence Media Agency* Military history of Denmark* Military of Greenland* NATO* Scandinavian defence union" ], [ "References", "* https://web.archive.org/web/20130619021047/http://www2.forsvaret.dk/omos/Publikationer/Documents/Fakta%20om%20Forsvaret_DK.pdf" ], [ "External links", " Official website* Official Facebook* Official Picture Database* One for all, all for one?", "New Nordic Defence Partnership?—Publication from the Nordic Council of Ministers.", "Free download.", "* Norwegian and Danish defence policy: A comparative study of the post-Cold War era A historical and comparative study published by the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies.", "Free download." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Denmark" ], [ "Introduction", "U.S. President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen hold a joint press conference outside Marienborg, July 2005.Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and Danish Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen hold a joint press conference, April 2010.The '''foreign policy of Denmark''' is based on its identity as a sovereign state in Europe, the Arctic and the North Atlantic.", "As such its primary foreign policy focus is on its relations with other nations as a sovereign state compromising the three constituent countries: Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands.", "Denmark has long had good relations with other nations.It has been involved in coordinating Western assistance to the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania).", "The country is a strong supporter of international peacekeeping.", "Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), with IFOR, and now SFOR.", "Denmark also strongly supported American operations in Afghanistan and has contributed both monetarily and materially to the ISAF.", "These initiatives are a part of the \"active foreign policy\" of Denmark.", "Instead of the traditional adaptative foreign policy of The unity of the Realm, Kingdom of Denmark is today pursuing an active foreign policy, where human rights, democracy and other crucial values are to be defended actively.", "In recent years, Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been guaranteed a say in foreign policy issues, such as fishing, whaling and geopolitical concerns.Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred-year-long policy of neutrality.", "Denmark has been a member of NATO since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular.", "There were several serious confrontations between the U.S. and Denmark on security policy in the so-called \"footnote era\" (1982–88), when an alternative parliamentary majority forced the government to adopt specific national positions on nuclear and arms control issues.", "The alternative majority in these issues was because the Social liberal Party (Radikale Venstre) supported the governing majority in economic policy issues, but was against certain NATO policies and voted with the left in these issues.", "The conservative led Centre-right government accepted this variety of \"minority parliamentarism\", that is, without making it a question of the government's parliamentary survival.With the end of the Cold War, Denmark has been supportive of U.S. policy objectives in the Alliance.Danes have a reputation as \"reluctant\" Europeans.", "When they rejected ratification of the Maastricht Treaty on 2 June 1992, they put the EC's plans for the European Union on hold.", "In December 1992, the rest of the EC agreed to exempt Denmark from certain aspects of the European Union, including a common security and defense policy, a common currency, EU citizenship, and certain aspects of legal cooperation.", "The Amsterdam Treaty was approved in the referendum of 28 May 1998.In the autumn of 2000, Danish citizens rejected membership of the Euro currency group in a referendum.", "The Lisbon treaty was ratified by the Danish parliament alone.", "It was not considered a surrendering of national sovereignty, which would have implied the holding of a referendum according to article 20 of the constitution." ], [ "History", "In 1807 Denmark was neutral but Britain bombarded Copenhagen and seized the Danish Navy, Denmark became an ally of Napoleon.", "After Napoleon was profoundly defeated in Russia in 1812, the Allies repeatedly offered King Frederick VI a proposal to change sides and break with Napoleon.", "The king refused.", "Therefore, at the peace of Kiel in 1814, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden.", "Denmark thus became one of the chief losers of the Napoleonic Wars.", "Danish historiography portrayed King Frederick VI as stubborn and incompetent, and motivated by a blind loyalty to Napoleon.", "A more recent Danish historiographical approach emphasizes the Danish state was multi-territorial, and included the semi – separate Kingdom of Norway.", "It was dependent for food on grain imports controlled by Napoleon, and worried about Swedish ambitions.", "From the king's perspective, these factors called for an alliance with Napoleon.", "Furthermore, the king expected the war would end in a negotiated international conference, with Napoleon playing a powerful role that included saving Norway for Denmark.===1900–1945===The Danish government responded to the First World War by declaring neutrality 1914–1918.It maintained that status until 1945 and accordingly adjusted trade; humanitarianism; diplomacy; and attitudes.", "The war thus reshaped economic relations and shifting domestic power balances.=== 1990– ===Since the end of the Cold War, Denmark has become more supportive of U.S. foreign policy.", "Denmark supported the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 and contributed assets to the invasion.", "Denmark also participated in the Afghanistan War.", "Denmark increased its participation in military and peacekeeping operations compared to the pre-Cold War period.", "Whereas Denmark only participated in 13 military operations from 1945 to 1989, Denmark participated in 76 military operations between 1990 and 2018." ], [ "International disputes", "''North Pole''.", "Denmark is trying to prove that the North Pole is geographically connected to Greenland.", "If such proof is established, the Kingdom will claim the North Pole." ], [ "Settled international disputes", "''Hans Island''.", "An island located between Greenland and Canadian Arctic islands.", "Unresolved boundary disputed between Canada and Denmark (The state of Denmark is responsible for Greenland's foreign relations).", "This dispute flared up again in July 2005 following the visit of a Canadian minister to the disputed island.", "On 14 June 2022 both countries agreed to split the disputed island in half.", "In accordance with the Greenland home rule treaty, Denmark handles certain foreign affairs, such as border disputes, on behalf of the entire Danish Realm." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Denmark maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134—135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175—176177178179180181182183184185186" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Europe === Country Formal relations beganNotesSee Albania–Denmark relationsAlbania has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Tirana.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "Andorra is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in Andorra La Vella.", "Denmark is represented in Andorra, through its embassy in Madrid.See Armenia–Denmark relationsArmenia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Armenia, through its embassy in Kyiv.See Austria–Denmark relationsAustria has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Azerbaijan–Denmark relationsAzerbaijan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in the United Kingdom.", "Denmark is represented in Azerbaijan, through its embassy in Turkey.See Belarus–Denmark relationsBelarus is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Sweden.", "Denmark is represented through its embassy in Moscow.See Belgium–Denmark relationsBelgium has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Denmark relationsBosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Bosnia and Herzegovina through its embassy in Belgrade.See Bulgaria–Denmark relationsBulgaria has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Croatia–Denmark relationsCroatia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Cyprus–Denmark relationsCyprus has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Czech Republic–Denmark relationsCzech Republic has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Estonia relationsAfter the restoration of Estonia's independence in 1991, Denmark was the second country to re-establish diplomatic relations with Estonia on 24 August 1991.", "Denmark has an embassy in Tallinn.", "Estonia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", " * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Finland relationsFinland has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–France relationsDenmark has an embassy in Paris.", "France has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Georgia relationsDenmark is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Ukraine.", "Georgia has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Germany relationsDenmark has an embassy in Berlin.", "Germany has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Denmark–Greece relationsDenmark has an embassy in Athens.", "Greece has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "Denmark's diplomatic relations with the Vatican City were established in 1982 after having been suspended since the reformation in 1536.", "Denmark is represented in the Vatican City, through its embassy in Bern.See Denmark–Hungary relationsDenmark has an embassy in Budapest.", "Hungary has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Iceland relationsDenmark has an embassy in Reykjavík.", "Iceland has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Denmark–Ireland relationsDenmark has an embassy in Dublin and three honorary consulates (Cork, Limerick and Waterford).", "Ireland has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 January 1973.See Denmark–Italy relationsDenmark has an embassy in Rome, and a consulate general in Milan.", "Italy has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Kosovo relationsDenmark recognized Kosovo on 21 February 2008.", "Denmark is represented in Kosovo, through its embassy in Vienna.See Denmark–Latvia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Riga.", "Latvia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "Liechtenstein is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Switzerland.See Denmark–Lithuania relationsDenmark has an embassy in Vilnius.", "Lithuania has an embassy in Copenhagen.", " Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "Denmark is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "Denmark also has a consulate in Luxembourg City.", "Luxembourg has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "Denmark has a consulate general in Valletta.", "Malta has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Denmark–Moldova relationsDenmark is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest.", "Moldova is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark is represented in Monaco, through its embassy in Paris.See Denmark–Montenegro relationsDenmark is represented in Montenegro through its embassy in Serbia.", "Montenegro is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in Podgorica.", " Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* Denmark is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.See Denmark–Netherlands relationsDenmark has an embassy in The Hague.", "The Netherlands has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–North Macedonia relationsDenmark is represented in North Macedonia, through its embassy in Belgrade.", "North Macedonia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.See Denmark–Norway relationsDenmark has an embassy in Oslo.", "Norway has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "See Denmark–Poland relationsDenmark has an embassy in Warsaw.", "Poland has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Portugal relationsPortugal has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Romania relationsDenmark has an embassy in Bucharest.", "Romania has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Russia relationsRussia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Moscow, a consulate-general in Saint Petersburg.", "Denmark is represented in San Marino through its embassy in Rome.", "San Marino is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in City of San Marino.See Denmark–Serbia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Belgrade.", "Serbia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Denmark is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.", "There are around 12,000 people of Serbian descent living in Denmark.See Denmark–Slovakia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Bratislava.", "Slovakia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", " Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Slovenia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "Slovenia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Spain relationsDenmark has an embassy in Madrid.", "Spain has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Denmark–Sweden relationsSweden has an embassy in CopenhagenDenmark has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Denmark supports Sweden's NATO membership.See Denmark–Switzerland relationsDenmark has an embassy in Bern.", "Switzerland has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Ukraine relationsDenmark has an embassy in Kyiv.", "Ukraine has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–United Kingdom relationsThe United Kingdom has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in London.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.=== Americas === Country Formal relations beganNotesDenmark has a consulate in Saint John.See Argentina–Denmark relationsArgentina has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark closed its embassy in Buenos Aires in July 2022.", "Denmark is represented in Bahamas, through its embassy in Mexico, Denmark has a consulate in Nassau.", "Denmark is represented in Barbados, through its embassy in Mexico City.", "Barbados is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark is represented in Belize, through its embassy in Nicaragua.", "See Bolivia–Denmark relations Bolivia is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.", "* Denmark is accredited to Bolivia from its embassy in Bogotá, Colombia.See Brazil–Denmark relationsBrazil has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Brasília.See Canada–Denmark relationsCanada has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Ottawa.See Chile–Denmark relationsChile has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Santiago.", "Colombia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark has an embassy in Bogotá.", "Costa Rica has one consulate general in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has one consulate general in San José.", "Cuba has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark have a consulate general in Havana.", "Denmark is represented in Dominica, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Denmark is represented in the Dominican Republic, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Dominican Republic is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark has a consulate general in Quito.", "Denmark has a consulate in San Salvador.", "A treaty of Commerce and Navigation was signed on 9 July 1958.", "Denmark is represented in Grenada, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Grenada is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark has a consulate general in Guatemala City.", "Denmark is represented in Guyana, through its embassy in Brasília.", "Guyana is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark is represented in Haiti, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Haiti is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark have a consulate general in Tegucigalpa.", "Honduras is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Jamaica, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Jamaica is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.See Denmark–Mexico relationsMexico has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Mexico City.See Denmark–Nicaragua relationsDenmark has an embassy in Managua.", "Nicaragua has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark have a consulate general in Ciudad de Panamá, and in Colón.", "Panama is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Paraguay is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Paraguay, through its embassy in Buenos Aires.", "Denmark also has an honorary consulate in Asunción.", "Peru is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark has a consulate general in Lima.NoneDenmark is represented in St. Kitts and Nevis, through its embassy in Washington D.C.Denmark is represented in St. Lucia, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Denmark is represented in St. Vincent and the Grenadines, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Denmark is represented in Suriname, through its embassy in Brasília.", "Denmark have a consulate in Paramaribo.", "Denmark is represented in Trinidad and Tobago, through its embassy in Mexico.", "Denmark have a consulate general in Port of Spain.", "See Denmark–United States relationsDenmark recognized the United States in 1792.", "Denmark has an embassy in Washington D.C. and consulates-general in Chicago, Houston, New York City and Palo Alto.", "United States has an embassy in Copenhagen and a consulate in Nuuk, Greenland.", "Denmark is accredited to Uruguay from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "Uruguay is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.See Denmark–Venezuela relations* Venezuela is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Denmark is accredited to Venezuela from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.=== Middle East === Country Formal relations beganNotesDenmark is represented in Bahrain, through its embassy in Riyadh.", "Denmark also has a Royal Consular Agency in Manama.", "Bahrain is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.See Denmark–Egypt relationsDenmark has an embassy in Cairo.", "Egypt has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Iran relationsDenmark has an embassy in Tehran.", "Iran has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "See Denmark–Iraq relationsDenmark has an embassy in Baghdad.", "Iraq has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "See Denmark–Israel relationsDenmark has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "Israel has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Jordan, through its embassy in Damascus.", "Jordan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark is represented in Kuwait, through its embassy in Riyadh.", "Kuwait is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark has an embassy in Beirut.", "Lebanon is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Oman, through its embassy in Riyadh.", "Oman is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.NoneSee Denmark–Palestine relationsDenmark has a representative office in Ramallah.", "Palestine has a mission in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Qatar, through its embassy in the United Arab Emirates.", "Qatar is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in the Hague.", "Denmark has an embassy in Riyadh.", "Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Syria relationsDenmark has an embassy in Damascus.", "Syria is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Denmark–Turkey relationsDenmark has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate general in Istanbul.", "Turkey has an embassy in Copenhagen.", " Both countries are full members of NATO.See Denmark–United Arab Emirates relationsDenmark has an embassy in Abu Dhabi, and a consulate general in Dubai.", "The United Arab Emirates is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Yemen, through its embassy in Riyadh.", "Yemen is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.=== Asia === Country Formal relations beganNotesSee Afghanistan–Denmark relationsDenmark has an embassy in Kabul.", "Afghanistan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Oslo.See Bangladesh–Denmark relationsDenmark has an embassy in Dhaka.", "Bangladesh is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Bhutan–Denmark relationsDenmark has a representative office in Thimphu.", "Bhutan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark is represented in Brunei, through its embassy in Singapore.", "Brunei is represented in Denmark through a non-resident ambassador based in Bandar Seri Begawan.See Cambodia–Denmark relationsDenmark is represented in Cambodia, through its embassy in Bangkok, Thailand.", "Cambodia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.See People's Republic of China–Denmark relationsDenmark has an embassy in Beijing.", "China has an embassy in Copenhagen.12 February 2003Denmark is represented in East Timor, through its embassy in Jakarta.", "East Timor is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.See Denmark–India relationsDenmark has an embassy in New Delhi.", "India has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Indonesia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Japan relationsDenmark has an embassy in Tokyo.", "Japan has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* See Denmark–Kazakhstan relationsDenmark is represented in Kazakhstan, through its embassy in Moscow.", "Kazakhstan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark is represented in Kyrgyzstan, through its embassy in Moscow.", "Denmark is represented in Laos, through its embassy in Hanoi.", "Laos is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Denmark–Malaysia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "Malaysia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Maldives, through its embassy in New Delhi.", "Maldives is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.", "Denmark has a consulate general in Ulaanbaatar.", "Mongolia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Burma–Denmark relationsDenmark is represented in Burma, through its embassy in Bangkok.", "Burma is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.See Denmark–Nepal relationsDenmark has an embassy in Kathmandu.", "Nepal has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–North Korea relationsDenmark is represented in North Korea, through its embassy in Beijing.", "North Korea is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Denmark–Pakistan relationsDenmark has an embassy in Islamabad.", "Pakistan has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Roughly 20,000 Pakistanis live and work in Denmark, making them the country's fifth-largest non-Western community.", "Six Pakistani immigrants/descendants of immigrants have seats on local parliaments and councils, the second-highest number of any immigrant group.See Denmark–Philippines relationsDenmark has an embassy in Manila.", "The Republic of the Philippines has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Singapore City.", "Singapore is represented in Denmark, through a non-resident ambassador based in Singapore.", "See Denmark–South Korea relationsBoth nations are having an agreement of work and holiday program thus citizens of both countries can live, work, study and travel for up to a year and there are no quotas for Danish and South Koreans working and traveling in the each other.", "Royal Danish embassy in Seoul.", "South Korean embassy in Copenhagen.", "See Denmark–Sri Lanka relationsDenmark has a consulate general in Colombo.", "Sri Lanka is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Tajikistan, through its embassy in Moscow.NoneSee Denmark–Taiwan relationsDenmark has a trade council in Taipei.", "Taiwan has a Representative Office in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Thailand relationsDenmark has an embassy in Bangkok.", "Thailand has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Turkmenistan, through its embassy in Moscow.", "Uzbekistan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Moscow.", "Denmark is represented in Uzbekistan, through its embassy in Moscow.See Denmark–Vietnam relationsDenmark has an embassy in Hanoi.", "Vietnam has an embassy in Copenhagen.=== Africa === Country Formal relations beganNotesDenmark has an embassy in Algiers.", "Algeria has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Angola, through its embassy in Lusaka.", "Angola is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Benin–Denmark relationsBenin has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark has an embassy in Cotonou.", "Denmark is represented in Botswana, through its embassy in Pretoria.", "Botswana is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.See Burkina Faso–Denmark relationsDenmark has an embassy in Ouagadougou.", "Burkina Faso has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Burundi, through its embassy in Kampala.", "Burundi is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark has a consulate general in Yaoundé.", "Cameroon is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.", "Denmark is represented in Cape Verde, through its embassy in Lisbon.", "Denmark is represented in the Central African Republic, through its embassy in Ouagadougou.", "The Central African Republic is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Chad has a consulate in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "Denmark is represented in Chad, through its embassy in Burkina Faso.", "Denmark is represented in Comoros, through its embassy in Dar es Salaam.", "Denmark is represented in Republic of Congo, through its embassy in Cotonou.", "Denmark is represented in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, through its embassy in Pretoria.", "Denmark have a consulate in Djibouti City.", "Denmark is represented in Equatorial Guinea, through its embassy in Pretoria.See Denmark–Eritrea relationsEritrea was a Danish programme country from 1993 to 1996, and again from 1999 to 2001.In 1996, Denmark assisted 112 million DKK to the agriculture sector, and 80 million DKK to the education sector.Relations between Eritrea and Denmark have been bad, since Denmark decided to suspend development cooperation with Eritrea in January 2002, and completely closed its embassy in Eritrea in June 2002.", "Denmark is represented in Eritrea through its embassy in Nairobi.", "Denmark has a consulate in Mbabane.See Denmark–Ethiopia relationsDenmark has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "Ethiopia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.", "Denmark have a consulate in Libreville.", "Gabon is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.", "Denmark is represented in Gambia, through its embassy in Bamako.", "Gambia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.See Denmark–Ghana relationsDenmark has an embassy in Accra.", "Ghana has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in Guinea, through its embassy in Accra.", "Guinea is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.", "Denmark is represented in Guinea Bissau, through its embassy in Lisbon.", "Guinea-Bissau is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark is represented in Côte d'Ivoire, through its embassy in Accra.", "Denmark have a consulate general in Abidjan.", "Côte d'Ivoire have an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Kenya relationsDenmark has an embassy in Nairobi.", "Kenya is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark have a consulate in Maseru.", "Denmark is represented in Liberia, through its embassy in Accra.", "Liberia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Berlin.See Denmark–Libya relationsLibya closed its embassy in Copenhagen, as a protest against the Jyllandsposten cartoons controversy, in 2006.", "Denmark is represented in Madagascar, through its embassy in Pretoria.", "Denmark have a consulate in Antananarivo.", "Denmark is represented in Malawi, through its embassy in Maputo.", "Malawi is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in London.", "Denmark has an embassy in Bamako.From 2006 to 2011, Denmark assisted Mali with 800 million DKK for poverty reduction.", "Denmark is represented in Mauritania, through its embassy in Rabat.", "Mauritania is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark have a consulate in Port Louis.See Denmark–Morocco relationsDenmark has an embassy in Rabat.", "Morocco has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Mozambique relationsDenmark is represented in Namibia, through its embassy in Pretoria.", "Namibia is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "Denmark is represented in Niger, through its embassy in Ouagadougou.See Foreign relations of NigeriaDenmark is represented in Rwanda, through its embassy in Kampala.", "Rwanda is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm.", "None Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic has a representative office in Copenhagen.", "Denmark is represented in São Tomé and Príncipe, through its embassy in Lisbon.", "São Tomé and Príncipe is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.", "Denmark have a consulate general in Dakar.", "Denmark has a consulate in Victoria, Seychelles.", "Denmark has a consulate in Freetown.See Denmark–Somalia relationsDenmark has a consulate general in Mogadishu.See Denmark–South Africa relationsDenmark has an embassy in Pretoria.", "See Denmark–Sudan relationsDenmark is represented in Sudan, through its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.", "Sudan is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Oslo, Norway.See Denmark–Tanzania relations See Foreign relations of TunisiaDenmark is represented in Togo, through its embassy in Cotonou.", "Uganda has an embassy in Copenhagen.See Denmark–Zambia relationsSee Foreign relations of Zimbabwe=== Oceania === Country Formal relations beganNotesSee Australia–Denmark relationsNoneDenmark is represented in Cook Islands, through its embassy in Canberra.", "Denmark is represented in Fiji, through its embassy in Jakarta.", "Fiji is represented in Denmark, through its high commission in London.", "Denmark is represented in Kiribati, through its embassy in Singapore.", "Denmark is represented in Marshall Islands, through its embassy in Singapore.", "Denmark is represented in Micronesia, through its embassy in Singapore.", "NoneDenmark is represented in Nauru, through its embassy in Canberra.See Denmark–New Zealand relationsDenmark is represented in Palau, through its embassy in Singapore.", "Denmark is represented in Papua New Guinea, through its embassy in Jakarta.", "Papua New Guinea is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.NoneDenmark is represented in Samoa, through its embassy in Canberra.NoneDenmark is represented in the Solomon Islands, through its embassy in Singapore.", "Denmark is represented in Tonga, through its embassy in Canberra.NoneDenmark is represented in Tuvalu, through its embassy in Canberra.", "Denmark is represented in Vanuatu, through its embassy in Canberra." ], [ "See also", "; Politics of Denmark* History of DenmarkDenmark–Soviet Union relationsPolitics of DenmarkPolitics of the Faroe IslandsPolitics of GreenlandDenmark and the European Union*Danish European Union opt-outs referendumScandinavian defense unionList of diplomatic missions of DenmarkList of diplomatic missions in DenmarkVisa requirements for Danish citizensForeign relations of GreenlandList of ambassadors of Denmark" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", " Andreasen, Uffe.", "\"Reflections on public diplomacy after the Danish cartoon crises: From crisis management to normal public diplomacy work.\"", "''Hague Journal of Diplomacy'' 3.2 (2008): 201–207.", "* Due-Nielsen, Carsten, and Nikolaj Petersen.", "\"Denmark's foreign policy since 1967: An introduction.\"", "in ''Adaptation and Activism'' (Copenhagen: DJØF Publishing, 1995): 11–54.", "* Frederichsen, Kim.", "''Soviet Cultural Diplomacy Towards Denmark During the Cold War, 1945–1991'' (PhD.", "Diss.", "University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, 2017).", "* Henriksen, Anders, and Jon Rahbek-Clemmensen.", "\"The Greenland card: Prospects for and barriers to Danish Arctic diplomacy in Washington.\"", "''Danish foreign policy yearbook'' 1 (2017): 75–98.", "* Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, Jens Ringsmose, and Håkon Lunde Saxi.", "\"Prestige-seeking small states: Danish and Norwegian military contributions to US-led operations.\"", "''European journal of international security'' 3.2 (2018): 256-277.", "* Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, and Jens Ringsmose.", "\"Size and reputation—why the USA has valued its ‘special relationships’ with Denmark and the UK differently since 9/11.\"", "''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' 13.2 (2015): 135-153.", "* Kaarbo, Juliet, and Cristian Cantir.", "\"Role conflict in recent wars: Danish and Dutch debates over Iraq and Afghanistan.\"", "''Cooperation and Conflict'' 48.4 (2013): 465-483.", "* Kronvall.", "Olof. \"", "US–Scandinavian Relations Since 1940.\"", "in the ''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics''.", "(Oxford University Press, 2020).", "* Lidegaard, Bo.", "''Defiant Diplomacy: Henrik Kauffmann, Denmark, and the United States in World War II and the Cold War, 1939–1958''.", "Peter Lang, 2003.. * Petersen, Nikolaj.", "\"Denmark and NATO 1948-1987.\"", "(1987).", "* * Rahbek-Clemmensen, Jon.", "\"\"An Arctic Great Power\"?", "Recent Developments in Danish Arctic Policy.\"", "''Arctic Yearbook'' 5 (2016): 387–399.", "** Tonra, Ben.", "''The Europeanisation of national foreign policy: Dutch, Danish and Irish foreign policy in the European Union'' (Routledge, 2018) online.", "* Wivel, Anders, and Matthew Crandall.", "\"Punching above their weight, but why?", "Explaining Denmark and Estonia in the transatlantic relationship.\"", "''Journal of transatlantic studies'' 17.3 (2019): 392-419.", "* ===Pre-1940===*** Feldbæk, Ole.", "\"Eighteenth‐century Danish neutrality: Its diplomacy, economics and law.\"", "''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 8.1–4 (1983): 3–21.", "* Feldbæk, Ole.", "\"Denmark and the Treaty of Kiel 1814.\"", "''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 15.3–4 (1990): 259–268.", "* Feldbæk, Ole.", "\"Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars: A Foreign Policy Survey.\"", "''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 26.2 (2001): 89–101 * Feldbæk, Ole.", "\"Denmark and the Baltic 1720–1864.\"", "In ''Quest of Trade and Security.", "the Baltic in Power Politics 1500–1990.Vol 1.1500–1890'' (Probus Förlag, 1995) pp. 257–95.", "* Fogdall, Soren Jacob Marius Peterson.", "''Danish-American Diplomacy, 1776–1920'' (1922) .", "** Gram-Skjoldager, Karen.", "\"Denmark during the First World War: Neutral policy, economy and culture.\"", "''Journal of Modern European History'' 17.2 (2019): 234–250.", "* Jónsson, Már.", "\"Denmark-Norway as a potential world power in the early seventeenth century.\"", "''Itinerario'' 33.2 (2009): 17–27.", "** Murdoch, Steve.", "''Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart, 1603–1660: A Diplomatic and Military Analysis'' (Tuckwell Press, 2000).", "* Naum, Magdalena, and Jonas M. Nordin.", "\"Introduction: Situating Scandinavian Colonialism.\"", "in ''Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity'' (Springer, 2013) pp.", "3–16." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Djibouti" ], [ "Introduction", "Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa bordered by Somalia to the southeast, Eritrea and the Red Sea to the north and northwest, Ethiopia to the west and south, and the Gulf of Aden to the east.In antiquity, the territory was part of the Land of Punt.", "Djibouti gained its independence on June 27, 1977.The Djibouti area, along with other localities in the Horn region, was later the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates.", "In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established following treaties signed by the ruling Somali and Afar Sultans with the French.", "It was subsequently renamed to the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967.A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence, officially marking the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti." ], [ "Prehistory", "Rock art at BalhoThe Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered a primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South and Southeast Asia.Djibouti area has been inhabited since the Neolithic.", "According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family's proposed urheimat (\"original homeland\") in the Nile Valley, or the Near East.", "Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.The cut stones 3 million years old, collected in the area of Lake Abbe.", "In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of an Palaeoloxodon recki elephant were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby.", "These remains would date from 1.4 million years BC.", "Subsequently identified other sites of these cuts, probably the work of Homo ergaster.", "An Acheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BC), where stone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, between Damerdjog and Loyada, 15 km south of Djibouti.", "Finally, in Gobaad, a Homo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BC.", "AD On Devil's Island, tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were no doubt used to open shells.", "In the area at the bottom of Goubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil's Island), circular stone structures and fragments of painted pottery have also been discovered.", "Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form of Homo sapiens and dated to ~250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi.Geometric design pottery found in Asa Koma.Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma, an inland lake area on the Gobaad Plain.", "The site's ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma'layba in Southern Arabia.", "Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago.", "Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho.", "Handoga, dated to the fourth millennium BP, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle.The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa.", "The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region, which was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma.", "The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé, but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices.", "Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, similar in range to Asa Koma.", "These two sites represent the oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region.Up to 4000 years BC.", "AD, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to the Mediterranean climate.", "The water resources were numerous: lakes in the Gobaad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water.", "The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting.", "The region was populated by a very rich fauna: felines, buffaloes, elephants, rhinos, etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings at Balho.", "In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC.", "A few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding.", "The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and small jewels have been unearthed.", "About 1500 BC.", "AD, the climate is already changing, water is scarce.", "Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors.", "Sedentary peoples return to Nomadic life.", "A stone tumuli (of various shapes), sheltering graves and dating from this period, have been unearthed all over the territory." ], [ "Antiquity", "Egyptian marines from Queen Hatshepsut's Year 9 expedition to the Land of Punt, as depicted on her temple at Deir el-Bahri.Together with Somaliland, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as ''Punt'' (or \"Ta Netjeru\", meaning \"God's Land\").", "The old territory's first mention dates to the 25th century BC.", "The Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty and Queen Hatshepsut of the eighteenth dynasty.", "They \"traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold, ivory and animal skins.\"", "According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt at the time of Hatshepsut was ruled by King Parahu and Queen Ati." ], [ "Macrobians", "The Macrobians (Μακροβίοι) were a legendary people and kingdom positioned in the Horn of Africa mentioned by Herodotus.", "Later authors (such as Pliny on the authority of Ctesias' ''Indika'') place them in India instead.", "It is one of the legendary peoples postulated at the extremity of the known world (from the perspective of the Greeks), in this case in the extreme south, contrasting with the Hyperboreans in the extreme east.Their name is due to their legendary longevity; an average person supposedly living to the age of 120.They were said to be the \"tallest and handsomest of all men\".According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II upon his conquest of Egypt (525 BC) sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission.", "The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based at least in part on stature, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to string it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire." ], [ "Kingdom of Aksum", "The rule of the Aksumite Kingdom may have at times extended to areas that are now within Djibouti, though the nature and extent of its control are not clear." ], [ "Adal Sultanate", "Islam was introduced to the area early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra.", "Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city.", "In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Horn seaboard.", "He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in Zeila, a port city in the northwestern Awdal region abutting Djibouti.", "This suggests that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century.", "According to I.M.", "Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south.", "Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia.", "At its height, the Adal kingdom controlled large parts of modern-day Djibouti, Somaliland, Eritrea and Ethiopia.", "Between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae.", "The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol.", "Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs.", "As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area." ], [ "Ifat Sultanate", "The Ifat Sultanate was a medieval kingdom in the Horn of Africa.", "Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila.", "Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somaliland, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains.", "Its Sultan Umar Walashma (or his son Ali, according to another source) is recorded as having conquered the Sultanate of Shewa in 1285.Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Umar's military expedition as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn, in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to unite the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period.", "These two states inevitably came into conflict over Shewa and territories further south.", "A lengthy war ensued, but the Muslim sultanates of the time were not strongly unified.", "Ifat was finally defeated by Emperor Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia in 1332, and withdrew from Shewa." ], [ "Egypt Eyalet", "Governor Abou Baker ordered the Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila.", "The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed.", "French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden, Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction.On 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L’Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura.", "The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura.", "Emperor Johannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with the United Kingdom to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and the Somali Coast ports.The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura.", "Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night." ], [ "French Somaliland", "French Somaliland in 1922The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa.", "It was Rochet d'Hericourt's exploration into Shoa (1839–42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the Djiboutian coast of the Red Sea.", "Further exploration by Henri Lambert, French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain Fleuriot de Langle led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of Raheita, Tadjoura, and Gobaad, from whom the French purchased the anchorage of Obock in 1862.Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.Between 1883 and 1887, France signed various treaties with the then ruling Somali and Afar Sultans, which allowed it to expand the protectorate to include the Gulf of Tadjoura.", "Léonce Lagarde was subsequently installed as the protectorate's governor.", "In 1894, he established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region ''Côte française des Somalis'' (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967.The territory's border with Ethiopia, marked out in 1897 by France and Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, was later reaffirmed by agreements with Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1945 and 1954.In 1889, a Russian by the name of Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov (b.", "1856), arrived with settlers, infantry and an Orthodox priest to Sagallo on the Gulf of Tadjoura.", "The French considered the presence of the Russians as a violation of their territorial rights and dispatched two gunboats.", "The Russians were bombarded and after some loss of life, surrendered.", "The colonists were deported to Odessa and the dream of Russian expansion in East Africa came to an end in less than one year.Place Menelik, Djibouti, c1905.The administrative capital was moved from Obock in 1896.The city of Djibouti, which had a harbor with good access that attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa, became the new administrative capital.", "The Franco-Ethiopian railway, linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, began in 1897 and reached Addis Ababa in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port.===World War II===After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa.", "In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II, France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro-Axis Vichy (French) government while the Italians occupied some areas of the French Smaliland.Indeed the Italians did undertake some offensive actions beginning on 18 June 1940, occupying nearly one third of French Somaliland in a few days.", "Territories of French Somalia occupied by Italian colonial troops (limited by green line)From Harrar Governorate, troops under General Guglielmo Nasi attacked the fort of Ali-Sabieh in the south and Dadda'to in the north.", "There were also skirmishes in the area of Dagguirou and around the lakes Abbe and Ally.", "Near Ali-Sabieh, there was some skirmishing over the Djibouti–Addis Ababa railway.", "In the first week of war, the Italian Navy sent the submarines ''Torricelli'' and ''Perla'' to patrol French territorial waters in the Gulf of Tadjoura in front of the ports of Djibouti, Tadjoura and Obock.By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of Magdoul, Daimoli, Balambolta, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba, Alailou, Madda and Rahale.Later, British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign.", "In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated.", "The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse.", "In response, the British blockaded the port of Djibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys.", "In 1942, about 4,000 British troops occupied the city.", "A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of Paris in 1944.===Referendums===In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to be an independent country or to remain with France.", "The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.", "There were also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.", "The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council.", "Harbi died in a plane crash two years later under mysterious circumstances.In 1960, with the fall of the ruling Dini administration, Ali Aref Bourhan, a Harbist politician, assumed the seat of Vice President of the Government Council of French Somaliland, representing the UNI party.", "He would hold that position until 1966.That same year, France rejected the United Nations' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence.", "In August, an official visit to the territory by then French President, General Charles de Gaulle, was also met with demonstrations and rioting.", "In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum.On 19 March 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory.", "Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France.", "Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual reunion with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France.", "However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities, with some 10,000 Somalis deported under the pretext that they did not have valid identity cards.", "According to official figures, although the territory was at the time inhabited by 58,240 Somali and 48,270 Afar, only 14,689 Somali were allowed to register to vote versus 22,004 Afar.", "Somali representatives also charged that the French had simultaneously imported thousands of Afar nomads from neighboring Ethiopia to further tip the odds in their favor, but the French authorities denied this, suggesting that Afars already greatly outnumbered Somalis on the voting lists.", "Announcement of the plebiscite results sparked civil unrest, including several deaths.", "France also increased its military force along the frontier." ], [ "French Territory of the Afars and Issas", "In 1967, shortly after the second referendum was held, the former ''Côte française des Somalis'' (French Somaliland) was renamed to ''Territoire français des Afars et des Issas''.", "This was both in acknowledgement of the large Afar constituency and to downplay the significance of the Somali composition (the Issa being a Somali sub-clan).Joint FLCS-LPAI delegation to Kampala in 1976The French Territory of Afars and Issas also differed from French Somaliland in terms of government structure, as the position of governor changed to that of high commissioner.", "A nine-member council of government was also implemented.", "During the 1960s, the struggle for independence was led by the Front for the Liberation of the Somali Coast (FLCS), who waged an armed struggle for independence with much of its violence aimed at French personnel.", "FLCS used to initiate few mounting cross-border operations into French Somaliland from Somalia and Ethiopia to attacks on French targets.", "On 24 March 1975 the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis kidnapped the French Ambassador to Somalia, Jean Guery, to be exchanged against two activists of FLCS members who were both serving life terms in mainland France.", "He was exchanged for the two FLCS members in Aden, South Yemen.", "With a steadily enlarging Somali population, the likelihood of a third referendum appearing successful had grown even more dim.", "The prohibitive cost of maintaining the colony and the fact that after 1975, France found itself to be the last remaining colonial power in Africa was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that the French would attempt to hold on to the territory.In 1976, the French garrison, centered on the 13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion (13 DBLE), had to be reinforced to contain Somali irredentist aspirations, revolting against the French-engineered Afar domination of the emerging government.", "In 1976, members of the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti's independence from France, also clashed with the Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route to Loyada.The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing.", "The FLCS evolved its demands between the request of integration in a possible \"Greater Somalia\" influenced by the Somali government or the simple independence of the territory.", "In 1975 the African People's League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met in Kampala, Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions with Somalia.Ahmed Dini Ahmed proclaiming the Djibouti Declaration of Independence on 27 June 1977.A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977.The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967, which rejected independence.", "This referendum backed independence from France.", "A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence.After independence the new government signed an agreement calling for a strong French garrison, though the 13 DBLE was envisaged to be withdrawn.", "While the unit was reduced in size, a full withdrawal never actually took place." ], [ "Djibouti Republic", "In 1981, Aptidon turned the country into a one party state by declaring that his party, the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) (People's Rally for Progress), was the sole legal one.", "Clayton writes that the French garrison played the major role in suppressing further minor unrest about this time, during which Djibouti became a one-party state on a much broader ethnic and political basis.A civil war broke out in 1991, between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD).", "The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict.", "Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP.Aptidon resigned as president 1999, at the age of 83, after being elected to a fifth term in 1997.His successor was his nephew, Ismail Omar Guelleh.On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD, led by Ahmed Dini Ahmed, an Afar nationalist and former Gouled political ally.", "The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris.", "Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD.In the presidential election held 8 April 2005, Ismail Omar Guelleh was re-elected to a second 6-year term at the head of a multi-party coalition that included the FRUD and other major parties.", "A loose coalition of opposition parties again boycotted the election.", "Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with an Afar career diplomat as Foreign Minister and other cabinet posts roughly divided.", "However, Issas are predominate in the government, civil service, and the ruling party.", "That, together with a shortage of non-government employment, has bred resentment and continued political competition between the Issa Somalis and the Afars.", "In March 2006, Djibouti held its first regional elections and began implementing a decentralization plan.", "The broad pro-government coalition, including FRUD candidates, again ran unopposed when the government refused to meet opposition preconditions for participation.", "In the 2008 elections, the opposition Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) party boycotted the election, leaving all 65 seats to the ruling RPP.", "Voter turnout figures were disputed.", "Guelleh was re-elected in the 2011 presidential election.Due to its strategic location at the mouth of the Bab el Mandeb gateway to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, Djibouti also hosts various foreign military bases.", "Camp Lemonnier is a United States Naval Expeditionary Base, situated at Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport and home to the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) of the U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM).", "In 2011, Japan also opened a local naval base staffed by 180 personnel to assist in marine defense.", "This initiative is expected to generate $30 million in revenue for the Djiboutian government.In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term." ], [ "See also", "* Colonial heads of Djibouti (French Somaliland)* French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (FTAI)* French Somaliland* Heads of government of Djibouti* History of Africa* List of presidents of Djibouti* Politics of Djibouti* Djibouti City history and timeline" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "; Citations; Bibliography* * " ], [ "External links", " Background Note: Djibouti* History of Djbouti by documents" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Djibouti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Djibouti''' is a country in the Horn of Africa.", "It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast.", "To the east is its coastline on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.", "Rainfall is sparse, and most of the territory has a semi-arid to arid environment.", "Lake Assal is a saline lake which lies 155 m (509 ft) below sea level, making it the lowest point on land in Africa and the third-lowest point on Earth after the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.", "Djibouti has the fifth smallest population in Africa.", "Djibouti's major settlements include the capital Djibouti City, the port towns of Tadjoura and Obock, and the southern cities of Ali Sabieh and Dikhil.", "It is the forty-six country by area in Africa and 147st largest country in the world by land area, covering a total of , of which is land and is water." ], [ "Location", "Djibouti shares of border with Eritrea, with Ethiopia, and with Somalia (total ).", "It has a strategic location on the Horn of Africa and the Bab el Mandeb, along a route through the Red Sea and Suez Canal.", "Djibouti's coastline serves as a commercial gateway between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn region's interior.", "The country is also the terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia." ], [ "Physiographic regions", "Djibouti can be divided into three physiographic regions#The Northern Mountains#Grand Bara#The Southern MountainsThe Goda Mountains=== Mountains===A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Mousa Ali, Goda Mountains, and Arrei Mountains surrounds Djibouti.Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over 1,000 m (3,281 ft).", "* The Mousa Ali range is considered the country's highest mountain range, with the tallest peak on the border with Ethiopia and Eritrea.", "It has an elevation of 2,063 m.* The Goda Mountains lie northwest of the Gulf of Tadjoura in Tadjoura Region.", "They rise to 1,783 m (5,740 ft) above sea level and are the nation's largest heavily vegetated area.", "* Garbi is a mountain in the west of Tadjourah Region.", "It has an elevation of 1,680 metres (5,512 ft).", "* The Mabla Mountains are located in Obock Region.", "At 1,780 m (5,850 ft) above sea level, the mountains are situated behind the coastal plain where the Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden, on the northern side of the Gulf of Tadjoura.", "* The Arrei Mountains are in the southern Ali Sabieh Region.", "The mountain range has an elevation of 1,301 metres (4,268 ft) above sea level, and is situated near the border with Ethiopia.", "* The Dagouein Mountain sit at an elevation of 1,124 m (3,688 ft) above sea level.", "* Hemed is a mountain in the western part of the Arta Region in south-central Djibouti.", "The summit is 1,103 metres (3,619 ft) above sea level.", "* The Boura Mountains' highest peak has an elevation of 1,003 m (3,291 ft).", "The ecology of this landform is semi-desert.", "The altitude and size of the range affects its weather, with precipitation levels varying greatly and climatic conditions consisting of distinct zones.===Grand Bara===The Grand Bara DesertThe Grand Bara Desert covers parts of southern Djibouti in the Arta Region, Ali Sabieh Region and Dikhil Region.", "The majority of the Grand Bara Desert lies at a relatively low elevation, below 1,700 feet (560 m).", "Home of the popular Grand Bara footrace.===Coasts===Most of Djibouti has been described as part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion.", "The exception is a strip along the Red Sea coast, which is part of the Eritrean coastal desert; it is noted as an important migration route for birds of prey.Map of the regions of Djibouti." ], [ "Regions", "The area of the regions of Djibouti is set out in the table below.The rainfall of Djibouti Rank Name Area 1 Dikhil Region 7,200 km2 2 Tadjourah Region 7,100 km2 3 Obock Region 4,700 km2 4 Ali Sabieh Region 2,200 km2 5 Arta Region 1,800 km2 6 Djibouti Region 200 km2" ], [ "Climate", "There is not much seasonal variation in Djibouti's climate.", "Hot conditions prevail year-round along with winter rainfall.", "Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 32 to 41 °C (90 to 106 °F), except at high elevations.", "In Djibouti City, for instance, afternoon highs in April typically range from 28 °C (82 °F) to 34 °C (93 °F) in April.", "Nationally, mean daily minima generally vary between sites from about 15 to 30 °C (59 to 86 °F).", "The greatest range in climate occurs in eastern Djibouti, where temperatures sometimes surpass 41 °C (106 °F) in July on the littoral plains and fall below freezing point during December in the highlands.", "In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season.Köppen climate types of DjiboutiDjibouti has 988,000 people living there.Djibouti has either a hot semi-arid climate (''BSh'') or a hot desert climate (''BWh''), although temperatures are much moderated at the high elevations.", "On the coastal seaboard, annual rainfall is less than 5 inches (131 mm); in the highlands, it is about 8 to 16 inches (200 to 400 mm).", "Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically hot and dry.", "The climate conditions are highly variable within the country and vary locally by altitude.", "Summers are very humid along the coast but dry in the highlands.", "Heat waves are frequent.", "Annual precipitation amounts vary greatly from one year to another.", "In general, rain falls more frequently and extensively in the mountains.", "Sudden and brutal storms are also known to occur.", "Wadis turn for a few hours into raging torrents tearing everything in their path, and their course is regularized.", "Rainwater serves as an additional water supply for livestock and plants alongside seasonal watercourses.", "The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year.", "The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid.The climate of the interior shows notable differences from the coastline.", "Especially in the mornings, the temperature is pleasant: it is so in Arta, Randa and Day (where temperatures of 10 degrees Celsius have been recorded).===Climate charts of different locations in Djibouti===Graphically the seasons can be represented this way:MonthDecJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovSeasonJilaal''''''Summer/Hagaa'''Jilaal'''Temperature'''Cool''''''Very Hot''''''Cool'''" ], [ "Selected elevations of notable locations", "The Arrei Mountains as seen from Ali Sabieh.The Southern part of the Boura Mountains.", "Location Region Elevation(feet) Elevation(metres) Mousa Ali Tadjourah 6,631 ft 2,028 m Goda Mountains Tadjourah 5,840 ft 1,780 m Garbi Tadjourah 5,512 ft 1,680 m Yaguer Dikhil 4,524 ft 1,379 m Mabla Mountains Obock 4,511 ft 1,375 m Arrei Mountains Ali Sabieh 4,268 ft 1,301 m Dagouein Mountain Ali Sabieh 3,688 ft 1,124 m Hemed Arta 3,619 ft 1,103 m Boura Mountains Ali Sabieh 3,291 ft 1,003 m Arta Mountains Arta 2,477 ft 755 m Lake Assal Tadjourah – 509 ft – 155 mLake Assal is the lowest point in Africa." ], [ "Resources and land use", "Grazing camel in Ali Sabieh Region.", "'''Land use:'''''arable land:'' 0.1%''permanent pasture:'' 73.3%''forest:'' 0.2% ''other:'' 26.4% (2011)'''Irrigated land:''' (2012)===Water in Djibouti===Water is becoming a scarce resource in Djibouti due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country.", "Most of Djibouti's rainfall is in the four months, but over the last 25 years, the Djibouti's Ministry of Environment estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent.", "It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water.", "Moreover, seawater intrusion or fossil saltwater contamination of the limited freshwater aquifers due to groundwater overexploitation affect those who live close to the coastline.In recent years, population growth has increased rapidly with the addition of many refugees.===Natural resources===Unlike much of the Horn of Africa and Middle East which is rich in lucrative crude oil, Djibouti has limited natural resources.", "These include potential geothermal power, gold, clay, granite, limestone, marble, salt, diatomite, gypsum, pumice, petroleum." ], [ "Environment", "Natural hazards include earthquakes, drought, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean, which bring heavy rains, and flash floods.", "Natural resources include geothermal energy.", "Inadequate supplies of potable water, limited arable land and desertification are current issues.Djibouti is a party to international agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, Law of the Sea, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands." ], [ "Coastline", "The Republic of Djibouti Maritime Borders.Djibouti has a coastline which measures about 314 kilometres (195 mi).", "Much of the coastline is accessible and quite varied in geography and habitats.===Inlets===Gulf of TadjouraGhoubbet-el-Kharab===Maritime claims===* ''Territorial sea:'' * ''Contiguous zone:'' * ''Exclusive economic zone:''" ], [ "Human geography", "Satellite images of Djibouti during the night.The population of Djibouti in 2015 was 846,000.For statistical purposes, the country has three areas; Djibouti City (population 529,000), Ali Sabieh (population 55,000), and Dikhil (population 54,000).", "Djibouti's population is diverse demographically; 60% Somali, 35% Afar, and 3% Arabs.", "In terms of religion, 94% Muslim, 6% Christian." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Djibouti, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point – Ras Doumera, Obock Region* Northernmost point (mainland) – the point at which the border with Eritrea enters the Red Sea, Obock Region* Easternmost point – unnamed section of the Red Sea coast north of Ras Bir, Obock Region* Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ethiopia west of the town of As Ela, Dikhil Region* Westernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ethiopia immediately east of the Ethiopian town of Afambo, Dikhil Region" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Djibouti" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of Djibouti include population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Main ethnic groups in Djibouti.Djibouti is a multiethnic country.", "As of 2018, it has a population of around 884,017 inhabitants.", "Djibouti's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 69,589 in 1955 to around 869,099 by 2015.The ethnic composition of Djibouti is 56.2% Somali, 24.2% Afar, 15.6% Arabs, 6.675% Djibouti Arabs (indigenous), 4.525% Yemenis, 4.4% Omanis and 5% others.", "The Somali clan component is mainly composed of the Issa clan (Dir), followed by the Gadabuursi and the Isaaq.The remaining 5% of Djibouti's population primarily consists of Ethiopians and Europeans (French, Italian and Swedish).", "In addition, as of 2021, 4,000 American troops, 1,350 French troops, 600 Japanese troops, 400 Chinese troops, and an unknown number of German troops are stationed at various bases throughout Djibouti.", "Approximately 76% of local residents are urban dwellers; the remainder are pastoralists.", "40,000 people from Yemen live in Djibouti, accounting for 4.525% of its total population." ], [ "Languages", "Djibouti is a multilingual nation.", "The majority of local residents speak Somali (650,000 speakers in Djibouti city and Ali Sabieh) and Afar (300,000 speakers) as a first language.", "These languages are the mother tongues of the Somali and Afar ethnic groups, respectively.", "Both languages belong to the larger Afroasiatic family.", "There are 2 official languages in Djibouti: Arabic and French.Arabic is of religious importance.", "In formal settings, it consists of Modern Standard Arabic.", "Colloquially, about 59,000 local residents speak the Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic dialect, also known as ''Djibouti Arabic''.", "French serves as a statutory national language.", "It was inherited from the colonial period, and is the primary language of instruction.", "Around 17,000 Djiboutians speak it as a first language.", "Immigrant languages include Omani Arabic (38,900 speakers), Amharic (1,400 speakers), Greek (1,000 speakers) and Hindi (600 speakers)." ], [ "Population", "According to , the total population was in compared to 62,000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 35.8%, 60.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 1950 62 00046.851.22.0 1955 70 00046.052.02.0 1960 85 00045.452.52.0 1965 117 00044.953.02.0 1970 162 00045.852.22.1 1975 224 00045.952.02.1 1980 340 00045.352.52.2 1985 403 00044.653.12.3 1990 562 00044.253.42.4 1995 627 00043.454.12.5 2000 732 00041.355.92.7 2005 808 00038.558.53.0 2010 889 00035.860.93.3Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 440 066 378 093 818 159 100 0–4 49 863 41 269 91 132 11.14 5–9 56 117 41 269 101 271 12.38 10–14 48 135 37 337 85 472 10.45 15–19 46 351 39 283 85 634 10.47 20–24 43 786 40 272 84 058 10.27 25–29 40 222 41 995 82 217 10.05 30–34 35 558 33 997 69 555 8.50 35–39 29 563 26 512 56 074 6.85 40–44 25 247 19 734 44 981 5.50 45–49 19 470 15 456 34 926 4.27 50–54 16 363 12 479 28 841 3.53 55–59 10 325 7 860 18 185 2.22 60–64 8 495 6 677 15 172 1.85 65+ 10 572 10 069 20 641 2.52Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 154 115 119 875 273 990 33.49 15–64 275 379 248 149 523 528 63.99 65+ 10 572 10 069 20 641 2.52 Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 527 817 473 636 1 001 452 100 0–4 50 744 49 747 100 491 10.03 5–9 54 487 53 200 107 687 10.75 10–14 52 811 45 854 98 665 9.85 15–19 50 167 40 507 90 674 9.05 20–24 48 044 40 029 88 072 8.79 25–29 45 209 38 999 84 208 8.41 30–34 42 445 38 723 81 168 8.11 35–39 39 077 36 798 75 874 7.58 40–44 34 761 32 809 67 570 6.75 45–49 29 881 28 056 57 936 5.79 50–54 24 442 21 937 46 379 4.63 55–59 19 309 16 508 35 817 3.58 60–64 14 340 11 888 26 229 2.62 65-69 9 975 8 077 18 053 1.80 70-74 6 260 5 158 11 418 1.14 75-79 3 444 2 953 6 397 0.64 80+ 2 421 2 393 4 814 0.48Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 158 042 148 801 306 843 30.64 15–64 347 675 306 254 653 929 65.30 65+ 22 100 18 581 40 681 4.06===Projections===The following are UN medium variant projections; numbers are in thousands:2015\t9752020\t1,0652025\t1,1662030\t1,2622035\t1,3562040\t1,4472045\t1,5352050\t1,619" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events in Djibouti is incomplete.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMR* 1950-1955 3 000 2 000 1 00050.028.321.77.80222 1955-1960 4 000 2 000 2 00050.725.725.07.80203 1960-1965 5 000 2 000 3 00051.223.827.47.80185 1965-1970 7 000 3 000 4 00050.321.628.67.60169 1970-1975 9 000 4 000 5 00047.819.428.47.20154 1975-1980 13 000 5 000 8 00045.217.427.86.80141 1980-1985 16 000 6 000 11 00044.015.528.66.60125 1985-1990 21 000 7 000 14 00043.114.528.66.40117 1990-1995 24 000 8 000 16 00040.113.426.75.85109 1995-2000 23 000 8 000 15 00034.412.222.25.11100 2000-2005 24 000 9 000 15 00031.211.319.94.5291 2005-2010 25 000 9 000 16 00029.410.518.93.9582 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195541.041955–1960 42.95 1960–1965 45.181965–1970 47.35 1970–1975 50.90 1975–1980 52.55 1980–1985 54.67 1985–1990 56.121990–1995 57.021995–2000 57.022000–2005 57.29 2005–2010 59.052010–2015 61.62" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022:One birth every 26 minutes\tOne death every 76 minutes\tOne net migrant every 720 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 38 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook:===Population===:957,273 (2022 est.", "):884,017 (July 2018 est.", "):828,324 (July 2015 est.", ")===Religions===Sunni Muslim 94% (nearly all Djiboutians), other 6% (mainly foreign-born residents - Shia Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Baha'i, and atheist)===Age structure===Population pyramid of Djibouti in 2022:''0-14 years:'' 29.97% (male 138,701/female 137,588):''15-24 years:'' 20.32% (male 88,399/female 98,955):''25-54 years:'' 40.73% (male 156,016/female 219,406):''55-64 years:'' 5.01% (male 19,868/female 26,307):''65 years and over:'' 3.97% (male 16,245/female 20,319) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 30.71% (male 136,191 /female 135,263):''15-24 years:'' 21.01% (male 87,520 /female 98,239):''25-54 years:'' 39.63% (male 145,427 /female 204,927):''55-64 years:'' 4.82% (male 18,967 /female 23,639):''65 years and over:'' 3.83% (male 15,136 /female 18,708) (2018 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 24.9 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 163rd:male: 23 years:female: 26.4 years (2020 est.", "):total: 24.2 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 165th:male: 22.4 years :female: 25.7 years (2018 est.", "):Total: 22.8 years:Male: 21.1 years:Female: 24.1 years (2014 est.", ")===Birth rate===:22.25 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 58th:23.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 59th===Death rate===:7.12 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 116th:7.5 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 109th===Total fertility rate===:2.15 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 91st:2.27 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 90th===Net migration rate===:4.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 24th:5.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 19th===Population growth rate===:1.97% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 42nd:2.13% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 42nd:2.18% (2016 est.", ")===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:19% (2012)===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 56.5 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 50.1 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 6.4 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 15.6 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 78.4% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 1.56% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 77.8% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 1.67% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Major cities - population===:DJIBOUTI (capital) 562,000 (2018)===Sex ratio===:at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female:under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female:15-24 years: 0.89 male(s)/female:25-54 years: 0.71 male(s)/female:55-64 years: 0.85 male(s)/female:65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female:total population: 0.86 male(s)/female (2014 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 65.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 203rd:male: 62.72 years:female: 67.96 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 64 years (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 191st:male: 61.4 years (2018 est.", "):female: 66.6 years (2018 est.", "):Total population: 62.4 years:Male: 59.93 years:Female: 64.94 years (2014 est.", ")===HIV/AIDS===:adult prevalence rate: 1.2% (2012 est.", "):people living with HIV/AIDS: 7,700 (2012 est.", "):deaths: 690 (2012 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: dengue fevernote: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Djibouti is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, the CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine===Nationality===: Djiboutien or Djiboutian===Ethnic groups===Afar 35%, Somali 60% and Arab 2%===Languages===The languages of Djibouti are::French (official):Arabic (official):Somali:Afar===Education expenditures===:3.6% of GDP (2018) :Ranked 116th in the world===Literacy===:definition: proportion of population aged 15 and over that can read and write:total population: 67.9%:male: 60%:female: 58.4% (2003 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 7 years:male: 7 years:female: 7 years (2011):total: 6 years (2011):male: 7 years (2011):female: 6 years (2011)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Djibouti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of Djibouti''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the executive power is exercised by the President and the Government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the National Assembly.", "The party system and legislature are dominated by the socialist People's Rally for Progress.", "In April 2010, a new constitutional amendment was approved.", "The President serves as both the head of state and head of government, and is directly elected for single six-year term.", "Government is headed by the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers on the proposal of the latter.", "There is also a 65-member chamber of deputies, where representatives are popularly elected for terms of five years.", "Administratively, the country is divided into five regions and one city, with eleven additional district subdivisions.", "Djibouti is also part of various international organisations, including the United Nations and Arab League." ], [ "History", "In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France.", "The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined \"yes\" vote by the sizeable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.", "There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.", "The majority of those who had voted \"no\" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council.", "Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.Former Vice President of the Government Council, Mahmoud Harbi.In 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory.", "Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France.", "Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual union with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France.", "However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities.", "Shortly after the referendum was held, the former ''Côte française des Somalis'' (French Somaliland) was renamed to ''Territoire français des Afars et des Issas''.In 1977, a third referendum took place.", "A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence.Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a \"yes\" vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999).", "He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987 and to a third 6-year term in May 1993 multiparty elections.", "The electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992.Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect.President of Djibouti Ismaïl Omar Guelleh.In early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties.", "By the time of the national assembly elections in December 1992, only three had qualified.", "They are the ''Rassemblement Populaire Pour le Progres'' (People's Rally for Progress) (RPP) which was the only legal party from 1981 until 1992, the ''Parti du Renouveau Démocratique'' (The Party for Democratic Renewal) (PRD), and the ''Parti National Démocratique'' (National Democratic Party) (PND).", "Only the RPP and the PRD contested the national assembly elections, and the PND withdrew, claiming that there were too many unanswered questions on the conduct of the elections and too many opportunities for government fraud.", "The RPP won all 65 seats in the national assembly, with a turnout of less than 50% of the electorate.In 1999, President Aptidon's chief of staff, head of security, and key adviser for over 20 years, Ismail Omar Guelleh was elected to the Presidency as the RPP candidate.", "He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate Moussa Ahmed Idriss, of the Unified Djiboutian Opposition (ODU).", "For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election.", "Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election \"irregularities\" and the assertion that \"foreigners\" had voted in various districts of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties.", "Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on May 8, 1999, with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognised section of the Afar-led FRUD.Dileita Mohamed Dileita, former Prime Minister of Djibouti, vice-president of the People's Rally for Progress (RPP), and President of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP).Currently, political power is shared by a Somali Issa president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided.", "However, it is the Issas who dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars.The government is dominated by the Somali Issa Mamasen, who enjoy the support of the Somali clans, especially the Isaaq (the clan of the current president's wife) and the Gadabuursi Dir (who are the second most prominent Somali clan in Djibouti politics).", "In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD).", "The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict.", "Two FRUD members were subsequently made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP.", "In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government.", "On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD.", "The treaty successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris, with Ahmed Dini Ahmed representing the FRUD.On 8 April 2005, President Guelleh was sworn in for his second six-year term after a one-man election.", "He took 100% of the votes in a 78.9% turnout.In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations.", "Guelleh was re-elected to a third term later that year, with 80.63% of the vote in a 75% turnout.", "Although opposition groups boycotted the ballot over changes to the constitution permitting Guelleh to run again for office, international observers generally described the election as free and fair.On 31 March 2013, Guelleh replaced long-serving Prime Minister Dilleita Mohamed Dilleita with former president of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed.In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term." ], [ "Head of state and government", "\|PresidentIsmail Omar GuellehRPP8 May 1999Prime MinisterAbdoulkader Kamil MohamedRPP1 April 2013The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term.", "The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and the Council of Ministers is solely responsible to the President, as specified in Articles 21 and 23 of the Constitution of Djibouti." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Presidential elections======Parliamentary elections===" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The National Assembly building in Djibouti City.Djibouti is sectioned into five administrative regions and one city:Ali Sabieh Region, Arta Region, Dikhil Region, Djibouti Region, Obock Region and Tadjourah Region.The country is further sub-divided into eleven districts." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACCT,ACP,AfDB,AFESD,AL,AMF,ECA,FAO,G-77,IBRD,ICAO,ICC,ICRM,IDA,IDB,IFAD,IFC,IFRCS,IGAD,ILO,IMF,IMO,Intelsat (nonsignatory user),Interpol,IOC,ITU,ITUC,NAM,OAU,OIC,OPCW,UN,UNCTAD,UNESCO,UNIDO,UPU,WFTU,WHO,WMO,WToO,WTrO" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Djibouti" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Djibouti''' is derived in large part from its strategic location on the Red Sea.", "Djibouti is mostly barren, with little development in the agricultural and industrial sectors.", "The country has a harsh climate, a largely unskilled labour force, and limited natural resources.", "The country's most important economic asset is its strategic location, connecting the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.", "As such, Djibouti's economy is commanded by the services sector, providing services as both a transit port for the region and as an international transshipment and refueling centre.From 1991 to 1994, Djibouti experienced a civil war which had devastating effects on the economy.", "Since then, the country has benefited from political stability.", "In recent years, Djibouti has seen significant improvement in macroeconomic stability, with its annual gross domestic product improving at an average of over 3 percent since 2003.This comes after a decade of negative or low growth and is attributed to fiscal adjustment aimed at improving public financing, reforms in port management and foreign investment.Despite the recent modest and stable growth, Djibouti is faced with many economic challenges, particularly job creation and poverty reduction.", "With an average annual population growth rate of 2.5 percent, the economy cannot significantly benefit national income per capita growth.", "Unemployment is extremely high, with some estimates placing it at almost 60 percent, and is a major contributor to widespread poverty.", "In recent years, the country's dependence on Chinese investment and debt has also come under scrutiny.According to a 2020 report by the World bank, Djibouti was 112th among 190 economies when it comes to the ease of doing business." ], [ "Economic performance", "Bus down the central market in Djibouti City.After experiencing armed conflict and economic hardship during the 1990s, Djibouti has experienced stable economic growth in recent years as a result of relative political stability and achievements in macroeconomic adjustment efforts.Fiscal adjustment measures included downsizing the civil service, implementing a pension reform that placed the system on a much stronger financial footing, and strengthening public expenditure institutions.", "From 2003 to 2005, annual real GDP growth averaged 3.1 percent in the mid-2000s, driven by good performance in the services sector, strong consumption and reached a value as high as 7.8 percent in 2019.In the 21st century, Inflation has been kept low through fixed pegging of the Djibouti franc to the US dollar, but experienced a sharp spike in the late 2000s, when it reached values three times higher than the average of the last 20 years.Despite experiencing economic growth, the country continues to struggle with high unemployment.", "Official numbers put the unemployment rate at just over 10 percent, but international estimates consider it to be closer to 60 percent.", "Furthermore, reliance on diesel-generated electricity and the need to import basic necessities like food and water leave average consumers vulnerable to global price shocks.Djibouti's gross domestic product expanded by an average of more than 6 percent per year, from US$341 million in 1985 to US$3.3 billion in 2019.Low tax revenue and high spending on public infrastructure has seen Djibouti struggle with its budget deficit.", "Additionally, the country's public debt has increased sharply—from 50.2 percent of GDP in 2015 to an expected 72.9 percent in 2020." ], [ "Balance of payments", "Djibouti's merchandise trade balance has shown a large deficit.", "This is due to the country's enormous need for imports and narrow base of exports.", "Although Djibouti runs a substantial surplus in its services balance, the surplus has been smaller than the deficit in the merchandise trade balance.", "As a result, Djibouti's has developed a high level of trade deficit, reaching a peak of 130 billion Djibouti francs in 2019." ], [ "Regional situation", "Positioned on a primary shipping lane between the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, Djibouti holds considerable strategic value in the international trade and shipping industries.", "The facilities of the Port of Djibouti are important to sea transportation companies for fuel bunkering and refuelling.", "Its transport facilities are used by several landlocked African countries for the re-export of their goods.", "Djibouti earns transit taxes and harbour fees from this trade, these form the bulk of government revenue.", "Threats of pirates patrolling the Gulf of Aden, off the coast of Somalia, with the intentions of capturing large cargo ships, oil, and chemical tankers has created the need for larger nations such as the United States, France, and Japan to embed logistics bases or military camps from which they can defend their freight from piracy.The port of Djibouti functions as a small French naval facility, and the United States has also stationed hundreds of troops in Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti, its only African base, in an effort to counter terrorism in the region.Since 2010 China has become an important trading and military partner for Djibouti, including it in its African Road and Belt Initiative through the construction of infrastructure projects like a railway link to Ethiopia and the Doraleh port.", "In 2017, it also began operating a large naval base near de Doraleh port, which serves as China's first ever overseas military base.", "In 2009, China overtook the United States in becoming Djibouti's largest trading partner.", "Between 57 percent and 70 percent of Djibouti's debt is made up of Chinese loans.Chinese influence in Djibouti, particularly through its military base and financial debt, has been criticized in recent years as being more beneficial to the stability of the current political regime than for the country as a whole." ], [ "Macro-economic trend", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year GDP(in bil.", "US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Governmentdebt(Pct.", "of GDP) 2000 1.73 3,3540.8 0.7% 1.2% – 2005 2.22 3,3571.0 3.1% 3.3% – 2010 3.02 3,6041.5 4.1% 2.5% 27% 2015 4.20 4,2752.4 7.7% -0.8% 38% 2016 4.39 4,4462.6 6.9% 2.7% 43% 2017 4.64 4,5452.8 5.1% 0.5% 46% 2018 5.15 4,7962.9 8.5% 0.1% 46% 2019 5.64 5,0163.1 7.5% 3.3% 38% 2020 5.65 4,8303.2 1% 2.9% 41% 2021 6.04 4,9343.4 5% 2.4% 40%=== Impact of COVID-19 ===Despite not being hit as hard as other countries by the COVID-19 pandemic, Djibouti's economy suffered the effects of the global slowdown in trade and diminished traffic through the Doraleh port.", "Real GDP growth slumped to 1.4 percent in 2020 from 7.8 percent in 2019.The pandemic also contributed to a sharp deceleration in investment, which increased by just 10.3 percent of GDP in 2020, compared to a 26.3 percent growth in 2019, as well as in the value added by the services sector, which saw a modest 2 percent increase in 2020, after growing by 8.2 percent in 2019.Djibouti's recovery projections are closely tied to the timeframe in which global shipping and trade will return to pre-pandemic levels, with a full recovery expected to happen in the following couple of years, if the COVID-19 pandemic does not last beyond the second half of 2021." ], [ "Investment climate", "===Background===European Quarter, Djibouti City.Djibouti's economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in the Horn of Africa.", "Two-thirds of inhabitants live in the capital and the remainder of the populace is mostly nomadic herders.", "Low amounts of rainfall limit crop production to fruits and vegetables, and requiring most food to be imported.", "The government provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling centre.", "Djibouti has few natural resources and little industry.", "All of these factors contribute to its heavy dependence on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects.An unemployment rate of 60 percent continues to be a major problem.", "Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar.", "Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35 percent over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate.", "Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors.The Djiboutian franc is pegged to the US dollars since 1949 through the use of a currency board.", "The effectiveness of this longstanding and unique institution on the African continent has not been challenged since then.According to a financial risk assessment from 2018, the country has been suffering from increasing corruption and a decline in international governance and transparency indices, growing debt and over-reliance on Ethiopia and China for trade and FDI, respectively.===Openness to foreign investment===Officially, the government of Djibouti welcomes all foreign direct investment.", "Djibouti's assets include a strategic geographic location, an open trade regime, a stable currency, substantial tax breaks and other incentives.", "Potential areas of investment include Djibouti's port and the telecommunications sectors.", "President Ismail Omar Guellehh first elected in 1999, has named privatization, economic reform, and increased foreign investment as top priorities for his government.", "The president pledged to seek the help of the international private sector to develop the country's infrastructure.Djibouti has no major laws that would discourage incoming foreign investment.", "In principle there is no screening of investment or other discriminatory mechanisms.", "However, a number of hurdles to foreign investment in the country exist.", "For example, certain sectors, most notably public utilities, are state owned and some parts are not currently open to investors.", "In 2017, a law was passed granting the government the right to unilaterally alter or terminate contracts with foreign entities.", "Conditions of the structural adjustment agreement recently signed by Djibouti and the International Monetary Fund stipulate increased privatization of parastatal and government-owned monopolies.", "There are no patent laws in Djibouti.Furthermore, there are concerns about the rule of law, the independence of courts, and how this affects the protection of investments in the country.", "A Freedom House report, for example, mentions the case of Dubai-based port operator DP World which has been embroiled in a legal battle with Djibouti since 2012, \"when Djibouti sold part of its concession in the Doraleh Container Terminal to a Chinese state-owned competitor of DP World, the original concession partner.", "\"In 2018, Djibouti seized DP World's port assets, but ruling the nationalization illegal, the London Court of International Arbitration in 2019 ordered Djibouti to restore the rights and benefits of the concession to DP World.", "The country subsequently rejected the ruling and asked the Djibouti high court to unilaterally nullify the LCIA decision.A Santander report concluded that despite its strategic importance, FDI into Djibouti is hampered by \"mediocre governance, corruption, the lack of a sound judicial framework, an unstable regional geopolitical situation, a poorly diversified economy with little resilience to outside shocks, and a fragile ecosystem prone to environmental crisis.", "\"As in most African nations, access to licenses and approvals is complicated not so much by law as by administrative procedures.", "In Djibouti, the administrative process has been characterized as a form of 'circular dependency.'", "For example, the finance ministry will issue a license only if an investor possesses an approved investor visa, while the interior ministry will only issue an investor visa to a licensed business.", "The Djiboutian government is increasingly realizing the importance of establishing a one-stop shop to facilitate the investment process.=== Gender ===In May 2015 Choukri Djibah, Director of Gender in the Department of Women and Family, launched the project SIHA (Strategic Initiative for the Horn of Africa) designed to support and reinforce the economic capacity of women in Djibouti, funded with a grant from the European Union of 28 Million Djibouti francs." ], [ "Sectors", "===Trade===A proportional representation of Djibouti exports, 2019Saba Islamic Bank branch in Djibouti City.Principal exports from the region transiting Djibouti are coffee, salt, hides, dried beans, cereals, other agricultural products, chalk, and wax.", "Djibouti itself has few exports, and the majority of its imports come from France.", "Most imports are consumed in Djibouti and the remainder goes to Ethiopia and Somalia.", "Djibouti's unfavorable balance of trade is offset partially by invisible earnings such as transit taxes and harbor dues.", "In 1999, U.S. exports to Djibouti totalled $26.7 million while U.S. imports from Djibouti were less than $1 million.", "The City of Djibouti has the only paved airport in the republic.===Tourism===In 2013, 63,000 foreign tourists visited Djibouti, Djibouti City is the principal tourist destination for visitors, revenues from tourism fell just US$43 million in 2013." ], [ "See also", "* Ministry of Economy and Finance (Djibouti)* Djibouti and the World Bank* IMF Relations with Djibouti* List of companies based in Djibouti* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Djibouti latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* Richard Labelle, \"Djibouti ICT strategy and action plan\", 28 May 2003* African Development Bank, \"Djibouti: Results-based country strategy paper, 2007-2010\", October 2007* Le système informel de transferts de fonds et le mécanisme automatique du Currency Board : complémentarité ou antagonisme ?", "Le cas des transferts des hawalas à Djibouti" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Djibouti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Djibouti''' is facilitated through a relatively young system of roads, railways and ports." ], [ "Air transport", "An Air Djibouti aircraft at the Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport (2016).===Airlines===The national flag carrier is Air Djibouti.", "In total, there are other airlines, all operating out of Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport:* Jubba Airways===Airports===The aviation industry is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority of Djibouti, a statutory board of the Djibouti government under the Ministry of Infrastructure & Transport.", "'''Airport and airbase technical data''' AirportICAOIATAUsageRunwayLength(ft)Length(m)Remarks Djibouti–Ambouli International AirportHDAMJIBCivilian/MilitaryPaved103353150 Chabelley AirportHDCHnoneMilitaryPaved85302600" ], [ "Maritime transport", "An Ethiopian cargo ship docked at the Port of Djibouti.===Ports and harbours===The Port of Djibouti, run by the Djibouti Ports & Free Zones Authority and Port of Doraleh, is a key transhipment hub for the East African region." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "Michelon 745 Africa North East, Arabia 2007GeoCenter Africa North East 1999*Maplanida.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Djibouti Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Djibouti Armed Forces''' ('''DJAF'''; , , ) are the military forces of Djibouti.", "They consist of the Djiboutian National Army and its sub-branches the Djiboutian Air Force and Djiboutian Navy.", "As of 2018, the Djibouti Armed Forces consists of 20,470 (2018 est.)", "ground troops, which are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country.", "The Djibouti Armed Forces are an important player in the Bab-el-Mandeb and Red Sea.In 2015 General Zakaria Chiek Imbrahim was ''chief d'etat-major general'' (chief of staff) of the ''Forces Armees Djiboutiennes''.", "He assumed command in November 2013.Djibouti has always been a very active member in the African Union and the Arab League." ], [ "History", "Qatari Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Salem bin Hamad bin Mohammed bin Aqeel Al NabitHistorically, Somali society accorded prestige to the warrior (''waranle'') and rewarded military prowess.", "Except for men of religion (''wadaad''), who were few in number, all Somali males were considered potential warriors.Djibouti's many Sultanates each maintained regular troops.", "In the early Middle Ages, the conquest of Shewa by the Ifat Sultanate ignited a rivalry for supremacy with the Solomonic Dynasty.Many similar battles were fought between the succeeding Sultanate of Adal and the Solomonids, with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat.", "During the protracted Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1559), Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi defeated several Ethiopian Emperors and embarked on a conquest referred to as the ''Futuh Al-Habash'' (\"Conquest of Abyssinia\"), which brought three-quarters of Christian Abyssinia under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate.", "Al-Ghazi's forces and their Ottoman allies came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, but the Abyssinians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy.", "However, both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come.===First World War===The 1st Battalion of Somali Skirmishers, formed in 1915 from recruits from the French Somali Coast, was a unit belonging to the French Colonial Army.", "They distinguished himself during the First World War, notably during the resumption of Fort Douaumont, Battle of Verdun in October 1916 alongside the Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine and the Second Battle of the Aisne in October 1917.In May and June 1918, they took part in the Third Battle Of The Aisne and in July in the Second Battle of the Marne.", "In August and September 1918, the Somali battalion fought on the Oise front and in October 1918 he obtained his second citation to the order of the army as well as the right to wear a Fourragère in the colors of the ribbon of the Croix de guerre 1914–1918.Between 1915 and 1918, over 2,088 Djiboutians served as combat in the First World War.", "Their losses are estimated at 517 killed and 1,000 to 1,200 injured.===Second World War===British Military Parade in Presidential Palace, Djibouti City 1942During the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s and during the early stages of World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between the forces in French Somaliland and the forces in Italian East Africa.", "After the fall of France in 1940, French Somaliland declared loyalty to Vichy France.", "The colony remained loyal to Vichy France during the East African Campaign but stayed out of that conflict.", "British forces in Ethiopia begin dropping leaflets calling on the French Somaliland to rally to Free France.", "The newspaper Djibouti Libre published in Dire Dawa is also air dropped into the Vichy controlled colony and a 15-minute newscast is broadcast over the radio.", "In '''1942''': Vichy recalls Governor Pierre Nouailhetas after his superiors decide that he is in too close contact with the British.", "Nouailhetas delegates his authority to the military commander General Truffert.", "Two battalions, accompanied by civilians, leave Djibouti to join the British forces in British Somaliland.", "General Truffert is forced to resign and cede power to his adjutant General Dupont after a great majority of Djibouti’s military and civil administrators threaten to leave for British held Somaliland.", "This lasted until December 1942.By that time, the Italians had been defeated and the French colony was isolated by a British blockade.", "Free French and Allied forces recaptured the colony's capital of Djibouti at the end of 1942.A local battalion of Somali skirmishers to participate in the battles for the liberation of France, it participated in particular in the fighting at Pointe de Grave in April 1945.On April 22, 1945, General de Gaulle awarded the Somali battalion a citation to the army and decorated the battalion's pennant in Soulac-sur-Mer.", "The Somali battalion is dissolved on June 25, 1946.===Ogaden War===The Ogaden War (13 July 1977 – 15 March 1978) was a conflict fought between the Ethiopian government and Somali government.", "The Djibouti government supported Somalia with military intelligence.", "In a notable illustration of the nature of Cold War alliances, the Soviet Union switched from supplying aid to Somalia to supporting Ethiopia, which had previously been backed by the United States.", "This in turn prompted the U.S. to later start supporting Somalia.", "The war ended when Somali forces retreated back across the border and a truce was declared.A Djibouti Armed Forces commander.===Ethiopian Civil War===In the 27 May to June 13, 1991, the Djiboutian Armed Forces and FFDJ participated in Operation Godoria.", "The President of the Djiboutian Republic, Hassan Gouled Aptidon described this as a \"invasion\".", "At the end of May 1991, the collapse of the Ethiopian regime the Assab loyalist division.", "Crossed the border at dawn, cornered on the northern border of Djibouti, Assab's division, 9,000 strong, crossed the Djiboutian-Ethiopian border with arms and luggage and headed towards Obock.", "Simultaneously, another division crossed the Western border and moved towards Dikhil.", "This violation of the borders by a regular foreign army falls strictly within the framework of the protocols passed between France and Djibouti.", "This is why, on May 26 at 10:30 p.m., Operation Godoria is launched, all Djiboutian and French forces, land, air and sea stationed in Djibouti participate in it.", "Djiboutian Army, prohibit Ethiopian troops from surging towards the south.", "Djiboutian and French troops deployed, facing the firmness of their interlocutors, the Ethiopian officers yielded to the demands and agreed to continue the disarmament already begun.", "The 5th Overseas Interarms Regiment took charge of a detachment of 4,300 military refugees, accompanied by a few families and embarked in 120 vehicles of all types heading towards the southern border.", "The initial aim is to clean up a border area of 150 km2, collect, remove supplies, inventory and hand over abandoned weapons to the Djiboutian authorities.", "The \"Lynx Mike\" detachment identifies thousands of individual and collective weapons, includes the T 55, ZU-23-2,BTR and BRDM, finally destroys the 50 tons of unpackaged ammunition of all calibers.", "From May 30 to June 13, there will be a total of 12,500 weapons from the AK47 to the T64, including LRMs, 122 howitzers and more than 200 tons of ammunition from the 200 kg bomb to the cartridge factory, via rockets LRM which will have been moved, sorted, stored, even for some of them neutralized or destroyed.", "For the first time since the accession to independence of Djibouti, the Djiboutian national army and the French forces placed in a highly operational environment, will have proved the validity of the defense agreements binding the two countries contributed to the success of this mission to safeguard the Republic of Djibouti.", "Perfectly impregnated with the spirit of the mission, the porpoises, from the colonel to the simple soldier, knew how to demand from this Ethiopian army, demoralized, but still supervised, the strict application of the orders emanating from the civil and military authorities, Djiboutian and French, in starting with disarmament before providing them with the food support that has become essential.", "Around 10:00 am, the convoy begins its progress in the direction of Ali Sabieh.", "Then reached Ali Sabieh where the refugees were taken care of by the Djiboutian Army and the High Commissioner for Refugees.", "Most will reach the region of Dire Dawa, in eastern Ethiopia.===Djiboutian Civil War===Djiboutian troops with Humvees near the border of EritreaThe first war which involved the Djiboutian armed forces was the Djiboutian Civil War between the Djiboutian government, supported by France, and the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (''FRUD'').", "The war lasted from 1991 to 2001, although most of the hostilities ended when the moderate factions of FRUD signed a peace treaty with the government after suffering an extensive military setback when the government forces captured most of the rebel-held territory.", "A radical group continued to fight the government, but signed its own peace treaty in 2001.The war ended in a government victory, and FRUD became a political party.===Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict===Djibouti has fought in clashes against Eritrea over the Ras Doumeira peninsula, which both countries claim to be under their sovereignty.", "The first clash occurred in 1996 after a nearly two-months stand-off.", "In 1999, a political crisis occurred when both sides accused each other for supporting its enemies.", "In 2008, the countries clashed again when Djibouti refused to return Eritrean deserters and Eritrea responded by firing at the Djiboutian forces.", "In the following battles, some 44 Djiboutian troops and some estimated 100 Eritreans were killed.===African Union Mission to Somalia===Djiboutian Soldier patrol the base in Beledweyne, Somalia.In 2011, Djibouti troops also joined the African Union Mission to Somalia.", "Djibouti deployed troops to Somalia to fight Al-Shabaab forces and Al-Qaeda operatives, with the hopes of dismantling both groups to support the transitional governmental structures, implement a national security plan, train the Somali security forces, and to assist in creating a secure environment for the delivery of humanitarian aid.", "Djibouti's responsibilities include providing security in Hiran and Galguduud regions.", "As of 2013, the Djibouti Armed Forces (DJAF) are composed of three branches: the Djibouti National Army, which consists of the Coastal Navy, the Djiboutian Air Force (Force Aerienne Djiboutienne, FAD), and the National Gendarmerie (GN).", "The Army is by far the largest, followed by the Air Force and Navy.", "The Commander-in-Chief of the DJAF is the President of Djibouti and the Minister of Defence oversees the DJAF on a day-to-day basis." ], [ "Component forces and their organization", "Djiboutian Army WMA-301 during a demonstration at Maryama base.Refer to decree No 2003-0166/PR/MDN on organization of Djibouti Armed Forces.", "The armed forces consist of:* The General Staff of the Armed Forces.", "* A Defense Staff.", "* An infantry force: one rapid action regiment, two paratrooper battalions, one combined arms regiment at Obock, one combined arms regiment at Tadjourah, one combined arms regiment in Dikhil, one combined arms battalion in Ali-Sabieh and one reinforced company in Damerjog.", "* Specific forces and fire support: one armored regiment, one artillery regiment and one group of combat engineer.", "* The Navy* The Air Force* The Schools Command.", "* The Headquarters Regiment.", "* The Central Material Directorate.", "* The Health Service.===Djiboutian Army===Djiboutian army soldiers conduct a patrol on the border.The Djiboutian National Army (DNA) is the largest branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces.", "Just prior to independence in 1977, the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas established a national army to defend the Djiboutian's borders.", "The 6 June 1977 has since been marked as Armed Forces Day.", "After independence, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis troops merged to form the 2,500 strong Djiboutian National Army.", "Djibouti maintains a modest military force of approximately 20,470 troops; the army is made of 18,600 troops (IISS 2018).", "The latter are divided into several regiments and battalions garrisoned in various areas throughout the country.", "The Army has four military districts (the Tadjourah, Dikhil, Ali-Sabieh and Obock districts).", "Clashes with the Military of Eritrea, in 2008, demonstrated the superior nature of the Djiboutian forces’ training and skills, but also highlighted the fact that the small military would be unable to counter the larger, if less well-equipped forces of its neighbours.", "The army has concentrated on mobility in its equipment purchases, suitable for patrol duties and counterattacks but ill-suited for armoured warfare.", "The 2008 border clashes at least temporarily swelled the ranks of the Djiboutian army, with retired personnel being recalled, but the military's size and capabilities are much reduced since the 1990s.", "The army to address more effectively its major defense disadvantage: lack of strategic depth.", "Thus in the early 2000s it looked outward for a model of army organization that would best advance defensive capabilities by restructuring forces into smaller, more mobile units instead of traditional divisions.", "The official tasks of the armed forces include strengthening the country against external attack, and maintaining border security.", "Djiboutian troops continue to monitor its borders with Eritrea, in the case of an attack.", "The Djiboutian Army is one of the small professional advanced armies in East Africa.Its maneuver units are:One armoured regiment (comprising a reconnaissance squadron, three armoured squadrons and an anti-smuggling squadron)Four infantry regiments (each comprising three to four infantry companies and a support company) Regiment interarmées de TadjourahRegiment interarmees de Obock*Two other infantry regimentsOne rapid reaction regiment (comprising four infantry companies and a support company) One Republican Guard regiment One artillery regiment One demining company One signals regiment One computer and information systems section One logistics regiment One maintenance companyItaly delivered 10 howitzers M-109L (in 2013), tens IVECO trucks (ACM90, cranes, tankers, etc.", "), some IVECO armoured car Puma 4X4 and IVECO utility vehicles VM90.In reforming the Djiboutian Army, most of the available financial resources have been directed to the development of the Land Forces.", "Over the years, Djiboutian Army has established partnerships with militaries in France, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Morocco and the United States.", "Currently, the amount allocated to defense represents the largest single entry in the country's budget.===Djiboutian National Gendarmerie===The Djiboutian National Gendarmerie is the national Gendarmerie force of Djibouti, tasked with high-risk and specialized law enforcement duties.", "It is one of the two main police forces in Djibouti (the other being the Djiboutian Police - a civilian force), both having jurisdiction over the civilian population.", "It is a branch of the Djiboutian Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense.", "Its area of responsibility includes smaller towns, rural and suburban areas.===Djiboutian Navy===The Djiboutian Navy (DN) is the naval service branch of the Djibouti Armed Forces.", "The force was launched two years after Djibouti gained its independence in 1977.It is responsible for securing Djibouti's territorial waters and seaboard as well as supporting army operations.", "The primary objective of the navy is to safeguard the nation's maritime borders, act to deter or defeat any threats or aggression against the territory, people or maritime interests of Djibouti, both in war and peace.", "Through joint exercises and humanitarian missions, including disaster relief, the Djiboutian Navy promotes bilateral relations between nations.", "It has a fleet of gunboats, fast missile boats and support, training, which can be deployed to defend the territorial waters and coastline of Djibouti as well as protect tankers passing through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait.", "The acquisition of the several boats from the US in 2006 considerably increased the navy's ability to patrol over longer distances and to remain at sea for several days at a time.", "Cooperation with the US and Yemeni navies is also increasing in an effort to protect and maintain the safety and security of the Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOC).", "The Navy is upgrading itself with the following technological developments.Djiboutian Coast Guard vessels gathered at the port in Djibouti City for a celebration on 17 January 2018===Djiboutian Coast Guard===The Djiboutian Coast Guard (DCG) ( GCD), is the coast guard of Djibouti is a division of the Djiboutian Navy responsible for protecting the interests of the Republic of Djibouti at sea.", "Formed in 2011, the coast guard is tasked with such as illegal fishing and exploitation of natural resources, search and rescue (SAR), protection of ecology, fishing, marine pollution, ballast waters, combat against terrorism, trafficking of people, narcotics, and similar.", "Like many other coast guards, it is a paramilitary organization that can support the Djiboutian Navy in wartime, but resides under separate civilian control in times of peace.", "The Coast Guard monitor vessels sailing in the Djiboutian territorial waters.", "The Djiboutian Coast Guard intercepted refugee and migrant boats travelling across the Bab-el-Mandeb.===Djiboutian Air Force===Djiboutian Air Force helicopters on display at Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport.The Djiboutian Air Force (DAF) (French: Force Aérienne du Djibouti (FADD) was established as part of the Djibouti Armed Forces after the country obtained its independence on June 27, 1977.Its first aircraft included three Nord N.2501 Noratlas transport aircraft and an Alouette II helicopter presented to it by the French.", "In 1982, the Djibouti Air Force was augmented by two Aerospatiale AS.355F Ecureuil 2 helicopters and a Cessna U206G Stationair, this was followed in 1985 by a Cessna 402C Utiliner.", "In 1985, the Alouette II was withdrawn from use and put on display at Ambouli Air Base at Djibouti's airport.", "In 1987, the three N.2501 Noratlas were also retired and subsequently returned to France.", "New equipment came, in 1991, in the form of a Cessna 208 Caravan, followed by Russian types in the early nineties.", "These included four Mil Mi 2, six Mil Mi 8 and two Mil Mi 17 helicopters and a single Antonov An 28 light transport aircraft.", "Pilot training for the 360 men of the DAF, if necessary, is conducted in France with continued on type flight training at home.", "The DAF has no units of its own and forms in whole a part of the Army, its sole base is Ambouli.===Doctrine===The Homeland Defense Medal's was awarded to Djiboutian forces for duties related to the Djiboutian Civil War raids between 1991 and 1993.The main doctrine consists of the following principles: Djibouti cannot afford to lose a war* A small standing army with good capabilities.", "* Desire to avoid war by political means.=== Personnel ===The size and structure of the Djibouti Armed Forces is continually evolving.+ '''Historical personnel of the Djibouti Armed Forces''' 35pxRepublic of Djibouti1977197919821985198919921998200020072015'''Regular'''2,8004,0006,8008,0009,00020,00013,00012,90010,50016,000'''Army Reserve'''1,0001,5002,2004,0005004,5006,0008,0009,500'''Total''''''2,800''''''5,000''''''8,200''''''10,200''''''13,000''''''20,500''''''17,500''''''18,900''''''18,500''''''25,500'''As of 2018, Djibouti Armed Forces were reported to have 18,000–20,000 active personnel, 10,500–11,000 reserve personnel.", "'''Component''''''in service''''''Reserve'''18,600 11,000370 2201,500 1,000'''Totals''''''20,470''''''12,220'''" ], [ "UN peacekeeping forces", "borderrightDjibouti first UN Peacekeeping mission was in 1994, when it deployed uniformed personnel to the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) and the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR).", "Djibouti UN peacekeeping mission in the Darfur, Sudan in 2010, withdrew their personnel from Sudan on the 30 June 2021.Djibouti has committed to strengthening international action through the African Union to achieve collective security and uphold the goals enshrined in the Purposes and Principles of the UN Charter and the Constitutive Act of the African Union.", "Deployed in 3 countries in Somalia, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Central African Republic.Djiboutian forces artillery ready to fire on Al-Shabaab militants near the town of Buloburde, Somalia.The table below shows the current deployment of Djiboutian Forces in UN Peacekeeping missions.", "'''Name of Operation''' '''Location''' '''Conflict''' '''Contribution'''United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC)Democratic Republic of Congo Second Congo War35 Troops.United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA)Central African Republic Central African Republic Civil War195 Troops.African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS)Federal Republic of Somalia Somali Civil War3,500 Troops." ], [ "Foreign military within Djibouti", "Djibouti troops in first responder course with United States Army soldiers.===France===France's 5e RIAOM are currently stationed in Djibouti.===Italy===The Italian ''Base Militare Nazionale di Supporto'' (National Support Military Base) is capable to host 300 troops and some UAVs.===United States===There is also Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa, a U.S. force of more than 3,500, currently deployed in the country at Camp Lemonnier.===Japan===The Japan Self-Defense Force Base Djibouti was established in 2011.The ''Deployment Airforce for Counter-Piracy Enforcement'' (DAPE): Established in 2011 with approximately 600 deployed personnel from the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, on a rotational basis, operating naval vessels and maritime patrol aircraft.", "Japan reportedly pays $30 million per year for the military facilities, from which it conducts anti-piracy operations in the region.", "The base also acts as a hub for operations throughout the East African coastline.===China===The Chinese naval support base in Djibouti began construction in 2016 and was officially opened in 2017." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Dominica" ], [ "Introduction", "The first written records in the '''history of Dominica''' began in November 1493, when Christopher Columbus spotted the island.", "Prior to European contact, Dominica was inhabited by the Arawak.", "Dominica was a French colony from 1715 until the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, and then became a British colony from 1763 to 1978.It became an independent nation in 1978." ], [ "Pre-colonial", "The Arawak were guided to Dominica, and other islands of the Caribbean, by the South Equatorial Current from the waters of the Orinoco River.", "These descendants of the early Taínos were overthrown by the Kalinago tribe of the Caribs.", "The Caribs, who settled here in the 14th century, called the island ''Wai‘tu kubuli'', which means \"Tall is her body.\"" ], [ "Early European contacts", "Christopher Columbus named the island after the day of the week on which he spotted it - a Sunday ('Dominica' in Latin) - which fell on 3 November 1493 on his second voyage.Daunted by fierce resistance from the Caribs and discouraged by the absence of gold, the Spanish did not settle the island.", "Many of the remaining Carib people live in Dominica's Carib Territory, a district on Dominica's east coast.In 1632, the French Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique claimed Dominica along with all the other 'Petite Antilles' but no settlement was attempted.", "Between 1642 and 1650 a French missionary Raymond Breton became the first regular European visitor to the island.", "In 1660 the French and English agreed that both Dominica and St. Vincent should not be settled, but instead left to the Caribs as neutral territory.", "Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of English and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century." ], [ "French colony: 1715–1763", "Spain had little to no success in colonizing Dominica and in 1690, the French established their first permanent settlements in Dominica.", "French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up timber camps to supply the French islands with wood and gradually become permanent settlers.", "They brought the first enslaved people from West Africa to Dominica.", "In 1715, a revolt of \"poor white\" smallholders in the north of Martinique, known as La Gaoulé, caused an exodus of them to southern Dominica.", "They set up smallholdings.", "Meanwhile, French families and others from Guadeloupe settled in the north.", "In 1727, the first French commander, M. Le Grand, took charge of the island with a basic French government; Dominica formally became a colony of France, and the island was divided into districts or \"quarters\".", "Already installed in Martinique and Guadeloupe and cultivating sugar cane, the French gradually developed plantations in Dominica for coffee.", "They imported African slaves to fill the labor demands replacing the indigenous Caribs.In 1761, during the Seven Years' War a British expedition against Dominica led by Lord Rollo was successful and the island was conquered along with several other Caribbean islands.", "After France was defeated by Britain in the Seven Years' War, it ceded the island to the British under the Treaty of Paris (1763).", "In 1778, during the American Revolutionary War, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population.", "The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain.", "French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure." ], [ "British colony: 1763–1978", "''Majestueux'' at the burning of Rousseau on 22 February 1805As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years' War, the island became a British possession.", "In 1778, during the American War of Independence, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population, which was largely French.", "The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain.", "French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure.", "The 22 February 1805 invasion burned much of Roseau to the ground.In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the white population.", "In 1831, reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the Brown Privilege Bill conferred political and social rights on free nonwhites.", "Three Blacks were elected to the legislative assembly the following year.", "The abolition of slavery in 1834 enabled Dominica by 1838 to become the only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century.", "Most Black legislators were small holders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class.", "Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule.In 1865, after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one composed of one-half elected members and one-half appointed.", "The elected legislators were outmaneuvered on numerous occasions by planters allied with colonial administrators.", "In 1871, Dominica became part of the Leeward Island Federation.", "The power of the Black population progressively eroded.", "Crown Colony government was re-established in 1896.Following World War I, an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the representative government association.", "Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in 1924 and one-half in 1936.Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the Windwards until 1958, when it joined the short-lived West Indies Federation.In 1961, a Dominica Labor Party government led by Edward Oliver LeBlanc was elected.", "After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom on February 27, 1967 and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs.", "LeBlanc retired in 1974 and was replaced by Patrick John who became the islands' first Prime Minister." ], [ "Independence: 1978 to present day", "On November 3, 1978, the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by the United Kingdom.In August 1979, Hurricane David, packing winds of , struck the island with devastating force.", "Forty-two people were killed and 75% of the islanders' homes were destroyed or severely damaged.Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic underdevelopment, and in mid-1979, political discontent led to the formation of an interim government, led by Oliver Seraphin.", "It was replaced after the 1980 elections by a government led by the Dominica Freedom Party under Prime Minister Eugenia Charles, the Caribbean's first female prime minister.", "Within a year of her inauguration she survived two unsuccessful coups and in October 1983, as chairperson of the Organisation of East Caribbean States, endorsed the US Invasion of Grenada.Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980.By the end of the 1980s, the economy had made a healthy recovery, which weakened in the 1990s due to a decrease in banana prices.In 1995 the government was defeated in elections by the United Workers Party of Edison James.", "James became prime minister, serving until the February 2000 elections, when the Dominica United Workers Party (DUWP) was defeated by the Dominica Labour Party (DLP), led by Rosie Douglas.", "He was a former socialist activist, and many feared that his approach to politics might be impractical.", "However, these were somewhat quieted when he formed a coalition with the more conservative Dominica Freedom Party.", "Douglas died suddenly after only eight months in office, on October 1, 2000, and was replaced by Pierre Charles, also of the DLP.", "In 2003, Nicholas Liverpool was elected and sworn in as president, succeeding Vernon Shaw.", "On January 6, 2004, Prime Minister Pierre Charles, who had been suffering from heart problems since 2003, died.", "He became the second consecutive prime minister of Dominica to die in office of a heart attack.", "The foreign minister, Osborne Riviere immediately became prime minister, but the education minister, Roosevelt Skerrit succeeded him as prime minister and became the new leader of the Dominica Labour Party.", "Elections were held on May 5, 2005, with the ruling coalition maintaining power.In 2017, Hurricane Maria struck Dominica and was the most powerful and devastating hurricane ever recorded in Dominica.President Charles Angelo Savarin was re-elected in 2018.In the 2019 general elections The Dominica Labour Party (DLP) was given another overwhelming mandate – for a record fifth consecutive five-year term.", "The party’s charismatic but often maligned leader, Roosevelt Skerrit, will serve a new five-year term as the Prime Minister of Dominica." ], [ "See also", "British colonization of the AmericasFrench colonization of the AmericasHistory of the AmericasHistory of the British West IndiesHistory of North AmericaHistory of the CaribbeanList of prime ministers of DominicaPolitics of DominicaSpanish colonization of the Americas" ], [ "References", " Rouse, Irving.", "''The Taínos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus''.", "New Haven & London: Yale University Press c1992.", "* Honeychurch, Lennox ''The Dominica Story: A History of the Island'' (1995)" ], [ "External links", "* History of Dominica by Lennox Honeychurch* Dominican slavery" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Dominica" ], [ "Introduction", "Dominica is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located about halfway between the French islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south).", "Its coordinates are 15 25 N, 61 20 W. It is known as \"The Nature Island of the Caribbean\" due to its spectacular, lush, and varied flora and fauna, which is protected by an extensive natural park system.", "It is the fourth largest island in the Eastern Caribbean with a population of people mainly of African descent.The lowest point in the country is at sea level along the coast, and the highest is Morne Diablotins ().", "The extreme southwestern coast of the island includes a large collapsed submarine caldera.", "Portions of the exposed rim of this caldera form the southwestern tip of the island at Scotts Head.", "Natural resources include farming, hydropower and timber.Geographically, Dominica is distinctive in many ways.", "The country has one of the most rugged landscapes in the Caribbean, covered by a largely unexploited, multi-layered rain forest.", "It is also among the Earth's most rain-drenched lands, and the water runoff forms cascading rivers and natural pools.", "The island, home to rare species of wildlife, is considered by many as a beautiful, unspoiled tropical preserve.", "According to a popular West Indian belief, Dominica is the only New World territory that Columbus would still recognize.Dominica is the largest and most northerly of the Windward Islands.", "The island faces the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Caribbean Sea to the west.", "Its nearest neighbours are the French islands of Guadeloupe, some north, and Martinique, about south.", "Oblong-shaped and slightly smaller than New York City, Dominica is in area, in length, and in width.", "Roseau, the nation's capital and major port, is favourably situated on the sheltered, southwestern coast." ], [ "Climate", "The island's climate is tropical, moderated by northeast trade winds and heavy rainfall.Dominica has a tropical rainforest climate and some areas bordering on a tropical monsoon climate with characteristically warm temperatures and heavy rainfall.", "Excessive heat and humidity are tempered somewhat by a steady flow of the northeast trade winds, which periodically develop into hurricanes during the Northern Hemisphere's summer.", "The steep interior slopes also alter temperatures and winds.", "Because of the moderating effects of the surrounding ocean, temperature ranges are slight.", "Average daytime temperatures generally vary from in January to in June.", "Diurnal ranges are usually no greater than in most places, but temperatures dipping to on the highest peaks are not uncommon.Most of the island's ample supply of water is brought by the.. trade winds.", "Although amounts vary with the location, rain is possible throughout the year, with the greatest monthly totals recorded from June through October.", "Average yearly rainfall along the windward east coast frequently exceeds , and exposed mountainsides receive up to , among the highest accumulations in the world.", "Totals on the leeward west coast, however, are only about per year.", "Humidities are closely tied to rainfall patterns, with the highest values occurring on windward slopes and the lowest in sheltered areas.", "Relative humidity readings between 70 percent and 90 percent have been recorded in Roseau.Hurricanes and severe winds, most likely to occur during the wettest months, occasionally are devastating.", "The most recent hurricane of note was the devastating Hurricane Maria in 2017.On August 17, 2007, Hurricane Dean, a Category 1 at the time, hit the island.", "A mother and her seven-year-old son died when a landslide caused by the heavy rains fell onto their house.", "In another incident two people were injured when a tree fell on their house.", "Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit estimated that 100 to 125 homes were damaged, and that the agriculture sector was extensively damaged, in particular the banana crop.", "Before that were David and Frederic in August 1979 and Allen in August 1980.The 1979 hurricanes caused over 40 deaths, 2,500 injuries, and extensive destruction of housing and crops.", "Many agricultural commodities were destroyed during the 1980 storm, and about 25 percent of the banana crop was destroyed by strong winds in 1984.Below is the climate data for Roseau, the capital city located on the western side of Dominica partially shielded from the trade winds by the mountains." ], [ "Bays", "Bays are as follows from the northern tip of the island in a clockwise direction:Agoucha Bay,Sandwich Bay,Grand Baptiste Bay,Petit Baptiste Bay, La Taille Bay, Rough Bay,Marigot Bay,Walker's Rest Bay,Sophia Bay,Londonderry Bay, Mango Hole Bay,Middle Bay,Panto Hole Bay,Petite Soufriere Bay, Soufriere Bay, Woodbridge Bay,Prince Rupert Bay,Douglas Bay." ], [ "Geology", "Dominica was the last island to be formed in the Caribbean.", "The island was created by volcanic action about 26 million years ago.", "It lies upon two opposing tectonic plates.", "This explains why an island a bit bigger than Martha's Vineyard has mountains approaching .Geologically, Dominica is part of the rugged Lesser Antilles volcanic arc.", "The country's central spine, a northwest–southeast axis of steep volcanic slopes and deep gorges, generally varies in elevation from above sea level.", "Several east-west trending mountain spurs extend to the narrow coastal plain, which is studded with sea cliffs and has level stretches no wider than .", "The highest peak is Morne Diablotins, at ; Morne Trois Pitons, with an elevation of , lies farther south and is the site of the national park.The interior features rugged mountains of volcanic origin.", "Volcanism is still quite evident on the island, the most popular examples being Dominica's Boiling Lake and \"valley of desolation.\"", "The boiling lake (the world's second largest) is within a crater and is fed by a waterfall - the boiling is believed to be caused by the heat of a magma chamber beneath the lake.", "The valley of desolation is a sulfurous valley of volcanic vents and hot springs that inhibits significant plant growth - in stark contrast to the surrounding rain forest.", "Technically dormant today, this caldera last erupted in 1880.The area that exploded on 4 January 1880 was reported to be \"fully nine square miles\".Volcanic rock at Pagua Bay, DominicaDominica's rugged surface is marked by its volcanic past.", "Rock formations are mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolite, with fallen boulders and sharp-edged protrusions peppering slope bases.", "The light- to dark-hued clay and sandy soils, derived from the rocks and decomposed vegetation, are generally fertile and porous.", "Only a few interior valleys and coastal strips are flat enough for soil accumulations of consequence, however.", "Although scores of mostly mild seismic shocks were recorded in 1986, volcanic eruptions ceased thousands of years ago.", "Sulfuric springs and steam vents, largely concentrated in the central and southern parts of the island, remain active, however.", "One of the largest springs, Boiling Lake, is located in the national park.Dominica is water-rich with swift-flowing highland streams, which cascade into deep gorges and form natural pools and crater lakes.", "The streams are not navigable, but many are sources of hydroelectric power.", "Trafalgar Falls, located near the national park, is one of the most spectacular sites on the island.", "The falls consists of twin waterfalls known as the mother and father or the Mama and the Papa.", "At the base of each waterfall are natural pools.", "Locals and tourists alike come here to enjoy the water.", "At the base of the Papa fall a natural hot spring can also be found which heats a portion of its pool.", "The principal rivers flowing westward are the Layou and the Roseau, and the major one emptying eastward is the Toulaman.", "The largest crater lake, called Boeri, is located in the national park.", "There are 83 \"significant\" waterways on the island out of a total of 365 with also includes rills and brooks." ], [ "Fauna", "There are 172 species of birds, including four species of hummingbird, broad-winged hawks, yellow-crowned night herons, and the brown trembler.", "Some plants and animals thought to be extinct on surrounding islands can still be found in Dominica's forests.The sisserou parrot is Dominica's national bird and is indigenous to its mountain forests.The Caribbean Sea offshore of the island of Dominica is home to many cetaceans.", "Most notably a small group of sperm whales live in this area year round.", "These are shy animals, but there is a good chance of seeing them if you go out on a calm day.", "Other cetaceans commonly seen in the area include pilot whale, Fraser's dolphin, pantropical spotted dolphin and bottlenose dolphin.", "Less commonly seen animals include Cuvier's beaked whale, false killer whale, pygmy sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, Risso's dolphin, common dolphin, humpback whale and Bryde's whale.", "This makes Dominica a destination for tourists interested in whale-watching." ], [ "Statistics", "Enlargeable, detailed map of Dominica'''Map references:'''Central America and the Caribbean'''Area:'''''total:''751 km2''land:''751 km2'''Coastline:'''148 km'''Maritime claims:'''''territorial sea:''''contiguous zone:''''exclusive economic zone:'''''Land use:'''''arable land:''8%''permanent crops:''24%''other:''68% (2012 est.", ")'''Irrigated land:'''NA km2'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:'' 0.02 km3/a''per capita:'' 244.1 m3/a (2004)'''Natural hazards:'''Flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months'''Environment - international agreements:'''''Party to:''Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling=== Extreme points ===* Southernmost point – Coast southeast of Scotts Head, Saint Mark Parish * Westernmost point – Pointe Ronde, Saint John Parish* Easternmost point – Pointe à Peine, Saint David Parish* Highest point – Morne Diablotins: 1,447 m* Lowest point – Caribbean Sea: 0 m" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "*** '''Attribution:''' " ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Dominica" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a demography of the population of Dominica including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "According to the preliminary 2011 census results Dominica has a population of 71,293.The population growth rate is very low, due primarily to emigration to more prosperous Caribbean Islands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia.", "The estimated mid-year population of is ().===Population by parishes=== Name Population Percentage of national population Total area (km²) Population density Saint Andrew 14.77% 59 Saint David 9.58% 52 Saint George 28.54% 360 Saint John 8.33% 100 Saint Joseph 8.14% 48 Saint Luke 2.22% 203 Saint Mark 2.67% 191 Saint Patrick 11.84% 99 Saint Paul 11.86% 125 Saint Peter 2.05% 52 100% 105" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Average population (x 1000)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rateInfant mortality rate 1950 511 848 948 90036.218.617.6 1951 521 965 8741 09138.016.921.1 1952 522 0911 108 98340.021.218.8 1953 532 080 7791 30139.314.724.6 1954 542 345 7591 58643.714.129.5 1955 552 543 8701 67346.615.930.7 1956 562 416 9271 48943.516.726.8 1957 572 557 8701 68745.215.429.8 1958 582 724 9291 79547.116.131.1 1959 592 770 8261 94447.014.033.0 1960 602 812 9221 89046.915.431.5 1961 612 655 7991 85643.513.130.4 1962 622 566 6581 90841.410.630.8 1963 632 493 8351 65839.613.326.4 1964 642 703 6062 09742.39.532.8 1965 652 820 5842 23643.49.034.4 1966 662 639 5562 08339.88.431.4 1967 682 934 5162 41843.37.635.7 1968 692 686 6262 06038.99.129.8 1969 702 694 7441 95038.410.627.8 1970 712 503 5831 92035.28.227.0 1971 722 677 6642 01337.49.328.1 1972 722 591 5432 04836.17.628.5 1973 722 298 5051 79332.07.025.0 1974 722 062 5111 55128.77.121.6 1975 721 783 4831 30024.76.718.0 1976 731 758 5321 22624.27.316.9 1977 731 745 5211 22423.87.116.7 1978 741 735 4171 31823.45.617.8 1979 751 521 3041 21720.34.116.2 1980 751 819 3871 43224.25.119.0 1981 751 661 3381 32322.04.517.6 1982 751 753 4121 34123.35.517.8 1983 751 864 3491 51524.94.720.3 1984 741 716 4321 28423.15.817.3 1985 741 703 4661 23723.16.316.8 1986 731 721 4881 23323.66.716.9 1987 721 621 4551 16622.46.316.1 1988 721 731 4241 30724.15.918.2 1989 711 657 4971 16023.37.016.3 1990 711 604 5121 09222.67.215.4 1991 711 712 5181 19424.27.316.9 1992 711 836 5661 27025.98.017.9 1993 711 757 5581 19924.77.816.8 1994 711 605 5301 07522.57.415.1 1995 711 501 584 91721.08.212.8 1996 711 426 583 84320.08.211.8 1997 711 340 513 82718.97.311.7 1998 701 236 595 64117.68.59.1 1999 701 291 631 66018.59.09.4 2000 701 199 503 69617.27.210.01.75 2001 701 213 510 70317.47.310.11.77 2002 701 081 594 48715.58.57.01.74 2003 701 056 557 49915.18.07.11.69 2004 701 066 557 50915.27.97.21.67 2005 70.6331 009 489 52014.66.97.71.6420.8 2006 70.7511 035 538 49712.87.65.21.6512.6 2007 70.707 904 567 33713.68.05.61.5719.9 2008 70.745 964 545 41913.47.75.71.6110.4 2009 70.748 943 559 38413.47.95.51.5822.3 2010 70.712 933 579 35413.28.25.01.5613.9 2011 69.234 944 592 35213.38.44.91.5529.7 2012 69.724 951 603 34813.48.54.91.5616.8 2013 69.592 931630 30113.18.84.31.5322.6 2014 71.281 858 59026812.08.23.81.4619.8 2015 71.089 861 66419712.19.32.8 2016 71.379 796 68611011.29.61.6 2017 67.408 647686 -399.69.6-0.0 2018 69.573 ===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 36 638 34 942 71 180 100 0-4 3 250 3 067 6 317 8.87 5-9 3 951 3 603 7 554 10.61 10-14 3 558 3 547 7 105 9.98 15-19 3 452 3 366 6 818 9.58 20-24 2 438 2 140 4 578 6.43 25-29 2 601 2 520 5 121 7.19 30-34 2 886 2 777 5 663 7.96 35-39 2 841 2 455 5 296 7.44 40-44 2 417 2 059 4 476 6.29 45-49 1 947 1 614 3 561 5.00 50-54 1 467 1 353 2 820 3.96 55-59 1 209 1 182 2 391 3.36 60-64 1 022 1 233 2 255 3.17 65-69 1 091 1 233 2 324 3.26 70-74 871 973 1 844 2.59 75-79 596 736 1 332 1.87 80-84 354 547 901 1.27 85+ 288 537 825 1.16Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 10 759 10 217 20 976 29.47 15-64 22 279 20 699 42 978 60.38 65+ 3 200 4 026 7 226 10.15Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 34 973 33 940 68 913 100 0–4 3 240 3 140 6 380 9.26 5–9 2 601 2 495 5 096 7.39 10–14 2 946 2 876 5 822 8.45 15–19 3 237 3 060 6 297 9.14 20–24 2 691 2 567 5 258 7.63 25–29 2 389 2 472 4 861 7.05 30–34 2 118 1 911 4 029 5.85 35–39 2 271 2 236 4 507 6.54 40–44 2 544 2 409 4 953 7.19 45–49 2 337 2 135 4 472 6.49 50–54 2 162 1 784 3 946 5.73 55–59 1 682 1 411 3 093 4.49 60–64 1 281 1 212 2 493 3.62 65-69 1 054 1 105 2 159 3.13 70-74 884 983 1 867 2.71 75-79 724 863 1 587 2.30 80-84 467 635 1 102 1.60 85-89 212 387 599 0.87 90-94 101 173 274 0.40 95+ 32 86 118 0.17Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 8 787 8 511 17 298 25.10 15–64 22 712 21 197 43 909 63.72 65+ 3 474 4 232 7 706 11.18" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "The vast majority of Dominicans are of African descent (75% at the 2014 census).", "There is a significant mixed population (19%) at the 2014 census due to intermarriage, along with a small European origin minority (0.8%; descendants of French, British, and Irish colonists), East Indians (0.1%) groups, and there are small numbers of Lebanese/Syrians (0.1%) and Asians.===Amerindians===Dominica is the only Eastern Caribbean island that still has a population of pre-Columbian native Caribs (also known as Kalinago), who were exterminated, driven from neighbouring islands, or mixed with Africans and/or Europeans.", "According to the 2001 census there are only 2,001 Caribs remaining (2.9% of the total population).", "A considerable growth occurred since the 1991 census when 1,634 Caribs were counted (2.4% of the total population).", "The Caribs live in eight villages on the east coast of Dominica.", "This special Carib Territory was granted by the British Crown in 1903.The present number of Kalinago is estimated at 4% more than 3,000." ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", ";Nationality::noun: Dominican(s):adjective: Dominican;Population::74,027 (July 2018 est.", ");Ethnic groups::African descent 86.6%, mixed 9.1%, indigenous 2.9%, other 1.3%, unspecified 0.2% (2001 est.", "):People - note: 3,000-3,500 Kalinago (Carib) still living on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remaining in the Caribbean; only 70-100 may be \"pure\" Kalinago because of years of integration into the broader population;Age structure:Population pyramid of Dominica in 2016:''0-14 years:'' 21.62% (male 8,187 /female 7,815):''15-24 years:'' 14.37% (male 5,473 /female 5,167):''25-54 years:'' 42.59% (male 15,985 /female 15,541):''55-64 years:'' 9.99% (male 3,927 /female 3,470):''65 years and over:'' 11.43% (male 3,814 /female 4,648) (2018 est.", ");Median age::total: 34 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 88th:male: 33.5 years :female: 34.5 years (2018 est.", ");Birth rate::15 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 125th;Death rate::7.9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 92nd;Total fertility rate::2.03 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 114th;Net migration rate::-5.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 196th;Population growth rate::0.17% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 182nd;Languages::English (official), French patois;Religions::Roman Catholic 61.4%, Protestant 28.6% (includes Evangelical 6.7%, Seventh Day Adventist 6.1%, Pentecostal 5.6%, Baptist 4.1%, Methodist 3.7%, Church of God 1.2%, other 1.2%), Rastafarian 1.3%, Jehovah's Witness 1.2%, other 0.3%, none 6.1%, unspecified 1.1% (2001 est.", ");Life expectancy at birth::total population: 77.4 years :male: 74.4 years :female: 80.5 years (2018 est.", ");Urbanization::urban population: 70.5% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 0.94% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ");Obesity - adult prevalence rate::27.9% (2016) Country comparison to the world: 33rd" ], [ "Languages", "English is the official language and universally understood; however, because of historic French domination, Antillean Creole, a French-lexified creole language, is also widely spoken." ], [ "Religion", "According to the 2001 census, 91.2% percent of the population of Dominica is considered Christian, 1.6% has a non-Christian religion and 6.1% has no religion or did not state a religion (1.1%).Roughly 58% of Christians are Roman Catholics, a reflection of early French influence on the island, and one third are Protestant.", "The Evangelicals constitute the largest Protestant group, with 6.7% of the population.", "Seventh-day Adventists are the second largest group (6.1%).", "The next largest group are Pentecostals (5.6% of the population), followed by Baptists (4.1%).", "Other Christians include Methodists (3.7%), Church of God (1.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1.2%), Anglicanism (0.6%) and Brethren Christian (0.3%).During the past decades the number of Roman Catholics and Anglicans has decreased, while the number of other Protestants has increased, especially Evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals (5.6% of the population) and Baptists).The number of non-Christians is small.", "These religious groups include the Rastafarian Movement (1.3% of the population), Hinduism (0.1%) and Muslims (0.2%)." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Dominica" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Dominica''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Dominica is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|PresidentSylvanie BurtonLabour Party2 October 2023Prime MinisterRoosevelt SkerrittLabour Party8 January 2004Government House, DominicaA president and prime minister make up the executive branch.", "Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a five-year term by the parliament.", "The president appoints as prime minister the person who command the majority of elected representatives in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister's recommendation, members of the parliament as cabinet ministers.", "The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote." ], [ "Legislative branch", "House of Assembly of DominicaThe House of Assembly has 32 members.", "Twenty-one members are elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies.", "Nine members are senators appointed by the President; five on the advice of the Prime Minister and four on the advice of the leader of the opposition.", "The Speaker is elected by the elected members after an election.", "There is also one ex officio member, the clerk of the house.", "The head of state – the president – is elected by the House of Assembly.", "The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed.", "If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader.", "If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives.", "Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every five years, although the prime minister can call elections at any time.Dominica has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party.", "Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the Dominica Labour Party and the greatly diminished Dominica Freedom Party have built a coalition." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Dominica's legal system is based on English common law.", "There are three magistrate's courts and a High Court of Justice.", "Appeals can be made to the Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal and, ultimately, to the Caribbean Court of Justice.The Court of Appeal of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one of its 16 High Court judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the High Court of Justice.", "Dominica's current High Court judges are The Hon.", "Brian Cottle and The Hon.", "M. E. Birnie Stephenson-Brooks." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns.", "Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities.", "The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, and Saint Peter." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACP, ALBA, Caricom, CDB, CELAC, Commonwealth of Nations, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM (observer), OAS, OIF, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO" ], [ "Further reading", "* Matthias Catón: \"Dominica\" in: ''Elections in the Americas.", "A Data Handbook'', vol.", "1, edited by Dieter Nohlen.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005: pp.", "223–237" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Dominica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Dominica''' comprises telephone, radio, television and internet services.", "The primary regulatory authority is the National Telecommunication Regulatory Commission which regulates all related industries to comply with The Telecommunications Act 8 of 2000." ], [ "Telephony", "Calls from Dominica to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number.", "Calls from Dominica to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code.", ";Telephone system:Domestic: fully automatic networkInternational: microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia;Number formatting:Telephone code: 767Number Format: nxx-xxxxCountry Code: +1767International Call Prefix: 011 (outside NANP);Mobile cellular service providers:DigicelFLOW" ], [ "Radio", ";Radio broadcast stations:AM 0, FM 15, shortwave 0 (2007);Radios:46,000 (1997)" ], [ "Television", ";Television broadcast stations:0 (however, there are three cable television companies, Dominica Broadcast, Marpin Telecoms and Digicel Play – a merger of Digicel and SAT Telecommunications Ltd.);Televisions:11,000 (2007)" ], [ "Internet service providers", ";Internet Service Providers (ISPs):Cable & Wireless Dominica Ltd (DSL)Digicel Play (Cable & FTTP)Marpin Telecoms (Cable);Internet code: .dm" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * Dominica, E.C.", "Tel* Dominica, SubmarineCableMap.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dominica Defense Force" ], [ "Introduction", " The Dominica Coast Guard Patrol Boat ''Lugay'' in 2016.The '''Dominica Defense Forces (DDF)''' was the military of the Commonwealth of Dominica.", "There has been no standing army in Dominica since 1981, following the disbandment of the defence forces after two violent coup attempts against Dame Eugenia Charles.", "Defense is the responsibility of the Regional Security System (RSS)." ], [ "History", "By the 1960s, the police were the only security force in the country.", "As a result, a Volunteer Defence Force was established in 1974.In November 1975, a full-time Defence Force was established by an act of the House of Assembly to replace the Volunteer Defence Force, headed by Patrick John as Minister of Security.", "In March 1981, Charles announced the discovery of a coup d'état attempt known as Operation Red Dog, which involved Major Frederick Newton, the head of the Defence Force.", "A month later, parliament disbanded the Defence Force." ], [ "Modern defense", "The civil Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force includes a Special Service Unit and Coast Guard.", "In the event of war or other emergency, if proclaimed by the authorities, the Police Force shall be a military force which may be employed for State defence (''Police Act'', Chapter 14:01)." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Dominica" ], [ "Introduction", "Like its Eastern Caribbean neighbours, the main priority of Dominica's foreign relations is economic development.", "The country maintains missions in Washington, New York, London, and Brussels and is represented jointly with other Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members in Canada.", "Dominica is also a member of the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the Commonwealth of Nations.", "It became a member of the United Nations and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1978 and of the World Bank and Organization of American States (OAS) in 1979.As a member of CARICOM, in July 1994 Dominica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power.", "The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.In May 1997, Prime Minister James joined 14 other Caribbean leaders, and President Clinton, during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados.", "The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.", "Dominica previously maintained official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as \"Taiwan\") instead of the People's Republic of China, but on 23 March 2004, a joint communique was signed in Beijing, paving the way for diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic.", "Beijing responded to Dominica's severing relations with the Republic of China by giving them a $12 million aid package, which includes $6 million in budget support for the year 2004 and $1 million annually for six years.In June 2020, Dominica was one of 53 countries backing the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations.Dominica is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98)." ], [ "International disputes", "Dominica claims Venezuelan controlled Isla Aves (Known in Dominica as Bird Rock) located roughly 90 km.", "west of Dominica." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Dominica maintains diplomatic relations with425x425px # Country Date UnknownUnknownUnknownUnknownUnknown 9 12 26 33 3435 36 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 9091 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 — 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141— (suspended)1426 February 2024" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal relations began NotesAustralia is represented in Dominica through its High Commission in Trinidad and Tobago.", "Since 2016, Austria is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Havana, Cuba.", "Dominica idoes not have any representation in Austria.Azerbaijan and Dominica have established diplomatic relations in 2011.Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit made an official visit to Azerbaijan later this year.", "Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 21 September 1981.", "Both countries are full members of both Commonwealth of Nations and Association of Caribbean States.Bulgaria is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Cuba.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1978.", "Bilateral relations are described as \"close and friendly.", "\"Canada is represented in Dominica, through its High Commission in Barbados.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 December 1980.Colombia is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Kingston, Jamaica.Both countries have diplomatic relations.", "Both countries waived visa for diplomatic passports holders.Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Croatia and the Commonwealth of Dominica was signed on 30 July 2013.Diplomatic relations were established on 31 March 2004, when Dominica suspended ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan).In December 2005, during the second CARICOM/CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio-economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance.", "Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including Dominica.Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "A Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Cyprus and the Commonwealth of Dominica was signed on 13 June 2001 in New YorkFinland recognised Dominica on 23 February 1979.Diplomatic relations were established on 19 August 2009.France is represented in Dominica, through its embassy in Saint Lucia.", "Dominica and France have signed many bilateral agreements.Both countries have diplomatic relations since 1980.Political and economic relations are friendly but fairly low-key.Diplomatic relations were established on 15 November 2005.Greece is represented in Dominica via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Caracas.", "Dominica has appointed an ambassador accredited to Greece, based in Roseau, Dominica.Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations, of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.Dominica and Guyana have established diplomatic relations on 3 November 1978.Guyana has a High Commission in Roseau.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 June 2014 during the General Assembly of the Organization of American States in Asunción.Hungary is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Havana, Cuba.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations in 2004.", "Iceland is represented in Dominica through its embassy in New York, United States.", "Both countries have an agreement on cooperation on geothermal energy.Ireland is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Havana, Cuba.", "See Dominica–India relationsDominica and India established diplomatic relation in 1981.Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.Indonesia is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Caracas, VenezuelaBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1979.", "Israel is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.", "Both countries have an agreement on visa abolition.Italy is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.Diplomatic relations were established in December 1978.Japan is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Trinidad and Tobago.Since November 1978, the bilateral relations have been cordial and fruitful.", "Malaysia is represented in Dominica by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Diplomatic relations were established on 11 February 2005 in New York.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 2004.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.3 April 1979See Dominica–Mexico relations* Dominica is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Dominica from its embassy in Castries, Saint Lucia and maintains an honorary consulate in Roseau.Dominica is represented in Monaco through it embassy in Paris, France.", "Dominica is represented in the Netherlands by its embassy in London, United Kingdom.", "The Netherlands are represented in Dominica by their embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.", "New Zealand is represented in Dominica by its High Commission in Bridgetown, Barbados.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.Dominica and Norway established diplomatic relation on 26 March 2001.Both countries have signed an Agreement concerning the exchange of information relating to tax matters which came into force on 1 January 2012Dominica and Russia have established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1995.In April 2018, Dominica has appointed a resident ambassador to the Russia.Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations, of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.Slovakia is represented in Dominica through its embassy in Havana.Dominica is represented in Slovenia through its embassy in London.", "Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Diplomatic relations were established on 29 April 1998.Since November 1978, the bilateral relations have been cordial and fruitful.Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.Diplomatic and economic relations between Switzerland and Dominica are of minor importance.3 Nov. 1978* The Embassy of Turkey in Santo Domingo is accredited to Dominica.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was US$1.6 million in 2019.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 April 2019.", "They also signed a visa waver agreement.On 3 November 1978, Dominica received independence from the United Kingdom as a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations.See Dominica–United States relationsThe United States and Dominica have friendly relations.", "United States supports the Dominican government's efforts to expand its economic base and to provide a higher standard of living for its citizens.", "U.S. assistance is primarily channeled through multilateral agencies such as the World Bank and the Caribbean Development Bank, as well as through the U.S. Agency for International Development office in Bridgetown, Barbados.President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez visited Dominica in 2007.Dominica has once claimed the Venezuelan island Isla Aves, but the claim was stopped as Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit has declared that Isla Aves belongs to Venezuela." ], [ "Dominica and the Commonwealth of Nations", "The Commonwealth of Dominica has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1978, when it became an independent from the United Kingdom as a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations.Dominica's highest court of appeal is the Caribbean Court of Justice, in effect from 6 March 2015.Previously, the nation's ultimate court of appeal was the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London." ], [ "See also", "West Indies Associated StatesOrganisation of Eastern Caribbean StatesList of diplomatic missions in DominicaList of diplomatic missions of DominicaDominica–France Maritime Delimitation Agreement" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " The United States Department of State - The Commonwealth of Dominica" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dominican Republic''' ( ; , ) is a country on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north.", "It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with Haiti, making Hispaniola one of only two Caribbean islands, along with Saint Martin, that is shared by two sovereign states.", "It is the second-largest nation in the Antilles by area (after Cuba) at , and second-largest by population, with approximately 11.4 million people in 2024, of whom approximately 3.6 million live in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city.The native Taíno people had inhabited Hispaniola before the arrival of Europeans, dividing it into five chiefdoms.", "Christopher Columbus explored and claimed the island for Castile, landing there on his first voyage in 1492.The colony of Santo Domingo became the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas and the first seat of Spanish colonial rule in the New World.", "In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of the island, which became the independent state of Haiti in 1804.The Dominican people declared independence from Spain in November 1821..", "The colony Santo Domingo was regionally divided with many rival and competing provincial leaders during the 1800s.", "Dominicans were often at war fighting against the French, Haitians, Spanish, or amongst themselves, resulting in a society heavily influenced by military strongmen.", "Santo Domingo attained independence as the Dominican Republic in 1844 when Dominican nationalists led an insurrection against the Haitians.", "Over the next decades, the Dominican Republic experienced several civil wars, battles against Haiti, and a brief return to Spanish colonial status, before permanently ousting the Spanish during the Dominican War of Restoration of 1863–1865.The U.S. occupied the Dominican Republic (1916–1924) due to threats of defaulting on foreign debts; a subsequent calm and prosperous six-year period under Horacio Vásquez followed.", "From 1930 the dictatorship of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo ruled until his assassination in 1961.Juan Bosch was elected president in 1962 but was deposed in a military coup in 1963.A civil war in 1965, the country's last, was ended by U.S. military intervention and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer (1966–1978 and 1986–1996).", "Since 1978, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy.The Dominican Republic has the largest economy (according to the U.S. State Department and the World Bank) in the Caribbean and Central American region and is the seventh-largest economy in Latin America.", "Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in the Western Hemisphere – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5.3% between 1992 and 2018.GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7.0%, respectively, the highest in the Western Hemisphere.", "Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing, tourism, and mining.", "The country is the site of the third largest gold mine in the world, the Pueblo Viejo mine.The Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean.", "The year-round golf courses and resorts are major attractions.", "A geographically diverse nation, the Dominican Republic is home to both the Caribbean's tallest mountain peak, Pico Duarte, and the Caribbean's largest lake and lowest point, Lake Enriquillo.", "The island has an average temperature of and great climatic and biological diversity.", "The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in the Americas, located in Santo Domingo's Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site." ], [ "Etymology", "The name Dominican originates from Saint Dominic, the patron saint of astronomers, and founder of the Dominican Order.The Dominican Order established a house of high studies on the colony of Santo Domingo that is now known as the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo, the first University in the New World.", "They dedicated themselves to the education of the inhabitants of the island, and to the protection of the native Taíno people who were subjected to slavery.For most of its history, up until independence, the colony was known simply as '''' – the name of its present capital and patron saint, Saint Dominic – and continued to be commonly known as such in English until the early 20th century.", "The residents were called \"Dominicans\" (), the adjectival form of \"Domingo\", and as such, the revolutionaries named their newly independent country the \"Dominican Republic\" ().In the national anthem of the Dominican Republic (), the term \"Dominicans\" does not appear.", "The author of its lyrics, Emilio Prud'Homme, consistently uses the poetic term \"Quisqueyans\" ().", "The word \"Quisqueya\" derives from the Taíno language, and means \"mother of the lands\" ().", "It is often used in songs as another name for the country.", "The name of the country in English is often shortened to \"the D.R.\"", "(), but this is rare in Spanish." ], [ "History", "===Pre-European history===The five caciquedoms of HispaniolaThe Arawakan-speaking Taíno moved into Hispaniola from the north east region of what is now known as South America, displacing earlier inhabitants, .", "They engaged in farming, fishing, hunting and gathering.", "The fierce Caribs drove the Taíno to the northeastern Caribbean, during much of the 15th century.", "The estimates of Hispaniola's population in 1492 vary widely, including tens of thousands, one hundred thousand, three hundred thousand, and four hundred thousand to two million.", "Determining precisely how many people lived on the island in pre-Columbian times is next to impossible, as no accurate records exist.", "By 1492, the island was divided into five Taíno chiefdoms.", "The Taíno name for the entire island was either ''Ayiti'' or ''Quisqueya''.The Spaniards arrived in 1492.Initially, after friendly relationships, the Taínos resisted the conquest, led by the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagaríx, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo.", "The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave for a time on the island.", "Within a few years after 1492, the population of Taínos had declined drastically, due to smallpox, measles, and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans.The first recorded smallpox outbreak, in the Americas, occurred on Hispaniola in 1507.The last record of pure Taínos in the country was from 1864.Still, Taíno biological heritage survived to an important extent, due to intermixing.", "Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taíno women, and some present-day Dominicans have Taíno ancestry.", "Remnants of the Taíno culture include their cave paintings, such as the Pomier Caves, as well as pottery designs, which are still used in the small artisan village of Higüerito, Moca.===European colonization===Christopher Columbus arrived on the island on December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to the Americas.", "He claimed the land for Spain and named it ''La Española'', due to its diverse climate and terrain, which reminded him of the Spanish landscape.", "In 1493, fighting broke out between the Spanish and the Taíno, resulting in the deaths of 39 Spaniards and the destruction of their fort, La Navidad.", "In 1496, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo, Western Europe's first permanent settlement in the \"New World\".", "The Spaniards created a plantation economy on the island.", "The colony became the springboard for the Spanish conquest and exploration of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Cuba, Darién (Panama) and Yucatán (Mexico).After the near-total destruction of the Taíno population, a successful resistance took place between 1519 and 1534.Seeking refuge in the Bahoruco mountains, the Taínos raided Spanish plantations, defeated patrols, and negotiated the first truce between an Amerindian chief and a European monarch.", "The Taínos were pardoned and granted their own town and charter.", "African slaves were imported to replace the dwindling Taínos.After its conquest of the Aztecs and Incas, Spain neglected its Caribbean holdings.", "Hispaniola's sugar plantation economy quickly declined.", "Most Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of Mexico and Peru, while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island.", "Agriculture dwindled, enslaved people were no longer transported to the island, and white colonists, free Black people, and enslaved Black people alike lived in poverty.", "The breakdown of racial and class-based social hierarchies facilitated an increase in cross-cultural contact, resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Spanish, Taíno, and African descent.", "Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became one of the main sources of livelihood for the island's inhabitants.Situation of the island of Hispaniola during the devastations of Osorio, 1605–1606In 1603, Philip III of Spain issued a mandate to depopulate towns in the north and west of Hispaniola, ordering the relocation of the inhabitants to the southeast to curb contraband trade.", "The inhabitants resisted, but Governor Antonio de Osorio carried out the king's orders.", "His troops hanged insurgents, demolished property, and burned the towns.", "All the inhabitants were forcibly removed from these regions and strictly prohibited from returning under the penalty of death.", "This resulted in Spain abandoning half the island.In the mid-17th century, France sent colonists to settle the island of Tortuga and the northwestern coast of Hispaniola (which the Spaniards had abandoned by 1606) due to its strategic position in the region.", "In order to entice the pirates, France supplied them with women who had been taken from prisons, accused of prostitution and thieving.", "After decades of armed struggles with the French settlers, Spain ceded the western coast of the island to France with the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, whilst the Central Plateau remained under Spanish domain.", "France created a wealthy colony on the island, while the Spanish colony continued to suffer economic decline.===18th and early 19th century===The House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700, and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo.", "The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies.", "The last ''flotas'' sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter.", "By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley, and the importation of slaves was renewed.Santo Domingo's exports soared and the island's agricultural productivity rose, which was assisted by the involvement of Spain in the Seven Years' War, allowing privateers operating out of Santo Domingo to once again patrol surrounding waters for enemy merchantmen.", "Dominican privateers in the service of the Spanish Crown had already been active in the War of Jenkins' Ear just two decades prior, and they sharply reduced the amount of enemy trade operating in West Indian waters.", "The prizes they took were carried back to Santo Domingo, where their cargoes were sold to the colony's inhabitants or to foreign merchants doing business there.", "The enslaved population of the colony also rose, as numerous captive Africans were taken from enemy slave ships in West Indian waters.Map showing the border situation on Hispaniola following the Treaty of Aranjuez (1777)The colony of Santo Domingo saw a population increase during the 18th century, as it rose to about 91,272 in 1750.Of this number, approximately 38,272 were white landowners, 38,000 were free multiracial people of color, and some 15,000 were enslaved people.", "This contrasted sharply with the population of the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) – the wealthiest colony in the Caribbean and whose population of one-half a million was 90% enslaved and overall, seven times as numerous as the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo.", "As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial elites of Saint-Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany, and tobacco.", "With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural ''hateros'' (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market.Inspired by disputes between white people and mulatto people in Saint-Domingue, a slave revolt broke out in the French colony.", "In 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France by the Treaty of Basel.", "By 1804, the mulattoes and former slaves, with the aid of yellow fever, had driven the French and British out of Saint-Domingue, establishing Haiti, while a small French garrison remained in Santo Domingo.In October 1808, the Dominicans revolted against the French colonial administrators in the city of Santo Domingo, opposing Governor General Louis Ferrand's decision to stop trade with Haiti.", "The Dominicans annihilated Ferrand's small army in close-quarters combat at the Battle of Palo Hincado, killing or capturing 400 out of 500 enemy troops, at the cost of only 7 of their own killed.", "Afterward, the French governor committed suicide by shooting himself in the head.", "The Dominicans, aided by a British fleet and Spanish soldiers from Puerto Rico, besieged the remaining French defenders in the capital.", "The French, averse to facing public and historical disgrace by submitting to the Dominicans, surrendered to the British on July 11, 1809, after eight months of siege, which led to the return of Santo Domingo to Spanish rule.", "During the siege of Santo Domingo, 3,300 French citizens fled the city, representing nearly half of its population.", "In 1809, the Spanish government in Cuba expelled the French from the island, resulting in their mass exodus to New Orleans and other regions.", "This marked the end of 200 years of French presence in Hispaniola.===Ephemeral independence===After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various opposing groups, including a failed 1812 revolt led by Dominican conspirators José Leocadio, Pedro de Seda, and Pedro Henríquez, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator), José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence from the Spanish crown as Spanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821.This period is also known as the Ephemeral independence.===Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo (1822–1844)===HispaniolaThe newly independent republic ended a mere two months later, when it was occupied and annexed by Haiti, then under the leadership of Jean-Pierre Boyer.", "As Toussaint Louverture had done two decades earlier, the Haitians abolished slavery.", "Boyer attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (''terrenos comuneros''), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and some people resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer and Joseph Balthazar Inginac's ''Code Rural''.", "In the rural and rugged mountainous areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws.", "It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated.Haiti's constitution forbade white elites from owning land, and Dominican major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties.", "Many emigrated to Cuba, Puerto Rico, or Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials who acquired their lands.", "The Haitians associated the Roman Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence and confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican.", "All levels of education collapsed; the university was shut down, as it was starved both of resources and students, with young Dominican men from 16 to 25 years old being drafted into the Haitian army.", "Boyer's occupation troops, who were largely Dominicans, were unpaid and had to \"forage and sack\" from Dominican civilians.", "Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the Dominican people.===Dominican War of Independence (1844–1856)===Juan Pablo Duarte, founding father of the Dominican Republic.In 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention.", "Also Francisco del Rosario Sánchez and Ramon Matias Mella, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence.", "Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the three Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic.In 1843, the new Haitian president, Charles Rivière-Hérard, exiled or imprisoned the leading ''Trinitarios'' (Trinitarians).", "After subduing the Dominicans, Rivière-Hérard, a mulatto, faced a rebellion by blacks in Port-au-Prince.", "Haiti had formed two regiments composed of Dominicans from the city of Santo Domingo; these were used by Rivière-Hérard to suppress the uprising.Original flag of the Dominican Republic (up to 1849)On February 27, 1844, the surviving members of ''La Trinitaria'', now led by Tomás Bobadilla, declared independence from Haiti.", "The ''Trinitarios'' were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher from El Seibo, who became general of the army of the nascent republic.", "The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the United States Constitution.", "The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents.", "Archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily.", "They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States.Monument to the Battle of AzuaThreatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions.", "In March 1844, Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy casualties on the Haitians, compelling them to retreat back into Haiti after a short war.", "In the first major battle of the Dominican War of Independence (the Battle of Azua on March 19, 1844), Haitian troops suffered over 1,000 dead, while only 2 Dominicans were killed.", "This pattern of disproportionate losses for the Haitians continued throughout the war.In early July 1844, Duarte was urged by his followers to take the title of President of the Republic.", "Duarte agreed, but only if free elections were arranged.", "However, Santana's forces took Santo Domingo on July 12, and they declared Santana ruler of the Dominican Republic.", "Santana then put Mella, Duarte, and Sánchez in jail.", "On February 27, 1845, Santana executed María Trinidad Sánchez, heroine of La Trinitaria, and others for conspiracy.In August 1845, Haiti made another attempt to conquer the Dominican Republic.", "However, this time the Dominicans were better prepared, and the Haitian army was unable to advance beyond Las Matas de Farfán.", "Later that year, the Haitians tried a naval attack, but their efforts ended in failure when the ships ran aground in Puerto Plata harbor, and all the sailors were captured.", "In November-December 1849, Dominican seamen raided the Haitian coasts, plundered seaside villages, as far as Dame Marie, and butchered crews of captured enemy ships.", "Two more attempts by Haiti to conquer the Dominican Republic, in 1849 and 1855–56, ended in failure.===First Republic===The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844.The state was commonly known as Santo Domingo in English until the early 20th century.", "It featured a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by Pedro Santana on the constitutional assembly by force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over.", "These privileges not only served him to win the war but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important.The population of the Dominican Republic in 1845 was approximately 230,000 people (100,000 whites; 40,000 blacks; and 90,000 mulattoes).", "Due to the rugged mountainous terrain of the island the regions of the Dominican Republic developed in isolation from one another.", "In the south, also known at the time as Ozama, the economy was dominated by cattle-ranching (particularly in the southeastern savannah) and cutting mahogany and other hardwoods for export.", "This region retained a semi-feudal character, with little commercial agriculture, the hacienda as the dominant social unit, and the majority of the population living at a subsistence level.", "In the north (better known as Cibao), the nation's richest farmland, farmers supplemented their subsistence crops by growing tobacco for export, mainly to Germany.", "Tobacco required less land than cattle ranching and was mainly grown by smallholders, who relied on itinerant traders to transport their crops to Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi.", "Santana antagonized the Cibao farmers, enriching himself and his supporters at their expense by resorting to multiple peso printings that allowed him to buy their crops for a fraction of their value.", "In 1848, he was forced to resign and was succeeded by his vice-president, Manuel Jimenes.After defeating a new Haitian invasion in 1849, Santana marched on Santo Domingo and deposed Jimenes in a coup d'état.", "At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president, but Báez was unwilling to serve as Santana's puppet, challenging his role as the country's acknowledged military leader.", "In November 1849, Báez launched a naval offensive against Haiti.", "A Dominican squadron appeared off the Haitian coast, capturing prizes.", "On November 4, the squadron bombarded Anse-à-Pitres and conducted a landing operation, seizing booty.", "The next day, the Dominican ships bombarded Les Cayes, captured a schooner, and sank several smaller boats.", "Although plans were made to sail up the Windward Passage between Haiti and Cuba in search of more prizes, a mutiny among the Dominican crews forced their return to the port of Santo Domingo.", "Báez dispatched a second naval expedition against Haiti.", "On December 3, the squadron commanded by Juan Alejandro Acosta bombarded and burned the town of Petit Rivière.", "Two days later, Dominican and Haitian flotillas encountered each other off Les Cayes, but a storm broke up the battle.As the fighting disrupted sea commerce, the major maritime powers became involved.", "On March 6, 1850, the United Kingdom and the Dominican Republic signed a commercial treaty.", "On December 19 of that year, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States declared to the Haitian government that if it persisted in invading the Dominican Republic, they would take appropriate measures.In 1853, Santana was elected president for his second term, forcing Báez into exile.", "Three years later, he negotiated a treaty leasing a portion of Samaná Peninsula to a U.S. company; popular opposition forced him to abdicate, enabling Báez to return and seize power.", "With the treasury depleted, Báez printed eighteen million uninsured pesos, purchasing the 1857 tobacco crop with this currency and exporting it for hard cash at immense profit to himself and his followers.", "Cibao tobacco planters, who were ruined when hyperinflation ensued, revolted and formed a new government headed by José Desiderio Valverde and headquartered in Santiago de los Caballeros.", "In July 1857, General Juan Luis Franco Bidó besieged Santo Domingo.", "The Cibao-based government declared an amnesty to exiles and Santana returned and managed to replace Franco Bidó in September 1857.After a year of civil war, Santana captured Santo Domingo in June 1858, overthrew both Báez and Valverde and installed himself as president.===Restoration republic===Pedro Santana is sworn in as governor-general of the new Spanish province.In 1861, after imprisoning, silencing, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana asked Queen Isabella II of Spain to retake control of the Dominican Republic, after a period of only 17 years of independence.", "Spain, which had not come to terms with the loss of its American colonies 40 years earlier, accepted his proposal and made the country a colony again.", "Haiti, fearful of the reestablishment of Spain as colonial power, gave refuge and logistics to revolutionaries seeking to reestablish the independent nation of the Dominican Republic.", "The ensuing civil war, known as the ''War of Restoration'', claimed more than 50,000 lives.The War of Restoration began on August 16, 1863.Spain deployed 63,000 troops: 41,000 Spanish soldiers, 12,000 Dominican militias from the provinces of Azua, Santo Domingo, El Seibo, and the town of Baní, and 10,000 Cuban and Puerto Rican volunteers.", "The Spanish garrison of Santiago was forced to retreat to Puerto Plata by mid-September.", "According to the New York Times, the Dominicans bombarded the port of Puerto Plata and destroyed much of the town, with very few houses left standing.", "The estimated cost of the damages to Santiago and Puerto Plata caused by the fighting were at $5 million ($120 million today).", "In the south, Dominican forces under José María Cabral defeated the Spanish in the Battle of La Canela on December 4, 1864.The victory showed the Dominicans that they could defeat the Spaniards in pitched battle.", "After nearly two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in July 1865.The Spanish war effort in the Dominican Republic cost Spain 129 million dollars ($1.3 billion in today's money) and resulted in the deaths of 18,000 Spanish soldiers.", "In addition, the Cubans, Puerto Ricans and pro-Spanish Dominicans suffered 5,000 dead.", "The rebels, who numbered between 15,000 and 17,000, suffered 6,000 dead and 4,000 wounded.", "Another source puts Spanish battle casualties at 10,888 killed or wounded.Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt.", "In 1869, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant ordered U.S. Marines to the island for the first time.", "Pirates operating from Haiti had been raiding U.S. commercial shipping in the Caribbean, and Grant directed the Marines to stop them at their source.", "Following the virtual takeover of the island, Báez offered to sell the country to the United States.", "Grant desired a naval base at Samaná and also a place for resettling newly freed African Americans.", "The treaty, which included U.S. payment of $1.5 million for Dominican debt repayment, was defeated in the United States Senate in 1870 on a vote of 28–28, two-thirds being required.", "Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878.A new generation was thence in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene.During the 19th century, the Dominican Republic lost a higher percentage of its population to war than did the United States.", "Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux.", "\"Lilís\", as the new president was nicknamed, enjoyed a period of popularity.", "He was, however, \"a consummate dissembler\", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state.", "Heureaux became rampantly despotic and unpopular.", "In 1899, he was assassinated.", "However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy.", "The sugar industry was modernized, and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants.Lebanese, Syrians, Turks, and Palestinians began to arrive in the country during the latter part of the 19th century.", "At first, the Arab immigrants often faced discrimination in the Dominican Republic, but they were eventually assimilated into Dominican society, giving up their own culture and language.", "During the U.S. occupation of 1916–24, peasants from the countryside, called Gavilleros, would not only kill U.S. Marines, but would also attack and kill Arab vendors traveling through the countryside.===20th century (1900–1930)===President Alejandro Woss y Gil taking office in 1903From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country.", "Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts to European creditors, faced the threat of military intervention by France, Germany, and Italy.", "United States President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal, as the canal was already under construction.", "He made a small military intervention to ward off European powers, to proclaim his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and also to obtain his 1905 Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, which was the chief source of income for the Dominican government.", "A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years.", "The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic and assumed responsibility for said debt.Ramón CáceresAfter six years in power, President Ramón Cáceres (who had himself assassinated Heureaux) was assassinated in 1911.The result was several years of great political instability and civil war.", "U.S. mediation by the William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time.", "A political deadlock in 1914 was broken after an ultimatum by Wilson telling the Dominicans to choose a president or see the U.S. impose one.", "A provisional president was chosen, and later the same year relatively free elections put former president (1899–1902) Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra back in power.", "To achieve a more broadly supported government, Jimenes named opposition individuals to his cabinet.", "But this brought no peace and, with his former Secretary of War Desiderio Arias maneuvering to depose him and despite a U.S. offer of military aid against Arias, Jimenes resigned on May 7, 1916.The United States Marine Corps landing on Dominican soil in 19164th regiment with a captured rebel mitrailleuse at SantiagoThe flag of the United States waving over Ozama Fortress during the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic, c. 1922Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic.", "U.S. Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and seized the capital and other ports, while General Arias fell back to his inland Santiago stronghold.", "In late June, the Marines began advancing from the north coast towards Santiago.", "On June 27, they encountered a strong defensive position on Las Trencheras Ridge.", "Covered by artillery, the Marines attacked and overran the position.", "The Dominicans fell back to a second defensive line but could not hold this either.", "A peace delegation from Santiago surrendered the city on July 5, coinciding with General Arias' surrender to the Dominican governor.", "The U.S. then extended the occupation to the inland cities of Moca and La Vega.", "The military government established by the U.S. on November 29, led by Vice Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by the Dominicans, with caudillos in the mountainous eastern regions leading guerrilla campaigns against U.S. forces.", "The Dominican insurgents, who typically operated in groups of less than 150 men, possessed mainly antiquated rifles, and more commonly, were armed only with pistols and shotguns.", "The U.S. Marines were equipped with machine guns and modern artillery, resulting in a significant weaponry disparity that contributed to the defeat of the Dominican insurgents.", "The U.S. Marines stationed in the Dominican Republic were Anglo-Americans.", "African-Americans were not allowed to join the Marines until 1942 due to segregation policies.The occupation regime kept most Dominican laws and institutions and largely pacified the general population.", "The occupying government also revived the Dominican economy, reduced the nation's debt, built a road network that at last interconnected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units.", "Additionally, with grass-roots support from local communities and assistance from both Dominican and US officials, the Dominican education system expanded significantly during US occupation.", "Between 1918 and 1920, more than three hundred schools were established nationwide.", "The system of forced labour used by the Marines in Haiti was absent in the Dominican Republic.Dominican Republic president elect Horacio Vásquez meeting with United States officialsOpposition to the occupation continued, nevertheless, and after World War I it increased in the U.S. as well.", "There, President Warren G. Harding (1921–23), Wilson's successor, worked to put an end to the occupation, as he had promised to do during his campaign.", "The U.S. government's rule ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924.The victor was former president (1902–03) Horacio Vásquez, who had cooperated with the U.S.", "He was inaugurated on July 13, 1924, and the last U.S. forces left in September.", "In six years, the Marines were involved in at least 370 engagements, resulting in 950 \"bandits\" killed or wounded in action, while 144 Marines were killed, and 50 were wounded.Vásquez gave the country six years of stable governance, in which political and civil rights were respected and the economy grew strongly, in a relatively peaceful atmosphere.", "During this time, Rafael Trujillo, who was trained by the U.S. Marines during the occupation, held the rank of lieutenant colonel and was chief of police.", "This position helped him launch his plans to overthrow the government of Vásquez.", "Trujillo had the support of Carlos Rosario Peña, who formed the Civic Movement, which had as its main objective to overthrow the government of Vásquez.In February 1930, when Vásquez attempted to win another term, his opponents rebelled in secret alliance with the commander of the National Army (the former National Guard), General Rafael Trujillo.", "Trujillo secretly cut a deal with rebel leader Rafael Estrella Ureña; in return for letting Ureña take power, Trujillo would be allowed to run for president in new elections.", "As the rebels marched toward Santo Domingo, Vásquez ordered Trujillo to suppress them.", "However, feigning \"neutrality\", Trujillo kept his men in barracks, allowing Ureña's rebels to take the capital virtually uncontested.", "On March 3, Ureña was proclaimed acting president with Trujillo confirmed as head of the police and the army.", "As per their agreement, Trujillo became the presidential nominee of the newly formed Patriotic Coalition of Citizens (Spanish: Coalición patriotica de los ciudadanos), with Ureña as his running mate.During the election campaign, Trujillo used the army to unleash his repression, forcing his opponents to withdraw from the race.", "Trujillo stood to elect himself, and in May he was elected president virtually unopposed after a violent campaign against his opponents, ascending to power on August 16, 1930.Desiderio Arias led a failed revolt against Trujillo and was killed near Mao on June 20, 1931.===Trujillo Era (1930–1961)===Rafael Trujillo imposed a dictatorship of 31 years in the country (1930–1961).There was considerable economic growth during Rafael Trujillo's long and iron-fisted regime, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements.", "There was progress in healthcare, education, and transportation, with the building of hospitals, clinics, schools, roads, and harbors.", "Trujillo also carried out an important housing construction program and instituted a pension plan.", "He finally negotiated an undisputed border with Haiti in 1935, and achieved the end of the 50-year customs agreement in 1941, instead of 1956.He made the country debt-free in 1947.This was accompanied by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terrorist methods against the opposition.", "It has been estimated that Trujillo's tyrannical rule was responsible for the death of more than 50,000 Dominicans and foreign nationals, including Cubans, Costa Ricans, Nicaraguans, and Puerto Ricans.During World War II, Trujillo symbolically sided with the Allies and declared war on Japan the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor and on Nazi Germany and Italy four days later.", "Soon after, German U-boats torpedoed and sank two Dominican merchant vessels that Trujillo had named after himself—the ''San Rafael'' off Jamaica and the ''Presidente Trujillo'' off Fort-de-France, Martinique.", "German U-boats also sank four Dominican-manned ships in the Caribbean.", "The country did not make a military contribution to the war, but Dominican sugar and other agricultural products supported the Allied war effort.", "American Lend-Lease and raw material purchases proved a powerful inducement in obtaining cooperation of the various Latin American republics.", "Over a hundred Dominicans served in the American armed forces.", "Many were political exiles from the Trujillo regime.", "Following World War II, Trujillo sought direct military aid from the United States.", "However, his request was rejected, prompting Trujillo to establish his own arms factory.", "In addition, he assigned agents to acquire surplus fighters and bombers from the civilian market.", "Trujillo's arsenal at San Cristóbal produced carbines, submachine guns, light machine guns, anti-tank guns, hand grenades, and ammunition.Several Dominicans were assassinated in New York after taking part in anti-Trujillo activities.", "In July 1949, a failed invasion of the Dominican Republic was carried out by Dominican rebels from Guatemala, and on June 14, 1959, a Cuban invasion at Constanza, Maimón, and Estero Hondo also met with failure.", "On June 26, Cuba broke diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic due to widespread Dominican human rights abuses and hostility toward the Cuban people.", "Trujillo formed a Foreign Legion of 3,000 mercenaries to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba.", "Major William Morgan agreed to lead the attack for $1 million, but the invasion plan never materialized as Castro learned of the plot and instructed Morgan to go along with it and report back.", "The plan involved causing rebellion in the Sierra del Escambray and sabotaging the Cuban air force, followed by the Foreign Legion landing in Las Villas Province.", "Trujillo was tricked into believing that Morgan had captured Trinidad and that the airport was available to him, but remained reluctant to commit the Foreign Legion.", "On August 13, 1959, a C-47 transport flying from the Dominican Republic carrying military advisors and supplies landed at Trinidad airport.", "Castro seized the aircraft and the ten occupants and arrested some 4,000 suspects throughout Cuba.On November 25, 1960, Trujillo's henchmen killed three of the four Mirabal sisters, nicknamed ''Las Mariposas'' (The Butterflies).", "Along with their husbands, the sisters were conspiring to overthrow Trujillo in a violent revolt.", "The Mirabals had communist ideological leanings, as did their husbands.", "The sisters have received many honors posthumously and have many memorials in various cities in the Dominican Republic.", "Salcedo, their home province, changed its name to Provincia Hermanas Mirabal (Mirabal Sisters Province).", "The International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women is observed on the anniversary of their deaths.Explosion in Paseo Los Próceres during the Betancourt assassination attempt, June 24, 1960For a long time, the U.S. and the Dominican elite supported the Trujillo government.", "This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition, the massacre of Haitians, and Trujillo's plots against other countries.", "The U.S. believed Trujillo was the lesser of two or more evils.", "The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan president, Rómulo Betancourt, a fierce critic of Trujillo.", "As the Venezuelan president was en route to preside over a military parade in Caracas, SIM agents detonated nearly 30 kg of explosives packed into two suitcases within a parked car nearby.", "The force of the explosion hurled the presidential vehicle across the street and engulfed it in flames.", "As a result of the incident, Betancourt was injured, and Colonel Ramón Armas Perez, the chauffeur, and a bystander were killed.", "Investigation revealed that the ammonium-nitrate bomb had been assembled in Ciudad Trujillo (Santo Domingo), and that the operation was orchestrated by Johnny Abbes García, the chief of the secret police under Trujillo's regime.", "This was not the first assassination attempt Trujillo had made on the liberal Betancourt.", "During Betancourt's earlier exile in Cuba, Trujillo's agents tried to inject poison into him on a Havana street in broad daylight.In June 1960, Trujillo legalized the Communist Party and unsuccessfully attempted to establish close political relations with the Soviet Bloc.", "Both the assassination attempt and the maneuver toward the Soviet Bloc provoked immediate condemnation throughout Latin America.", "After its representatives confirmed Trujillo's complicity in the nearly successful assassination attempt of Venezuela's president, the Organization of American States, for the first time in its history, decreed sanctions against a member state.", "The United States severed diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic on August 26, 1960, and in January 1961 suspended the export of trucks, parts, crude oil, gasoline and other petroleum products.", "U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also took advantage of OAS sanctions to cut drastically purchases of Dominican sugar, the country's major export.", "This action ultimately cost the Dominican Republic almost $22,000,000 in lost revenues at a time when its economy was in a rapid decline.", "Trujillo had become expendable.", "Dissidents inside the Dominican Republic argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove Trujillo.According to Chester Bowles, the U.S.", "Undersecretary of State, internal Department of State discussions in 1961 on the topic were vigorous.", "Richard N. Goodwin, Assistant Special Counsel to the President, who had direct contacts with the rebel alliance, argued for intervention against Trujillo.", "Quoting Bowles directly: \"The next morning I learned that in spite of the clear decision against having the dissident group request our assistance Dick Goodwin following the meeting sent a cable to CIA people in the Dominican Republic without checking with State or CIA; indeed, with the protest of the Department of State.", "The cable directed the CIA people in the Dominican Republic to get this request at any cost.", "When Allen Dulles found this out the next morning, he withdrew the order.", "We later discovered it had already been carried out.", "\"===Post-Trujillo (1961–1996)===Juan Bosch, the first democratically elected president after the regime of Rafael TrujilloTrujillo was assassinated by Dominican dissidents on May 30, 1961.Although the dissidents possessed Dominican-made San Cristóbal submachine guns, they symbolically used U.S.-made M-1 carbines supplied by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gun down Trujillo.", "Out of the 14 Trujillo assassins, 12 were subsequently killed, with some of them being fed to sharks.Ramfis Trujillo, the dictator's son, remained in de facto control of the government for the next six months through his position as commander of the armed forces.", "Trujillo's brothers, Hector Bienvenido and Jose Arismendi Trujillo, returned to the country and began immediately to plot against President Balaguer.", "On November 18, 1961, as a planned coup became more evident, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk issued a warning that the United States would not \"remain idle\" if the Trujillos attempted to \"reassert dictatorial domination\" over the Dominican Republic.", "Following this warning, and the arrival of a fourteen-vessel U.S. naval task force within sight of Santo Domingo, Ramfis and his uncles fled the country on November 19 with $200 million from the Dominican treasury.", "The OAS lifted its sanctions on January 4, 1962, since the Dominican Republic no longer posed a threat to regional security.In February 1963, a democratically elected government under leftist Juan Bosch took office but it was overthrown in September.", "On April 24, 1965, after 19 months of military rule, a pro-Bosch revolt broke out in Santo Domingo.", "The pro-Bosch forces called themselves Constitutionalists.", "The revolution took on the dimensions of a civil war when conservative military forces struck back against the Constitutionalists on April 25.These conservative forces called themselves Loyalists.", "Despite tank assaults and bombing runs by Loyalist forces, the Constitutionalists held their positions in the capital.", "The Constitutionalists destroyed several Swedish tanks with bazookas and pre–World War I 75 mm cannons.", "By April 26, armed civilians outnumbered the original rebel military regulars.", "Radio Santo Domingo, now fully under rebel control, began to call for more violent actions and for killing of all the policemen.Wounded American soldier in Santo Domingo, 1965.On April 28, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson, concerned that communists might take over the revolt and create a \"second Cuba\", sent 24,000 troops into Santo Domingo in Operation Powerpack.", "\"We don't propose to sit here in a rocking chair with our hands folded and let the Communist set up any government in the Western Hemisphere,\" Johnson said.", "The forces were soon joined by comparatively small contingents from the Organization of American States (OAS).", "Following U.S. intervention, psychological warfare became the primary weapon of the Constitutionalists, who numbered between 2,000 and 4,000.Dictator Trujillo had established an extensive and sophisticated telecommunications and radio broadcasting system that could reach every corner of the republic; Radio Santo Domingo, equipped with numerous alternative transmitter and antenna field sites, as well as relay stations, was nearly invulnerable.", "The Constitutionalist rebels adeptly utilized the radio to incite the population to revolt and communicate with their own forces.", "Despite the robust electronic warfare capabilities of U.S. forces in the region, designed for military targets, they had limited effect on commercial transmitting systems.", "Therefore, the rebels were able to use this propaganda weapon until the main Radio Santo Domingo facility was physically put out of operation by Loyalist forces, who used the U.S. presence to deploy its forces and attack Constitutionalists.Loyalist forces destroyed most Constitutionalist bases and captured the rebel radio station, effectively ending the war.", "A ceasefire was declared on May 21.The U.S. began withdrawing some of its troops by May 26.However, Col. Francisco Caamaño's untrained civilians attacked American positions on June 15.Despite the coordinated attack involving mortars, rocket launchers, and several light tanks, the rebels lost a 56-square-block area to 82nd Airborne Division units which had received OAS permission to advance.", "During this pitched battle, the armed civilians sustained 232 casualties and the U.S. soldiers sustained 36 casualties.", "Joaquín Balaguer was puppet president during the Trujillo dictatorship (1960–1962), and constitutional president of the country for 22 years (1966–1978 and 1986–1996)Over 7,000 Dominicans were killed or wounded in the civil war, most of them prior to the U.S. intervention.", "A total of 48 Americans died and 189 were wounded in action.", "U.S. and OAS peacekeeping troops remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections in 1966 won by Joaquín Balaguer.", "He had been Trujillo's last puppet-president.", "Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years.", "His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties, ostensibly to keep pro-Castro or pro-communist parties out of power; 11,000 persons were killed, tortured or forcibly disappeared.", "His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor.", "It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included the construction of large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massive Columbus Lighthouse, completed in 1992 during a later tenure.", "During Balaguer's administration, the Dominican military forced Haitians to cut sugarcane on Dominican sugar plantations.In February 1973, former Colonel Francisco Caamaño, along with his group of around 30 rebels, landed on the coast of the Dominican Republic.", "Balaguer declared a state of emergency and mobilized the army, which quickly defeated the insurgency, resulting in Caamaño being killed.", "Dominican Republic fighter-bombers strafed a Norwegian ship, mistaking it for a vessel carrying guerrillas.", "In September 1977, twelve Cuban-manned MiG-21s conducted strafing flights over Puerto Plata to warn Balaguer against intercepting Cuban merchant ships headed to or returning from Africa.", "Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which left upwards of 2,000 people dead and 200,000 homeless.", "The hurricane caused over $1 billion in damage.1984 Dominican riotsIn 1978, Balaguer was succeeded in the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD).", "Another PRD win in 1982 followed, under Salvador Jorge Blanco.", "Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986 and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, this last time just defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo.", "The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing on international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996.Balaguer was not a candidate.", "The PSRC candidate was his Vice President Jacinto Peynado Garrigosa.===1996–present===Leonel Fernández was president from 1996–2000 and 2004–2012.In 1996, with the support of Joaquín Balaguer and the Social Christian Reform Party in a coalition called the Patriotic Front, Leonel Fernández achieved the first-ever win for the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which Bosch had founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD (which he also had founded).", "Fernández oversaw a fast-growing economy: growth averaged 7.7% per year, unemployment fell, and there were stable exchange and inflation rates.His administration supported the process of modernizing the judicial system, making transparent the creation of an independent Supreme Court of Justice.", "Efforts were also made to reform and modernize the other state bodies.", "In addition, relations with Cuba were reestablished and the Free Trade Agreement with Central America was signed, which was the genesis for the signing of DR-CAFTA.2020 Dominican Republic municipal elections protests in Plaza de La Bandera, Santo Domingo.In 2000, the PRD's Hipólito Mejía won the election.", "This was a time of economic troubles.", "Under Mejía, the Dominican Republic participated in the US-led coalition, as part of the Multinational Plus Ultra Brigade, during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, suffering no casualties.", "In 2004, the country withdrew its approximately 300 soldiers from Iraq.", "The Dominican Republic has also contributed troops to the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), and the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA).In 2008, Fernández was elected for a third term.", "Fernández and the PLD are credited with initiatives that have moved the country forward technologically, on the other hand, his administrations have been accused of corruption.Danilo Medina of the PLD was elected president in 2012 and re-elected in 2016.On the other hand, a significant increase in crime, government corruption and a weak justice system threaten to overshadow their administrative period.He was succeeded by the opposition candidate Luis Abinader in the 2020 election (weeks after protests erupted in the country against Medina's government), marking the end to 16 years in power of the centre-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD)." ], [ "Geography", "Topographical map of Dominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic comprises the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola, the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles, with the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south.", "It shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with Haiti, the north-to-south (though somewhat irregular) border between the two countries being .", "To the north and north-west lie The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands, and to the east, across the Mona Passage, the US Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.", "The country's area is reported variously as (by the embassy in the United States) and , making it the second largest country in the Antilles, after Cuba.", "The Dominican Republic's capital and largest city Santo Domingo is on the southern coast.Monte Cristi coastline.The Dominican Republic has four important mountain ranges.", "The most northerly is the ''Cordillera Septentrional'' (\"Northern Mountain Range\"), which extends from the northwestern coastal town of Monte Cristi, near the Haitian border, to the Samaná Peninsula in the east, running parallel to the Atlantic coast.", "The highest range in the Dominican Republic – indeed, in the whole of the West Indies – is the ''Cordillera Central'' (\"Central Mountain Range\").", "It gradually bends southwards and finishes near the town of Azua, on the Caribbean coast.", "In the Cordillera Central are the four highest peaks in the Caribbean: Pico Duarte ( above sea level), La Pelona (), La Rucilla (), and Pico Yaque ().", "In the southwest corner of the country, south of the Cordillera Central, there are two other ranges: the more northerly of the two is the ''Sierra de Neiba'', while in the south the ''Sierra de Bahoruco'' is a continuation of the Massif de la Selle in Haiti.", "There are other, minor mountain ranges, such as the ''Cordillera Oriental'' (\"Eastern Mountain Range\"), ''Sierra Martín García'', ''Sierra de Yamasá'', and ''Sierra de Samaná''.Between the Central and Northern mountain ranges lies the rich and fertile Cibao valley.", "This major valley is home to the cities of Santiago and La Vega and most of the farming areas of the nation.", "Rather less productive are the semi-arid San Juan Valley, south of the Central Cordillera, and the Neiba Valley, tucked between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco.", "Much of the land around the Enriquillo Basin is below sea level, with a hot, arid, desert-like environment.", "There are other smaller valleys in the mountains, such as the Constanza, Jarabacoa, Villa Altagracia, and Bonao valleys.Mangroves in Los Haitises National ParkThe ''Llano Costero del Caribe'' (\"Caribbean Coastal Plain\") is the largest of the plains in the Dominican Republic.", "Stretching north and east of Santo Domingo, it contains many sugar plantations in the savannahs that are common there.", "West of Santo Domingo its width is reduced to as it hugs the coast, finishing at the mouth of the Ocoa River.", "Another large plain is the ''Plena de Azua'' (\"Azua Plain\"), a very arid region in Azua Province.", "A few other small coastal plains are on the northern coast and in the Pedernales Peninsula.Four major rivers drain the numerous mountains of the Dominican Republic.", "The Yaque del Norte is the longest and most important Dominican river.", "It carries excess water down from the Cibao Valley and empties into Monte Cristi Bay, in the northwest.", "Likewise, the Yuna River serves the Vega Real and empties into Samaná Bay, in the northeast.", "Drainage of the San Juan Valley is provided by the San Juan River, tributary of the Yaque del Sur, which empties into the Caribbean, in the south.", "The Artibonito is the longest river of Hispaniola and flows westward into Haiti.Salto del Limón, one of many waterfalls across the Dominican RepublicThere are many lakes and coastal lagoons.", "The largest lake is Enriquillo, a salt lake at below sea level, the lowest elevation in the Caribbean.", "Other important lakes are Laguna de Rincón or Cabral, with fresh water, and Laguna de Oviedo, a lagoon with brackish water.There are many small offshore islands and cays that form part of the Dominican territory.", "The two largest islands near shore are Saona, in the southeast, and Beata, in the southwest.", "Smaller islands include the Cayos Siete Hermanos, Isla Cabra, Cayo Jackson, Cayo Limón, Cayo Levantado, Cayo la Bocaina, Catalanita, Cayo Pisaje and Isla Alto Velo.", "To the north, at distances of , are three extensive, largely submerged banks, which geographically are a southeast continuation of the Bahamas: Navidad Bank, Silver Bank, and Mouchoir Bank.", "Navidad Bank and Silver Bank have been officially claimed by the Dominican Republic.", "Isla Cabritos lies within Lago Enriquillo.The Dominican Republic is located near fault action in the Caribbean.", "In 1946, it suffered a magnitude 8.1 earthquake off the northeast coast, triggering a tsunami that killed about 1,800, mostly in coastal communities.", "Caribbean countries and the United States have collaborated to create tsunami warning systems and are mapping high-risk low-lying areas.The country is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests, Enriquillo wetlands, and Greater Antilles mangroves.", "It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.18/10, ranking it 134th globally out of 172 countries.===Climate===Köppen climate types of the Dominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic has a tropical rainforest climate in the coastal and lowland areas.", "Some areas, such as most of the Cibao region, have a tropical savanna climate.", "Due to its diverse topography, Dominican Republic's climate shows considerable variation over short distances and is the most varied of all the Antilles.", "The annual average temperature is .", "At higher elevations the temperature averages while near sea level the average temperature is .", "Low temperatures of are possible in the mountains while high temperatures of are possible in protected valleys.", "January and February are the coolest months of the year while August is the hottest month.", "Snowfall can be seen on rare occasions on the summit of Pico Duarte.The wet season along the northern coast lasts from November through January.", "Elsewhere the wet season stretches from May through November, with May being the wettest month.", "Average annual rainfall is countrywide, with individual locations in the Valle de Neiba seeing averages as low as while the Cordillera Oriental averages .", "The driest part of the country lies in the west.File:Constanza, valle nuevo, clima invierno..jpg\|Frosted alpine forest in Constanza, Dominican RepublicFile:Cabo Cabrón, (Rincón Beach) Samaná, DR.JPG\|Tropical rainforest climate in Samana, Dominican RepublicFile:Jaragua National Park (Road2).JPG\|Semi-arid climate in Pedernales, Dominican RepublicFile:Dunas de Baní 1.jpg\|Desert sand dunes of Baní, Dominican RepublicTropical cyclones strike the Dominican Republic every couple of years, with 65% of the impacts along the southern coast.", "Hurricanes are most likely between June and October.", "The last major hurricane that struck the country was Hurricane Georges in 1998.===Fauna===Bats make up 90% of the native terrestrial mammal species residing in the Dominican Republic.", "Lake Enriquillo, located in the Dominican Republic's southwest, is home to the largest population of American crocodiles." ], [ "Government and politics", "National Palace in Santo DomingoThe Dominican Republic is a representative democracy or democratic republic, with three branches of power: executive, legislative, and judicial.", "The president of the Dominican Republic heads the executive branch and executes laws passed by the congress, appoints the cabinet, and is commander in chief of the armed forces.", "The president and vice-president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for four-year terms.", "The national legislature is bicameral, composed of a senate, which has 32 members, and the Chamber of Deputies, with 178 members.Judicial authority rests with the Supreme Court of Justice's 16 members.", "The court \"alone hears actions against the president, designated members of his Cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session.\"", "The court is appointed by a council known as the National Council of the Magistracy which is composed of the president, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non–governing-party member.The Dominican Republic has a multi-party political system.", "Elections are held every two years, alternating between the presidential elections, which are held in years evenly divisible by four, and the congressional and municipal elections, which are held in even-numbered years not divisible by four.", "\"International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair.\"", "The Central Elections Board (JCE) of nine members supervises elections, and its decisions are unappealable.", "Starting in 2016, elections are held jointly, after a constitutional reform.===Political culture===Dominican President Luis AbinaderThe three major parties are the conservative Social Christian Reformist Party (), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; and the social democratic Dominican Revolutionary Party (), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04; and the Dominican Liberation Party (), in power 1996–2000 and 2004–2020.The presidential elections of 2008 were held on May 16, 2008, with incumbent Leonel Fernández winning 53% of the vote.", "He defeated Miguel Vargas Maldonado, of the PRD, who achieved a 40.48% share of the vote.", "Amable Aristy, of the PRSC, achieved 4.59% of the vote.", "Other minority candidates, which included former Attorney General Guillermo Moreno from the Movement for Independence, Unity and Change (), and PRSC former presidential candidate and defector Eduardo Estrella, obtained less than 1% of the vote.In the 2012 presidential elections, the incumbent president Leonel Fernández (PLD) declined his aspirations and instead the PLD elected Danilo Medina as its candidate.", "This time the PRD presented ex-president Hipólito Mejía as its choice.", "The contest was won by Medina with 51.21% of the vote, against 46.95% in favor of Mejía.", "Candidate Guillermo Moreno obtained 1.37% of the votes.In 2014, the Modern Revolutionary Party () was created by a faction of leaders from the PRD, and has since become the predominant opposition party, polling in second place for the May 2016 general elections.In 2020, protests erupted against the PLD's rule.", "The presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM), Luis Abinader, won the election, defeating the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which had governed since 2004.===Foreign relations===The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States, and has close cultural ties with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and other states and jurisdictions of the United States.The Dominican Republic's relationship with neighbouring Haiti is strained over mass Haitian migration to the Dominican Republic, with citizens of the Dominican Republic blaming the Haitians for increased crime and other social problems.", "The Dominican Republic is a regular member of the .The Dominican Republic has a Free Trade Agreement with the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua via the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement.", "And an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union and the Caribbean Community via the Caribbean Forum.===Military===Dominican soldiers training in Santo DomingoThe Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are the military forces of the Dominican Republic.", "They consist of approximately 56,000 active duty personnel.", "The President of the Dominican Republic is the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic and the Ministry of Defense is the chief managing body of the armed forces.The Army, with 28,750 active duty personnel, consists of six infantry brigades, an air cavalry squadron and a combat service support brigade.", "The Air Force operates two main bases, one in the southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region of the country, the air force operates approximately 75 aircraft including helicopters.", "The Navy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the southwestern coast.The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas.", "The secretary of the armed forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF).", "The armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD).In 2018, Dominican Republic signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Administrative divisions===Provinces of the Dominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces.", "Santo Domingo, the capital, is designated Distrito Nacional (National District).", "The provinces are divided into municipalities (''municipios''; singular ''municipio'').", "They are the second-level political and administrative subdivisions of the country.", "The president appoints the governors of the 31 provinces.", "Mayors and municipal councils administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo).", "They are elected at the same time as congressional representatives.The provinces are the first–level administrative subdivisions of the country.", "The headquarters of the central government's regional offices are normally found in the capital cities of provinces.", "The president appoints an administrative governor (''Gobernador Civil'') for each province but not for the Distrito Nacional (Title IX of the constitution).Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional.The Distrito Nacional was created in 1936.Prior to this, the Distrito National was the old Santo Domingo Province, in existence since the country's independence in 1844.It is not to be confused with the new Santo Domingo Province split off from it in 2001.While it is similar to a province in many ways, the Distrito Nacional differs in its lack of an administrative governor and consisting only of one municipality, Santo Domingo, the city council (''ayuntamiento'') and mayor (''síndico'') which are in charge of its administration.", "Province Capital city Azua Azua de Compostela Baoruco NeibaBarahona Coat of Arms Barahona Santa Cruz de BarahonaDajabón Coat of Arms Dajabón Dajabón Distrito Nacional Santo Domingo Duarte San Francisco de MacorísElías Piña Coat of ArmsElías Piña ComendadorEl Seibo Coat of ArmsEl Seibo Santa Cruz de El SeiboEspaillat Coat of ArmsEspaillat MocaHato Mayor Coat of ArmsHato Mayor Hato Mayor del ReyHermanas Mirabal Coat of Arms Hermanas Mirabal Salcedo Independencia Coat of Arms Independencia Jimaní La Altagracia Coat of Arms La Altagracia Salvaleón de Higüey La Romana Coat of Arms La Romana La Romana La Vega Coat of Arms La Vega Concepción de La Vega María Trinidad Sánchez Coat of Arms María Trinidad Sánchez Nagua Province Capital city Monseñor Nouel Coat of Arms Monseñor Nouel Bonao Monte Cristi Coat of Arms Monte Cristi San Fernando de Monte CristiMonte Plata Coat of Arms Province Monte Plata Monte PlataPedernales Coat of Arms Pedernales PedernalesPeravia Coat of Arms Peravia Baní Puerto Plata Coat of Arms Puerto Plata San Felipe de Puerto PlataSamaná Coat of Arms Samaná Samaná San Cristóbal Coat of Arms San Cristóbal San Cristóbal San José de Ocoa Coat of Arms San José de Ocoa San José de Ocoa San Juan de la Maguana Coat of Arms San Juan San Juan de la Maguana San Pedro de Macorís Coat of Arms San Pedro de Macorís San Pedro de Macorís Sánchez Ramírez Coat of Arms Sánchez Ramírez Cotuí Santiago Coat of Arms Santiago Santiago de los Caballeros Santiago Rodríguez Coat of Arms Santiago Rodríguez San Ignacio de Sabaneta Santo Domingo Coat of Arms Santo Domingo Santo Domingo Este Valverde Coat of Arms Valverde Santa Cruz de Mao" ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Dominican Republic exports, 2019Historical GDP per capita development in the Dominican Republic and HaitiDuring the last three decades, the Dominican economy, formerly dependent on the export of agricultural commodities (mainly sugar, cocoa and coffee), has transitioned to a diversified mix of services, manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and trade.", "The service sector accounts for almost 60% of GDP; manufacturing, for 22%; tourism, telecommunications and finance are the main components of the service sector; however, none of them accounts for more than 10% of the whole.", "The Dominican Republic has a stock market, Bolsa de Valores de la República Dominicana (BVRD).", "and advanced telecommunication system and transportation infrastructure.", "High unemployment and income inequality are long-term challenges.", "International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives and sends large flows of migrants.", "Mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues.", "A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, sending billions of dollars to Dominican families in remittances.Remittances in Dominican Republic increased to US$4571.30 million in 2014 from US$3333 million in 2013 (according to data reported by the Inter-American Development Bank).", "Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage, which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices.", "Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves.", "Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a recession.This recession followed the collapse of the second-largest commercial bank in the country, Baninter, linked to a major incident of fraud valued at US$3.5 billion.", "The Baninter fraud had a devastating effect on the Dominican economy, with GDP dropping by 1% in 2003 as inflation ballooned by over 27%.", "All defendants, including the star of the trial, Ramón Báez Figueroa (the great-grandson of President Buenaventura Báez), were convicted.According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked No.", "71 in the world for resource availability, No.", "79 for human development, and No.", "14 in the world for resource mismanagement.", "These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor.The Dominican Republic has a noted problem of child labor in its coffee, rice, sugarcane, and tomato industries.", "The labor injustices in the sugarcane industry extend to forced labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor.", "Three large groups own 75% of the land: the State Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal del Azúcar, CEA), Grupo Vicini, and Central Romana Corporation.According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 104,800 people are enslaved in the modern day Dominican Republic, or 1.00% of the population.", "Some slaves in the Dominican Republic are held on sugar plantations, guarded by men on horseback with rifles, and forced to work.View of Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic's capital city.===Currency===The Dominican peso (abbreviated $ or RD$; ISO 4217 code is \"DOP\") is the national currency, with the United States dollar, the Euro, the Canadian dollar and the Swiss franc also accepted at most tourist sites.", "The exchange rate to the U.S. dollar, liberalized by 1985, stood at 2.70 pesos per dollar in August 1986, 14.00 pesos in 1993, and 16.00 pesos in 2000.the rate was 50.08 pesos per dollar.===Tourism===Cabeza de Toro beach, Punta CanaTourism is one of the fueling factors in the Dominican Republic's economic growth.", "The Dominican Republic is the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean.", "With the construction of projects like Cap Cana, San Souci Port in Santo Domingo, Casa De Campo and the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino (ancient Moon Palace Resort) in Punta Cana, the Dominican Republic expects increased tourism activity in the upcoming years.Ecotourism has also been a topic increasingly important in this nation, with towns like Jarabacoa and neighboring Constanza, and locations like the Pico Duarte, Bahía de las Águilas, and others becoming more significant in efforts to increase direct benefits from tourism.", "Most residents from other countries are required to get a tourist card, depending on the country they live in.", "In the last 10 years the Dominican Republic has become one of the world's notably progressive states in terms of recycling and waste disposal.", "A UN report cited there was a 221.3% efficiency increase in the previous 10 years due, in part, to the opening of the largest open air landfill site located in the north 10 km from the Haitian border." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Teleférico de Santo Domingo===Transportation===27 de Febrero Avenue in Santo Domingo.The country has three national trunk highways, which connect every major town.", "These are DR-1, DR-2, and DR-3, which depart from Santo Domingo toward the northern (Cibao), southwestern (Sur), and eastern (El Este) parts of the country respectively.", "These highways have been consistently improved with the expansion and reconstruction of many sections.", "Two other national highways serve as spur (DR-5) or alternative routes (DR-4).In addition to the national highways, the government has embarked on an expansive reconstruction of spur secondary routes, which connect smaller towns to the trunk routes.", "In the last few years the government constructed a 106-kilometer toll road that connects Santo Domingo with the country's northeastern peninsula.", "Travelers may now arrive in the Samaná Peninsula in less than two hours.", "Other additions are the reconstruction of the DR-28 (Jarabacoa – Constanza) and DR-12 (Constanza – Bonao).", "Despite these efforts, many secondary routes still remain either unpaved or in need of maintenance.", "There is currently a nationwide program to pave these and other commonly used routes.", "Also, the Santiago light rail system is in planning stages but currently on hold.===Bus services===There are two main bus transportation services in the Dominican Republic: one controlled by the government, through the Oficina Técnica de Transito Terrestre (OTTT) and the Oficina Metropolitana de Servicios de Autobuses (OMSA), and the other controlled by private business, among them, Federación Nacional de Transporte La Nueva Opción (FENATRANO) and the Confederacion Nacional de Transporte (CONATRA).", "The government transportation system covers large routes in metropolitan areas such as Santo Domingo and Santiago.There are many privately owned bus companies, such as Metro Servicios Turísticos and Caribe Tours, that run daily routes.===Santo Domingo Metro===A pair of 9000 series are tested on the Santo Domingo Metro.The Dominican Republic has a rapid transit system in Santo Domingo, the country's capital.", "It is the most extensive metro system in the insular Caribbean and Central American region by length and number of stations.", "The Santo Domingo Metro is part of a major \"National Master Plan\" to improve transportation in Santo Domingo as well as the rest of the nation.", "The first line was planned to relieve traffic congestion in the Máximo Gómez and Hermanas Mirabal Avenue.", "The second line, which opened in April 2013, is meant to relieve the congestion along the Duarte-Kennedy-Centenario Corridor in the city from west to east.", "The current length of the Metro, with the sections of the two lines open , is .", "Before the opening of the second line, 30,856,515 passengers rode the Santo Domingo Metro in 2012.With both lines opened, ridership increased to 61,270,054 passengers in 2014.===Communications===The Dominican Republic has a well developed telecommunications infrastructure, with extensive mobile phone and landline services.", "Cable Internet and DSL are available in most parts of the country, and many Internet service providers offer 3G wireless internet service.", "The Dominican Republic became the second country in Latin America to have 4G LTE wireless service.", "The reported speeds are from 1 Mbit/s up to 100 Mbit/s for residential services.For commercial service there are speeds from 256 kbit/s up to 154 Mbit/s.", "(Each set of numbers denotes downstream/upstream speed; that is, to the user/from the user.)", "Projects to extend Wi-Fi hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo.", "The country's commercial radio stations and television stations are in the process of transferring to the digital spectrum, via HD Radio and HDTV after officially adopting ATSC as the digital medium in the country with a switch-off of analog transmission by September 2015.The telecommunications regulator in the country is INDOTEL (''Instituto Dominicano de Telecomunicaciones'').The largest telecommunications company is Claro – part of Carlos Slim's América Móvil – which provides wireless, landline, broadband, and IPTV services.", "In June 2009 there were more than 8 million phone line subscribers (land and cell users) in the D.R., representing 81% of the country's population and a fivefold increase since the year 2000, when there were 1.6 million.", "The communications sector generates about 3.0% of the GDP.", "There were 2,439,997 Internet users in March 2009.In November 2009, the Dominican Republic became the first Latin American country to pledge to include a \"gender perspective\" in every information and communications technology (ICT) initiative and policy developed by the government.", "This is part of the regional eLAC2010 plan.", "The tool the Dominicans have chosen to design and evaluate all the public policies is the APC Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM).===Electricity===Electric power service has been unreliable since the Trujillo era, and as much as 75% of the equipment is that old.", "The country's antiquated power grid causes transmission losses that account for a large share of billed electricity from generators.", "The privatization of the sector started under a previous administration of Leonel Fernández.", "The recent investment in a 345 kilovolt \"Santo Domingo–Santiago Electrical Highway\" with reduced transmission losses, is being heralded as a major capital improvement to the national grid since the mid-1960s.During the Trujillo regime electrical service was introduced to many cities.", "Almost 95% of usage was not billed at all.", "Around half of the Dominican Republic's 2.1 million houses have no meters and most do not pay or pay a fixed monthly rate for their electric service.Household and general electrical service is delivered at 110 volts alternating at 60 Hz.", "Electrically powered items from the United States work with no modifications.", "The majority of the Dominican Republic has access to electricity.", "Tourist areas tend to have more reliable power, as do business, travel, healthcare, and vital infrastructure.", "Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%.", "The electricity sector is highly politicized.", "Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies." ], [ "Society", "===Demographics===Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesPopulation age pyramid in 2020The Dominican Republic's population was in , compared to 2,380,000 in 1950.In 2010, 31.2% of the population was under 15 years of age, with 6% of the population over 65 years of age.", "There were an estimated 102.3 males for every 100 females in 2020.The annual population growth rate for 2006–2007 was 1.5%, with the projected population for the year 2015 being 10,121,000.The population density in 2007 was 192 per km2 (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas.", "The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country.", "The capital city Santo Domingo had a population of 2,907,100 in 2010.Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros ( 745,293), La Romana (pop.", "214,109), San Pedro de Macorís (pop.", "185,255), Higüey (153,174), San Francisco de Macorís (pop.", "132,725), Puerto Plata (pop.", "118,282), and La Vega (pop.", "104,536).", "Per the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 2.3%.===Ethnic groups===MocaIn a 2014 population survey, 70.4% self-identified as mixed (mestizo/indio 58%, mulatto 12.4%), 15.8% as black, 13.5% as white, and 0.3% as \"other\".", "According to recent genealogical DNA studies of the Dominican population, the genetic makeup is predominantly European and Sub-Saharan African, with a lesser degree of Native American ancestry.", "The average Dominican DNA of the founder population is estimated to be 73% European, 10% Native, and 17% African.", "After the Haitian and Afro-Caribbean migrations the overall percentage changed to 57% European, 8% Native and 35% African.", "Due to mixed race Dominicans (and most Dominicans in general) being a mix of mainly European and African, with lesser amounts of indigenous Taino, they can accurately be described as ''\"Mulatto\"'' or ''\"Tri-racial\"''.", "Dominican Republic have several informal terms to loosely describe a person's degree of racial admixture, Mestizo means any type of mixed ancestry unlike in other Latin American countries it describes specifically a European/native mix, ''Indio'' describes mixed race people whose skin color is between white and black.The majority of the Dominican population is tri-racial, with nearly all mixed race individuals having Taíno Native American ancestry along with European (mainly Spanish) and African ancestry.", "European ancestry in the mixed population typically ranges between 50% and 60% on average, while African ancestry ranges between 30% and 40%, and the Native ancestry usually ranges between 5% and 10%.", "European and Native ancestry tends to be strongest in cities and towns of the north-central Cibao region, and generally in the mountainous interior of the country.", "African ancestry is strongest in coastal areas, the southeast plain, and the border regions.", "In Dominican Republic and some other Latin American countries, it can sometimes be difficult to determine the exact number of racial groups, because the lines between whites and lighter multiracials are very blurry, which is also true between blacks and darker multiracials.", "As race in Dominican Republic acts as a continuum of white—mulatto—black and not as clear cut as in places like the United States.", "And many times in the same family, there can be people of different colors and racial phenotypes who are blood related, this is due to the large amounts of interracial mixing for hundreds of years in Dominican Republic and the Spanish Caribbean in general, allowing for high amounts of genetic diversity.Dominican Republic people in Duarte province.Dominican Republic's citizenship is given by ''right of blood'' (Jus sanguinis), not ''right of soil'', meaning being born in Dominican Republic does not guarantee citizenship if parents are illegal immigrants, one would either have to be born in Dominican Republic to parents who are legal citizens or apply for citizenship, citizenship is granted quite easily to people born abroad if they can prove Dominican ancestry.", "This means that being a ''Dominican citizen'' and being a ''ethnic Dominican'' is not always interchangeable, as the former implies citizenship that one can receive moving from any country in the world to Dominican Republic, while the latter implies a people tied by ancestry and culture.", "'''''Ethnic Dominicans''''' are people who are not only born in Dominican Republic (and have legal status) or born abroad with ancestral roots in the country, but more importantly have family roots in the country going back several generations and descend from a mix of varying degrees of Spanish, Taino, and African, the three principal foundational roots of Dominican Republic.", "Nearly all Dominicans are mixed race, with 75% being \"visibly\" and \"evenly\" mixed, and the remaining 25% being predominantly of African or European blood but still with notable admixture.", "According to a 2017 estimate from the Dominican government, Dominican Republic had a population of 10,189,895, of which 847,979 were immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants and 9,341,916 were ''ethnic Dominicans''.", "Most Dominicans embrace all sides of their mixed race heritage, but often identify with their nationality first and foremost.", "Many Dominicans born in the United States now reside in the Dominican Republic, creating a kind of expatriate community, whom have growing influence and play a significant role in the economic growth in Dominican Republic.Haitians make up the largest ethnic immigrant group in the country, a large majority of them are illegal, in a distant second place are the Venezuelans.", "Other groups in the country include the descendants of West Asians—mostly Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians.", "A smaller, yet significant presence of East Asians (primarily ethnic Chinese and Japanese) can also be found throughout the population.", "Dominicans are also composed of Sephardic Jews that were exiled from Spain and the Mediterranean area in 1492 and 1497, coupled with other migrations dating to the 1700s and during the Second World War contribute to Dominican ancestry.===Languages===The population of the Dominican Republic is mostly Spanish-speaking, with the only people who do not speak Spanish fluently being some immigrants.", "The local variant of Spanish is called Dominican Spanish, which closely resembles other Spanish vernaculars in the Caribbean and has similarities to Canarian Spanish.", "In addition, it has influences from African languages and borrowed words from indigenous Caribbean languages particular to the island of Hispaniola.", "Schools are based on a Spanish educational model; English and French are mandatory foreign languages in both private and public schools, although the quality of foreign languages teaching is poor.", "Some private educational institutes provide teaching in other languages, notably Italian, Japanese and Mandarin.Haitian Creole is the largest minority language in the Dominican Republic and is spoken by Haitian immigrants and their descendants.", "There is a community of a few thousand people whose ancestors spoke Samaná English in the Samaná Peninsula.", "They are the descendants of formerly enslaved African Americans who arrived in the nineteenth century, but only a few elders speak the language today.", "Tourism, American pop culture, the influence of Dominican Americans, and the country's economic ties with the United States motivate other Dominicans to learn English.", "The Dominican Republic is ranked 2nd in Latin America and 23rd in the World on English proficiency as a second language.+Mother tongue of the Dominican population, 1950 Census Language Total % Urban % Rural %Spanish 98.00 97.82 98.06French 1.19 0.39 1.44English 0.57 0.96 0.45Arabic 0.09 0.35 0.01Italian 0.03 0.10 0.006 Other language 0.12 0.35 0.04===Population centres======= Notes =======Religion===Cathedral of Santa María la Menor, Santo Domingo, is the oldest cathedral in the Americas, built between 1514 and 1541.", "'''95.0% ''' Christians '''2.6% ''' No religion '''2.2% ''' Other religions , 57% of the population (5.7 million) identified themselves as Roman Catholics and 23% (2.3 million) as Protestants (in Latin American countries, Protestants are often called ''Evangelicos'' because they emphasize personal and public evangelising and many are Evangelical Protestant or of a Pentecostal group).", "From 1896 to 1907 missionaries from the Episcopal, Free Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist and Moravians churches began work in the Dominican Republic.", "Three percent of the 10.63 million Dominican Republic population are Seventh-day Adventists.", "Recent immigration as well as proselytizing efforts have brought in other religious groups, with the following shares of the population: Spiritist: 2.2%, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: 1.3%, Buddhist: 0.1%, Baháʼí: 0.1%, Chinese Folk Religion: 0.1%, Islam: 0.02%, Judaism: 0.01%.The Catholic Church began to lose its strong dominance in the late 19th century.", "This was due to a lack of funding, priests, and support programs.", "During the same time, Protestant Evangelicalism began to gain wider support \"with their emphasis on personal responsibility and family rejuvenation, economic entrepreneurship, and biblical fundamentalism\".", "The Dominican Republic has two Catholic patroness saints: ''Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia'' (Our Lady Of High Grace) and ''Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes'' (Our Lady Of Mercy).The Dominican Republic has historically granted extensive religious freedom.", "According to the United States Department of State, \"The constitution specifies that there is no state church and provides for freedom of religion and belief.", "A concordat with the Vatican designates Catholicism as the official religion and extends special privileges to the Catholic Church not granted to other religious groups.", "These include the legal recognition of church law, use of public funds to underwrite some church expenses, and complete exoneration from customs duties.\"", "In the 1950s restrictions were placed upon churches by the government of Trujillo.", "Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries.", "Trujillo began a campaign against the Catholic Church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government.", "This campaign ended before it was put into place, with his assassination.During World War II a group of Jews escaping Nazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city of Sosúa.", "It has remained the center of the Jewish population since.===Immigration in the 20th and 21st centuries===Japanese descent in Constanza's neighbourhood of Colonia JaponesaIn the 20th century, many Arabs (from Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine), Japanese, and, to a lesser degree, Koreans settled in the country as agricultural laborers and merchants.", "The Chinese companies found business in telecom, mining, and railroads.", "The Arab community is rising at an increasing rate and is estimated at 80,000.Immigrant groups in the country include West Asians—mostly Lebanese, Syrians, and Palestinians; the current president, Luis Abinader, is of Lebanese descent.", "East Asians, Koreans, ethnic Chinese and Japanese, can also be found.", "Europeans are represented mostly by Spanish whites but also with smaller populations of Germans, Italians, French, British, Dutch, Swiss, Russians, and Hungarians.In addition, there are descendants of immigrants who came from other Caribbean islands, including St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and Guadeloupe.", "They are known locally as ''Cocolos''.", "They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the cities of San Pedro de Macorís and Puerto Plata.", "Puerto Rican, and to a lesser extent, Cuban immigrants fled to the Dominican Republic from the mid-1800s until about 1940 due to a poor economy and social unrest in their respective home countries.", "Many Puerto Rican immigrants settled in Higüey, among other cities, and quickly assimilated due to similar culture.", "Before and during World War II, 800 Jewish refugees moved to the Dominican Republic.Numerous immigrants have come from other Caribbean countries, as the country has offered economic opportunities.", "There are many Haitians and Venezuelans living in the Dominican Republic, there are the largest immigrant groups in the country currently, and large numbers of both groups are present in the country illegally.", "There is an increasing number of well-off Puerto Rican immigrants, owning businesses and vacation homes in the country, many retiring there, they are believed to number around 10,000.Many Europeans and Americans (non-Puerto Rican) are also retiring in the country.The 2010 Census registered 311,969 Haitians; 24,457 Americans; 6,691 Spaniards; 5,763 Puerto Ricans; and 5,132 Venezuelans.", "In 2012, the Dominican government made a survey of immigrants in the country and found that there were: 329,281 Haitian-born; 25,814 U. S.-born (excluding Puerto Rican-born); 7,062 Spanish-born; 6,083 Puerto Rican-born; 5,417 Venezuelan-born; 3,841 Cuban-born; 3,795 Italian-born; 3,606 Colombian-born; 2,043 French-born; 1,661 German-born; 1,484 Chinese-born; among others.", "In the second half of 2017, a second survey of foreign population was conducted in the Dominican Republic.", "The total population in the Dominican Republic was estimated at 10,189,895, of which 9,341,916 were Dominicans with no foreign background.", "According to the survey, the majority of the people with foreign background were of Haitian origin (751,080 out of 847,979, or 88.6%), breaking down as follows: 497,825 were Haitians born in Haiti, 171,859 Haitians born in the Dominican Republic and 81,590 Dominicans with a Haitian parent.", "Other main sources of foreign-born population were Venezuela (25,872), the United States (10,016), Spain (7,592), Italy (3,713), China (3,069), Colombia (2,642), Puerto Rico (2,356), and Cuba (2,024).====Haitian immigration====border between Haiti (left) and the Dominican Republic (right), highlighting the deforestation on the Haitian sideDominicans and Haitians lined up to attend medical providers from the U.S. Army ReserveView of border region between the Dominican Republic and Haiti.", "The border runs horizontally through the middle of the picture.Haitian workers being transported in Punta Cana, the Dominican RepublicHuman Rights Watch estimated that 70,000 documented Haitian immigrants and 1,930,000 undocumented immigrants were living in Dominican Republic.Haiti is the neighboring nation to the Dominican Republic and is considerably poorer, less developed and is additionally the least developed country in the western hemisphere.", "In 2003, 80% of all Haitians were poor (54% living in abject poverty) and 47.1% were illiterate.", "The country of nine million people also has a fast growing population, but over two-thirds of the labor force lack formal jobs.", "Haiti's per capita GDP (PPP) was $1,800 in 2017, or just over one-tenth of the Dominican figure.As a result, hundreds of thousands of Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic, with some estimates of 800,000 Haitians in the country, while others put the Haitian-born population as high as one million.", "They usually work at low-paying and unskilled jobs in building construction and house cleaning and in sugar plantations.", "There have been accusations that some Haitian immigrants work in slavery-like conditions and are severely exploited.Due to the lack of basic amenities and medical facilities in Haiti a large number of Haitian women, often arriving with several health problems, cross the border to Dominican soil.", "They deliberately come during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain medical attention for childbirth, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status.", "Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of childbirths are by Haitian mothers.Haiti also suffers from severe environmental degradation.", "Deforestation is rampant in Haiti; today less than 4 percent of Haiti's forests remain, and in many places the soil has eroded right down to the bedrock.", "Haitians burn wood charcoal for 60% of their domestic energy production.", "Because of Haiti running out of plant material to burn, some Haitian bootleggers have created an illegal market for charcoal on the Dominican side.", "Conservative estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti.", "Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal.In 2005, Dominican President Leonel Fernández criticized collective expulsions of Haitians as having taken place \"in an abusive and inhuman way\".", "After a UN delegation issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origin, Dominican Foreign Minister Carlos Morales Troncoso issued a formal statement denouncing it, asserting that \"our border with Haiti has its problems; this is our reality and it must be understood.", "It is important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security with xenophobia.", "\"Haitian nationals send half a billion dollars total yearly in remittance from the Dominican Republic to Haiti, according to the World Bank.The government of the Dominican Republic invested a total of $16 billion pesos in health services offered to foreign patients in 2013–2016, according to official data, which includes medical expenses in blood transfusion, clinical analysis, surgeries and other care.", "According to official reports, the country spends more than five billion Dominican pesos annually in care for pregnant women who cross the border ready to deliver.The children of Haitian immigrants are eligible for Haitian nationality, but they may be denied it by Haiti because of a lack of proper documents or witnesses.===Emigration===Dominicans in the Dominican Day Parade in New York City, 2019The first of three late-20th century emigration waves began in 1961 after the assassination of dictator Trujillo, due to fear of retaliation by Trujillo's allies and political uncertainty in general.", "In 1965, the United States began a military occupation of the Dominican Republic to end a civil war.", "Upon this, the U.S. eased travel restrictions, making it easier for Dominicans to obtain U.S. visas.", "From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression.", "Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals.In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of emigration from the Dominican Republic.", "Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high.", "In 2012, there were approximately 1.7 million people of Dominican descent in the U.S., counting both native- and foreign-born.", "There was also a growing Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico, with nearly 70,000 Dominicans living there .", "Although that number is slowly decreasing and immigration trends have reversed because of Puerto Rico's economic crisis .There is a significant Dominican population in Spain.===Health===In 2020, the Dominican Republic had an estimated birth rate of 18.5 per 1000 and a death rate of 6.3 per 1000.===Education===Kids taking classesPrimary education is regulated by the Ministry of Education, with education being a right of all citizens and youth in the Dominican Republic.Preschool education is organized in different cycles and serves the 2–4 age group and the 4–6 age group.", "Preschool education is not mandatory except for the last year.", "Basic education is compulsory and serves the population of the 6–14 age group.", "Secondary education is not compulsory, although it is the duty of the state to offer it for free.", "It caters to the 14–18 age group and is organized in a common core of four years and three modes of two years of study that are offered in three different options: general or academic, vocational (industrial, agricultural, and services), and artistic.The higher education system consists of institutes and universities.", "The institutes offer courses of a higher technical level.", "The universities offer technical careers, undergraduate and graduate; these are regulated by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology.", "The Dominican Republic was ranked 94th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 87th in 2019.===Crime===In 2012, the Dominican Republic had a murder rate of 22.1 per 100,000 population.", "There was a total of 2,268 murders in the Dominican Republic in 2012.The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for Colombian drugs destined for Europe as well as the United States and Canada.", "Money-laundering via the Dominican Republic is favored by Colombian drug cartels for the ease of illicit financial transactions.", "In 2004, it was estimated that 8% of all cocaine smuggled into the United States had come through the Dominican Republic.", "The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering.The often-light treatment of violent criminals has been a continuous source of local controversy.", "In April 2010, five teenagers, aged 15 to 17, shot and killed two taxi drivers and killed another five by forcing them to drink drain-cleaning acid.", "On September 24, 2010, the teens were sentenced to prison terms of three to five years, despite the protests of the taxi drivers' families." ], [ "Culture", "Campesino cibaeño, 1941 (Museo de Arte Moderno, Santo Domingo)Due to cultural syncretism, the culture and customs of the Dominican people have a European cultural basis, influenced by both African and native Taíno elements, although endogenous elements have emerged within Dominican culture; culturally the Dominican Republic is among the most-European countries in Spanish America, alongside Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay.", "Spanish institutions in the colonial era were able to predominate in the Dominican culture's making-of as a relative success in the acculturation and cultural assimilation of African slaves slightly diminished African cultural influence in comparison to other Caribbean countries.===Visual arts===Dominican art is perhaps most commonly associated with the bright, vibrant colors and images that are sold in every tourist gift shop across the country.", "However, the country has a long history of fine art that goes back to the middle of the 1800s when the country became independent and the beginnings of a national art scene emerged.Historically, the painting of this time were centered around images connected to national independence, historical scenes, portraits but also landscapes and images of still life.", "Styles of painting ranged between neoclassicism and romanticism.", "Between 1920 and 1940 the art scene was influenced by styles of realism and impressionism.", "Dominican artists were focused on breaking from previous, academic styles in order to develop more independent and individual styles.===Literature===The 20th century brought many prominent Dominican writers, and saw a general increase in the perception of Dominican literature.", "Writers such as Juan Bosch (one of the greatest storytellers in Latin America), Pedro Mir (national poet of the Dominican Republic), Aida Cartagena Portalatin (poet par excellence who spoke in the Era of Rafael Trujillo), Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi (the most important Dominican historian, with more than 1000 written works), Manuel del Cabral (main Dominican poet featured in black poetry), Hector Inchustegui Cabral (considered one of the most prominent voices of the Caribbean social poetry of the twentieth century), Miguel Alfonseca (poet belonging to Generation 60), Rene del Risco (acclaimed poet who was a participant in the June 14 Movement), Mateo Morrison (excellent poet and writer with numerous awards), among many more prolific authors, put the island in one of the most important in Literature in the twentieth century.New 21st-century Dominican writers have not yet achieved the renown of their 20th-century counterparts.", "However, writers such as Frank Báez (won the 2006 Santo Domingo Book Fair First Prize) and Junot Díaz (2008 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his novel ''The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao)'' lead Dominican literature in the 21st century.===Architecture===Church and Convent, Colonial Santo DomingoThe architecture in the Dominican Republic represents a complex blend of diverse cultures.", "The deep influence of the European colonists is the most evident throughout the country.", "Characterized by ornate designs and baroque structures, the style can best be seen in the capital city of Santo Domingo, which is home to the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress in all of the Americas, located in the city's Colonial Zone, an area declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "The designs carry over into the villas and buildings throughout the country.", "It can also be observed on buildings that contain stucco exteriors, arched doors and windows, and red tiled roofs.The indigenous peoples of the Dominican Republic have also had a significant influence on the architecture of the country.", "The Taíno people relied heavily on the mahogany and guano (dried palm tree leaf) to put together crafts, artwork, furniture, and houses.", "Utilizing mud, thatched roofs, and mahogany trees, they gave buildings and the furniture inside a natural look, seamlessly blending in with the island's surroundings.Lately, with the rise in tourism and increasing popularity as a Caribbean vacation destination, architects in the Dominican Republic have now begun to incorporate cutting-edge designs that emphasize luxury.", "In many ways an architectural playground, villas and hotels implement new styles, while offering new takes on the old.", "This new style is characterized by simplified, angular corners and large windows that blend outdoor and indoor spaces.", "As with the culture as a whole, contemporary architects embrace the Dominican Republic's rich history and various cultures to create something new.", "Surveying modern villas, one can find any combination of the three major styles: a villa may contain angular, modernist building construction, Spanish Colonial-style arched windows, and a traditional Taíno hammock in the bedroom balcony.===Cuisine===Chicharrón mixto, a common dish in the country derived from Andalusia in southern SpainDominican cuisine is predominantly Spanish, Taíno, and African in origin.", "The typical cuisine is similar to what can be found in other Latin American countries.", "One breakfast dish consists of eggs and ''mangú'' (mashed, boiled plantain).", "Heartier versions of ''mangú'' are accompanied by deep-fried meat (Dominican salami, typically), cheese, or both.", "Lunch, generally the largest and most important meal of the day, usually consists of rice, meat, beans, and salad.", "\"La Bandera\" (literally \"The Flag\") is the most popular lunch dish; it consists of meat and red beans on white rice.", "''Sancocho'' is a stew often made with seven varieties of meat.Meals tend to favor meats and starches over dairy products and vegetables.", "Many dishes are made with ''sofrito'', which is a mix of local herbs used as a wet rub for meats and sautéed to bring out all of a dish's flavors.", "Throughout the south-central coast, bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in ''quipes'' or ''tipili'' (bulgur salad).", "Other favorite Dominican foods include ''chicharrón'', ''yuca'', ''casabe'', ''pastelitos'' (empanadas), ''batata'', ''ñame'', ''pasteles en hoja'', ''chimichurris'', and ''tostones''.Some treats Dominicans enjoy are ''arroz con leche'' (or ''arroz con dulce''), ''bizcocho dominicano'' (lit.", "\"Dominican cake\"), ''habichuelas con dulce'', flan, ''frío frío'' (snow cones), dulce de leche, and ''caña'' (sugarcane).", "The beverages Dominicans enjoy are ''Morir Soñando'', rum, beer, ''Mama Juana'', ''batidas'' (smoothie), ''jugos naturales'' (freshly squeezed fruit juices), ''mabí'', coffee, and ''chaca'' (also called ''maiz caqueao/casqueado'', ''maiz con dulce'' and ''maiz con leche''), the last item being found only in the southern provinces of the country such as San Juan.===Music and dance===Merengue, sung by Juan Luis Guerra (left), and bachata, sung by Romeo Santos (right), are two very popular music genres native to the Dominican Republic.Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the world popular musical style and genre called merengue, a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music consisting of a tempo of about 120 to 160 beats per minute (though it varies) based on musical elements like drums, brass, chorded instruments, and accordion, as well as some elements unique to the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, such as the ''tambora'' and ''güira''.Its syncopated beats use Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass, and piano or keyboard.", "Between 1937 and 1950 merengue music was promoted internationally by Dominican groups like Billo's Caracas Boys, Chapuseaux and Damiron \"Los Reyes del Merengue\", Joseito Mateo, and others.", "Radio, television, and international media popularized it further.", "Some well known merengue performers are Wilfrido Vargas, Johnny Ventura, singer-songwriter Los Hermanos Rosario, Juan Luis Guerra, Fernando Villalona, Eddy Herrera, Sergio Vargas, Toño Rosario, Milly Quezada, and Chichí Peralta.Merengue became popular in the United States, mostly on the East Coast, during the 1980s and 1990s, when many Dominican artists residing in the U.S. (particularly New York) started performing in the Latin club scene and gained radio airplay.", "They included Victor Roque y La Gran Manzana, Henry Hierro, Zacarias Ferreira, Aventura, and Milly Jocelyn Y Los Vecinos.", "The emergence of ''bachata'', along with an increase in the number of Dominicans living among other Latino groups in New York, New Jersey, and Florida, has contributed to Dominican music's overall growth in popularity.Dominicans dancing in parade with traditional dress.Bachata, a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural marginal neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years.", "Its subjects are often romantic; especially prevalent are tales of heartbreak and sadness.", "In fact, the original name for the genre was ''amargue'' (\"bitterness\", or \"bitter music\"), until the rather ambiguous (and mood-neutral) term ''bachata'' became popular.", "Bachata grew out of, and is still closely related to, the pan-Latin American romantic style called ''bolero''.", "Over time, it has been influenced by merengue and by a variety of Latin American guitar styles.Palo is an Afro-Dominican sacred music that can be found throughout the island.", "The drum and human voice are the principal instruments.", "Palo is played at religious ceremonies—usually coinciding with saints' religious feast days—as well as for secular parties and special occasions.", "Its roots are in the Congo region of central-west Africa, but it is mixed with European influences in the melodies.Salsa music has had a great deal of popularity in the country.", "During the late 1960s Dominican musicians like Johnny Pacheco, creator of the Fania All Stars, played a significant role in the development and popularization of the genre.Dominican rock and Reggaeton are also popular.", "Many, if not the majority, of its performers are based in Santo Domingo and Santiago.===Fashion===Dominican native, fashion designer and perfume maker Oscar de la RentaThe country boasts one of the ten most important design schools in the region, La Escuela de Diseño de Altos de Chavón, which is making the country a key player in the world of fashion and design.", "Noted fashion designer Oscar de la Renta was born in the Dominican Republic in 1932, and became a US citizen in 1971.He studied under the leading Spaniard designer Cristóbal Balenciaga and then worked with the house of Lanvin in Paris.", "By 1963, he had designs bearing his own label.", "After establishing himself in the US, de la Renta opened boutiques across the country.", "His work blends French and Spaniard fashion with American styles.", "Although he settled in New York, de la Renta also marketed his work in Latin America, where it became very popular, and remained active in his native Dominican Republic, where his charitable activities and personal achievements earned him the Juan Pablo Duarte Order of Merit and the Order of Cristóbal Colón.", "De la Renta died of complications from cancer on October 20, 2014.===National symbols===Bayahibe roseSome of the Dominican Republic's important symbols are the flag, the coat of arms, and the national anthem, titled ''Himno Nacional''.", "The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters.", "Two quarters are red and two are blue.", "Red represents the blood shed by the liberators.", "Blue expresses God's protection over the nation.", "The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation.", "An alternative interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and unity among Dominicans.In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag.", "The coat of arms pictures a red, white, and blue flag-draped shield with a Bible, a gold cross, and arrows; the shield is surrounded by an olive branch (on the left) and a palm branch (on the right).", "The Bible traditionally represents the truth and the light.", "The gold cross symbolizes the redemption from slavery, and the arrows symbolize the noble soldiers and their proud military.", "A blue ribbon above the shield reads, \"Dios, Patria, Libertad\" (meaning \"God, Fatherland, Liberty\").", "A red ribbon under the shield reads, \"República Dominicana\" (meaning \"Dominican Republic\").", "Out of all the flags in the world, the depiction of a Bible is unique to the Dominican flag.The national flower is the endemic Bayahibe rose (''Leuenbergeria quisqueyana'') and the national tree is the West Indian mahogany (''Swietenia mahagoni'').", "The national bird is the ''cigua palmera'' or palmchat (''Dulus dominicus''), another endemic species.The Dominican Republic celebrates Dia de la Altagracia on January 21 in honor of its patroness, Duarte's Day on January 26 in honor of one of its founding fathers, Independence Day on February 27, Restoration Day on August 16, ''Virgen de las Mercedes'' on September 24, and Constitution Day on November 6.===Sports===Dominican native and Major League Baseball player Albert PujolsBaseball is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic.", "The Dominican Professional Baseball League consists of six teams.", "Its season usually begins in October and ends in January.", "After the United States, the Dominican Republic has the second-highest number of Major League Baseball (MLB) players.", "Ozzie Virgil Sr. became the first Dominican-born player in MLB on September 23, 1956.Adrián Beltré, Vladimir Guerrero, Juan Marichal, Pedro Martínez, and David Ortiz are the only Dominican-born players in the Baseball Hall of Fame.", "Other notable baseball players born in the Dominican Republic are José Bautista, Robinson Canó, Rico Carty, Bartolo Colón, Nelson Cruz, Edwin Encarnación, Cristian Javier, Ubaldo Jiménez, Francisco Liriano, Plácido Polanco, Albert Pujols, Hanley Ramírez, Manny Ramírez, José Reyes, Alfonso Soriano, Sammy Sosa, Juan Soto, Fernando Tatís Jr., Miguel Tejada, and Framber Valdez.", "Felipe Alou has also enjoyed success as a manager and Omar Minaya as a general manager.", "In 2013, the Dominican team went undefeated ''en route'' to winning the World Baseball Classic.In boxing, the country has produced scores of world-class fighters and several world champions, such as Carlos Cruz, his brother Leo, Juan Guzman, and Joan Guzman.Basketball also enjoys a relatively high level of popularity.", "Tito Horford, his son Al, Felipe Lopez, and Francisco Garcia are among the Dominican-born players currently or formerly in the National Basketball Association (NBA).Olympic gold medalist and world champion hurdler Félix Sánchez hails from the Dominican Republic, as do former NFL defensive end Luis Castillo and 2020 World and European Cyclo-cross champion Ceylin del Carmen Alvarado.Other important sports are volleyball, introduced in 1916 by U.S. Marines and controlled by the Dominican Volleyball Federation, taekwondo, in which Gabriel Mercedes won an Olympic silver medal in 2008, and judo." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Dominican Republic-related articles* Outline of the Dominican Republic* List of islands of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===" ], [ "Further reading", " Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek.", "''The Dominican Republic: a Caribbean Crucible'', in series, ''Nations of Contemporary Latin America'', and also ''Westview Profiles''.", "Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1982.pbk.", "* Jared Diamond, ''Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed'', Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 ().", "See chapter 11 entitled \"One Island, Two People, Two Histories: The Dominican Republic and Haiti\"." ], [ "External links", "* Presidency of the Dominican Republic (archived 1 October 2012)* Official country website * Dominican Republic at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 5 July 2008)* Dominican Republic profile from the BBC News* Official website of the Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic* Official Commercial Website Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic * Official Website of the IDDI, Instituto Dominicano de Desarrollo Integral* Caribbean Connections: Dominican Republic – teaching guide for middle and high school students" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deutsches Institut für Normung" ], [ "Introduction", "Logo of the German Institute for StandardizationTiergarten'''''''''' ('''DIN'''; in English, the '''German Institute for Standardisation''') is the German national organization for standardization and is the German ISO member body.", "DIN is a German Registered Association (''e.V.'')", "headquartered in Berlin.", "There are currently around thirty thousand DIN Standards, covering nearly every field of technology." ], [ "History", "Founded in 1917 as the '''' (NADI, \"Standardisation Committee of German Industry\"), the NADI was renamed '''' (DNA, \"German Standardisation Committee\") in 1926 to reflect that the organization now dealt with standardization issues in many fields; viz., not just for industrial products.", "In 1975 it was renamed again to '''', or 'DIN' and is recognised by the German government as the official national-standards body, representing German interests at the international and European levels.The acronym, 'DIN' is often incorrectly expanded as '''' (\"German Industry Standard\").", "This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as \"NADI\".", "The NADI indeed published their standards as '''' ('''').", "For example, the first published standard was '' (about tapered pins) in 1918.Many people still mistakenly associate DIN with the old '''' naming convention.One of the earliest, and probably the best known, is DIN 476 — the standard that introduced the A-series paper sizes in 1922 — adopted in 1975 as International Standard ISO 216.Common examples in modern technology include DIN and mini-DIN connectors for electronics, and the DIN rail.DIN SPEC 3105, published in 2020, is \"the first German standard to be published under an open license (CC-BY-SA 4.0) ... to implement an open standardisation process\"." ], [ "DIN standard designation", "The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number):* ''DIN #'' is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status.", "''E DIN #'' is a draft standard and ''DIN V #'' is a preliminary standard.", "''DIN EN #'' is used for the German edition of European standards.", "''DIN ISO #'' is used for the German edition of ISO standards.", "''DIN EN ISO #'' is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard." ], [ "Examples of DIN standards", " DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216)* DIN 1451: typeface used by German railways and on traffic signs* DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language* DIN 41612: mechanical standard for backplane electrical connection* DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles" ], [ "See also", "Austrian Standards InternationalSwiss Association for StandardizationDie Brücke, an earlier German institute aiming to set standard paper sizesDIN film speedDIN connectorScuba: DIN connection, DIN connectors* DQS - Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Zertifizierung von Managementsystemen, a subsidiary of DINDGQ - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Qualität, founded DQS in 1985 together with DIN" ], [ "External links", " DIN home page (German version)* DIN home page (English version)* Guidance paper (in German)* Further education (in German)* Web Courses (official education partner) (in German)* Safety instructions (official DIN education partner) (in German)* Training for engineers, managers and experts (official education partner) (in German)* International Organization for Standardization (ISO)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "Arrival of Christopher Columbus, art by Dominican painter Luis Desangles.The recorded '''history of the Dominican Republic''' began in 1492 when the Genoa-born navigator Christopher Columbus, working for the Crown of Castile, happened upon a large island in the region of the western Atlantic Ocean that later came to be known as the Caribbean.", "It was inhabited by the Taíno, an Arawakan people, who called the eastern part of the island Quisqueya (Kiskeya), meaning \"mother of all lands.\"", "Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown, naming it La Isla Española (\"the Spanish Island\"), later Latinized to Hispaniola.", "After 25 years of Spanish occupation, the Taíno population in the Spanish-dominated parts of the island drastically decreased through genocide.", "With fewer than 50,000 remaining, the survivors intermixed with Spaniards, Africans, and others, forming the present-day tripartite Dominican population.", "What would become the '''Dominican Republic''' was the Spanish Captaincy General of Santo Domingo until 1821, except for a time as a French colony from 1795 to 1809.It was then part of a unified Hispaniola with Haiti from 1822 until 1844.In 1844, Dominican independence was proclaimed and the republic, which was often known as '''Santo Domingo''' until the early 20th century, maintained its independence except for a short Spanish occupation from 1861 to 1865 and occupation by the United States from 1916 to 1924.During the 19th century, Dominicans were often at war, fighting the French, Haitians, Spanish, or amongst themselves, resulting in a society heavily influenced by ''caudillos'', who ruled the country as if it were their personal kingdom.", "Between 1844 and 1914, the Dominican Republic experienced multiple transitions in leadership, with 53 presidents (only 3 completing their terms) and the adoption of 19 constitutions.", "Many leaders seized power through military force.", "Around 1930, the Dominican Republic found itself under the control of the dictator Rafael Trujillo, who ruled the country until his assassination in 1961.Juan Bosch was elected president in 1962 but was deposed in a military coup in 1963.In 1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civil war sparked by an uprising to restore Bosch.", "In 1966, the ''caudillo'' Joaquín Balaguer defeated Bosch in the presidential election.", "Balaguer maintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years when U.S. reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail his term in 1996.Since then, regular competitive elections have been held in which opposition candidates have won the presidency." ], [ "Pre-European history", "The Taíno people called the island ''Quisqueya'' (mother of all lands) and ''Ayiti'' (land of high mountains).", "At the time of Columbus' arrival in 1492, the island's territory consisted of five chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey.", "These were ruled respectively by ''caciques'' Guacanagarix, Guarionex, Caonabo, Bohechío, and Cayacoa.Chiefdoms of Hispaniola.", "Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua and Higüey" ], [ "Spanish colony: 1492–1795", "===Arrival of the Spanish===Christopher Columbus reached the island of Hispañola on his first voyage, in December 1492.Guacanagarí, the chief who hosted Columbus and his men, treated them kindly and provided them with everything they desired.", "However, the Taínos' egalitarian social system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, which had more rigid class structures.", "The Europeans believed the Taínos to be either weak or misleading, and they began to treat the tribes with violence.", "Columbus successfully tempered this trend, and he and his men departed from Quisqueya, the Taínos' name for the island, on good terms.Battle of Vega Real (1494)After the sinking of the ''Santa María'', Columbus established a small fort to support his claim to the island.", "The fort was called La Navidad because the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas Day.", "While Columbus was away, the garrison manning the fort was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict.", "The more rapacious men began to terrorize the Taíno, the Ciguayo, and the Macorix peoples, which included attempts to take their women.", "Guacanagarix tried to reach an accommodation with the Spaniards; however, the Spaniards and some of his own people viewed him as weak.", "The Spaniards treated him with contempt, including the kidnapping of some of his wives.", "Fed up, the powerful Cacique Caonabo of the Maguana Chiefdom attacked the Europeans and destroyed La Navidad.", "Guacanagarix was dismayed by these events but did not try hard to aid the Europeans, probably hoping that the troublesome outsiders would never return.In 1493, Columbus came back to the island on his second voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World, the city of La Isabela.", "Isabela nearly failed because of hunger and disease.", "In 1496, Santo Domingo was built and became the new capital, and remains the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the Americas.Massacre of Queen Anacaona and her subjectsAn estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines.", "By 1508, their numbers had decreased to around 60,000 because of forced labor, hunger, disease, and mass killings.", "By 1535, only a few dozen were still alive.In 1511, Antonio de Montesinos denounced the abuses against the indigenous peopleDuring this period, the colony's Spanish leadership changed several times.", "When Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor.", "Settlers' allegations of mismanagement by Columbus helped create a tumultuous political situation.", "In 1502, Nicolás de Ovando replaced de Bobadilla as governor, with an ambitious plan to expand Spanish influence in the region.", "It was he who dealt most brutally with the Taíno people.", "The Taino population declined by up to 95% in the century after the Spanish arrival, from a pre contact population of tens of thousands to 8,000,000.Many authors have described the treatment of the Taino in Hispaniola under the Spanish Empire as genocide.The conquistador-turned-priest Bartolomé de las Casas wrote an eyewitness history of the Spanish incursion into the island of Hispaniola that reported the conquistadors' almost feral misconduct:One rebel, however, successfully fought back.", "Enriquillo led a group who fled to the mountains and attacked the Spanish repeatedly for fourteen years.", "The Spanish ultimately offered him a peace treaty and gave Enriquillo and his followers their own town in 1534.The town lasted only a few years.", "Rebellious slaves burned it to the ground and killed all who stayed behind.===Sixteenth century===In 1501, the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand I and Isabella, first granted permission to the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves, who began arriving to the island in 1503.In 1510, the first sizable shipment, consisting of 250 Black Ladinos, arrived in Hispaniola from Spain.", "Eight years later African-born slaves arrived in the West Indies.", "The Colony of Santo Domingo was organized as the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo in 1511.Sugar cane was introduced to Hispaniola from the Canary Islands, and the first sugar mill in the New World was established in 1516, on Hispaniola.", "The need for a labor force to meet the growing demands of sugar cane cultivation led to an exponential increase in the importation of slaves over the following two decades.", "The sugar mill owners soon formed a new colonial elite and convinced the Spanish king to allow them to elect the members of the Real Audiencia from their ranks.", "Poorer colonists subsisted by hunting the herds of wild cattle that roamed throughout the island and selling their hides.The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo on December 25, 1521, when enslaved Muslims of the Wolof nation led an uprising in the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon, son of Christopher Columbus.", "Many of these insurgents managed to escape to the mountains where they formed independent maroon communities, but the Admiral had a lot of the captured rebels hanged.While sugar cane dramatically increased Spain's earnings on the island, large numbers of the newly imported slaves fled into the nearly impassable mountain ranges in the island's interior, joining the growing communities of ''cimarrónes''—literally, 'wild animals'.", "By the 1530s, ''cimarrón'' bands had become so numerous that in rural areas the Spaniards could only safely travel outside their plantations in large armed groups.", "When Archdeacon Alonso de Castro toured Hispaniola in 1542, he estimated the maroon population at 2,000–3,000 persons, living mainly on the Cape of San Nicolas, in the Ciguayos, on the Samana peninsular, and on the Cape of Iguey.", "Latter that decade, there were also rebellions of enslaved people, led by Diego de Guzman, Diego de Campo, and Captain Lemba.Ruins of Monasterio de San FranciscoRuins of Hospital San Nicolás de BariBeginning in the 1520s, the Caribbean Sea was raided by increasingly numerous French pirates.", "In 1541, Spain authorized the construction of Santo Domingo's fortified wall, and in 1560 decided to restrict sea travel to enormous, well-armed convoys.", "In another move, which would destroy Hispaniola's sugar industry, in 1561 Havana, more strategically located in relation to the Gulf Stream, was selected as the designated stopping point for the merchant ''flotas,'' which had a royal monopoly on commerce with the Americas.", "In 1564, the island's main inland cities Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepción de la Vega were destroyed by an earthquake.", "In the 1560s, English privateers joined the French in regularly raiding Spanish shipping in the Americas.With the conquest of the American mainland, Hispaniola quickly declined.", "Most Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of Mexico and Peru, while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island.", "Agriculture dwindled, new imports of slaves ceased, and white colonists, free blacks, and slaves alike lived in poverty, weakening the racial hierarchy and aiding ''intermixing,'' resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Spaniard, African, and Taíno descent.", "Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became the sole source of livelihood for the island dwellers.In 1586, the privateer Francis Drake of England captured the city of Santo Domingo, collecting a ransom for its return to Spanish rule.", "In 1592, Christopher Newport of England attacked the town of Azua on the bay of Ocoa, which was taken and plundered.In 1595, the Spanish, frustrated by the twenty-year rebellion of their Dutch subjects, closed their home ports to rebel shipping from the Netherlands cutting them off from the critical salt supplies necessary for their herring industry.", "The Dutch responded by sourcing new salt supplies from Spanish America where colonists were more than happy to trade.", "So large numbers of Dutch traders and buccaneers joined their English and French counterparts on the Spanish Main.===Seventeenth century===Painting by Johannes Vingboons of Santo Domingo, c. 1665In 1605, Spain was infuriated that Spanish settlements on the northern and western coasts of the island were carrying out large scale and illegal trade with the Dutch, who were at that time fighting a war of independence against Spain in Europe, and the English, a very recent enemy state, and so decided to forcibly resettle the colony's inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo.", "This action, known as the ''Devastaciones de Osorio'', proved disastrous; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease, over 100,000 cattle were abandoned, and many slaves escaped.", "Five of the existing thirteen settlements on the island were brutally razed by Spanish troops – many of the inhabitants fought, escaped to the jungle, or fled to the safety of passing Dutch ships.", "The settlements of La Yaguana, and Bayaja, on the west and north coasts respectively of modern-day Haiti were burned, as were the settlements of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata on the north coast and San Juan de la Maguana in the southwestern area of the modern-day Dominican Republic.French and English buccaneers took advantage of Spain's retreat into a corner of Hispaniola to settle the island of Tortuga, off the northwest coast of Hispaniola, in 1629.France established direct control in 1640, reorganizing it into an official colony and expanding to the north coast of Hispaniola itself, whose western end Spain ceded to France in 1697 under the Treaty of Ryswick.In 1655, Oliver Cromwell of England dispatched a fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir William Penn, to capture Santo Domingo.", "After meeting heavy resistance, the English retreated.", "Despite the fact that the English were defeated in their attempt to capture the island, they nevertheless captured the nearby Spanish colony of Jamaica, and other foreign strongholds subsequently began to be established throughout the West Indies.", "Madrid sought to contest such encroachments on its own imperial control by using Santo Domingo as a forward military base, but Spanish power was by now too depleted to recapture lost colonies.", "The city itself was furthermore subjected to a smallpox epidemic, cacao blight, and hurricane in 1666; another storm two years later; a second epidemic in 1669; a third hurricane in September 1672; plus an earthquake in May 1673 that killed twenty-four residents.===Eighteenth century===National pantheon in Santo Domingo built from 1714 to 1746The House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700 and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo.", "The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies.", "The last ''flotas'' sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter.", "By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley, and importation of slaves was renewed.", "The population of Santo Domingo grew from about 6,000 in 1737 to approximately 125,000 in 1790.Of this number, about 40,000 were white landowners, about 25,000 were mulatto freedmen, and some 60,000 were slaves.", "However, it remained poor and neglected, particularly in contrast with its western, French neighbor Saint-Domingue, which became the wealthiest colony in the New World and had half a million inhabitants.When the War of Jenkins' Ear broke out in 1739, Spanish privateers, including those from Santo Domingo, began to patrol the Caribbean Sea, a development that lasted until the end of the eighteenth century.", "During this period, Spanish privateers from Santo Domingo sailed into enemy ports looking for ships to plunder, thus disrupting commerce between Spain's enemies in the Atlantic.", "As a result of these developments, Spanish privateers frequently sailed back into Santo Domingo with their holds filled with captured plunder which were sold in Hispaniola's ports, with profits accruing to individual sea raiders.", "The revenue acquired in these acts of piracy was invested in the economic expansion of the colony and led to repopulation from Europe.Dominican privateers captured British, Dutch, French and Danish ships throughout the eighteenth century.", "Dominicans constituted one of the many diverse units which fought alongside Spanish forces under Bernardo de Gálvez during the conquest of British West Florida (1779–1781).As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial elites of St. Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany, and tobacco.", "With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural ''hateros'' (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market.", "Spain saw in the unrest an opportunity to seize all, or part, of the western third of the island in an alliance of convenience with the rebellious slaves.", "But after the slaves and French reconciled, the Spanish suffered a setback, and in 1795, France gained control of the whole island under the Treaty of Basel." ], [ "French occupation", "In 1801, Toussaint Louverture arrived in Santo Domingo, proclaiming the abolition of slavery on behalf of the French Republic.", "Shortly afterwards, Napoleon dispatched an army which subdued the whole island and ruled it for a few months.", "Mulattoes and blacks again rose up against these French in October 1802 and finally defeated them in November 1803.On 1 January 1804, the victors declared Saint-Domingue to be the independent republic of Haiti, the Taíno name for the entire island.", "Even after their defeat by the Haitians, a small French garrison remained in Santo Domingo.", "Slavery was reestablished and many of the émigré Spanish colonists returned.", "In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron.", "In their retreat through the Cibao, the Haitians sacked the towns of Santiago and Moca, slaughtering most of their residents.The French held on to the eastern part of the island until dealt a serious blow by the Dominican General Juan Sánchez Ramírez at the Battle of Palo Hincado on November 7, 1808.With help from the British Navy, Ramírez laid siege to the city of Santo Domingo.", "The French in the besieged city finally capitulated on July 9, 1809, initiating a twelve-year period of Spanish rule, known in Dominican history as \"the Foolish Spain.\"" ], [ "Spanish colony: 1809–1821", "The population of the new Spanish colony stood at approximately 104,000.Of this number, about 30,000 were slaves, working predominantly on cattle ranches, and the rest a mixture of Spanish, taino and black.", "The European Spaniards were few, and consisted principally of Catalans and Canary Islanders.Santo Domingo before the Haitian annexationDuring this period in time, the Spanish crown wielded little to no influence in the colony of Santo Domingo.", "Some wealthy cattle ranchers had become leaders, and sought to bring control and order in the southeast of the colony where the \"law of machete\" ruled the land.", "On December 1, 1821, the former Captain general in charge of the colony, José Núñez de Cáceres, influenced by all the Revolutions that were going on around him, finally decided to overthrow the Spanish government and proclaimed the independence of \"Spanish Haiti\".The white and mulatto slave owners on the eastern part of the island—recognizing their vulnerability both to Spanish and to Haitian attack and also seeking to maintain their slaves as property—attempted to annex themselves to Gran Colombia.", "While this request was in transit, Jean-Pierre Boyer, the ruler of Haiti, invaded Santo Domingo on February 9, 1822, with a 10,000-strong army.", "Having no capacity to resist, Núñez de Cáceres surrendered the capital." ], [ "Haitian occupation 1822–1844", "The twenty-two-year Haitian occupation that followed is recalled by Dominicans as a period of brutal military rule, though the reality is more complex.", "It led to large-scale land expropriations and failed efforts to force production of export crops, impose military services, restrict the use of the Spanish language, and eliminate traditional customs such as cockfighting.", "It reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of themselves as different from Haitians in \"language, race, religion and domestic customs\".", "Yet, this was also a period that definitively ended slavery as an institution in the eastern part of the island.Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties.", "Most emigrated to the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico, or to independent Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands.", "The Haitians, who associated the Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican.", "Santo Domingo's university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking students, teachers, and resources, closed down.", "In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France and end the threat of a French invasion, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island.", "Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint.Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (''terrenos comuneros''), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer's ''Code Rural''.", "In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws.", "It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated." ], [ "Independence: First Republic 1844–1861", "On July 16, 1838, Juan Pablo Duarte together with Pedro Alejandrino Pina, Juan Isidro Pérez, Felipe Alfau, Benito González, Félix María Ruiz, Juan Nepumoceno Ravelo and Jacinto de la Concha founded a secret society called ''La Trinitaria'' to win independence from Haiti.", "A short time later, they were joined by Ramón Matías Mella, and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez.", "In 1843, they allied with a Haitian movement in overthrowing Boyer.", "Because they had revealed themselves as revolutionaries working for Dominican independence, the new Haitian president, Charles Rivière-Hérard, exiled or imprisoned the leading ''Trinitarios'' (Trinitarians).", "At the same time, Buenaventura Báez, an Azua mahogany exporter and deputy in the Haitian National Assembly, was negotiating with the French Consul-General for the establishment of a French protectorate.", "In an uprising timed to preempt Báez, on February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios declared independence from Haiti, expelling all Haitians and confiscating their property.", "The Trinitarios were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo who commanded a private army of peons who worked on his estates.In March 1844, Rivière-Hérard sent three columns totaling 30,000 troops into the Dominican Republic to reestablish his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition, inflicting disproportionate casualties on the Haitians and forcing them to retreat back to Haiti within a month.", "In 1845 and 1849, the Dominicans repelled subsequent Haitian invasions.", "In November 1855, the Dominican Republic faced yet another invasion as a force of 30,000 Haitian troops crossed its borders.", "However, in another short war, the Dominicans decisively defeated the Haitians.===First Republic===In July 1844, Pedro Santana seized power from the liberal president Francisco del Rosario Sánchez in a military coup after Rosario Sánchez ousted the conservative Tomás Bobadilla from power.", "Santana inaugurated a military dictatorship with Bobadilla as a member of his junta.The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844.The state was commonly known as Santo Domingo in English until the early 20th century.", "It featured a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by Santana on the constitutional assembly by force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over.", "These privileges not only served him to win the war but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important.", "Santana imprisoned and ultimately exiled Duarte to Germany.", "Santana made the first martyr of the republic when he had María Trinidad Sánchez executed for refusing to name \"conspirators\" against him.During the first decade of independence, Haiti and the Dominican Republic were periodically at war, each invading the other in response to previous invasions.", "Santana used the ever-present threat of Haitian invasion as a justification for consolidating dictatorial powers.", "For the Dominican elite—mostly landowners, merchants and priests—the threat of re-annexation by more populous Haiti was sufficient to seek protection from a foreign power.", "Offering the deepwater harbor of Samaná bay as bait, over the next two decades, negotiations were made with Britain, France, the United States and Spain to declare a protectorate over the country.The population of the Dominican Republic in 1845 was approximately 174,000 people (5,000 whites; 34,000 blacks; and 135,000 mulattoes).", "Without adequate roads, the regions of the Dominican Republic developed in isolation from one another.", "In the south, the economy was dominated by cattle-ranching (particularly in the southeastern savannah) and cutting mahogany and other hardwoods for export.", "This region retained a semi-feudal character, with little commercial agriculture, the ''hacienda'' as the dominant social unit, and the majority of the population living at a subsistence level.", "In the Cibao Valley, the nation's richest farmland, peasants supplemented their subsistence crops by growing tobacco for export, mainly to Germany.", "Tobacco required less land than cattle ranching and was mainly grown by smallholders, who relied on itinerant traders to transport their crops to Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi.", "Santana antagonized the Cibao farmers, enriching himself and his supporters at their expense by resorting to multiple peso printings that allowed him to buy their crops for a fraction of their value.In 1848, Santana was forced to resign and was succeeded by his vice-president, Manuel Jimenes.", "After returning to lead Dominican forces against a new Haitian invasion in 1849, Santana marched on Santo Domingo, deposing Jimenes.", "At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president.", "Báez immediately began an offensive campaign against Haiti; whole villages on the Haitian coast were plundered and burned, and the crews of captured ships were butchered without regard to age or gender.In 1853, Santana was elected president for his second term, forcing Báez into exile.", "After repulsing the last Haitian invasion, Santana negotiated a treaty leasing a portion of Samaná Peninsula to a U.S. company; popular opposition forced him to abdicate, enabling Báez to return and seize power.", "With the treasury depleted, Báez printed eighteen million uninsured pesos, purchasing the 1857 tobacco crop with this currency and exporting it for hard cash at immense profit to himself and his followers.", "The Cibanian tobacco planters, who were ruined when inflation ensued, revolted, recalling Santana from exile to lead their rebellion.", "After a year of civil war, Santana seized Santo Domingo and installed himself as president." ], [ "Spanish colony: 1861–1865", "Pedro Santana inherited a bankrupt government on the brink of collapse.", "Having failed in his initial bids to secure annexation by the U.S. or France, Santana initiated negotiations with Queen Isabella II of Spain and the Captain-General of Cuba to have the island reconverted into a Spanish overseas territory.", "The U.S. Civil War rendered the United States incapable of enforcing the Monroe Doctrine.", "In Spain, Prime Minister Don Leopoldo O'Donnell advocated renewed colonial expansion, waging a campaign in northern Morocco that conquered the city of Tétouan.", "In March 1861, Santana officially restored the Dominican Republic to Spain.", "This move was widely rejected and there were several failed uprisings against Spanish rule.", "On July 4, 1861, former President Francisco del Rosario Sánchez was captured and executed by Santana after leading a failed invasion of Santo Domingo from Haiti.===War of Restoration===On August 16, 1863, a national war of restoration began in Monte Cristi Province, where the rebels defeated Spanish detachments.", "On September 4, Spanish reinforcements marched from Puerto Plata to relieve the besieged garrison of Santiago, defeating the rebels under the command of Gaspar Polanco and Gregorio Luperon.", "The rebels later burned the town and besieged the forts again.", "On September 14, the Spaniards abandoned Santiago and made their way to Puerto Plata harassed by guerrilla attacks that inflicted 1,300 casualties.", "The rebels established a provisional government in Santiago, headed by General Jose Antonio Salcedo.", "In December 1863, a Spanish expedition sent west along the southern seacoast was successful in expelling rebel bands (already demoralized by dissensions) from San Cristobal, Bani, Azua, Barohona, Neiba, and San Juan, and driving them into Haiti.Santana, who had been given the title of Marquess of Las Carreras by Queen Isabella II, initially was named Capitan-General of the new Spanish province, but it soon became obvious that Spanish authorities planned to deprive him of his power, leading him to resign in 1862.Condemned to death by the provisional government, Santana died of rheumatic fever in 1864.Restrictions on trade, discrimination against the mulatto majority, Rumors to reimpose slavery, and an unpopular campaign by the new Spanish Archbishop against extramarital unions, which were widespread after decades of abandonment by the Catholic Church, all fed resentment of Spanish rule.Confined to the major towns, the Spanish Army was unable to defeat the guerillas or contain the insurrection, and suffered heavy losses due to yellow fever.", "In order to reinforce their position with an auxiliary force to keep public order in the cities, a militia named Volunteers was created in Santo Domingo City, following the example of the militia of the same name previously created in Cuba and Puerto Rico.Spanish colonial authorities encouraged Queen Isabella II to abandon the island, seeing the occupation as a nonsensical waste of troops and money.", "However, the rebels were in a state of political disarray and proved unable to present a cohesive set of demands.", "The first president of the provisional government, Pepillo Salcedo (allied with Báez) was deposed by General Gaspar Polanco in September 1864, who, in turn, was deposed by General Antonio Pimentel three months later.", "The rebels formalized their provisional rule by holding a national convention in February 1865, which enacted a new constitution, but the new government exerted little authority over the various regional guerrilla ''caudillos'', who were largely independent of one another.", "Unable to extract concessions from the disorganized rebels, when the American Civil War ended, in March 1865, Queen Isabella annulled the annexation and independence was restored, with the last Spanish troops departing by July." ], [ "Restoration: Second Republic 1865–1916", "===Second Republic===By the time the Spanish departed, most of the main towns lay in ruins and the island was divided among several dozen ''caudillos''.", "José María Cabral controlled most of Barahona and the southwest with the support of Báez's mahogany-exporting partners, while cattle rancher Cesáreo Guillermo assembled a coalition of former ''Santanista'' generals in the southeast, and Gregorio Luperón controlled the north coast.From the Spanish withdrawal to 1879, there were twenty-one changes of government and at least fifty military uprisings.", "In the course of these conflicts, two parties emerged.", "The Partido Rojo (Literally \"Red Party\") represented the southern cattle ranching latifundia and mahogany-exporting interests, as well as the artisans and laborers of Santo Domingo, and was dominated by Báez, who continued to seek annexation by a foreign power.", "The Partido Azul (literally \"Blue Party\"), led by Luperón, represented the tobacco farmers and merchants of the Cibao and Puerto Plata and was nationalist and liberal in orientation.During these wars, the small and corrupt national army was far outnumbered by militias organized and maintained by local ''caudillos'' who set themselves up as provincial governors.", "These militias were filled out by poor farmers or landless plantation workers impressed into service who usually took up banditry when not fighting in revolution.Reception of American commissioners by President Báez, 1871.Within a month of the nationalist victory, Cabral, whose troops were the first to enter Santo Domingo, ousted Pimentel, but a few weeks later General Guillermo led a rebellion in support of Báez, forcing Cabral to resign and allowing Báez to retake the presidency in October.Báez was overthrown by the Cibao farmers under Luperón, leader of the Partido Azul, the following spring, but Luperón's allies turned on each other and Cabral reinstalled himself as president in a coup in 1867.After bringing several ''Azules'' (\"Blues\") into his cabinet the ''Rojos'' (\"Reds\") revolted, returning Báez to power.In 1869, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant ordered U.S. Marines to the island for the first time.", "Dominican pirates operating from Haiti had been raiding U.S. merchant shipping in the Caribbean, and Grant directed the Marines to stop them at their source.Following the virtual takeover of the island, Báez negotiated a treaty of annexation with the United States.", "Supported by U.S. Secretary of State William Seward, who hoped to establish a Navy base at Samaná, in 1871 the treaty was defeated in the United States Senate through the efforts of abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner.In 1874, the ''Rojo'' governor of Puerto Plata, Ignacio Maria González Santín, staged a coup in support of an ''Azul'' rebellion but was deposed by the ''Azules'' two years later.", "In February 1876, Ulises Espaillat, backed by Luperón, was named president, but ten months later troops loyal to Báez returned him to power.", "One year later, a new rebellion allowed González to seize power, only to be deposed by Cesáreo Guillermo in September 1878, who was in turn deposed by Luperón in December 1879.Ruling the country from his hometown of Puerto Plata, enjoying an economic boom due to increased tobacco exports to Germany, Luperón enacted a new constitution setting a two-year presidential term limit and providing for direct elections, suspended the semi-formal system of bribes and initiated construction on the nation's first railroad, linking the town of La Vega with the port of Sánchez on Samaná Bay.The Ten Years' War in Cuba brought Cuban sugar planters to the country in search of new lands and security from the insurrection that freed their slaves and destroyed their property.", "Most settled in the southeastern coastal plain, and, with assistance from Luperón's government, built the nation's first mechanized sugar mills.", "They were later joined by Italians, Germans, Puerto Ricans and Americans in forming the nucleus of the Dominican sugar bourgeoisie, marrying into prominent families to solidify their social position.Disruptions in global production caused by the Ten Years' War, the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War allowed the Dominican Republic to become a major sugar exporter.", "Over the following two decades, sugar surpassed tobacco as the leading export, with the former fishing hamlets of San Pedro de Macorís and La Romana transformed into thriving ports.", "To meet their need for better transportation, over 300 miles of private rail-lines were built by and serving the sugar plantations by 1897.An 1884 slump in prices led to a wage freeze, and a subsequent labor shortage was filled by migrant workers from the Leeward Islands—the Virgin Islands, St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla, and Antigua (referred to by Dominicans as ''cocolo''s).", "These English-speaking blacks were often victims of racism, but many remained in the country, finding work as stevedores and in railroad construction and sugar refineries.=== Ulises Heureaux and U.S. protectorate ===Ulises HeureauxAllying with the emerging sugar interests, the dictatorship of General Ulises Heureaux, who was popularly known as Lilís, brought unprecedented stability to the island through an iron-fisted rule that lasted almost two decades.", "The son of a Haitian father and a mother from St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, Lilís was distinguished by his blackness from most Dominican political leaders, with the exception of Luperón.", "He served as President 1882–1883, 1887, and 1889–1899, wielding power through a series of puppet presidents when not occupying the office.", "Incorporating both ''Rojos'' and ''Azules'' into his government, he developed an extensive network of spies and informants to crush potential opposition.", "His government undertook a number of major infrastructure projects, including the electrification of Santo Domingo, the beginning of telephone and telegraph service, the construction of a bridge over the Ozama River, and the completion of a single-track railroad linking Santiago and Puerto Plata, financed by the Amsterdam-based Westendorp Co.Lilís's dictatorship was dependent upon heavy borrowing from European and American banks to enrich himself, stabilize the existing debt, strengthen the bribe system, pay for the army, finance infrastructural development and help set up sugar mills.", "However, sugar prices underwent a steep decline in the last two decades of the 19th century.", "When the Westendorp Co. went bankrupt in 1893, he was forced to mortgage the nation's customs fees, the main source of government revenues, to a New York financial firm called the San Domingo Improvement Co. (SDIC), which took over its railroad contracts and the claims of its European bondholders in exchange for two loans, one of $1.2 million and the other of £2 million.As the growing public debt made it impossible to maintain his political machine, Heureaux relied on secret loans from the SDIC, sugar planters and local merchants.", "In 1897, with his government virtually bankrupt, Lilís printed five million uninsured pesos, known as ''papeletas de Lilís'', ruining most Dominican merchants and inspiring a conspiracy that ended in his death.", "In 1899, when Lilís was assassinated by the Cibao tobacco merchants whom he had been begging for a loan, the national debt was over $35 million, fifteen times the annual budget.President Alejandro Woss y Gil taking office in 1903.The six years after Lilís's death witnessed four revolutions and five different presidents.", "The Cibao politicians who had conspired against Heureaux—Juan Isidro Jimenes, the nation's wealthiest tobacco planter, and General Horacio Vásquez—after being named president and Vice-President, quickly fell out over the division of spoils among their supporters, the ''Jimenistas'' and ''Horacistas''.Troops loyal to Vásquez overthrew Jimenes in 1903, but Vásquez was deposed by Jimenista General Alejandro Woss y Gil, who seized power for himself.", "The Jimenistas toppled his government, but their leader, Carlos Morales, refused to return power to Jimenes, allying with the Horacistas, and he soon faced a new revolt by his betrayed Jimenista allies.", "During the revolt, American warships bombarded insurgents in Santo Domingo for insulting the United States flag and damaging an American steamer.With the nation on the brink of defaulting, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands sent warships to Santo Domingo to press the claims of their nationals.", "In order to preempt military intervention, United States president Theodore Roosevelt introduced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the United States would assume responsibility for ensuring that the nations of Latin America met their financial obligations.In January 1905, under this corollary, the United States assumed administration of the Dominican Republic's customs.", "Under the terms of this agreement, a Receiver-General, appointed by the U.S. president, kept 55% of total revenues to pay off foreign claimants, while remitting 45% to the Dominican government.", "After two years, the nation's external debt was reduced from $40 million to $17 million.", "In 1907, this agreement was converted into a treaty, transferring control over customs receivership to the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs and providing a loan of $20 million from a New York bank as payment for outstanding claims, making the United States the Dominican Republic's only foreign creditor.", "In 1905, the Dominican Peso was replaced by the U.S. Dollar.The ''Guardia republicana'', set up by President Cáceres in 1907In 1906, Morales resigned, and Horacista vice-president Ramón Cáceres became president.", "After suppressing a rebellion in the northwest by Jimenista General Desiderio Arias, his government brought political stability and renewed economic growth, aided by new American investment in the sugar industry.However, his assassination in 1911, for which Morales and Arias were at least indirectly responsible, once again plunged the republic into chaos.", "For two months, executive power was held by a civilian junta dominated by the chief of the army, General Alfredo Victoria.", "The surplus of more than 4 million pesos left by Cáceres was quickly spent to suppress a series of insurrections.", "He forced Congress to elect his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as president, but the latter was soon replaced by the neutral Archbishop Adolfo Nouel.", "After four months, Nouel resigned and was succeeded by Horacista Congressman José Bordas Valdez, who aligned with Arias and the Jimenistas to maintain power.", "Cartoon about constant revolutions in the Dominican RepublicIn 1913, Vásquez returned from exile in Puerto Rico to lead a new rebellion.", "In June 1914, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued an ultimatum for the two sides to end hostilities and agree on a new president, or have the United States impose one.", "After the provisional presidency of Ramón Báez, Jimenes was elected in October, and soon faced new demands, including the appointment of an American director of public works and financial advisor and the creation of a new military force commanded by U.S. officers.", "The Dominican Congress rejected these demands and began impeachment proceedings against Jimenes.The United States occupied Haiti in July 1915, with the implicit threat that the Dominican Republic might be next.", "Jimenes's Minister of War Desiderio Arias staged a coup d'état in April 1916, providing a pretext for the United States to occupy the Dominican Republic.==United States occupation: 1916–1924=====Conventional campaign===United States Marines landed in Santo Domingo on May 5, 1916 and seized Fort San Gerónimo.", "Prior to their landing, Jimenes resigned, refusing to exercise an office \"regained with foreign bullets\".", "On June 1, following a bombardment, Marines occupied Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata.", "On June 26, a column of Marines under Colonel Joseph H. Pendleton marched toward Arias's stronghold of Santiago.", "Along the way, Dominicans tore up the railroad tracks, forcing Marines to walk; they also burned bridges, delaying the march.", "24 miles (38 km) into the march, the Marines encountered Las Trencheras, two fortified ridges the Dominicans had long thought invulnerable: the Spanish had been defeated there in 1864.At 08:00 hours on June 27, Pendleton ordered his artillery to bombard the ridgeline.", "Machine guns offered covering fire.", "A bayonet attack cleared the first ridge.", "Rifle fire removed the rebels who were threatening from atop the second.", "A week later, the Marines encountered another entrenched rebel force at Guayacanas.", "The rebels kept up single-shot fire against the automatic weapons of the Marines before the Marines drove them off.", "With his supporters defeated, Arias surrendered on July 5 in exchange for being pardoned.===Occupation===American Red Cross convoy in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, in 1916.1st Marine Regiment stationed in Santo Domingo, Dominican RepublicMarine Aviators in the Dominican Republic, 1919The Dominican Congress elected Dr. Francisco Henríquez y Carvajal as president, but in November, after he refused to meet the U.S. demands, Wilson announced the imposition of a U.S. military government, with Rear Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp as Military Governor.At San Francisco de Macorís, Governor Juan Pérez, a supporter of Arias, refused to recognize the U.S. military government.", "Using some 300 released prisoners, he was preparing to defend the old Spanish colonial structure, the ''Fortazela''.", "On November 29, U.S. Marine Lt. Ernest C. Williams, whose detachment was billeted in San Francisco, charged the closing gates of the fort at nightfall with twelve Marines.", "Eight were shot down; the others, including Williams, forced their way in and seized the old structure.", "Another Marine detachment seized the police station.", "Reinforcements from nearby detachments soon suppressed the uprising.The American military government implemented many of the institutional reforms carried out in the United States during the Progressive Era, including reorganization of the tax system, accounting and administration, expansion of primary education, the creation of a nationwide police force to unify the country, and the construction of a national system of roads, including a highway linking Santiago to Santo Domingo.Marine machine gun unit in Santo Domingo, Dominican RepublicThe military government, unable to win the backing of any prominent Dominican political leaders, imposed strict censorship laws and imprisoned critics of the occupation.", "In 1920, U.S. authorities enacted a Land Registration Act, which broke up the ''terrenos comuneros'' and dispossessed thousands of peasants who lacked formal titles to the lands they occupied, while legalizing false titles held by the sugar companies.", "In the southeast, dispossessed peasants formed armed bands, called ''gavilleros'', waging a guerrilla war that lasted six years, with most of the fighting in Hato Mayor and El Seibo.", "At any given time, the Marines faced eight to twelve such bands each composed of several hundred followers.", "The guerrillas benefited from a superior knowledge of the terrain and the support of the local population, and the Marines relied on superior firepower.", "However, rivalries between various gavilleros often led them to fight against one another, and even cooperate with occupation authorities.", "In addition, cultural schisms between the ''campesinos'' (i.e.", "rural people, or peasants) and city dwellers prevented the guerrillas from cooperating with the urban middle-class nationalist movement.A group of peasant guerillas, known as gavilleros, who fought against the U.S. Marine occupation of the Dominican RepublicU.S.", "Marines and Dominican bandits led by Vicente Evangelista clashed in eastern Dominican Republic beginning on January 10, 1917.In March, Evangelista executed two American civilians, engineers from an American-owned plantation, who were lashed to trees, hacked with machetes, then left dangling for ravenous wild boars.", "Evangelista and 200 bandits surrendered to U.S. Marines in El Seibo on July 4.Two days later, U.S. Marines shot and killed Evangelista as he was \"attempting to escape\".", "To counter resistance, the United States established a local national guard known as the Guardia Nacional Dominicana.", "With 2,000 officers and men divided into numerous small patrols and aided by the auxiliary Guardia, the Marines pursued insurgents in 1918.On occasion, guerrilla leader Dios Olivario managed to defeat the small Marine patrols sent after him.", "One ambush almost led to the annihilation of a combined Marine-Guardia patrol.", "On multiple occasions in 1919, Olivario and other irregular leaders combined their forces and openly attacked the Marines.", "In May, one such group struck a Marine patrol but was repelled by superior firepower, including bombing and strafing by a Marine aviation squadron.", "The unrest in the eastern provinces lasted until 1922 when the guerrillas finally agreed to surrender in return for amnesty.The United States effectively ended the small-unit combat in the Dominican Republic only after declaring the conclusion of its military government and systematically rounding up the majority of the population in the guerrilla-affected areas.", "The Marines' anti-bandit campaigns in the Dominican Republic were hot, often godlessly uncomfortable, and largely devoid of heroism and glory.", "Some 1,000 individuals, including 144 U.S. Marines, were killed during the conflict.", "(Forty U.S. sailors died separately when a hurricane wrecked their armored cruiser on Santo Domingo's rocky shore.", ")Map of the Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo) and Haiti in 1921In what was referred to as ''la danza de los millones'', with the destruction of European sugar-beet farms during World War I, sugar prices rose to their highest level in history, from $5.50 in 1914 to $22.50 per pound in 1920.Dominican sugar exports increased from 122,642 tons in 1916 to 158,803 tons in 1920, earning a record $45.3 million.", "However, European beet sugar production quickly recovered, which, coupled with the growth of global sugar cane production, glutted the world market, causing prices to plummet to only $2.00 by the end of 1921.This crisis drove many of the local sugar planters into bankruptcy, allowing large U.S. conglomerates to dominate the sugar industry.", "By 1926, only twenty-one major estates remained, occupying an estimated .", "Of these, twelve U.S.-owned companies owned more than 81% of this total area.", "While the foreign planters who had built the sugar industry integrated into Dominican society, these corporations expatriated their profits to the United States.", "As prices declined, sugar estates increasingly relied on Haitian laborers.", "This was facilitated by the military government's introduction of regulated contract labor, the growth of sugar production in the southwest, near the Haitian border, and a series of strikes by ''cocolo'' cane cutters organized by the Universal Negro Improvement Association.===Withdrawal===Camp of US Marines in the Dominican Republic during the occupation.Fortaleza San Luis (Santiago de los Caballeros)Francisco J. Peynado, Washington DC, 1913In the 1920 United States presidential election Republican candidate Warren Harding criticized the occupation and promised eventual U.S. withdrawal.", "While Jimenes and Vásquez sought concessions from the United States, the collapse of sugar prices discredited the military government and gave rise to a new nationalist political organization, the Dominican National Union, led by Dr. Henríquez from exile in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, which demanded unconditional withdrawal.", "They formed alliances with frustrated nationalists in Puerto Rico and Cuba, as well as critics of the occupation in the United States itself, most notably ''The Nation'' and the Haiti-San Domingo Independence Society.", "In May 1922, a Dominican lawyer, Francisco Peynado, went to Washington, D.C. and negotiated what became known as the Hughes–Peynado Plan.", "It stipulated the immediate establishment of a provisional government pending elections, approval of all laws enacted by the U.S. military government, and the continuation of the 1907 treaty until all the Dominican Republic's foreign debts had been settled.", "On October 1, Juan Bautista Vicini, the son of a wealthy Italian immigrant sugar planter, was named provisional president, and the process of U.S. withdrawal began.", "U.S. forces withdrew on September 18, 1924.The principal legacy of the occupation was the creation of a National Police Force, used by the Marines to help fight against the various guerrillas, and later the main vehicle for the rise of Rafael Trujillo." ], [ "The rise and fall of Trujillo: Third Republic 1924–1965", "=== Horacio Vásquez 1924–1930===Horacio VasquezThe occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected government under president Vásquez.", "The Vásquez administration brought great social and economic prosperity to the country and respected political and civil rights.", "Rising export commodity prices and government borrowing allowed the funding of public works projects and the expansion and modernization of Santo Domingo.Rafael EstrellaThough considered to be a relatively principled man, Vásquez had risen amid many years of political infighting.", "In a move directed against his chief opponent Federico Velasquez, in 1927 Vásquez agreed to have his term extended from four to six years.", "The change was approved by the Dominican Congress, but was of debatable legality; \"its enactment effectively invalidated the constitution of 1924 that Vásquez had previously sworn to uphold.\"", "Vásquez also removed the prohibition against presidential reelection and postulated himself for another term in elections to be held in May 1930.However, his actions had by then led to doubts that the contest could be fair.", "Furthermore, these elections took place amid economic problems, as the Great Depression had dropped sugar prices to less than one dollar per pound.In February, a revolution was proclaimed in Santiago by a lawyer named Rafael Estrella Ureña.", "When the commander of the ''Guardia Nacional Dominicana'' (the new designation of the armed force created under the Occupation), Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, ordered his troops to remain in their barracks, the sick and aging Vásquez was forced into exile and Estrella proclaimed provisional president.", "In May, Trujillo was elected with 95% of the vote, having used the army to harass and intimidate electoral personnel and potential opponents.", "After his inauguration in August, at his request, the Dominican Congress proclaimed the beginning of the 'Era of Trujillo'.===The era of Trujillo 1931–1961===Rafael TrujilloTrujillo established absolute political control while promoting economic development—from which mainly he and his supporters benefitted—and severe repression of domestic human rights.", "Trujillo treated his political party, ''El Partido Dominicano'' (The Dominican Party), as a rubber-stamp for his decisions.", "The true source of his power was the ''Guardia Nacional''—larger, better armed, and more centrally controlled than any military force in the nation's history.", "By disbanding the regional militias, the Marines eliminated the main source of potential opposition, giving the Guard \"a virtual monopoly on power\".", "By 1940, Dominican military spending was 21% of the national budget.", "At the same time, he developed an elaborate system of espionage agencies.", "By the late 1950s, there were at least seven categories of intelligence agencies, spying on each other as well as the public.", "All citizens were required to carry identification cards and good-conduct passes from the secret police.1930 hurricaneObsessed with adulation, Trujillo promoted an extravagant cult of personality.", "When a hurricane struck Santo Domingo in 1930, killing over 3,000 people, he rebuilt the city and renamed it ''Ciudad Trujillo'': \"Trujillo City\"; he also renamed the country's and the Caribbean's highest mountain, Pico Duarte (Duarte Peak), ''Pico Trujillo''.", "Over 1,800 statues of Trujillo were built, and all public works projects were required to have a plaque with the inscription \"Era of Trujillo, Benefactor of the Fatherland\".As sugar estates turned to Haiti for seasonal migrant labor, increasing numbers settled in the Dominican Republic permanently.", "The census of 1920, conducted by the U.S. occupation government, gave a total of 28,258 Haitians living in the country; by 1935 there were 52,657.In September 1937, Trujillo welcomed a Nazi delegation and publicly accepted the gift of Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf.", "The following month, Trujillo ordered the massacre of an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian men, women, and children living in the border region of the Dominican Republic.", "Over the course of five days, Dominican troops killed Haitians with guns, machetes, clubs, and knives.", "Haitian women were stabbed and mutilated, babies bayoneted, and men tied up and thrown into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun.", "This event later became known as the Parsley Massacre because of the story that Dominican soldiers identified Haitians by their inability to pronounce the Spanish word ''perejil''.", "An American missionary, Father Barnes, wrote about the massacre in a letter to his sister.", "Trujillo's spies intercepted the letter, and as a result, Father Barnes was found brutally murdered on the floor of his home.The massacre was the result of a new policy which Trujillo called the 'Dominicanisation of the frontier'.", "Place names along the border were changed from Creole and French to Spanish, the practice of Voodoo was outlawed, quotas were imposed on the percentage of foreign workers that companies could hire, and a law was passed preventing Haitian workers from remaining after the sugar harvest.Although Trujillo sought to emulate Generalissimo Francisco Franco, he welcomed Spanish Republican refugees following the Spanish Civil War.", "During the Holocaust in the Second World War, the Dominican Republic took in many Jews fleeing Hitler who had been refused entry by other countries.", "The Jews settled in Sosua.", "These decisions arose from a policy of ''blanquismo'', closely connected with anti-Haitian xenophobia, which sought to add more light-skinned individuals to the Dominican population by promoting immigration from Europe.", "As part of the Good Neighbor policy, in 1940, the U.S. State Department signed a treaty with Trujillo relinquishing control over the nation's customs.When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor Trujillo followed the United States in declaring war on the Axis powers, although the Dominican Republic did not have any participation in the war.", "Nazi submarines operating in the Caribbean torpedoed and sank two Dominican merchant vessels that Trujillo had named after himself—the steamers ''San Rafael'' and ''Presidente Trujillo'', killing twenty-six Dominican sailors.", "Nazi submarines also destroyed four Dominican schooners.", "After the war, Trujillo sought military aid from the United States but was denied.", "Trujillo decided to establish his own arms factory.", "This move allowed the Dominican Republic to become self-sufficient in producing small arms.", "In the 1950s, Trujillo's air force had 156 aircraft, including fighters, B-17 bombers, and B-26 Marauder bombers.", "His navy comprised two destroyers and eight frigates.", "During the Cold War, he maintained close ties to the United States, declaring himself the world's \"Number One Anticommunist\" and becoming the first Latin American President to sign a Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement with the United States.Rafael Trujillo in 1952Trujillo and his family established a near-monopoly over the national economy.", "By the time of his death, he had accumulated a fortune of around $800 million ($8.2 billion in today's money); he and his family owned 50–60% of the arable land, some , and Trujillo-owned businesses accounted for 80% of the commercial activity in the capital.", "He exploited nationalist sentiment to purchase most of the nation's sugar plantations and refineries from U.S. corporations; operated monopolies on salt, rice, milk, cement, tobacco, coffee, and insurance; owned two large banks, several hotels, port facilities, an airline and shipping line; deducted 10% of all public employees' salaries (ostensibly for his party); and received a portion of prostitution revenues.World War II brought increased demand for Dominican exports, and the 1940s and early 1950s witnessed economic growth and considerable expansion of the national infrastructure.", "During this period, the capital city was transformed from merely an administrative center to the national center of shipping and industry, although \"it was hardly coincidental that new roads often led to Trujillo's plantations and factories, and new harbors benefited Trujillo's shipping and export enterprises.\"", "Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems.", "By the end of the 1950s, the economy was deteriorating because of a combination of overspending on a festival to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the regime, overspending to purchase privately owned sugar mills and electricity plants, and a decision to make a major investment in state sugar production that proved economically unsuccessful.In 1956, Trujillo's agents in New York murdered Jesús María de Galíndez, a Basque exile who had worked for Trujillo but who later denounced the Trujillo regime and caused public opinion in the United States to turn against Trujillo.", "In 1957, Trujillo created the Military Intelligence Service, secret police, headed by Johnny Abbes García, who briefly operated in Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, New York, Costa Rica, and Venezuela.On June 14, 1959, leftist Dominican exiles launched an invasion of the Dominican Republic from Cuba with the hope of overthrowing the Trujillo regime.", "Trujillo's forces quickly routed the invaders at Constanza.", "A week later, another group of invaders in two yachts were intercepted on the north coast and blasted by mortar fire and bazookas from the shore.", "Trujillo's planes, operating from San Isidro, zoomed low over the yachts and shot rockets, killing most of the invaders.", "A few survivors managed to swim to the shore and escape into the forest; the military used napalm to get them out.", "Of a count of 224 invaders, 217 were killed and seven captured.", "The leaders of the invasion were taken aboard a Dominican Air Force plane and then pushed out in mid-air, falling to their deaths.In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate Venezuelan president Rómulo Betancourt with a car bomb.", "Betancourt had been involved in the 1959 Cuba-based invasion of the Dominican Republic.", "The United States broke diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic on August 26, 1960, and in January 1961 suspended the export of trucks, parts, crude oil, gasoline and other petroleum products.", "U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also took advantage of OAS sanctions to cut drastically purchases of Dominican sugar.", "This action ultimately cost the Dominican Republic almost $22,000,000 in lost revenues at a time when its economy was in a rapid decline.", "Trujillo threatened to align with the Communist world in response to U.S. and Latin American rejection of his regime.", "La Voz Dominicana and Radio Caribe began attacking the U.S. in Marxian terms, and the Dominican Communist Party was legalized.", "The United States government turned to the Central Intelligence Agency to devise a plan to kill Trujillo.A group of Dominican dissidents killed Trujillo in a car chase on the way to his country villa near San Cristóbal on May 30, 1961.The group was led by General Juan Tomás Díaz Quezada.", "The assassins riddled Trujillo's car with almost thirty bullets.", "Trujillo's chauffeur attempted to return fire with a machine gun.", "Badly wounded, Trujillo scrambled out of the car, looking for the assassins, and was shot down, dying on the spot.", "The sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's assassination.", "His son Ramfis took charge and rounded up the conspirators; they were summarily executed, some of them being fed to sharks.", "In November 1961, the military plot of the Rebellion of the Pilots forced the Trujillo family into exile, fleeing to France, and the heretofore puppet-president Joaquín Balaguer assumed effective power.===The post-Trujillo instability 1961–1965===At the insistence of the United States, Balaguer was forced to share power with a seven-member Council of State, established on January 1, 1962, and including moderate members of the opposition.", "OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after an attempted coup, Balaguer resigned and went into exile on January 16.The reorganized Council of State, under President Rafael Filiberto Bonnelly headed the Dominican government until elections could be held.", "These elections, in December 1962, were won by Juan Bosch, a scholar and poet who had founded the opposition ''Partido Revolucionario Dominicano'' (Dominican Revolutionary Party, or PRD) in exile, during the Trujillo years.", "His leftist policies, including land redistribution, nationalization of certain foreign holdings, and attempts to bring the military under civilian control, antagonized the military officer corps, the Catholic hierarchy, and the upper-class, who feared \"another Cuba\".In September 1963, Bosch was overthrown by a right-wing military coup led by Colonel Elías Wessin and was replaced by a three-man military junta.", "Bosch went into exile to Puerto Rico.", "Afterwards, a supposedly civilian triumvirate established a de facto dictatorship." ], [ "Dominican Civil War and second United States occupation 1965–66", "On April 16, 1965, growing dissatisfaction generated another military rebellion on April 24, 1965 that demanded Bosch's restoration.", "The insurgents, reformist officers and civilian combatants loyal to Bosch commanded by Colonel Francisco Caamaño, and who called themselves the Constitutionalists, staged a coup, seizing the national palace.", "Immediately, conservative military forces, led by Wessin and calling themselves Loyalists, struck back with tank assaults and aerial bombings against Santo Domingo.Strafing by the airplanes on the Duarte Bridge killed several civilians, and bombing shattered many of the buildings and structures to the west.", "Outwardly the damage west of the bridge seemed impressive with body parts scattered on the streets.", "On April 27, a sizeable Loyalist force of tanks, armored cars, artillery, and infantry began to rumble across Duarte Bridge under covering fire from 12.7 mm machine guns on the eastern bank.", "The Constitutionalists left two large truck trailers blocking the path, but as the Loyalist armor pushed its way through these obstacles, one of the two pre–World War I 75 mm cannon on the Constitutionalist side got off one shot and destroyed the first tank.", "Soon a hail of machine gun fire silenced the 75 mm cannons and the rest of the tanks proceeded into the city.", "When the armored column passed José Martí Street one block from Duarte Avenue, armed civilians attacked the Loyalist infantry and unleashed a hail of fire from machine guns and mortars; most of the troops either fled or were killed.", "Without infantry support, the unescorted tanks, already in the narrow streets of the neighborhood, were easy targets for the Molotov cocktails soon being tossed from the surrounding buildings.", "The Loyalists were routed and several tanks were abandoned and put into use by the rebels.On April 28, the anti-Bosch army elements requested U.S. military intervention and U.S. forces landed, ostensibly to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals.", "A rebel sniper killed a Marine near the U.S. embassy, and in the ensuing crossfire a hand grenade fatally wounded a Dominican girl.", "The evacuation was completed without further loss of life.", "U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson, convinced of the defeat of the Loyalist forces and fearing the creation of \"a second Cuba\" on America's doorstep, ordered U.S. forces to restore order.", "In what was initially known as Operation Power Pack, 27,677 U.S. troops were ultimately ordered to the Dominican Republic.Denied a military victory, the Constitutionalist rebels quickly had a Constitutionalist congress elect Caamaño president of the country.", "U.S. officials countered by backing General Antonio Imbert.", "On May 7, Imbert was sworn in as president of the Government of National Reconstruction.", "The next step in the stabilization process, as envisioned by Washington and the OAS, was to arrange an agreement between President Caamaño and President Imbert to form a provisional government committed to early elections.", "However, Caamaño refused to meet with Imbert until several of the Loyalist officers, including Wessin y Wessin, were made to leave the country.The American forces attempted to jam Radio Santo Domingo, which the Constitutionalist rebels were using to broadcast messages inciting nationwide rebellion.", "Despite jamming operations and attacks on relay sites, the rebel broadcasts persisted.", "On May 13, Imbert launched an eight-day offensive to eliminate rebel resistance in the northern sector.", "He also directed the Dominican Air Force to target Radio Santo Domingo and its primary transmitter sites near the Peynado Bridge, north of the city.", "On May 14, Dominican special forces attacked and destroyed the alternate studio and transmitter site north of the Duarte Bridge.", "These collective actions managed to weaken Radio Santo Domingo to the point that it could no longer broadcast beyond the capital.", "Alongside this, the Americans realized the significant challenge of effectively conducting jamming operations against a robust commercial broadcasting complex, especially using military jammers designed for military frequencies.", "Imbert's forces captured Radio Santo Domingo along with the northern part of the capital, destroying many buildings and killing many civilians.", "A cease-fire was negotiated by May 21, marking the beginning of neutrality for U.S. forces.", "At this time, 20 Americans had been killed in action and 102 wounded.Safety corridorBy May 14, the Americans had established a \"safety corridor\" connecting the San Isidro Air Base and the \"Duarte\" Bridge to the Embajador Hotel and United States Embassy in the center of Santo Domingo, essentially sealing off the Constitutionalist area of Santo Domingo.", "Roadblocks were established and patrols ran continuously.", "Some 6,500 people from many nations were evacuated to safety.", "In addition, the US forces airlifted in relief supplies for Dominican nationals.By mid-May, a majority of the OAS voted for Operation \"Push Ahead\", the reduction of United States forces and their replacement by an Inter-American Peace Force (IAPF).", "The Inter-American Peace Force was formally established on May 23.The following troops were sent by each country: Brazil – 1,130, Honduras – 250, Paraguay – 184, Nicaragua – 160, Costa Rica – 21 military police, and El Salvador – 3 staff officers.", "The first contingent to arrive was a rifle company from Honduras which was soon backed by detachments from Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.", "Brazil provided the largest unit, a reinforced infantry battalion.", "Brazilian General Hugo Panasco Alvim assumed command of the OAS ground forces, and on May 26 the U.S. forces began to withdraw.On June 15, Camaaño hurled all his best remaining units and weapons against the American lines, and soon mortar rounds were hitting the 82nd Airborne Division.", "Although their heaviest weapons were recoilless cannons, the 82nd Airborne soundly defeated the rebels.", "The fighting cost the U.S. five killed and thirty-one wounded, three of whom later died.", "The Brazilians, who had orders to remain on the defensive, suffered five wounded.", "The Constitutionalists lost sixty-seven killed.A Marine heavy machine gunner in Santo DomingoThe mauling the Constitutionalists received on the 15th made them more amenable, but not yet committed, to a negotiated settlement.", "The fighting continued until August 31, 1965, when a truce was declared.", "However, a U.S. paratrooper in the corridor was killed by a rifle grenade fired from the rebel zone on the night of September 2.Most American troops left shortly afterwards as policing and peacekeeping operations were turned over to Brazilian troops, but some U.S. military presence remained until September 1966.On September 14, two members of a support unit attached to the 82nd were ambushed by civilians riding motorcycles.", "Both were shot in the back.", "One G.I.", "died instantly; the other died at a hospital.American and OAS peacekeeping forces departed by September 21, 1966.A total of 48 American soldiers and marines died, 27 in action (nine marines and 18 soldiers); 189 were wounded in action, as were six Brazilians and five Paraguayans.", "Between 2,850 and 4,275 Dominicans, mostly civilians, were killed during the civil war." ], [ "Fourth Republic 1966–present", "=== Balaguer's second Presidency 1966–1978 ===Balaguer in 1966.In June 1966, Joaquín Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (which later became the Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC)), was elected and then re-elected to office in May 1970 and May 1974, both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign because of the high degree of violence by pro-government groups.", "On November 28, 1966 a constitution was created, signed, and put into effect.", "The constitution stated that the president was elected to a four-year term.", "If there was a close election there would be a second round of voting to decide the winner.", "The voting age was eighteen, but married people under eighteen could also vote.On one hand, Balaguer was considered to be a ''caudillo'' who led a regime of terror where 11,000 victims were either tortured or forcibly disappeared and killed.", "However, Balaguer was also considered to be a major reformer who was instrumental in the liberalization of the Dominican government.", "During his time as President of the Dominican Republic, the country saw major changes such as legalized political activities, surprise army promotions and demotions, promoting health and education improvements and the instituting of modest land reforms.A mass rally in China in 1966 in solidarity with the Dominican Republic Constitutionalists against the United States, with numerous slogans visible in the picture, recognizable ones being \"U.S. imperialism out of the Dominican Republic!", "Out of Latin America!", "Out of Vietnam!", "Out of our territory, Taiwan!\|300x300pxBalaguer led the Dominican Republic through a thorough economic restructuring, based on opening the country to foreign investment while protecting state-owned industries and certain private interests.", "This distorted, dependent development model produced uneven results.", "For most of Balaguer's first nine years in office the country experienced high growth rates (e.g., an average GDP growth rate of 9.4% between 1970 and 1975), to the extent that people talked about the \"Dominican miracle\".", "Foreign, mostly U.S. investment, as well as foreign aid, flowed into the country.", "Sugar, then the country's main export product, enjoyed good prices in the international market, and tourism grew tremendously.", "As part of Balaguer's land reform policies, land was dished out to peasants among the country's rural population.However, this excellent macroeconomic performance was not accompanied by an equitable distribution of wealth in some other areas of the country.", "While a group of new millionaires flourished during Balaguer's administrations, some of the poor simply became poorer.", "Moreover, some of the poor were commonly the target of state repression, and their socioeconomic claims were labeled 'communist' and dealt with accordingly by the state security apparatus.", "In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzmán Fernández of the PRD.", "Balaguer then ordered troops to storm the election centre and destroy ballot boxes, declaring himself the victor.", "U.S. President Jimmy Carter refused to recognize Balaguer's claim, and, faced with the loss of foreign aid, Balaguer stepped down.===Guzmán / Blanco interregnum 1978–1986===Despite the slowing in economic growth, the economy of the Dominican Republic has far surpassed that of its neighbour Haiti from the 1970s onwardsGuzmán's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another.Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which caused over $1 billion in damage.By the late 1970s, economic expansion slowed considerably as sugar prices declined and oil prices rose.", "Rising inflation and unemployment diminished support for the government and helped trigger a wave of mass emigration from the Dominican Republic to New York, coming on the heels of the similar migration of Puerto Ricans in the preceding decades.Guzmán committed suicide on July 5, 1982 a month before he would have left office.", "He was confronted with evidence of his daughter Sonia Guzmán's husband's corruption using her father's position for monetary gain.", "Guzmán was known as a serious man who never stole money.", "After being confronted with this, he entered his bathroom and shot himself.Elections were again held in 1982.Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated Bosch and a resurgent Balaguer.===Balaguer's third Presidency 1986–1996===Balaguer in 1988Balaguer completed his return to power in 1986 when he won the Presidency again and remained in office for the next ten years.", "Elections in 1990 were marked by violence and suspected electoral fraud.", "The 1994 election too saw widespread pre-election violence, often aimed at intimidating members of the opposition.", "Balaguer won in 1994 but most observers felt the election had been stolen.", "Under pressure from the United States, Balaguer agreed to hold new elections in 1996.He himself would not run.===Fernández: First administration 1996–2000===In 1996, U.S.-raised Leonel Fernández Reyna of Bosch's ''Partido de la Liberación Dominicana'' (Dominican Liberation Party) secured more than 51% of the vote, through an alliance with Balaguer.", "The first item on the president's agenda was the partial sale of some state-owned enterprises.", "Fernández was praised for ending decades of isolationism and improving ties with other Caribbean countries, but he was criticized for not fighting corruption or alleviating the poverty that affected 60% of the population.===Mejía's administration 2000–2004===In May 2000 the center-left Hipólito Mejía of the PRD was elected president amid popular discontent over power outages in the recently privatized electric industry.", "His presidency saw major inflation and instability of the peso in 2003 because of the bankruptcy of three major commercial banks in the country due to the bad policies of the principal managers.", "During his remaining time as president, he took action to save most savers of the closed banks, avoiding a major crisis.", "The relatively stable currency fell from about 16 Dominican pesos to 1 United States dollar to about 60 DOP to US$1 and was in the 40s to the dollar when he left office in August 2004.In the May 2004 presidential elections, he was defeated by former president Leonel Fernández.===Fernández: Second administration 2004–2012===Fernández instituted austerity measures to deflate the peso and rescue the country from its economic crisis, and in the first half of 2006, the economy grew 11.7%.", "The peso is currently (2019) at the exchange rate of c. 52 DOP to US$1.Over the last three decades, remittances (''remesas'') from Dominicans living abroad, mainly in the United States, have become increasingly important to the economy.", "From 1990 to 2000, the Dominican population of the U.S. doubled in size, from 520,121 in 1990 to 1,041,910, two-thirds of whom were born in the Dominican Republic itself.", "More than half of all Dominican Americans live in New York City, with the largest concentration in the neighborhood of Washington Heights in northern Manhattan.", "Over the past decade, the Dominican Republic has become the largest source of immigration to New York City, and today the metropolitan area of New York has a larger Dominican population than any city except Santo Domingo.", "Dominican communities have also developed in New Jersey (particularly Paterson), Miami, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, Rhode Island, and Lawrence, Massachusetts.", "In addition, tens of thousands of Dominicans and their descendants live in Puerto Rico.", "Many Dominicans arrive in Puerto Rico illegally by sea across the Mona Passage, some staying and some moving on to the mainland U.S. (See Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico.)", "Dominicans living abroad sent an estimated $3 billion in remittances to relatives at home, in 2006.In 1997, a new law took effect, allowing Dominicans living abroad to retain their citizenship and vote in presidential elections.", "President Fernández, who grew up in New York, was the principal beneficiary of this law.The Dominican Republic was involved in the US-led coalition in Iraq, as part of the Spain-led Latin-American Plus Ultra Brigade.", "But in 2004, the nation pulled its 300 or so troops out of Iraq.===Danilo Medina's administration 2012–2020===Danilo Medina began his tenure with a series of controversial tax reforms so as to deal with the government's troublesome fiscal situation encountered by the new administration.", "In 2012, he had won presidency as the candidate of ruling Dominican Liberation Party (PLD).In 2016, President Medina won re-election, defeating the main opposition candidate businessman Luis Abinader, with a wide margin.=== Luis Abinader 2020–present ===In 2020 Luis Abinader, the presidential candidate for the opposition Modern Revolutionary Party (PRM) won the election and he became the new president, ending the 16-year rule of PLD since 2004." ], [ "See also", "History of HaitiHistory of Latin AmericaHistory of North AmericaHistory of the AmericasHistory of the CaribbeanList of presidents of the Dominican RepublicPolitics of the Dominican RepublicSpanish colonization of the AmericasTimeline of Santo Domingo (city)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Betances, Emelio.", "''State and society in the Dominican Republic'' (Routledge, 2018).", "* Derby, Robin.", "''The Dictator's Seduction: Politics and the Popular Imagination in the Era of Trujillo''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2008.", "* Padilla Angulo, Fernando J.", "''Volunteers of the Empire.", "War, Identity, and Spanish Imperialism, 1855-1898'' (Bloomsbury Academic, 2023).", "* Pons, Frank Moya.", "''The Dominican Republic: a national history'' (Markus Wiener Publishers, 2010).", "* Tillman, Ellen D. ''Dollar Diplomacy by Force: Nation-Building and Resistance in the Dominican Republic'' (UNC Press Books, 2016).", "* Turits, Richard Lee.", "''Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press 2003.", "* Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek.", "''The Dominican Republic: A Caribbean Crucible.''", "(Routledge, 2019).", "* \"The Dominican Republic,\" ''History Today'' (Nov 1965) 15#11 pp 770–779, diplomatic history 1482–1965." ], [ "External links", "* Map of the Dominican Republic from 1910Betances, Emelio. \"", "The Dominican Grassroots Movement and the Organized Left, 1978–1986\".", "Science & Society 79.3 (July 2015), 388–413.", "\" The Political Force of Images\", ''Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America'', 1520–1820." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dominican Republic''' (Spanish: ''República Dominicana'') is a country in the West Indies that occupies the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola.", "It has an area of 48,670 km2, including offshore islands.", "The land border shared with Haiti, which occupies the western three-eighths of the island, is 376 km long.", "The maximum length, east to west, is 390 km from Punta de Agua to Las Lajas, on the border with Haiti.", "The maximum width, north to south, is 265 km from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata.", "The capital, Santo Domingo, is located on the south coast.The Dominican Republic's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south.", "The Mona Passage, a channel about 130 km wide, separates the country (and Hispaniola) from Puerto Rico." ], [ "Physical features", "Cordillera CentralThe Dominican Republic is a country with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are found here.", "The chains of mountains show a direction northwest–southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west–east.", "The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are:* ''Cordillera Septentrional'' (in English, \"Northern Range\").", "It runs parallel to the north coast, with extensions to the northwest, the Tortuga Island, and to the southeast, the Samaná Peninsula (with its ''Sierra de Samaná'').", "Its highest mountain is Diego de Ocampo, close to Santiago, with 1,249 m. There are several small plains between this range and the Atlantic Ocean.", "Rivers are short and most of them flow to the north.", "* The ''Cibao'' Valley (Dominican Republic) is the largest and the most important valley of the country.", "This long valley stretches from North Haiti, where is called ''Plaine du Nord'', to Samaná Bay.", "It can be divided in two sections: the northwestern part is the ''Yaque del Norte Valley'' (or ''Línea Noroeste'') and the eastern ''Yuna Valley'' (or ''Vega Real'', English: ''Royal Valley'').", "The ''Vega Real'' is the most fertile area in the country, with a high population density.", "* The ''Cordillera Central'' (also called ''Sierra del Cibao'') is the island's most rugged and imposing feature and is known in Haiti as the ''Massif du Nord'' (\"Northern Massif\").", "The highest mountains of the West Indies are in this range: Pico Duarte, 3,098 m, and others above 3,000 m. Near the center of the island, this range turns southward and is called ''Sierra de Ocoa'', finishing near the city of Azua de Compostela, on the Caribbean coast.", "Another branch, ''Cordillera Oriental'' or ''Sierra del Seibo'', is separated from the main chain by a karstic region (''Los Haitises'') and with a west–east direction; it is located south of Samaná Bay.Cordillera Oriental landscape in Dominican Republic.", "* The ''San Juan Valley'' and ''Plain of Azua'' are big valleys south of the ''Cordillera Central'' with altitude from 0 to 600 m.* The ''Sierra de Neiba'', with Mount Neiba the highest mountain with 2,279 m. An extension to the southeast of ''Sierra de Neiba'' is the ''Sierra Martín García'' (''Loma Busú'', 1,350 m).", "* The ''Hoya de Enriquillo'' or ''Neiba Valley'' is a remarkable valley, with a west–east direction, of low altitude (on average 50 m with some points below sea level) and with a great salt lake: the ''Enriquillo Lake''.", "* The ''Sierra de Bahoruco'', called ''Massif de la Selle'' in Haiti.", "This southern group of mountains have a geology very different from the rest of the island.", "* ''Llano Costero del Caribe'' (in English, \"Caribbean Coastal Plain\") is in the southeast of the island (and of the Dominican Republic).", "It is a large savanna east of Santo Domingo.A beach in the Samana province" ], [ "Climate", "Köppen climate types of the Dominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic is a tropical, maritime nation.", "Owing to its diverse mountainous topography, the country's climate shows considerable variation for its size, and has the most diverse climate zones of all the Caribbean islands, including subtropical highland climates (''Cwb''), oceanic climates (''Cfb'') and hot semi-arid climates (''BSh'') along the usual tropical savanna (''Aw''), monsoon (''Am''), and rainforest (''Af'') climates typical of a Caribbean nation.", "Conditions are ameliorated in many areas by elevation and by the northeast trade winds, which blow steadily from the Atlantic all year long.", "The annual mean temperature is ; regional mean temperatures range from in the heart of the Cordillera Central (Constanza) to as high as in arid regions.", "Temperatures rarely rise above , and freezing temperatures only occur in winter in the highest mountains.", "The average temperature in Santo Domingo in January is , and in July.The rain season for the northern coast is from November to January.", "For the rest of the country, the rain season is from May to November.", "The average annual rainfall is , with extremes of or more in the mountainous northeast (the windward side of the island) and in the southwestern valleys.", "The western valleys, along the Haitian border, remain relatively dry, with less than of annual precipitation, due to the rain shadow effect caused by the central and northern mountain ranges.", "The northwestern and southeastern extremes of the country are also arid.The Dominican Republic is occasionally damaged by tropical storms and hurricanes, which originate in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern Caribbean from June until November (mainly from August to October) each year.File:Cabo Cabrón, (Rincón Beach) Samaná, DR.JPG\|Tropical rainforest climate in Samana.File:Constanza, valle nuevo, clima invierno..jpg\|Frosted alpine forest in Constanza.File:Jaragua National Park (Road2).JPG\|Semi-arid climate in Pedernales.File:Dunas de Baní 1.jpg\|Desert sand dunes of Bani." ], [ "Islands", "Caribbean maritime boundaries.There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of Dominican territory.", "The largest islands are:#''Saona'', close to the southeastern coast of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea.", "It has an area of 117 km2.Its Taíno name was ''Iai'' or ''Adamanay''.", "Columbus named this island as Savona, after the Italian city of the same name, but the use during years has eliminated the letter ''v''.#''Beata'', also on the southern coast.", "It has an area of 27 km2.Its Taíno name is unknown.", "Columbus named this island ''Madama Beata''.#''Catalina'', very close to the southeastern coast.", "It has an area of 9.6 km2.Its Taíno name was ''Iabanea'' but some writers, including poets, say that it was called ''Toeya'' or ''Toella''." ], [ "Rivers and lakes", "Yaque del Norte river.Oviedo Lake in Pedernales.The 8 longest rivers of the Dominican Republic are:# ''Yaque del Norte''.", "At 296 km, it is the longest river in the Dominican Republic.", "Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the Atlantic Ocean.", "Its watershed has an area of 7,044 km2.# ''Yuna''.", "It is 185 km long.", "Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the east into Samaná Bay.", "Its watershed has an area of 5,498 km2.# ''Yaque del Sur''.", "It is 183 km long and its sources are in the Cordillera Central.", "It flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea.", "Its watershed has an area of 4,972 km2.# ''Ozama''.", "It is 148 km long.", "Its sources are in Sierra de Yamasá (a branch of the Cordillera Central).", "It flows into the Caribbean Sea.", "Its watershed has an area of 2,685 km2.# ''Camú''.", "It is 137 km long.", "Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Yuna River.", "Its watershed has 2,655 km2.# ''Nizao''.", "It is 133 km long.", "Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea.", "Its watershed has an area of 974 km2.# ''San Juan''.", "It is 121 km long.", "Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Yaque del Sur River.", "Its watershed has an area of 2,005 km2.# ''Mao''.", "It is 105 km long.", "Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the north into the Yaque del Norte River.", "Its watershed has an area of 864 km2.The Artibonite River is the longest river of the island, but only 68 km flows through the Dominican Republic.The largest lake of Hispaniola, and of the Caribbean, is Lake Enriquillo.", "It is located in the ''Hoya de Enriquillo'' with an area of 265 km2.There are three small islands within the lake.", "It is around 40 meters below sea level, and is a hypersaline lake, with a higher concentration of salt than seawater.Other lakes are ''Rincón'' (fresh water, area of 28.2 km2), ''Oviedo'' (brackish water, area of 28 km2), ''Redonda'', and ''Limón''." ], [ "Statistics", "Satellite view of Dominican Republic.", "; Location:: Caribbean, it occupies five-eighths of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti; Geographic coordinates:: ; Area::* Total: 48,670 km²:* Land: 48,320 km²:* Water: 350 km²; Land boundaries::* Total: 376 km:* Border countries: Haiti ; Coastline:: 1,288 km; Maritime claims::* Territorial sea: :* Contiguous zone: :* Exclusive economic zone: with :* Continental shelf: or to the edge of the continental margin; Climate:: Tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall; Rivers:: Significant rivers include the Jimani River, Río Yaque del Norte, Río Jamao del Norte, Río Isabela and the Ozama RiverTopography map of Hispaniola; Terrain:: Rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed; Geographical extremes:* Northernmost point – Cabo Isabela:* Southernmost point – Alto Velo Island, Jaragua National Park:* Southernmost point (mainland) – south of Oviedo, Pedernales in Jaragua National Park:* Westernmost point – Las Lajas, border with Haiti, Independencia Province:* Easternmost point – Punta de Agua, La Altagracia Province; Elevation extremes:* Lowest point – Lago Enriquillo: -46 m:* Highest point – Pico Duarte: 3,098 m; Natural resources:: Nickel, bauxite, gold, silver; Land use::* Arable land: 16.56%:* Permanent crops: 10.35%:* Other: 73.10% (2012 est.", "); Irrigated land:: 3,241 km² (2018); Total renewable water resources:: 21 km3 (2011); Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)::* total: 5.47 km3/yr (26%/1%/72%):* per capita: 574.2 m3/yr (2005); Natural hazards:: Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts; Environment - current issues:: Water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; damage caused by Hurricane Georges; Environment - international agreements::* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands:* Signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea; Geography - note:: Shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern five-eighths is the Dominican Republic, western three-eighths is Haiti)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a demography of the population of the Dominican Republic including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "Dominican Republic students.", "Dominicans in Santiago.The area was first included in world trade in 1492 where Christopher Columbus docked on the island of Hispaniola.When Spain occupied the country in 1496, the population consisted of Arawak (Taíno Indians).", "When Spain returned in 1496, they founded the current capital, Santo Domingo, as the first European city in America.", "The country came under Spanish rule.", "France took over the part of Hispaniola that is today Haiti.", "During the colony era, The Dominican Republic acted as a sugar supplier to Spain and France.", "Many whites moved to the country during this period.In 1496, Santo Domingo was built and became the new capital, and remains the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the Americas.Today, two other large groups have joined, while the indigenous population has mostly disappeared.", "45% of Dominicans consider themselves Endemic, 18% are white, 16% are black and 9% are mulatto.", "During the many years that have passed since the great immigration, the races have been mixed and it can be difficult to distinguish.", "In terms of race, they are all similar to the other Caribbean islands.", "The Spaniards brought Christianity to the Dominican Republic, and today about 50% of the population reports as being Catholic.", "One clear remnant of the Spanish colonial era on the population is the official and widespread use of the Spanish language.The Dominican Republic's population (1961–2003).According to the total population was in , compared to 2,380,000 in 1950.The proportion of the population aged below 15 in 2010 was 31.2%, 62.8% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6% were aged 65 years or older.Group of Dominicans in the town of Moca.Total population (x 1000)Proportionaged 0–14(%)Proportionaged 15–64(%)Proportionaged 65+(%) 19502 38045.551.72.7 19552 79646.351.12.6 19603 31248.249.22.6 19653 90048.948.52.6 19704 52447.749.72.7 19755 16945.351.92.8 19805 82642.654.43.1 19856 52440.456.23.4 19907 24538.557.63.9 19957 97837.058.54.5 20008 66334.959.95.1 20059 34333.161.35.7 201010 01731.262.86.0 201510 52830.063.46.7 202011 10728.362.87.6" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===UN estimates===Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesRegistration of vital events is not universal in the Dominican Republic.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates:PeriodLive birthsper yearDeathsper yearNatural changeper yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy totalLife expectancy malesLife expectancy females 1950–1955 140 000 53 000 87 00054.320.533.87.6015346.044.747.3 1955–1960 163 000 54 000 109 00053.417.635.87.6413949.948.651.4 1960–1965 178 000 52 000 126 00049.514.535.07.3512453.652.155.2 1965–1970 186 000 50 000 136 00044.211.832.36.6510956.955.458.7 1970–1975 190 000 47 000 143 00039.29.729.65.689659.858.161.8 1975–1980 194 000 46 000 149 00035.48.327.14.768662.060.364.0 1980–1985 206 000 46 000 160 00033.47.525.94.157564.062.166.1 1985–1990 213 000 46 000 168 00031.06.724.33.656366.564.369.0 1990–1995 218 000 46 000 172 00028.76.022.73.314869.066.571.9 1995–2000 215 000 50 000 165 00025.86.019.82.984170.067.373.1 2000–2005 219 000 54 000 165 00023.86.117.72.753571.168.174.4 2005–2010 221 000 58 000 163 00022.06.016.02.573072.269.275.520.96.114.819.76.113.618.06.411.616.56.79.815.27.18.114.27.56.7 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Births and deaths===YearPopulationLive birthsDeathsNatural increaseCrude birth rateCrude death rateRate of natural increaseCrude migration rateTFR 2001 8,512,996 194,351 28,724 165,627 22.8 3.4 19.5 2.567 2002 8,627,509 190,906 26,695 164,211 22.1 3.1 19.0 -5.8 2.488 2003 8,745,084 177,334 29,952 147,382 20.3 3.4 16.9 -3.5 2.266 2004 8,857,648 168,161 34,643 133,518 19.0 3.9 15.1 -2.4 2.135 2005 8,968,144 165,569 34,522 131,047 18.5 3.8 14.6 -2.3 2.079 2006 9,071,458 157,859 32,536 125,323 17.4 3.6 13.8 -2.5 1.971 2007 9,174,058 156,611 34,098 122,513 17.1 3.7 13.4 -2.2 1.936 2008 9,279,602 163,661 34,178 129,483 17.6 3.7 14.0 -2.6 2.017 2009 9,380,152 167,689 34,028 133,661 17.9 3.6 14.2 -3.6 2.046 2010 9,478,612 169,702 36,785 132,917 17.9 3.9 14.0 -3.7 2.046 2011 9,580,139 176,269 36,399 139,870 18.4 3.8 14.6 -4.0 2.106 2012 9,680,963 169,801 36,653 133,148 17.5 3.8 13.8 -3.4 2.019 2013 9,784,680 171,302 36,689 134,613 17.5 3.7 13.8 -3.2 2.027 2014 9,883,486 175,022 41,353 133,669 17.7 4.2 13.5 -3.6 2.055 2015 9,980,243 170,565 41,903 128,662 17.1 4.2 12.9 -3.2 1.989 2016 10,075,045 161,793 44,253 117,540 16.1 4.4 11.7 -2.3 1.874 2017 10,169,172 170,354 43,370 126,984 16.8 4.3 12.5 -3.3 1.969 2018 10,266,149 176,237 42,677 133,560 17.2 4.2 13.0 -3.6 2.039 2019 10,358,320 179,563 44,717 134,846 17.3 4.3 13.0 -4.2 2.072 2020 10,448,499 159,466 46,681 112,785 15.3 4.5 10.8 -2.2 1.848 2021 10,535,535 168,027 50,079 117,948 15.9 4.8 11.2 -3.0 1.945 2022 10,621,938 161,068 44,226 116,842 15.2 4.2 11.0 -2.9 1.861=== Structure of the population ===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 5 082 876 5 086 296 10 169 172 100 0–4 492 808 472 820 965 628 9.49 5–9 492 702 474 348 967 050 9.50 10–14 492 107 477 445 969 552 9.53 15–19 480 035 471 501 951 536 9.51 20–24 455 440 453 444 930 505 9.15 25–29 420 715 423 382 844 907 8.30 30–34 377 850 385 180 763 030 7.50 35–39 339 877 348 143 688 020 6.76 40–44 306 907 313 858 616 955 6.07 45–49 275 488 282 105 557 593 5.48 50–54 245 299 249 766 495 065 4.87 55–59 206 257 210 188 416 445 4.10 60–64 162 912 168 103 331 015 3.25 65–69 121 894 126 929 248 523 2.44 70–74 86 739 90 761 177 500 1.74 75–79 61 133 65 274 126 407 1.24 80+ 65 523 73 349 138 872 1.36Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 1 595 851 1 538 432 3 134 283 30.56 15–64 3 213 973 3 268 108 6 482 081 63.19 65+ 306 501 334 859 641 360 6.25Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 5 259 642 5 275 893 10 535 535 100 0–4 483 891 463 927 947 818 9.00 5–9 490 677 471 962 962 639 9.14 10–14 483 264 468 329 951 593 9.03 15–19 479 169 469 840 949 009 9.01 20–24 456 645 454 343 910 988 8.65 25–29 432 645 433 391 866 036 8.22 30–34 397 618 402 420 800 038 7.59 35–39 359 670 365 118 724 788 6.88 40–44 324 954 331 269 656 223 6.23 45–49 292 170 300 700 592 870 5.63 50–54 261 184 269 338 530 522 5.04 55–59 228 775 236 116 464 891 4.41 60–64 186 503 193 210 379 713 3.60 65-69 141 674 150 452 292 126 2.77 70-74 100 692 107 713 208 405 1.98 75-79 65 820 71 673 137 493 1.31 80+ 74 291 86 092 160 383 1.52Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 1 457 832 1 404 218 2 862 050 27.17 15–64 3 419 333 3 455 745 6 875 078 65.26 65+ 382 477 415 930 798 407 7.58===Fertility and births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1965–69 7,1 1970–74 5,8 1975–79 4,7 1980–82 4,31 1983–85 3,69 1986 3,8 (2,8) 3,2 (2,5) 5,1 (3,5) 1991 30,1 3,3 (2,6) 29,7 2,8 (2,3) 30,5 4,4 (3,1) 1996 27,7 3,2 (2,5) 24,4 2,8 (2,2) 29,8 4,0 (3,0) 1999 2,9 (2,3) 2,7 (2,1) 3,4 (2,7) 2002 25,2 3,0 (2,3) 25,3 2,8 (2,3) 24,9 3,3 (2,5) 2007 20,4 2,4 (1,9) 20,0 2,3 (1,8) 21,4 2,8 (2,1) 2013 20,9 2,5 (2,0) 21,2 2,4 (1,9) 20,3 2,6 (2,1)" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 3 minutes\tOne death every 8 minutes\tOne net migrant every 18 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 5 minutesDemographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:10,694,700 (2022 est.", "):10,298,756 (July 2018 est.", ")===Ethnic groups===:mixed 70.4% (Mestizo/Indio 58%, Mulatto 12.4%), Black 15.8%, White 13.5%, other 0.3% (2014 est.", "):note: respondents self-identified their race; the term \"indio\" in the Dominican Republic is not associated with people of indigenous ancestry but people of mixed ancestry or skin color between light and dark===Age structure===Population pyramid of Dominican Republic in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 26.85% (male 1,433,166/female 1,385,987):''15-24 years:'' 18.15% (male 968,391/female 937,227):''25-54 years:'' 40.54% (male 2,168,122/female 2,088,926):''55-64 years:'' 8.17% (male 429,042/female 428,508):''65 years and over:'' 6.29% (2020 est.)", "(male 310,262/female 350,076):''0-14 years:'' 27.56% (male 1,442,926 /female 1,395,809):''15-24 years:'' 18.52% (male 969,467 /female 937,765):''25-54 years:'' 40.28% (male 2,112,813 /female 2,035,902):''55-64 years:'' 7.71% (male 397,821 /female 396,172):''65 years and over:'' 5.92% (male 286,300 /female 323,781) (2018 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 27.9 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 144th:male: 27.8 years:female: 28.1 years (2020 est.", "):total: 27.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 145th:male: 27.1 years:female: 27.4 years (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:18.03 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 81st:18.9 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 84th===Death rate===:6.29 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 147th:6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 145th===Total fertility rate===:2.21 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 86th:2.28 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 88th===Net migration rate===:-2.68 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 174th:-2.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 170th===Population growth rate===:0.91% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 106th:0.99% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 109th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:20.9 years (2013 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-49===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:69.5% (2014)===Dependency ratios===:''total dependency ratio:'' 57.8 (2015 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 151st:''youth dependency ratio:'' 47.3 (2015 est.", "):''elderly dependency ratio:'' 10.5 (2015 est.", "):''potential support ratio:'' 9.5 (2015 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===Life expectancy at birth in the Dominican Republic:total population: 72.56 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 151st:male: 70.86 years:female: 74.33 years (2022 est.", ")===Religions===Roman Catholic 44.3%, Evangelical 13%, Protestant 7.9%, Adventist 1.4%, other 1.8%, atheist 0.2%, none 29.4%, unspecified 2% (2018 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 83.8% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 1.64% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", ")===Languages===Spanish (official)''===Education expenditures===:4% of GDP (2019) Country comparison to the world: 102nd===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2016 est.", "):total population: 93.8%:male: 93.8%:female: 93.8% (2016 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 14 years:male: 14 years:female: 15 years (2017)===Unemployment, youth ages 15–24===:total: 14.9%:male: 11.6%:female: 20.7% (2020 est.)" ], [ "See also", "Health in the Dominican RepublicYouth in the Dominican Republic:'''Census information:'''1920 Santo Domingo Census1950 Dominican Republic Census1960 Dominican Republic Census1970 Dominican Republic Census2010 Dominican Republic Census" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of the Dominican Republic''' is the seventh largestin Latin America, and is the largest in the Caribbean and Central American region.", "The Dominican Republic is an upper-middle income developing country with important sectors including mining, tourism, manufacturing (medical devices, electrical equipment, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals), energy, real estate, infrastructure, telecommunications and agriculture.", "The Dominican Republic is on track to achieve its goal of becoming a high-income country by 2030, and is expected to grow 79% in this decade.", "The country is the site of the single largest gold mine in Latin America, the Pueblo Viejo mine.Although the service sector is currently the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and free-trade zones), agriculture remains an important sector in terms of the domestic market and is in second place (behind mining) in terms of export earnings.", "Tourism accounts for more than $7.4 billion in annual earnings in 2019.Free-trade zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors.", "A leading growth engine in the Free-trade zone sector is the production of medical equipment for export having a value-added per employee of $20,000 USD, total revenue of $1.5 billion USD, and a growth rate of 7.7% in 2019.The medical instrument export sector represents one of the highest-value added sectors of the country's economy, a true growth engine for the country's emerging market.", "Remittances are an important sector of the economy, contributing $8.2 billion in 2020.Most of these funds are used to cover household expenses, such as housing, food, clothing, health care and education.", "Secondarily, remittances have financed businesses and productive activities.", "Thirdly, this combined effect has induced investment by the private sector and helps fund the public sector through its value-added tax.", "The combined import market including the free-trade-zones amounts to a market of $20 billion a year in 2019.The combined export sector had revenues totaling $11 billion in 2019.The consumer market is equivalent to $61 billion in 2019.An important indicator is the average commercial loan interest rate, which directs short-term investment and stimulates long-term investment in the economy.", "It is currently 8.30%, as of June 2021.The Dominican Republic's most important trading partner is the United States (over 40% of total commercial exchange; over $12 billion in trade).", "Other major trade partners are China (over $3 billion in trade), Switzerland (over $1 billion), Puerto Rico (over $800 million), Mexico (over $700 million), Haiti (over $700 million), Spain (over $700 million), the Netherlands (over $700 million), Canada (over $600 million), Brazil (over $500 million), and Germany (over $500 million), in that quantitative order.", "The country exports free-trade-zone manufactured products (medical devices, electrical equipment, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals), gold, nickel, agricultural products, liquor, cocoa beans, silver, and sauces and seasonings.", "It imports petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods, and foodstuffs.", "On 5 September 2005, the Congress of the Dominican Republic ratified a free trade agreement with the U.S. and five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR).", "CAFTA-DR entered into force for the Dominican Republic on 1 March 2007.The total stock of U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in Dominican Republic as of 2019 was U.S. $42 billion, much of it directed to the energy, tourism, real estate, manufacturing, infrastructure and the telecommunications sectors.", "In 2019 the foreign direct investment stock amounted to $42 billion a significant growth in the last decade and a half.", "In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, foreign direct investment flows in the Dominican Republic had remained strong at $2.5 billion added to the stock in that year.", "Having grown to an estimated $44.5 billion, and growing more than ten-fold since 2006 when the liberalization efforts began.An important aspect of the Dominican economy is the Free Trade Zone industry (FTZ), which made up U.S. $6.2 billion in Dominican exports for 2019.Reports show, however, that the FTZs lost approximately 60,000 between 2005 and 2007 and suffered a 4% decrease in total exports in 2006.The textiles sector experienced an approximate 17% drop in exports in 2006 due in part to the appreciation of the Dominican peso against the dollar, Asian competition following expiration of the quotas of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement, and a government-mandated increase in salaries, which should have occurred in 2005 but was postponed to January 2006.Lost Dominican business was captured by firms in Central America and Asia.", "The tobacco, jewelry, medical, and pharmaceutical sectors in the FTZs all reported increases for 2006, which offset textile and garment losses.", "Industry experts from the FTZs expected that entry into force of the CAFTA-DR agreement would promote substantial growth in the FTZ sector in 2007.By the end of the last decade-and-a-half the free-trade-zone sector has rebounded and surpassed the former amounts of $4.5 billion in 2006 to grow to $6.2 billion by 2019." ], [ "Primary Industries", "===Agriculture===In 2018, the Dominican Republic produced 644 thousand tons of avocado (it is the 2nd largest producer in the world), 1 million tons of papaya (it is the 4th largest producer in the world), 5.2 million tons of sugarcane, 2.1 million tons of banana, 85 thousand tons of cocoa, 442 thousand tons of palm oil, 407 thousand tons of pineapple, 403 thousand tons of coconut, 627 thousand tons of rice, 160 thousand tons of cassava, 136 thousand tons of orange, in addition to from smaller productions of other agricultural products such as potato, lemon, melon, onion and yam.With almost 80% of the total land area suitable for crop production and about 17% of the labor force engaged in farming, agriculture remains the primary occupation, accounting for 11% of GDP in 2001.Value of agricultural output grew at an average annual rate of 7.1% during 1968–73, but since 1975 the sector has been hampered by droughts (1975, 1977, and 1979), hurricanes (in 1979 and 1980), and slumping world prices and quota allocations for sugar (since 1985).", "In 1999, agricultural production was 0.4% higher than during 1989–91.The fertile Cibao Valley is the main agricultural center.", "In 1998, arable land totaled ; with land under permanent crops at .After Cuba, the Dominican Republic is the second-largest Caribbean producer of sugarcane, the nation's most important crop.", "The State Sugar Council operates 12 sugar mills and accounts for about half of total production.", "Other large producers are the privately owned Vicini, with three mills, and Central Romana Corporation, whose mill is the largest in the country.", "Sugar is grown in the southeastern plains, around Barahona & on the North Coast Plain.", "In 1999, sugar production was 4.4 million tons, down from an average of 7.1 million tons during 1989–1991.Output of sugar has declined annually since 1982, and land is gradually being taken out of sugar production and switched to food crops.", "Production of raw sugar rose from 636,000 tons in 1990 to 813,000 tons in 1997 but fell to 374,000 tons in 1999.Part of the crop was destroyed by hurricanes in 1979 and 1980, and 1979–80 production was only 670,000 bags (40,200 tons).", "Although production was usually about 57,000–59,000 tons annually in the 1980s, the acreage harvested declined from in the early 1980s to in 1999, indicating a greater yield per acre.", "Coffee production in 1999 was estimated at 35,000 tons; exports of coffee in 2001 generated $11 million.", "Cocoa and tobacco are also grown for export.", "Dominican Republic is one of the top 10 major producer and exporter of cocoa in the world.", "Cocoa is also grown in the Cibao Valley around San Francisco de Macoris.", "Tobacco is also grown in the Cibao Valley, but around Santiago.", "In 1999, production of cocoa beans was 26,000 tons and of tobacco, 35,000 tons.", "Rice is grown around Monte Cristi & San Francisco de Macoris.", "Banana production in 1999 was 432,000 tons.", "Production of other crops in 1999 (in thousands of tons) included rice, 563; coconuts, 184; cassava, 127; tomatoes, 281; pulses, 69; dry beans, 26; eggplants, 7; and peanuts, 2.===Livestock farming===In 2001, Dominican livestock included 187,000 goats and 106,000 sheep.", "There were also about 2.1 million head of cattle, 60% for beef and 40% for dairy.", "The hog population was decimated by African swine fever in 1978, decreasing from 400,000 in 1978 to 20,000 in 1979; by 2001, however, it was 565,000.Poultry is the main meat source because it is cheaper than beef or pork.", "Poultry production relies on imports of feed grain from the United States.", "In 2001, 203,000 tons of poultry meat were produced, along with 71,000 tons of beef and 420,000 tons of milk.===Fishing===In 2017 the total marine production was 18,000 metric tons.", "Marlin, barracuda, kingfish, mackerel, tuna, sailfish, and tarpon are found in the Monte Cristi Bank and Samaná Bay, which also supports bonito, snapper, and American grouper.===Forestry===About 28.4% of the total land area consisted of forests and woodlands in 2000.Round wood production in 2000 totaled 562,000 cu m (19.8 million cu ft).", "Timber is cut for land clearing for the use of agriculture.", "There are important national parks protecting the natural resources and aquifers of the country.===Mining===In 2019, the country was the 9th largest world producer of nickel.", "The country had almost zero production of gold until 2011, where it grew exponentially.", "In 2016 the country produced almost 38 tons.", "The country had almost zero production of silver until 2008, where it grew exponentially.", "In 2017 the country produced 147 tons.", "Ferronickel was the country's leading export commodity and third-leading industry.", "Nickel is mined at Bonao.", "In 2000, nickel production was 39,943 tons, ranking tenth in the world, a decrease from 49,152 in 1997.Currently the most important mineral export is gold.Production of gold in the Pueblo Viejo mine is the largest gold producing mine in Latin America, and fourth most productive mine in the world producing a total of 30,100 kg of gold in 2018.The extraction by a foreign company of gold at one of the largest mines in the Western Hemisphere has startled and concerned a part of the country who believe that the natural resource should be extracted by local companies and not foreign.", "Some groups began to protest against Barrick Gold in 2009 and 2010.In 2019 gold is one of the largest exports of the country totaling $1.6 billion and has helped to balance the commodity current account balance.Production of bauxite, traditionally the principal mining product, ceased in 1992.The Aluminum Co. of America (Alcoa) mined bauxite between 1959 and 1983, when it turned its concession over to the state.", "Production in 1991 dropped 92% from the previous year, as a presidential decree suspended mining operations at the largest mine, in response to increasing fears of deforestation, although reforestation of mined areas was in progress.", "Output averaged 1 million tons each year.The country was one of the few sources of amber in the Western Hemisphere.", "Salt Mountain, a 16 km block of almost solid salt west of Barahona, was the world's largest known salt deposit.", "There were also large deposits of gypsum near Salt Mountain, making the Dominican Republic one of three sources of gypsum in the Caribbean.", "The country also produced hydraulic cement, limestone, marble, and sand and gravel.", "Substantial lignite deposits were found in the early 1980s.", "Deposits of copper and platinum are also found in the country." ], [ "Industry", "The industrial sector contributed an estimated 33.8 percent to the country's GDP in 2017, led by mining and the manufacture of goods for export to the United States, Europe and Asia.", "To a lesser extent, there is the manufacture of food products, consumer non-durables, and building materials for the local market.", "The sector employed 20.8 percent of the workforce in 2014.About 500 companies in the Dominican Republic manufacture goods primarily for the North American market.", "Situated in 50 industrial free zones around the country, these mostly foreign-owned corporations take advantage of generous tax and other financial inducements offered by the government to businesses that operate within the zones.", "Approximately 200,000 people, or about 8 percent of the workforce, are employed in this sector.", "They mostly produce clothing, electronic components, footwear, and leather goods, which are assembled.", "The raw materials or semi-manufactured goods are usually imported duty-free from other emerging markets (electronic parts are imported from industrialized Puerto Rico) and assembled in the free trade zones.", "Products include cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, perfumes & foodstuffs.", "The value of free-trade-zone exports amounted to US$6.2 billion in 2019, while their imports of intermediate products amounted to US$4 billion.Other, more traditional manufacturing is based on sugar refining, cement, iron and steel production, and food processing.", "Rum is a significant export commodity, and beer and cigarettes are manufactured for local consumption.", "Most industry of this sort is located around the working-class perimeter of Santo Domingo and other large towns." ], [ "Tertiary industries", "Services were estimated to contribute 61.4% of the GDP in 2017 and employs 64.7% of the population.===Tourism===Since the mid-1980s the tourism sector has become one of the country's most important sources of foreign exchange, and more popular tourist destinations.", "The country is famous for its favorable location in the Caribbean, tropical climate, beaches, and the restored Spanish colonial architecture.", "Many foreign investors have and continue to be encouraged to invest here to build and expand resorts and airports around the coasts.", "During this same period, tourism displaced sugar as the main source of the country's earnings, and by 1997 it was generating more than half of the country's total foreign exchange.", "In 2019 it generated one-third of the total foreign exchange for the country.Tourism is the single biggest revenue earner, growing from humble beginnings in 1980 to more than $7.4 billion by 2019.Successive governments have invested heavily in tourism development, creating upgraded airports and other infrastructure.", "The number of tourist amounted to 6.4 million tourists arriving in the country in 2019.Most come from Europe, with about 25 percent originating from the United States or Canada.", "The country now has almost 70,000 hotel rooms, more than any other Caribbean country.", "About 50,000 Dominicans are directly employed in this sector, mostly working in hotels, and another 110,000 are indirectly employed as taxi drivers, tour guides, or tourist-shop staff.", "Most tourists visit the Dominican Republic on account of its beaches, but there is an expanding eco-tourism and outdoor activity sector, focused on the country's mountains and wildlife.Although tourism generates large revenues, some scholars and activists argue that the development of tourism also has high impacts on many socioeconomic aspects.", "For instance, they argue that it involves ecological deterioration, profit leakage, social displacement, disported cultural patterns, rising land values, drugs and prostitution.", "Travel and tourism contribution to GDP % 2001 2008 Dominican Republic 19.2% 17.6% Caribbean region 18.2% 19.5%===Retail===Retail activity in the Dominican Republic takes many forms, from U.S.-style supermarkets and shopping malls in Santo Domingo to rural markets and tiny family-run corner stores in villages.", "A small but affluent middle class can afford to shop at the former, while the lower-income rural community resorts to buying small amounts of daily essentials from general stores (these small stores often double as pubs).", "In an attempt to regulate the retail sector, the government has recently reformed taxation laws, so that small shops pay taxes on a regular monthly basis.", "Many transactions, however, go unrecorded." ], [ "Energy", "Wind energy in Pedernales province.The electricity sector has had big investments in the last decade 2010 to 2020 diversifying the sector away from petroleum which decreased from 50% of energy generation to 7%.", "The largest generation sources as of 2021 are coal, natural gas and renewables representing together 93% of electricity generation.", "This has transformed a strategic sector of the economy into a stable and lower cost sector.", "The rate of electricity loss improved from 38% in 2005 to 30% in 2019 showing improvement in the infrastructure.", "Low collection rates, illegal connections, infrastructure problems and poor governance are the sources of the high level of electricity loss in the system.", "The government plans to continue providing subsidies.", "Congress passed a law in 2007 that criminalizes the act of illegal electric connections.", "The state subsidizes the cost of electricity, funding the cost via indirect taxation instead of direct price increases for lower-income households, therefore it is a redistributive policy and partly funded by the country as a whole instead of the direct consumers of electricity.", "The profit from renewables, natural gas, and coal is positive and considered the current and future of the system, given that petroleum derivatives are considered more volatile and expensive in running costs.", "As of 2020 significant investments in the electricity sector have been realized with the construction of the Punta Catalina coal-fired plant.", "Significantly diversifying the electric sector's away from the traditional mix to one with lower cost.", "The growth of the renewables sector and the natural gas power sector has made significant strides in this respect in the last few years, and is expected to continue to grow with foreign and local investment in the sector." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "Year GDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP) GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal) GDP per capita(in US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation rate(in Percent) Unemployment(in Percent) Government debt(in % of GDP) 1980 13.7 2,429.3 8.7 1,534.3 8.0% 21.7% n/a n/a 1981 15.7 2,710.8 9.7 1,677.4 4.3% 7.5% n/a n/a 1982 16.9 2,860.5 9.1 1,545.1 1.7% 7.6% n/a n/a 1983 18.4 3,038.1 9.5 1,562.1 4.6% 5.6% n/a n/a 1984 19.3 3,112.3 14.9 2,397.6 1.3% 20.2% n/a n/a 1985 19.5 3,068.1 6.5 1,022.6 -2.1% 45.3% n/a n/a 1986 20.6 3,162.4 7.9 1,212.4 3.5% 7.6% n/a n/a 1987 23.2 3,482.7 8.3 1,245.3 10.1% 13.6% n/a n/a 1988 24.6 3,597.5 7.6 1,113.8 2.2% 43.9% n/a n/a 1989 26.7 3,818.6 8.6 1,230.7 4.4% 40.7% n/a n/a 1990 26.1 3,672.4 8.0 1,123.2 -5.5% 50.5% n/a n/a 1991 27.3 3,766.8 9.9 1,365.2 0.9% 47.1% 9.2% n/a 1992 31.0 4,207.8 11.6 1,573.7 11.2% 4.3% 9.5% n/a 1993 34.1 4,541.0 13.1 1,741.7 7.4% 5.3% 9.3% n/a 1994 35.7 4,677.0 14.6 1,916.4 2.6% 8.3% 7.4% n/a 1995 38.6 4,962.8 16.6 2,141.1 5.7% 12.5% 7.3% n/a 1996 41.6 5,270.0 18.2 2,309.9 6.0% 5.4% 7.5% n/a 1997 46.1 5,745.7 20.0 2,495.0 8.9% 8.3% 7.2% 13.8% 1998 49.7 6,102.4 21.7 2,658.5 6.7% 4.8% 7.4% 13.2% 1999 53.4 6,457.7 22.1 2,674.8 5.9% 6.5% 6.3% 16.0% 2000 57.2 6,811.6 24.3 2,894.3 4.7% 7.7% 8.1% 16.7% 2001 59.9 7,039.8 25.6 3,007.4 2.5% 8.9% 9.1% 20.4% 2002 63.6 7,371.7 27.2 3,158.4 4.5% 5.2% 8.5% 21.5% 2003 64.0 7,316.3 21.5 2,460.6 -1.3% 27.5% 8.7% 48.2% 2004 67.4 7,607.9 22.5 2,540.8 2.6% 51.5% 7.9% 34.3% 2005 76.1 8,480.4 35.9 4,008.4 9.4% 4.2% 8.2% 38.3% 2006 85.6 9,435.5 38.0 4,188.7 9.2% 7.6% 7.1% 36.0% 2007 94.4 10,292.7 44.1 4,803.5 7.4% 6.1% 6.5% 32.9% 2008 99.3 10,703.6 48.2 5,194.8 3.2% 10.6% 6.0% 33.6% 2009 100.9 10,757.5 48.3 5,151.2 0.9% 1.4% 6.8% 36.7% 2010 110.6 11,672.3 53.9 5,688.8 8.3% 6.3% 6.5% 37.3% 2011 116.5 12,157.9 58.1 6,063.4 3.1% 8.5% 7.6% 39.1% 2012 118.2 12,207.7 60.7 6,274.9 2.7% 3.7% 8.4% 42.3% 2013 125.4 12,818.4 62.8 6,413.9 4.9% 4.8% 9.2% 46.7% 2014 137.0 13,859.1 67.3 6,805.7 7.1% 3.0% 8.5% 44.9% 2015 151.6 15,186.0 71.3 7,139.5 6.9% 0.8% 7.3% 44.9% 2016 167.5 16,625.8 75.8 7,521.3 6.7% 1.6% 7.1% 46.6% 2017 175.9 17,301.4 80.1 7,874.9 4.7% 3.3% 5.5% 48.8% 2018 192.7 18,772.6 85.6 8,341.0 7.0% 3.6% 5.7% 50.4% 2019 206.1 19,896.2 89.0 8,595.6 5.1% 1.8% 6.2% 53.5% 2020 194.5 18,619.7 78.9 7,553.5 -6.7% 3.8% 5.8% 71.5% 2021 220.7 20,943.9 89.5 8,971.9 12.5% 8.5% 7.4% 63.06% 2022 239.3 22,507.3 97.4 10,700 4.9% 7.8% 6.6% 59.1% 2023 257.3 23,991.0 104.4 11,200 5.0% 4.0% 6.2% 62.2% 2024 276.3 25,537.6 111.9 10,338.4 5.0% 4.0% 6.0% 60.7% 2025 296.3 27,152.5 119.9 10,984.1 5.0% 4.0% 6.0% 59.2% 2026 317.5 28,834.5 128.4 11,664.2 5.0% 4.0% 6.0% 58.0%" ], [ "Other statistics", "'''GDP:'''purchasing power parity – $172.4 billion (2017 est.", ")'''GDP – real growth rate:'''4.6% (2017 est.", ")'''GDP – per capita:'''purchasing power parity – $16.900 (2017 est.", ")'''GDP – composition by sector:'''''agriculture:''5.5%''industry:''33.8%''services:''60.8% (2017 est.", ")'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''3.3% (2017 est.", ")'''Labor force:'''4.732 million (2017 est.", ")'''Labor force – by occupation:'''''agriculture:''14.4%''industry:''20.8%''services:''64.7% (2014 est.", ")'''Unemployment rate:'''5.5% (2017 est.", ")'''Population below poverty line:'''30.5% (2016)'''Budget:'''''revenues:''$7.014 billion''expenditures:''$6.985 billion (2007 est.", ")'''Industries:'''tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco, electrical components, medical devices'''Electricity – production:'''15.53 billion kWh (2015)'''Electricity – consumption:'''13.25 billion kWh (2015)'''Electricity – exports:'''0 kWh (2005)'''Electricity – imports:'''0 kWh (2005)'''Oil – production:''' (2014)'''Oil – consumption:''' (2012 est.", ")'''Oil – exports:''' (2017)'''Oil – imports:''' (2017)'''Oil – proved reserves:''' (1 January 2006 est.", ")'''Natural gas – production:''' 0 cu m (2005 est.", ")'''Natural gas – consumption:''' 1.108 million cu m (2015 est).", "'''Natural gas – exports:''' 0 cu m (2005 est.", ")'''Natural gas – imports:''' 1.108 million cu m (2015)'''Natural gas – proved reserves:''' 0 cu m (1 January 2006 est.", ")'''Agriculture – products:'''sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, beef, eggs'''Exports:'''$10.33 billion f.o.b.", "(2017 est.", ")'''Exports – commodities:'''ferro nickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats, consumer goods'''Exports – partners:'''United States 50.4%, United Kingdom 3.2%, Belgium 2.4% (2017)'''Imports:'''$19 billion f.o.b.", "(2017 est.", ")'''Imports – commodities:'''foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals'''Imports – partners:'''United States 41.4%, China 13.9%, Mexico 4.5%, Brazil 4.3% (2017)'''Debt – external:'''$29.69 billion (31 December 2017 est.", ")'''Economic aid – recipient:'''$76.99 million (2005)'''Currency:'''Dominican peso (DOP)'''Exchange rates:'''Dominican pesos per US dollar – 33.113 (2007), 33.406 (2006), 30.409 (2005), 42.12 (2004), 30.831 (2003)'''Fiscal year:'''calendar year" ], [ "See also", "* List of companies of the Dominican Republic* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)" ], [ "Notes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.Numerous television channels are available.", "Tricom, S.A, WIND Telecom, S.A., Viva (network operator), and Claro Codetel provide television services digitally, with channels from Latin America and elsewhere in the world.", "There are extensive mobile phone and land-line services.", "Internet access is available as Cable Internet, ADSL, WiMAX, EDGE, EV-DO and UMTS/HSDPA in most parts of the country.", "Projects to extend Wi-Fi (wireless internet) hot spots have been undertaken in Santo Domingo.", "Since 2015 the country has been actively extending its fiber optics network, to provide faster and more reliable internet to business and private users.The Instituto Dominicano De Telecomunicaciones (INDOTEL) regulates and supervises the development of the country's telecommunications market." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: AM 146, FM 233, shortwave 14 (2013).", "A combination of state-owned and privately owned radio stations with more than 300 radio stations operating (2007).", "* Radios: 1.44 million (1997).", "* Television stations: 46 (2012).", "A combination of state-owned and privately owned broadcast media; 1 state-owned and a number of private TV networks; networks operate repeaters to extend signals throughout country (2007).", "* Pay TV: 49,010 subscribers (2010).", "* Television sets: 770,000 (1997).Cable television in the Dominican Republic is provided by a variety of companies.", "These companies offer both English and Spanish language television, plus a range of channels in other languages, high definition channels, pay-per-view movies and events, sports packages, premium movies channels and adult channels such as HBO, Playboy TV, Cinecanal, MLB Extra Innings, etc.", "The channels are not only from the Dominican Republic, but also the United States and Europe.In the Dominican Republic there are 46 in VHF and UHF channels free-to-air channels.", "The programming on the free of charge channels consists mainly of locally produced entertainment shows, news, and comedy shows; and foreign sitcoms, soap operas, movies, cartoons, and sports programs.The main service provider in the Dominican Republic is Tricom.", "Aster is concentrated in Santo Domingo, but is expanding its service throughout the Dominican Republic.", "There are new companies using new technologies that are expanding quickly such as Claro TV (IPTV and Satellite TV), Wind Telecom (MMDS) and SKY (Satellite TV).On election day in May 2012 government broadcast regulators took two popular national television channels (11 and 33) off the air on the grounds that they violated an electoral law prohibiting distribution of exit poll or other unofficial information regarding the final results of the electoral process.", "Both channels were closed on the afternoon of 20 May and reopened the next morning." ], [ "Telephones", "* Area codes: 809, 829, and 849.", "* International call prefix: +1* Fixed lines: 1.0 million lines in use, 73rd in the world (2012).", "* Fixed line teledensity: 10 per 100 people (2011).", "* Mobile cellular: 9.0 million lines (2012).", "* Mobile cellular teledensity: 90 per 100 people (2011).", "* VoIP: 45,328 lines (2012).", "* Domestic system: Relatively efficient system based on island-wide microwave radio relay network (2011) and fiber optics lines that cover many of the main cities.", "* Communications cables: Landing point for the Americas Region Caribbean Ring System (ARCOS-1), ANTILLAS I, and the Fibralink submarine cables that provide links to South and Central America, parts of the Caribbean, and the US (2011).", "* Satellite earth station: 1, Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011)." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .do* Internet users: 4.5 million users, 62nd in the world; 45.0% of the population, 98th in the world (2012).", "* Fixed broadband: 446,420 subscriptions, 72nd in the world; 4.4% of the population, 108th in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: 1.6 million subscriptions, 65th in the world; 15.4% of the population, 80th in the world (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 404,500 hosts, 55th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 857,600 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 85 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet service providers (ISPs): 8: Claro (Fiber, ADSL and wireless), Tricom (Fiber, WiMAX, ADSL, and Cable), Aster (CABLE), VIVA (wireless), Orange (wireless), ONEMAX (Fiber GPON, Wireless PTP, Data Center), Wind Telecom (WiMAX) (2008).===Broadband Internet access===The Dominican Republic is considered one of the countries with the most advanced telecommunications infrastructures in Latin America, with over 8.9 million cell phones connected (on just about 10 million populants, with 3.5 million of them on extreme poverty conditions) and large companies like Codetel and Orange (FR) on the telecommunications market.", "Broadband Internet access is growing, with over 622,931 Internet accounts globally and 3,851,278 Internet users as of December 2010 according to INDOTEL (DR Telecommunications Institute).", "Broadband DSL represents about 56% of the total Internet subscribers.", "There is access to regular ADSL, G.SHDSL, and services only on metropolitan areas, costs are high and service is decent.", "Cable Internet is offered by a couple of cable companies at lower costs than ADSL but the service is very deficient and unreliable.", "WiFi is becoming more common.", "It is available in some universities.", "Most hotels also offer wi-fi internet.", "The implementation of the WiMAX and HSPA technology by some of the Cellphone service providers are resulting in the rapid investment by other providers in the market to match the new and faster platform of services.", "Mobile broadband users have seen their percentage grow from 14% in 2007 all the way to 39% in 2010, and will continue to grow as more and more users are opting for this type of technology in a country where Home Broadband speeds are more expensive and slower.", "Also the ongoing installation of a Fiber-Optic network structure in the National District and the City of Santiago (second largest in the country) will force other competitors into upgrading theirs to be able to compete in the markets they now lead.===Pricing===As of October 2018, not including taxes.Key: DOP: Dominican peso, USD: United States dollar.", "Exchange rate ( $50 DOP : US$1 );Pricing – Home Internet Access (By ISP)The following table shows the speeds/prices* available and designed for home usage.", "Download SpeedsClaro República DominicanaAltice Dominicana S.A.WIND Telecom, S.A.Viva (network operator) 1 Mbit/s – – $790 DOP (US$15.80) – 2 Mbit/s$750 DOP (US$15) – $990 DOP (US$19.80) – 3 Mbit/s$895 DOP (US$17.90) $890 DOP (US$17.80) $1,290 DOP (US$25.80)$699 DOP (US$13.98) 5 Mbit/s$1,045 DOP (US$20.90) $1,049 DOP (US$20.98) $1,490 DOP (US$29.80)$899 DOP (US$17.98) 10 Mbit/s$1,345 DOP (US$26.90) – – – 15 Mbit/s – $1,499 DOP (US$29.98) – – 20 Mbit/s$1,595 DOP (US$34.67) – – – 30 Mbit/s – $1,949 DOP (US$38.98) – – 40 Mbit/s$1,945 DOP (US$38.90) – – –100 Mbit/s$2,645 DOP (US$52.90)$2,799 DOP (US$55.98) – –Note: The pricing and speeds are subject to change since Altice, Claro and Wind have multi plans (Two or Three services combined), those plans have a discount on all services.", "Up to 25% discount for combined services.", ";Pricing – Mobile Broadband (By ISP)Currently the mobile internet market is governed by three aspects:# The first is based on a contract where you are granted a certain amount of data (MB/GB) per month, after having consumed the data you can continue browsing at 512 kbit/s.# Second option is a monthly income (postpaid) for the acquisition of a speed package with \"unlimited data\" (is subject to fair use policies with unlimited browsing at 512 kbit/s after you surpass the monthly capacity).# Third group belongs to the prepaid modality, in this option the client determines the number of days or amount of data he needs to navigate.Data CapsClaro (Dominican Republic)Altice Dominicana S.A.WIND Telecom, S.A.5MB$115 DOP (US$2.30) – –50MB$175 DOP (US$3.50) – –250MB$295 DOP (US$5.90) – –2GB$395 DOP (US$7.90) – –5GB$695 DOP (US$13.90)$790 DOP (US$15.80)$590 DOP (US$11.80)10GB$995 DOP (US$19.90)$999 DOP (US$19.98) –15GB$1,195 DOP (US$23.90)$1,199 DOP (US$23.98)$790 DOP (US$15.80)20GB$1,495 DOP (US$29.89)$1,499 DOP (US$29.97) –25GB$1,795 DOP (US$35.89)$1,799 DOP (US$35.97)$990 DOP (US$19.80)40GB – –$1,490 DOP (US$29.79)50GB$3,895 DOP (US$77.88)$3,590 DOP (US$71.79) –60GB – –$1,690 DOP (US$33.79)Postpaid SpeedsAltice Dominicana S.A.WIND Telecom, S.A.1 Mbit/s$799 DOP (US$15.80)$790 DOP (US$15.80)2 Mbit/s –$990 DOP (US$19.80)3 Mbit/s$999 DOP (US$19.98)$1,290 DOP (US$25.79)5 Mbit/s$1,499 DOP (US$29.97)$1,490 DOP (US$29.79)10 Mbit/s$1,999 DOP (US$39.97) –Prepaid NavigationDays1234571030Viva (network operator)$45 DOP (US$0.90)$75 DOP (US$1.50) –$90 DOP (US$1.80) –$190 DOP (US$3.80) –$995 DOP (US$19.90)WIND Telecom, S.A.$35 DOP (US$0.70) –$100 DOP (US$2) –$200 DOP (US$4) –$340 DOP (US$6.80) –===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.", "An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system ensure freedom of speech and press.", "The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction.", "Individuals and groups are generally able to criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal, although there have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals.", "Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners.", "The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur." ], [ "See also", "* Dominican Postal Institute* North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " nic.do, Network Information Center for the .do domain.", "* Claro * Compania De Servicios Inalambricos Dominicana* Indotel, Instituto Dominicano de las Telecomunicaciones.", "* Indotel, Dominican Republic Communications Regulation Authority.", "* ONEMAX* Orange* SKY* Tricom* VIVA* Wind Telecom* Teléfono Dominicana" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in the Dominican Republic''' utilizes a system of roads, airports, ports, harbours, and an urban railway.Dominican Republic transportation, Santo Domingo city metro pictured in 2008" ], [ "Roadways", "Five main highways (DR-1, DR-2, DR-3, DR-4, DR-5) connect the Dominican Republic's biggest cities and tourist centers; they are in good condition.", "There are nearly of highways and roads, 9,872 being paved and (2002 est.)", "unpaved.", "Like any underdeveloped nation, the Dominican Republic suffers from a lack of good paved roads to connect smaller towns and less populated areas, though work on paving them proceeds.", "Major town roads are kept in good condition." ], [ "Public transportation", "Teleférico de Santo Domingo=== Mass transit ===The Santo Domingo Metro is the first mass transit system in the country, and the second among Caribbean & Central American nations.", "It is the most extensive metro system in the region by length and total number of stations.", "On February 27, 2008, the incumbent president Leonel Fernández test-rode the system for the first time, and thereafter free service was offered several times.", "Commercial service began on January 30, 2009.Several additional lines are currently planned.Santiago Light Rail is a planned light rail system, still at the development stage, in the Dominican Republic's second-largest city Santiago de los Caballeros.", "Construction was slated to begin in mid-2008 but is currently on hold, due to lack of approval and of central government funds.===Buses===Dominican Republic busesThe Dominican Republic has a bus system that is rather reliable, and most of these public transportation vehicles are fairly comfortable.", "The fare is generally inexpensive, and there are bus terminals and stops in most of the island's major cities.===Public Cars (''Carros Públicos'')===The Public Cars (''Carros Públicos–Conchos'') are privately owned passenger cars that transit a specific route daily Passengers may request a stop anywhere along the route.", "Carros Públicos carry a significant portion of commuters in Santo Domingo and other major cities.", "The system is not very reliable and lacks oversight and regulation which leads to congestion and other issues.", "They may also be somewhat uncomfortable, since drivers try to fit as many people as possible inside the vehicles.", "Carros Públicos are often standard sedans, but can be packed with as many as six passengers." ], [ "Railways", "Rail map as of 1925Rail operations are provided by one state-owned operator and several private operators (mainly for sugar mills).", "There are no rail connections with neighboring Haiti.", "* Central Romana Railroad was established in 1911 in the sugarcane fields.", "The total length of the line is , being the standard gauge.", "* The Dominican Republic Government Railway (United Dominican Railways or ''Ferrocarriles Unidos Dominicanos'') was a narrow gauge railway.", "* There are operated by other sugarcane companies in various gauges: , , gauges (1995)." ], [ "Ports and harbors", "Major ports and harbours in the Dominican Republic:===Ports===Don diego terminal.", "The Port of Santo Domingo, with its location in the Caribbean, is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road, and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers.", "The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls.", "Haina Occidental Port, located just 20 km west of Santo Domingo, is one of the most important ports in the Dominican Republic.", "About 70% of all cargo, excluding Caucedo and free zone exports/imports, is moved through this port.", "DP World's terminal Multimodal Caucedo Port maritime terminal and logistic center operates under the Free Zone Regime.", "Actually 85% of Free Zone exports to the United States is shipped from Caucedo terminal.", "Multimodal Caucedo port is also able to act as a trans-shipment hub to the Caribbean and Latin America for Asia specifically Japan as a door to the American market.", "Port of Puerto Plata is the main commercial port on the north coast of the Dominican Republic.", "Port of Boca Chica is located about 20 miles east of the capital city and five miles from the International airport Las Americas.", "Currently the port is almost exclusively used for containers and some lumber, newsprint and homogeneous cargoes.", "Port of San Pedro de Macoris is located on the Higuamo river.", "This port is mainly used to discharge bulk fertilizer.", "Cement clinker, coal, wheat, diesel and LPG.", "It is also used to export sugar and molasses produced by several sugar cane mills in the region.", "Central Romana Port, located in La Romana, belong to Central Romana Corporation which is a private company established in 1912 and has the largest sugar mill in the country.The following six local ports are a single pier with berth facility:Cayo Levantado Port or (Arroyo Barruk/Puerto Duarte) is located in the Samaná Bay.", "Manzanillo Port is located very close to the Haitian border.", "Port of Cabo Rojo is located in Cabo Rojo, southeast to the border.", "Port of Barahona is located in Barahona, in the bay of Neyba.", "Port of Azua in Azua, also called Puerto Viejo is located at Ocoa Bay.", "Palenque Port is located southwest of Santo Domingo.A local ferry service runs daily between the Samaná and Sabana del Mar ports.===Merchant marine===Total:*1 ship (1,000 GT or over) totaling 1,587 GT/Ships by type:*cargo 1 (1999 est.", ")===Entering the ports===Boaters and sailors who wish to dock in any of the Dominican Republic's ports must follow certain entry requirements: Upon approaching the port, ships must display a quarantine flag, which has the letter 'Q' on it, and wait for admittance into the port.", "* The passengers of the vessel must pay a fee, get a tourist card, and show proper identification including a valid passport.", "* Military officials must sometimes grant the passengers clearance to come ashore.", "* For entering or leaving the Dominican Republic, the Dominican e-Ticket is required.", "It is an electronic system designed to streamline immigration procedures and enhance border security." ], [ "Airports", "Boeing 737-800 at Cibao International Airport in Santiago de los Caballeros in 2006In 2009, there were seven major and 31 minor airports in the Dominican Republic.", "The major ones were:* Las Américas International Airport, Santo Domingo City, Santo Domingo* Punta Cana International Airport, Punta Cana / Higüey* Cibao International Airport, Santiago City, Santiago* Gregorio Luperón International Airport, Puerto Plata* La Romana International Airport, La Romana City, La Romana* Samana El Catey International Airport, Sanchez, Samana* María Montez International Airport, Barahona City, Barahona===Airports - with paved runways===Total: 10 (1999 est.", ")''Over 3,047 m'': 3''2,438 to 3,047 m'': 1''1,524 to 2,437 m'': 4''914 to 1,523 m'': 3''under 913 m'': 2===Airports - with unpaved runways===Total: 15 (1999 est.", ")''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4*''under 914 m:'' 9===National airlines=== Dominicana de Aviación was the national airline of the Dominican Republic for more than 50 years.", "This title was passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying.", "* After operations at Dominicana de Aviación ceased, PAWA Dominicana became the flag carrier of the country in 2015.However, the airline ceased operation in January 2018.==== Flights ====There are direct flights to and from the Dominican Republic from the United States, Cuba, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the Caribbean." ], [ "See also", "* Dominican Republic* Puerto Plata Airport" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dominican Republic - Ministry of Tourism, Official Site* Santo Domingo Public Transportation* Dominican Republic Information Pictures of transportation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic''' () are the military forces of the Dominican Republic.", "They consist of approximately 56,000 active duty personnel.", "The president is the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic and the '''Ministry of Defense''' (Spanish: Ministerio de Defensa de la República Dominicana) is the chief managing body of the armed forces.", "The primary missions of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country.", "The Armed Forces of Dominican Republic are the strongest army in the Caribbean after Cuba.The Army, with 28,750 active duty personnel, consists of six infantry brigades, an air cavalry squadron and a combat service support brigade.", "The Air Force operates two main bases, one in southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region of the country, the air force operates approximately 40 aircraft including helicopters.", "The Navy maintains three ageing vessels which were donated from the United States, around 25 patrol crafts and interceptor boats and two helicopters.There is a counter-terrorist group formed by members of the three branches.", "This group is highly trained in counter-terrorism missions.", "The armed forces participate fully in counter-illegal drug trade efforts, for this task, there is a taskforce known as DEPROSER 24/7 (DEfender, PROteger y SERvir).", "They also are active in efforts to control contraband and illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic and from the Dominican Republic to the United States (via illegal transportation of immigrants to Puerto Rico)." ], [ "History", "===War of Independence===Brigantine Schooners in Santo Domingo circa 1850.Haiti under their president Jean-Pierre Boyer had invaded and occupied Dominican Republic from 1822 to 1844.The military forces of the First Republic's army comprised about 4,000 soldiers organized into seven line infantry regiments, several loose battalions, 6 escudrones cavalry and 3 artillery brigades with 2/2 brigades; This army was supplemented with national civic guard militia composed of the provinces, the National Naval Armada, original name of the Navy today; It composed of 10 ships, seven owned and 3 taken in requición and armed by the government: the Cibao frigate with 20 cannons; the brigantine schooner San Jose, five guns; the schooner La Libertad, five guns; General schooner Santana 7 guns; the schooner La Merced, five guns; Separation schooner, 3 guns; the schooner February 27, five guns.", "The requisition taken: the schooner Maria Luisa, 3 guns; the schooner March 30, 3 guns; and the schooner Hope, 3 guns.", "674 operated by a man.", "In addition to the aforementioned military corps expeditionary southern army recruited by Pedro and Ramon Santana in Hato Mayor and El Seibo, with a permit issued by the Central Governing Board with the rank of commander in chief of the army existed.", "These men were skilled in handling machete and spear.", "His deputy commander was Brigadier General Antonio Duvergé.", "The other expeditionary army was the Northern Borders created to defend these borders: its commander was Major General Francisco A. Salcedo.The Dominican forces would reach levels of organization and efficiency of considerable notoriety.", "As an example of this, it would suffice to highlight the fact of the achievement and preservation of National Independence, with the Dominican victory over repeated Haitian military invasions in the 12-year period that followed the proclamation of Independence; In addition, 55 percent of the National Budget was allocated to it.===20th century===M4 carbines got out of a Bell UH-1 Iroquois military helicopter in counter-terrorist and counter-illegal drug trade operations.The events that led to the United States military intervention of 1916, brought about the disappearance of any vestige of military structure in the Dominican Republic, setting the intervening forces a military government headed by Captain William Knapp, who make an interim police force called \"Constabulary \"equivalent to an\" armed police force as a military unit \"and he had the task of maintaining internal order and enforce the implementing provisions of the US government.", "This body, purely police function disappears in 1917, leading to the creation of a National Guard.", "As a result of this historic event of our recent past, the country inherited a hierarchical and organizational akin to the US Marine Corps structure, which served as a platform to the transformations that later gave rise to the armed forces we know today, made up of three components, terrestrial one, one naval and one air.This land component, now called the National Army, inherited by both its organizational structure of the National Guard organized by the US occupation forces, which operated from April 7, 1917, until June 1921, when it becomes Dominican National Police by Executive Order No.", "631 of Rear Admiral Thomas Snowden, who was at that time the military governor of Santo Domingo.", "After the US military occupation in 1924, Horacio Vásquez wins the presidential elections of that same year.", "Among his first decisions, decrees the change of the Dominican National Police in National Brigade, a situation that continues until 17 May 1928, when new turn changes the name of the Army by Law No.", "928, but basically inheriting a structure Police, who obeyed schemes imposition of public order demanded by the country at that time and not those of an army in their typical roles.Due to its characteristics and missions, organizational structure that demanded presence throughout the country, which was realized with the creation of posts and detachments in different parts of the country and the establishment in some provinces of company size units, many of which still Army retains today.", "Over the years and already existing National Police created by decree No.", "1523 of March 2, 1936, of President Trujillo, many of these units, posts and detachments became part of it, perfectly adapted to its structure, since These were essentially created to play a policing role.", "So great was the influence that had the National Guard in Dominican society and very particularly in the rural population, which even today are many Dominicans who often referred to the Armed Forces and unique way to the Army as \" The Guard \".Meanwhile, the Navy has remained since its inception attached to the principles that gave rise, assuming only two name changes since its inception, but gradually evolving the transformation of what was a body created for military purposes, capable of landing and ships with weapons to face possible naval invasions, to be a component mainly responsible for enforcing the provisions on navigation, trade and fishing, as well as international treatiesThe Dominican Air Force, meanwhile, emerges as an independent component in 1948, under the chairmanship of Generalissimo Rafael L. Trujillo Molina, with characteristics of innovation and modernism, which gave mobility, versatility and depth to the Armed Forces and the complement in the following years would become: a military capacity to project military power in the Caribbean environment.", "The situation of this air component has changed significantly after reaching its climax in the 50s, when it was one of the best air force equipped in the region, which was due to the strategic guidelines of a long-lived military dictatorship It made efforts to stay in power and he saw in this component one of its mainstays against any invasion or subversion against the dictatorship." ], [ "Structure", "===Army of the Dominican Republic===The Dominican Army was founded in 1844.Its basic strength is concentrated in the infantry which in general can be said to be well equipped with combat rifles and combat equipment for soldiers.", "The vehicles (both transport and armored vehicles) and the artillery and anti-tank pieces that are in service.", "Currently, tanks and modern armor systems have been included.===Navy of the Dominican Republic===The Dominican Navy was founded in 1844 also with the National Independence with 15,000 troops after Haiti had occupied the eastern part of the island for twenty five years.", "It keeps around 34 ships in operation, mostly coast guards, patrol boats and small speedboats.", "It also operates dredges, tugboats and patrol boats of height.", "The Navy has a small air body composed helicopter utilities Bell OH-58C Kiowa.The Navy operates two main bases, one in the port of Santo Domingo in the Dominican capital called \"Naval Base 27 de Febrero\" and another in Bahía de las Calderas, in the province of Peravia, called Las Calderas Naval Base in the southern part from the country.", "It also has presence in the commercial ports of the country, comandancias of ports and is divided into three naval areas that in turn have posts and naval detachments.===Air Force of the Dominican Republic===The Dominican Air Force was founded in 1948 with 20,000 people.", "It has two main bases: the base area of San Isidro in the South-Central zone of the country near the capital city Santo Domingo; and the other operates jointly in the civil facilities belonging to the Gregorio Luperón International Airport, near the city of Puerto Plata in the North of the Republic.", "Until August 2009, the possibility of starting military operations from the María Montez airport, in the city of Barahona in the Southwest of the country and from the Punta Cana airport in the extreme east is under study.It keeps the following fixed-wing aircraft in operation: 8 Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano, 3 CASA C-212-400 transport; 6 T35B Pilot training; as well as around 25 helicopters such as Bell 206, Bell UH-1 Iroquois, Bell OH-58 Kiowa, Eurocopter Dauphin, OH-6 Cayuse and Sikorsky S-300." ], [ "Specialized Security Corps", "The Specialized Security Corps are military security agencies dependent on the Ministry of Defense and they are made up of military and civilian personnel specialized in their different areas of function.", "Overall their duty is to support state institutions, defend national interests in peace and war, and as force multiplers of the Armed Forces as well as the National Police.", "Antiterrorism Command of the Dominican Armed ForcesNational Department of Investigations (DNI)Airport Security and Civil Aviation Special Forces (CESAC)Specialized Corps of Metro and Cable Car Railway Security (CESMET)Specialized Corps of Tourist Security (CESTUR)Specialized Corps of Fuel Control (CECCOM)Task Force Ciudad Tranquila (FT-CIUTRAN)Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP)Presidential Security Corps (CUSEP)Specialized Border Security Corps (CESFRONT)National Special Corps of Environmental and Parks Protection (SENPA) Military and Police Commission of the Ministry of Public Works and Communications (COMIPOL-MOPC)" ], [ "See also", "List of wars involving the Dominican RepublicHistory of the Dominican RepublicDominican National Police" ], [ "References", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foreign relations of the Dominican Republic''' are the Dominican Republic's relations with other governments.The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States and with the other states of the Inter-American system.", "It has accredited diplomatic missions in most Western Hemisphere countries and in principal European capitals." ], [ "History", "The island nation of the Dominican Republic maintains very limited relations with most of the countries of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.", "It concentrated its diplomatic activities in four critical arenas: the circum-Caribbean, Latin America, the United States, and Western Europe (mainly West Germany, Spain, and France)." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which the Dominican Republic maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate12345678910–111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243—4445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129–130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes30 December 1960, 10 October 1976 and 24 September 2007* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.15 December 1960 and 4 October 1976* Morocco has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Rabat.9 May 2002* South Africa is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its high commission in Kingston, Jamaica.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Pretoria.===Americas=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes1925* Argentina has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Buenos Aires.21 April 1911* Brazil has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.22 April 1954See Canada-Dominican Republic relations* Canada has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Ottawa and two consulates-general in Montreal and Toronto.1922See Chile-Dominican Republic relations* Chile has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Santiago.5 April 1904, broken 26 June 1959, restored 16 April 1998See Cuba-Dominican Republic relationsOn 26 June 1959, Cuba broke diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic, citing, among other things, the latter's protection of \"Batista war criminals,\" the sacking of the Cuban Embassy in Ciudad Trujillo, the preparation of a \"counter-revolutionary force of 25,000 men\" aimed against Cuba, insults against Cuba by the government-controlled press and radio and, especially, attacks by the Dominican Air Force on its own defenseless civilian population and the \"torture and assassination of prisoners\".", "The Dominican Republic and Cuba recently established consular relations, and there is contact in fields such as commerce, culture, and sports.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Havana.19 October 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 1970.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.26 July 1867See Dominican Republic–Haiti relations* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Port-au-Prince and consulates-general in Anse-à-Pitres and Ouanaminthe and a consulate in Belladère.", "* Haiti has an embassy in Santo Domingo and consulates-general in Dajabón, Higüey, Santa Cruz de Barhona and Santiago de los Caballeros.18 September 1946* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Tegucigalpa.", "* Honduras has an embassy in Santo Domingo.4 December 1964* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Kingston.", "* Jamaica has an embassy in Santo Domingo.11 July 1929See Dominican Republic–Mexico relationsDiplomatic relations between the Dominican Republic and Mexico were established on 11 July 1929.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "(territory of the United States)\|The Dominican Republic has very strong ties and relations with Puerto Rico, albeit not formal ones.", "Although a United States Commonwealth, Puerto Rico is the Dominican Republic's largest trading partner.", "While relations between the islands have had difficulties, mainly due to the huge exodus of illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic due to the nation's history of economic woes, the islands still, with the assistance of the United States Coast Guard and the Dominican Navy have worked hard to reduce the number of Dominicans crossing the Mona Passage in recent years.", "Puerto Rico is home to an estimated 485,000 Dominicans, and the Dominican Republic maintains consulates in the cities of San Juan and Mayagüez.May 1968See Dominican Republic-Trinidad and Tobago relations* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Port-of-Spain.", "* Trinidad and Tobago is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its high commission in Kingston, Jamaica.26 March 1884, broken 26 August 1960 - 6 January 1962See Dominican Republic–United States relationsThe Dominican Republic's standing as the largest Caribbean economy, second-largest country in terms of population and land mass, with large bilateral trade with the United States, and its proximity to the United States and other smaller Caribbean nations make the Dominican Republic an important partner in hemispheric affairs.", "The Embassy estimates that 100,000 U.S. citizens live in the Dominican Republic; many are dual nationals.", "An important element of the relationship between the two countries is the fact that more than 1 million individuals of Dominican origin reside in the United States, most of them in the metropolitan Northeast and some in Florida.U.S.", "relations with the Dominican Republic are excellent.", "The Dominican Government has been supportive of many U.S. initiatives in the United Nations and related agencies.", "The two governments cooperate in the fight against the traffic in illegal substances.", "The Dominican Republic has worked closely with U.S. law enforcement officials on issues such as the extradition of fugitives and measures to hinder illegal migration.The United States supports efforts to improve Dominican competitiveness, to attract foreign private investment, to fight corruption, and to modernize the tax system.", "Bilateral trade is important to both countries.", "U.S. firms, mostly manufacturers of apparel, footwear, and light electronics, as well as U.S. energy companies, account for much of the foreign private investment in the Dominican Republic.Exports from the United States, including those from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, to the Dominican Republic in 2005 totaled $5.3 billion, up 11% from the previous year.", "The Dominican Republic exported $4.5 billion to the United States in 2006, equaling some 75% of its export revenues.", "The Dominican Republic is the 47th-largest commercial partner of the U.S.", "The U.S. Embassy works closely with U.S. business firms and Dominican trade groups, both of which can take advantage of the new opportunities in this growing market.", "At the same time, the embassy is working with the Dominican Government to resolve a range of ongoing commercial and investment disputes.The Embassy counsels U.S. firms through its Country Commercial Guide and informally via meetings with business persons planning to invest or already investing in the Dominican Republic.", "This is a challenging business environment for U.S. firms, especially for medium to smaller sized businesses.The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) mission is focused on improving access of underserved populations to quality health care and combating HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis; promoting economic growth through policy reform, support for CAFTA-DR implementation, and technical assistance to small producers and tourism groups; environmental protection and policy reform initiatives; improved access to quality primary, public education and assistance to at-risk youth; a model rural electrification program; and improving participation in democratic processes, while strengthening the judiciary and combating corruption across all sectors.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York City, San Juan and Mayagüez.", "* United States has an embassy in Santo Domingo.27 November 1925See Dominican Republic–Uruguay relations* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Santo Domingo.31 March 1936 and 12 January 1945-Joint CommuniqueThe Dominican Republic and Venezuela have kept a very close relationship throughout the early 2000s.", "Currently, Venezuela is the biggest seller of oil to the Dominican Republic.", "In 2003, Venezuela was selling to the Dominican Republic approximately 110,000 barrels of oil per day, making for more than 75% of the daily oil consumption in the country, including cars, factories, and electrical plants.", "Today, the Dominican Republic gets around 50,000 barrels of oil a day from Venezuela under the Petrocaribe agreement, which includes most of the Caribbean countries.Due to the Dominican economy, the country cannot afford all this oil through cash, so to pay Venezuela for the oil, the Dominican Government makes payments not only in cash, but also by exporting goods like black beans to Venezuela and other things like selling bonds.", "The Dominican Government has to export so many beans to Venezuela, Over 10,000 tons, that it had to start to import some beans from foreign countries to provide the population with beans.In January 2015, the Dominican Government raised almost 2 billion dollars to pay off part of the debt they owed to Venezuela.", "The Dominican Republic currently represents a 1.5 billion dollar year revenue to Venezuela just in the oil business itself, which is the reason why the Dominican Republic and Venezuela government have such a strong connection now that both countries are getting what they need from each other.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Santo Domingo.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes1 May 2018See China–Dominican Republic relations and Dominican Republic–Taiwan relationsThe Dominican Republic used to keep official relations with Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC).", "On 1 May 2018, the Dominican Republic's government announced that diplomatic relations with Taiwan is severed and diplomatic ties with People's Republic of China is established, and recognize Taiwan as an \"inalienable part of Chinese territory\".", "* China has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Beijing.4 May 1999See Dominican Republic–India relations* India has an honorary consulate in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic maintains an embassy in New Delhi.11 July 1955Israel had provided aid and technical assistance and maintained some commercial, cultural, and diplomatic ties; in return, the Israelis often counted on the Dominican Republic to support their positions in international fora.", "* Israel has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Tel Aviv.6 July 1946* Philippines is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Dominican Republic is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in New Delhi, India.6 June 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Dominican Republic began on 6 June 1962.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Seoul.", "28 November 1951See Dominican Republic–Turkey relationsTurkey has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "Trade volume between the two countries was US$132.7 million in 2019 (Dominican exports/imports: 14.1/118.6 million USD).7 July 2005* Vietnam is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Hanoi.===Europe=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes10 April 1891* Belgium is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Kingston, Jamaica.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Brussels and a consulate-general in Antwerp.22 September 1850* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseilles and Pointe-à-Pitre.", "* France has an embassy in Santo Domingo.30 January 1885* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Santo Domingo.22 March 1854* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Rome and consulates-general in Genoa and Milan.", "* Italy has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* There are around 300,000 people of Italian descent living in the Dominican Republic (see Italian Dominicans)1881* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See.", "* Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Santo Domingo.30 November 1853* Dominican Republic has an embassy in The Hague and consulates-general in Amsterdam, Willemstad and Philipsburg, Sint Maarten.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Santo Domingo.21 July 1984* Dominican Republic is accredited to Romania from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Romania is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Bogotá, Colombia, and has an honorary consulate in Santo Domingo.8 March 1945, broken 3 January 1955, restored 18 March 1991* Russia is accredited to the Dominican Republic from its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Moscow.18 February 1855See Dominican Republic–Spain relations* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Madrid, consulates-general in Barcelona and Santa Cruz de Tenerife and consulates in Seville and Valencia.", "* Spain has an embassy in Santo Domingo.28 March 1927See Dominican Republic-Switzerland relations* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Bern and a consulate-general in Zürich.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Santo Domingo.5 March 1850The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize the Dominican Republic.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Santo Domingo.===Multilateral relations===The Dominican Republic is a founding member of the United Nations and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, International Labour Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, and International Civil Aviation Organization.", "It also is a member of the OAS, World Trade Organization, World Health Organization, World Customs Organization the Inter-American Development Bank, Central American Integration System, and ACP Group." ], [ "See also", "List of diplomatic missions in the Dominican RepublicList of diplomatic missions of the Dominican Republic" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dominican Ministry of Foreign Affairs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disease" ], [ "Introduction", "Scanning electron micrograph of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', a species of pathogenic bacteria that cause tuberculosisA '''disease''' is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury.", "Diseases are often known to be '''medical conditions''' that are associated with specific signs and symptoms.", "A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions.", "For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and autoimmune disorders.In humans, ''disease'' is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person affected, or similar problems for those in contact with the person.", "In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories.", "Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life.Death due to disease is called death by natural causes.", "There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases (including both genetic and non-genetic hereditary diseases), and physiological diseases.", "Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable versus non-communicable diseases.", "The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease (blood flow obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections.", "In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most sickness overall are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety.The study of disease is called ''pathology'', which includes the study of ''etiology'', or cause." ], [ "Terminology", "=== Concepts ===In many cases, terms such as ''disease'', ''disorder'', ''morbidity'', ''sickness'' and ''illness'' are used interchangeably; however, there are situations when specific terms are considered preferable.", ";Disease:The term ''disease'' broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the body.", "For this reason, diseases are associated with the dysfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes.", "Commonly, the term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and aberrant proteins known as prions.", "An infection or colonization that does not and will not produce clinically evident impairment of normal functioning, such as the presence of the normal bacteria and yeasts in the gut, or of a passenger virus, is not considered a disease.", "By contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is usually considered a disease.", "Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, and genetic disease.", ";Acquired disease:An acquired disease is one that began at some point during one's lifetime, as opposed to disease that was already present at birth, which is congenital disease.", "''Acquired'' sounds like it could mean \"caught via contagion\", but it simply means acquired sometime after birth.", "It also sounds like it could imply secondary disease, but acquired disease can be primary disease.", ";Acute disease:An acute disease is one of a short-term nature (acute); the term sometimes also connotes a fulminant nature;Chronic condition or chronic disease:A chronic disease is one that persists over time, often for at least six months, but may also include illnesses that are expected to last for the entirety of one's natural life.", ";Congenital disorder or congenital disease: A congenital disorder is one that is present at birth.", "It is often a genetic disease or disorder and can be inherited.", "It can also be the result of a vertically transmitted infection from the mother, such as HIV/AIDS.", ";Genetic disease:A genetic disorder or disease is caused by one or more genetic mutations.", "It is often inherited, but some mutations are random and de novo.", ";Hereditary or inherited disease:A hereditary disease is a type of genetic disease caused by genetic mutations that are hereditary (and can run in families);Iatrogenic disease:An iatrogenic disease or condition is one that is caused by medical intervention, whether as a side effect of a treatment or as an inadvertent outcome.", ";Idiopathic disease:An idiopathic disease has an unknown cause or source.", "As medical science has advanced, many diseases with entirely unknown causes have had some aspects of their sources explained and therefore shed their idiopathic status.", "For example, when germs were discovered, it became known that they were a cause of infection, but particular germs and diseases had not been linked.", "In another example, it is known that autoimmunity is the cause of some forms of diabetes mellitus type 1, even though the particular molecular pathways by which it works are not yet understood.", "It is also common to know certain factors are associated with certain diseases; however, association does not necessarily imply causality.", "For example, a third factor might be causing both the disease, and the associated phenomenon.", ";Incurable disease:A disease that cannot be cured.", "Incurable diseases are not necessarily terminal diseases, and sometimes a disease's symptoms can be treated sufficiently for the disease to have little or no impact on quality of life.", ";Primary disease:A primary disease is a disease that is due to a root cause of illness, as opposed to secondary disease, which is a sequela, or complication that is caused by the primary disease.", "For example, a common cold is a primary disease, where rhinitis is a possible secondary disease, or sequela.", "A doctor must determine what primary disease, a cold or bacterial infection, is causing a patient's secondary rhinitis when deciding whether or not to prescribe antibiotics.", ";Secondary disease:A secondary disease is a disease that is a sequela or complication of a prior, causal disease, which is referred to as the primary disease or simply the underlying cause (root cause).", "For example, a bacterial infection can be primary, wherein a healthy person is exposed to bacteria and becomes infected, or it can be secondary to a primary cause, that predisposes the body to infection.", "For example, a primary viral infection that weakens the immune system could lead to a secondary bacterial infection.", "Similarly, a primary burn that creates an open wound could provide an entry point for bacteria, and lead to a secondary bacterial infection.", ";Terminal disease:A terminal disease is one that is expected to have the inevitable result of death.", "Previously, AIDS was a terminal disease; it is now incurable, but can be managed indefinitely using medications.", ";Illness:The terms ''illness'' and ''sickness'' are both generally used as synonyms for ''disease''; however, the term ''illness'' is occasionally used to refer specifically to the patient's personal experience of their disease.", "In this model, it is possible for a person to have a disease without being ill (to have an objectively definable, but asymptomatic, medical condition, such as a subclinical infection, or to have a clinically apparent physical impairment but not feel sick or distressed by it), and to be ''ill'' without being ''diseased'' (such as when a person perceives a normal experience as a medical condition, or medicalizes a non-disease situation in their life – for example, a person who feels unwell as a result of embarrassment, and who interprets those feelings as sickness rather than normal emotions).", "Symptoms of illness are often not directly the result of infection, but a collection of evolved responses – sickness behavior by the body – that helps clear infection and promote recovery.", "Such aspects of illness can include lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and inability to concentrate.", ";:A disorder is a functional abnormality or disturbance.", "Medical disorders can be categorized into mental disorders, physical disorders, genetic disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, and functional disorders.", "The term ''disorder'' is often considered more value-neutral and less stigmatizing than the terms ''disease'' or ''illness'', and therefore is preferred terminology in some circumstances.", "In mental health, the term ''mental disorder'' is used as a way of acknowledging the complex interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors in psychiatric conditions; however, the term ''disorder'' is also used in many other areas of medicine, primarily to identify physical disorders that are not caused by infectious organisms, such as metabolic disorders.", ";Medical condition or health condition:A ''medical condition'' or ''health condition'' is a broad concept that includes all diseases, lesions, disorders, or nonpathologic condition that normally receives medical treatment, such as pregnancy or childbirth.", "While the term ''medical condition'' generally includes mental illnesses, in some contexts the term is used specifically to denote any illness, injury, or disease ''except'' for mental illnesses.", "The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (''DSM''), the widely used psychiatric manual that defines all mental disorders, uses the term ''general medical condition'' to refer to all diseases, illnesses, and injuries except for mental disorders.", "This usage is also commonly seen in the psychiatric literature.", "Some health insurance policies also define a ''medical condition'' as any illness, injury, or disease except for psychiatric illnesses.", ":As it is more value-neutral than terms like ''disease'', the term ''medical condition'' is sometimes preferred by people with health issues that they do not consider deleterious.", "However, by emphasizing the medical nature of the condition, this term is sometimes rejected, such as by proponents of the autism rights movement.", ":The term ''medical condition'' is also a synonym for ''medical state'', in which case it describes an individual patient's current state from a medical standpoint.", "This usage appears in statements that describe a patient as being ''in critical condition'', for example.", ";:'''Morbidity''' () is a diseased state, disability, or poor health due to any cause.", "The term may refer to the existence of any form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient.", "Among severely ill patients, the level of morbidity is often measured by ICU scoring systems.", "Comorbidity, or co-existing disease, is the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions, such as schizophrenia and substance abuse.", ":In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term ''morbidity'' (also ''morbidity rate'' or ''morbidity frequency'') can refer to either the incidence rate, the prevalence of a disease or medical condition, or the percentage of people who experience a given condition within a given timeframe (e.g., 20% of people will get influenza in a year).", "This measure of sickness is contrasted with the mortality rate of a condition, which is the proportion of people dying during a given time interval.", "Morbidity rates are used in actuarial professions, such as health insurance, life insurance, and long-term care insurance, to determine the premiums charged to customers.", "Morbidity rates help insurers predict the likelihood that an insured will contract or develop any number of specified diseases.", "; Pathosis or pathology:''Pathosis'' (plural ''pathoses'') is synonymous with ''disease''.", "The word ''pathology'' also has this sense, in which it is commonly used by physicians in the medical literature, although some editors prefer to reserve ''pathology'' to its other senses.", "Sometimes a slight connotative shade causes preference for ''pathology'' or ''pathosis'' implying \"some as yet poorly analyzed pathophysiologic process\" rather than ''disease'' implying \"a specific disease entity as defined by diagnostic criteria being already met\".", "This is hard to quantify denotatively, but it explains why cognitive synonymy is not invariable.", ";Syndrome:A ''syndrome'' is the association of several signs and symptoms, or other characteristics that often occur together, regardless of whether the cause is known.", "Some syndromes such as Down syndrome are known to have only one cause (an extra chromosome at birth).", "Others such as Parkinsonian syndrome are known to have multiple possible causes.", "Acute coronary syndrome, for example, is not a single disease itself but is rather the manifestation of any of several diseases including myocardial infarction secondary to coronary artery disease.", "In yet other syndromes, however, the cause is unknown.", "A familiar syndrome name often remains in use even after an underlying cause has been found or when there are a number of different possible primary causes.", "Examples of the first-mentioned type are that Turner syndrome and DiGeorge syndrome are still often called by the \"syndrome\" name despite that they can also be viewed as disease entities and not solely as sets of signs and symptoms.", ";Predisease:'''Predisease''' is a subclinical or prodromal vanguard of a disease.", "Prediabetes and prehypertension are common examples.", "The nosology or epistemology of predisease is contentious, though, because there is seldom a bright line differentiating a legitimate concern for subclinical or premonitory status and the conflict of interest–driven over-medicalization (e.g., by pharmaceutical manufacturers) or de-medicalization (e.g., by medical and disability insurers).", "Identifying legitimate predisease can result in useful preventive measures, such as motivating the person to get a healthy amount of physical exercise, but labeling a healthy person with an unfounded notion of predisease can result in overtreatment, such as taking drugs that only help people with severe disease or paying for treatments with a poor benefit–cost ratio.", ":One review proposed three criteria for predisease::* a high risk for progression to disease making one \"far more likely to develop\" it than others are- for example, a pre-cancer will almost certainly turn into cancer over time:* actionability for risk reduction – for example, removal of the precancerous tissue prevents it from turning into a potentially deadly cancer:* benefit that outweighs the harm of any interventions taken – removing the precancerous tissue prevents cancer, and thus prevents a potential death from cancer.=== Types by body system ===;Mental:Mental illness is a broad, generic label for a category of illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction or impairment.", "Specific illnesses known as mental illnesses include major depression, generalized anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, to name a few.", "Mental illness can be of biological (e.g., anatomical, chemical, or genetic) or psychological (e.g., trauma or conflict) origin.", "It can impair the affected person's ability to work or study and can harm interpersonal relationships.", "The term insanity is used technically as a legal term.", ";Organic:An organic disease is one caused by a physical or physiological change to some tissue or organ of the body.", "The term sometimes excludes infections.", "It is commonly used in contrast with mental disorders.", "It includes emotional and behavioral disorders if they are due to changes to the physical structures or functioning of the body, such as after a stroke or a traumatic brain injury, but not if they are due to psychosocial issues.=== Stages ===In an infectious disease, the incubation period is the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms.", "The latency period is the time between infection and the ability of the disease to spread to another person, which may precede, follow, or be simultaneous with the appearance of symptoms.", "Some viruses also exhibit a dormant phase, called viral latency, in which the virus hides in the body in an inactive state.", "For example, varicella zoster virus causes chickenpox in the acute phase; after recovery from chickenpox, the virus may remain dormant in nerve cells for many years, and later cause herpes zoster (shingles).", ";Acute disease:An acute disease is a short-lived disease, like the common cold.", ";Chronic disease:A chronic disease is one that lasts for a long time, usually at least six months.", "During that time, it may be constantly present, or it may go into remission and periodically relapse.", "A chronic disease may be stable (does not get any worse) or it may be progressive (gets worse over time).", "Some chronic diseases can be permanently cured.", "Most chronic diseases can be beneficially treated, even if they cannot be permanently cured.", ";Clinical disease:One that has clinical consequences; in other words, the stage of the disease that produces the characteristic signs and symptoms of that disease.", "AIDS is the clinical disease stage of HIV infection.", ";Cure:A cure is the end of a medical condition or a treatment that is very likely to end it, while remission refers to the disappearance, possibly temporarily, of symptoms.", "Complete remission is the best possible outcome for incurable diseases.", ";Flare-up:A flare-up can refer to either the recurrence of symptoms or an onset of more severe symptoms.", ";Progressive disease:Progressive disease is a disease whose typical natural course is the worsening of the disease until death, serious debility, or organ failure occurs.", "Slowly progressive diseases are also chronic diseases; many are also degenerative diseases.", "The opposite of progressive disease is ''stable disease'' or ''static disease'': a medical condition that exists, but does not get better or worse.", ";:A refractory disease is a disease that resists treatment, especially an individual case that resists treatment more than is normal for the specific disease in question.", ";Subclinical disease:Also called ''silent disease'', ''silent stage'', or ''asymptomatic disease''.", "This is a stage in some diseases before the symptoms are first noted.", ";Terminal phase:If a person will die soon from a disease, regardless of whether that disease typically causes death, then the stage between the earlier disease process and active dying is the terminal phase.", ";Recovery:Recovery can refer to the repairing of physical processes (tissues, organs etc.)", "and the resumption of healthy functioning after damage causing processes have been cured.=== Extent ===This rash only affects one part of the body, so it is a localized disease.", ";Localized disease:A localized disease is one that affects only one part of the body, such as athlete's foot or an eye infection.", ";Disseminated disease:A disseminated disease has spread to other parts; with cancer, this is usually called metastatic disease.", ";Systemic disease:A systemic disease is a disease that affects the entire body, such as influenza or high blood pressure." ], [ "Classification", "Diseases may be classified by cause, pathogenesis (mechanism by which the disease is caused), or by symptoms.", "Alternatively, diseases may be classified according to the organ system involved, though this is often complicated since many diseases affect more than one organ.A chief difficulty in nosology is that diseases often cannot be defined and classified clearly, especially when cause or pathogenesis are unknown.", "Thus diagnostic terms often only reflect a symptom or set of symptoms (syndrome).Classical classification of human disease derives from the observational correlation between pathological analysis and clinical syndromes.", "Today it is preferred to classify them by their cause if it is known.The most known and used classification of diseases is the World Health Organization's ICD.", "This is periodically updated.", "Currently, the last publication is the ICD-11." ], [ "Causes", "Diseases can be caused by any number of factors and may be acquired or congenital.", "Microorganisms, genetics, the environment or a combination of these can contribute to a diseased state.", "Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious.", "The microorganisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi.", "Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g.", "by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc.", "Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases.", "In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes.Some diseases, such as most (but not all) forms of cancer, heart disease, and mental disorders, are non-infectious diseases.", "Many non-infectious diseases have a partly or completely genetic basis (see genetic disorder) and may thus be transmitted from one generation to another.Social determinants of health are the social conditions in which people live that determine their health.", "Illnesses are generally related to social, economic, political, and environmental circumstances.", "Social determinants of health have been recognized by several health organizations such as the Public Health Agency of Canada and the World Health Organization to greatly influence collective and personal well-being.", "The World Health Organization's Social Determinants Council also recognizes Social determinants of health in poverty.When the cause of a disease is poorly understood, societies tend to mythologize the disease or use it as a metaphor or symbol of whatever that culture considers evil.", "For example, until the bacterial cause of tuberculosis was discovered in 1882, experts variously ascribed the disease to heredity, a sedentary lifestyle, depressed mood, and overindulgence in sex, rich food, or alcohol, all of which were social ills at the time.When a disease is caused by a pathogenic organism (e.g., when malaria is caused by ''Plasmodium''), one should not confuse the pathogen (the cause of the disease) with disease itself.", "For example, West Nile virus (the pathogen) causes West Nile fever (the disease).", "The misuse of basic definitions in epidemiology is frequent in scientific publications.=== Types of causes ===Regular physical activity, such as riding a bicycle or walking, reduces the risk of lifestyle diseases.", ";Airborne: An airborne disease is any disease that is caused by pathogens and transmitted through the air.", ";Foodborne: Foodborne illness or food poisoning is any illness resulting from the consumption of food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites.", ";Infectious: Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible diseases or communicable diseases, comprise clinically evident illness (i.e., characteristic medical signs or symptoms of disease) resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism.", "Included in this category are ''contagious diseases'' – an infection, such as influenza or the common cold, that commonly spreads from one person to another – and ''communicable diseases'' – a disease that can spread from one person to another, but does not necessarily spread through everyday contact.", ";Lifestyle: A lifestyle disease is any disease that appears to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer, especially if the risk factors include behavioral choices like a sedentary lifestyle or a diet high in unhealthful foods such as refined carbohydrates, trans fats, or alcoholic beverages.", ";Non-communicable: A non-communicable disease is a medical condition or disease that is non-transmissible.", "Non-communicable diseases cannot be spread directly from one person to another.", "Heart disease and cancer are examples of non-communicable diseases in humans." ], [ "Prevention", "Many diseases and disorders can be prevented through a variety of means.", "These include sanitation, proper nutrition, adequate exercise, vaccinations and other self-care and public health measures, ." ], [ "Treatments", "Medical therapies or treatments are efforts to cure or improve a disease or other health problems.", "In the medical field, therapy is synonymous with the word ''treatment''.", "Among psychologists, the term may refer specifically to psychotherapy or \"talk therapy\".", "Common treatments include medications, surgery, medical devices, and self-care.", "Treatments may be provided by an organized health care system, or informally, by the patient or family members.Preventive healthcare is a way to avoid an injury, sickness, or disease in the first place.", "A treatment or cure is applied after a medical problem has already started.", "A treatment attempts to improve or remove a problem, but treatments may not produce permanent cures, especially in chronic diseases.", "Cures are a subset of treatments that reverse diseases completely or end medical problems permanently.", "Many diseases that cannot be completely cured are still treatable.", "Pain management (also called pain medicine) is that branch of medicine employing an interdisciplinary approach to the relief of pain and improvement in the quality of life of those living with pain.Treatment for medical emergencies must be provided promptly, often through an emergency department or, in less critical situations, through an urgent care facility." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Epidemiology is the study of the factors that cause or encourage diseases.", "Some diseases are more common in certain geographic areas, among people with certain genetic or socioeconomic characteristics, or at different times of the year.Epidemiology is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for diseases.", "In the study of communicable and non-communicable diseases, the work of epidemiologists ranges from outbreak investigation to study design, data collection, and analysis including the development of statistical models to test hypotheses and the documentation of results for submission to peer-reviewed journals.", "Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic.", "Epidemiologists rely on a number of other scientific disciplines such as biology (to better understand disease processes), biostatistics (the current raw information available), Geographic Information Science (to store data and map disease patterns) and social science disciplines (to better understand proximate and distal risk factors).", "Epidemiology can help identify causes as well as guide prevention efforts.In studying diseases, epidemiology faces the challenge of defining them.", "Especially for poorly understood diseases, different groups might use significantly different definitions.", "Without an agreed-on definition, different researchers may report different numbers of cases and characteristics of the disease.Some morbidity databases are compiled with data supplied by states and territories health authorities, at national levels or larger scale (such as European Hospital Morbidity Database (HMDB)) which may contain hospital discharge data by detailed diagnosis, age and sex.", "The European HMDB data was submitted by European countries to the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.=== Burdens of disease ===Disease burden is the impact of a health problem in an area measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators.There are several measures used to quantify the burden imposed by diseases on people.", "The years of potential life lost (YPLL) is a simple estimate of the number of years that a person's life was shortened due to a disease.", "For example, if a person dies at the age of 65 from a disease, and would probably have lived until age 80 without that disease, then that disease has caused a loss of 15 years of potential life.", "YPLL measurements do not account for how disabled a person is before dying, so the measurement treats a person who dies suddenly and a person who died at the same age after decades of illness as equivalent.", "In 2004, the World Health Organization calculated that 932 million years of potential life were lost to premature death.The quality-adjusted life year (QALY) and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) metrics are similar but take into account whether the person was healthy after diagnosis.", "In addition to the number of years lost due to premature death, these measurements add part of the years lost to being sick.", "Unlike YPLL, these measurements show the burden imposed on people who are very sick, but who live a normal lifespan.", "A disease that has high morbidity, but low mortality, has a high DALY and a low YPLL.", "In 2004, the World Health Organization calculated that 1.5 billion disability-adjusted life years were lost to disease and injury.", "In the developed world, heart disease and stroke cause the most loss of life, but neuropsychiatric conditions like major depressive disorder cause the most years lost to being sick.", "Disease category Percent of all YPLLs lost, worldwide Percent of all DALYs lost, worldwide Percent of all YPLLs lost, Europe Percent of all DALYs lost, Europe Percent of all YPLLs lost, US and Canada Percent of all DALYs lost, US and Canada Infectious and parasitic diseases, especially lower respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria 37% 26% 9% 6% 5% 3% Neuropsychiatric conditions, e.g.", "depression 2% 13% 3% 19% 5% 28% Injuries, especially motor vehicle accidents 14% 12% 18% 13% 18% 10% Cardiovascular diseases, principally heart attacks and stroke 14% 10% 35% 23% 26% 14% Premature birth and other perinatal deaths 11% 8% 4% 2% 3% 2% Cancer 8% 5% 19% 11% 25% 13%" ], [ "Society and culture", "Obesity was a status symbol in Renaissance culture: \"The Tuscan General Alessandro del Borro\", attributed to Andrea Sacchi, 1645.It is now generally regarded as a disease.How a society responds to diseases is the subject of medical sociology.A condition may be considered a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others.", "For example, obesity can represent wealth and abundance, and is a status symbol in famine-prone areas and some places hard-hit by HIV/AIDS.", "Epilepsy is considered a sign of spiritual gifts among the Hmong people.Sickness confers the social legitimization of certain benefits, such as illness benefits, work avoidance, and being looked after by others.", "The person who is sick takes on a social role called the sick role.", "A person who responds to a dreaded disease, such as cancer, in a culturally acceptable fashion may be publicly and privately honored with higher social status.", "In return for these benefits, the sick person is obligated to seek treatment and work to become well once more.", "As a comparison, consider pregnancy, which is not interpreted as a disease or sickness, even if the mother and baby may both benefit from medical care.Most religions grant exceptions from religious duties to people who are sick.", "For example, one whose life would be endangered by fasting on Yom Kippur or during Ramadan is exempted from the requirement, or even forbidden from participating.", "People who are sick are also exempted from social duties.", "For example, ill health is the only socially acceptable reason for an American to refuse an invitation to the White House.The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications.", "The controversial recognition of diseases such as repetitive stress injury (RSI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations, and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves.", "The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread.Lepers were people who were historically shunned because they had an infectious disease, and the term \"leper\" still evokes social stigma.", "Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomenon, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma.Social standing and economic status affect health.", "Diseases of poverty are diseases that are associated with poverty and low social status; diseases of affluence are diseases that are associated with high social and economic status.", "Which diseases are associated with which states vary according to time, place, and technology.", "Some diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, may be associated with both poverty (poor food choices) and affluence (long lifespans and sedentary lifestyles), through different mechanisms.", "The term ''lifestyle diseases'' describes diseases associated with longevity and that are more common among older people.", "For example, cancer is far more common in societies in which most members live until they reach the age of 80 than in societies in which most members die before they reach the age of 50.=== Language of disease ===An illness narrative is a way of organizing a medical experience into a coherent story that illustrates the sick individual's personal experience.People use metaphors to make sense of their experiences with disease.", "The metaphors move disease from an objective thing that exists to an affective experience.", "The most popular metaphors draw on military concepts: Disease is an enemy that must be feared, fought, battled, and routed.", "The patient or the healthcare provider is a warrior, rather than a passive victim or bystander.", "The agents of communicable diseases are invaders; non-communicable diseases constitute internal insurrection or civil war.", "Because the threat is urgent, perhaps a matter of life and death, unthinkably radical, even oppressive, measures are society's and the patient's moral duty as they courageously mobilize to struggle against destruction.", "The War on Cancer is an example of this metaphorical use of language.", "This language is empowering to some patients, but leaves others feeling like they are failures.Another class of metaphors describes the experience of illness as a journey: The person travels to or from a place of disease, and changes himself, discovers new information, or increases his experience along the way.", "He may travel \"on the road to recovery\" or make changes to \"get on the right track\" or choose \"pathways\".", "Some are explicitly immigration-themed: the patient has been exiled from the home territory of health to the land of the ill, changing identity and relationships in the process.", "This language is more common among British healthcare professionals than the language of physical aggression.Some metaphors are disease-specific.", "Slavery is a common metaphor for addictions: The alcoholic is enslaved by drink, and the smoker is captive to nicotine.", "Some cancer patients treat the loss of their hair from chemotherapy as a metonymy or metaphor for all the losses caused by the disease.Some diseases are used as metaphors for social ills: \"Cancer\" is a common description for anything that is endemic and destructive in society, such as poverty, injustice, or racism.", "AIDS was seen as a divine judgment for moral decadence, and only by purging itself from the \"pollution\" of the \"invader\" could society become healthy again.", "More recently, when AIDS seemed less threatening, this type of emotive language was applied to avian flu and type 2 diabetes mellitus.", "Authors in the 19th century commonly used tuberculosis as a symbol and a metaphor for transcendence.", "People with the disease were portrayed in literature as having risen above daily life to become ephemeral objects of spiritual or artistic achievement.", "In the 20th century, after its cause was better understood, the same disease became the emblem of poverty, squalor, and other social problems." ], [ "See also", "* Cryptogenic disease, a disease whose cause is currently unknown* Developmental disability, severe, lifelong disabilities attributable to mental or physical impairments* Environmental disease* Host–pathogen interaction* Lists of diseases* Mitochondrial disease* Philosophy of medicine* Plant pathology* Rare disease, a disease that affects very few people* Sociology of health and illness* Syndrome" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Man and Disease\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anne Hardy, David Bradley & Chris Dye (''In Our Time'', 15 December 2002)* CTD The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database is a scientific resource connecting chemicals, genes, and human diseases.", "* Free online health-risk assessment by Your Disease Risk at Washington University in St. Louis* Health Topics A–Z, fact sheets about many common diseases at the Centers for Disease Control* Health Topics, MedlinePlus descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles.", "* NLM Comprehensive database from the US National Library of Medicine* OMIM Comprehensive information on genes that cause disease at Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man* Report: ''The global burden of disease'' from the World Health Organization (WHO), 2004* ''The Merck Manual'' containing detailed description of most diseases" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dardanelles" ], [ "Introduction", "Map showing the location of the Dardanelles (yellow), relative to the Bosporus (red), the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, and the Black SeaView of the Dardanelles taken from the Landsat 7 satellite in September 2006.The body of water on the left is the Aegean Sea, while the one on the upper right is the Sea of Marmara.", "The Dardanelles is the tapered waterway running diagonally between the two seas, from the northeast to the southwest.", "The long, narrow upper peninsula on the northern shores of the strait is Gallipoli (), and constitutes the banks of the continent of Europe, while the lower peninsula is Troad () and constitutes the banks of the continent of Asia.", "The city of Çanakkale is visible along the shores of the lower peninsula, centered at the only point where a sharp outcropping juts into the otherwise-linear Dardanelles.The '''Dardanelles''' ( ; ; ), also known as the '''Strait of Gallipoli''' (after the Gallipoli peninsula) and in Classical Antiquity as the '''Hellespont''' ( ; ), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwestern Turkey that forms part of the continental boundary between Asia and Europe and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey.", "Together with the Bosporus, the Dardanelles forms the Turkish Straits.One of the world's narrowest straits used for international navigation, the Dardanelles connects the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean and Mediterranean seas while also allowing passage to the Black Sea by extension via the Bosporus.", "The Dardanelles is long and wide.", "It has an average depth of with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point abreast the city of Çanakkale.", "The first fixed crossing across the Dardanelles opened in 2022 with the completion of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge.Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli peninsula () are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along the Troad peninsula () are inhabited by the city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000." ], [ "Names", "The contemporary Turkish name , meaning ' Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from (, 'pottery') + (, 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye.The English name ''Dardanelles'' is an abbreviation of ''Strait of the Dardanelles''.", "During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait.", "These castles together were called the ''Dardanelles'', probably named after Dardanus, an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus, the mythical son of Zeus and Electra.", "The name comes from the Dardani in the Balkans, according to Papazoglu.The ancient Greek name () means \"Sea of Helle\", and was the ancient name of the narrow strait.", "It was variously named in classical literature , , and .", "It was so called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece." ], [ "Geography", "As a maritime waterway, the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia, and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara.", "The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosporus, while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean.", "Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia.The strait is located at approximately .===Present morphology===The strait is long, and wide, averaging deep with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu, abreast Çanakkale.", "There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction.The Dardanelles is unique in many respects.", "The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of a river.", "It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world.", "The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must wait at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles." ], [ "History", "As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today.", "It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine.", "Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I.===Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454)=======Greek and Persian history====Xerxes' alleged \"punishment\" of the HellespontThe ancient city of Troy was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War.", "Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway.", "The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively.Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius) had two pontoon bridges built across the width of the Hellespont at Abydos, in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece.", "This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy ''The Persians'' as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes.According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped.", "The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges.", "Xerxes is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water.Herodotus commented that this was a \"highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont\" but in no way atypical of Xerxes.", "(vii.35)Harpalus the engineer is said to have eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing the ships together with their bows facing the current and adding two additional anchors to each ship.", "From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology Helle, the daughter of Athamas, supposedly was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece.", "Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander, wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess Hero, but was ultimately drowned in a storm.====Byzantine history====The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period.Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region.", "At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through the customs office of the Dardanelles.", "Translation:... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished.", "Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ...", "The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize the entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ...", "Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians, have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine.", "– In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis.", "Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit.– All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving.Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks.===Ottoman era (1354–1922)===Belon's ObservationsThe Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during the period of the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Gallipoli in 1354.Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline.====Nineteenth century====Gaining control of, or guaranteed access to, the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century.", "During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia—supported by Great Britain in the Dardanelles Operation—blockaded the straits in 1807.In 1833, following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request.", "That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea.This treaty alarmed the Ottoman Empire, who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region.", "At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime.", "The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire.", "Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention.", "It remained technically in force into the 20th and 21st centuries.====World War I====1915 Landing of French troops in Moudros (Lemnos island) during the Gallipoli CampaignLanding at Gallipoli in April 1915Anzac CoveThe Sphinx overlooking Anzac CoveIn 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up the straits.", "In the Gallipoli campaign, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula.", "The campaign damaged the career of Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the (unsuccessful) use of Royal Navy sea power to force open the straits.", "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, subsequent founder of the Republic of Turkey, served as an Ottoman commander during the land campaign.The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them but, in minor actions two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields.", "The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul.", "Sir Ian Hamilton's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting.", "Total Allied deaths included 43,000 British, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders.", "Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000.Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations.", "The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed.===Turkish republican and modern eras (1923–present)===After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne, which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely.As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized the straits area over the following decade.", "Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936.That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states.During World War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations.", "Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war.In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers.", "The second proposal was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence.", "This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles.", "The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals.Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway.In more recent years, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry.", "Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits.The Dardanelles were closed in late February 2022 to all foreign warships at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in accordance with the Montreux Convention." ], [ "Crossings", "The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.=== Maritime ===The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities.The strait also experiences significant amounts of commercial shipping traffic.=== Land ===The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge joins Lapseki, a district of Çanakkale, on the Asian side and Sütlüce, a village of the Gelibolu district, on the European side.", "It is part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network.", "Work on the bridge began in March 2017, and it was opened on March 18, 2022.=== Subsea ===2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul.", "They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce.", "The first, situated in the northeast quarter portion of the strait, was energised in April 2015 and provides 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far through the sea.", "The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, was still under construction in June 2016 and will provide similar capabilities to the first line.Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait.", "A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into the Mediterranean, named MedNautilus and landing at Athens, Sicily and elsewhere." ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Byzantine Dardanelles Customs Law.JPG\|Marble plate with 6th century AD Byzantine law regulating payment of customs in the DardanellesFile:Dardanelles and Gulf of Saros by Piri Reis.jpg\|Historic map of the Dardanelles by Piri ReisFile:Anzac Beach 1915.jpg\|The ANZACs at Gallipoli in 1915File:Graphic map of the Dardanelles.JPG\|Map of the Dardanelles drawn by G. F. Morrell, 1915, showing the Gallipoli peninsula and the west coast of Turkey, as well as the location of front line troops and landings during the Gallipoli CampaignFile:Dardanellen 1.JPG\|A view of the Dardanelles from Gallipoli peninsulaFile:Chanakkale Turkey.jpg\|A view of Çanakkale from the DardanellesFile:ChanakkaleFerry.jpg\|Ferry line across the Dardanelles in ÇanakkaleFile:Havadan cnk.jpg\|Aerial view of the city of ÇanakkaleFile:Dardanelles 2021.jpg\|Dardanelles in 2021File:Narrowest section of the Strait of Çanakkale.jpg\|The narrowest section of the Dardanelles" ], [ "See also", "* Action of 26 June 1656* Battle of the Dardanelles (disambiguation)* Dardanelles Commission* List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Pictures of the city of Çanakkale* Map of Hellespont* Livius.org: Hellespont * Monuments and memorials of the Gallipoli campaign along the Dardanelles* Old Maps of the Dardanelles, Eran Laor Cartographic collection, The National Library of Israel" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Daugava" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Daugava''' (; ) or '''Western Dvina''' (; ; ; ) is a large river rising in the Valdai Hills of Russia that flows through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the Baltic Sea.", "The Daugava rises close to the source of the Volga.", "It is in length, of which are in Latvia and in Russia.", "It is a westward-flowing river, tracing out a great south-bending curve as it passes through northern Belarus.Latvia's capital, Riga, bridges the river's estuary four times.", "Built on both riverbanks, the city centre is from the river's mouth and is a significant port." ], [ "Etymology", "Daugava flowing through Riga in LatviaAccording to Max Vasmer's ''Etymological Dictionary'', the toponym Dvina cannot stem from a Uralic language; instead, it possibly comes from an Indo-European word which used to mean ''river'' or ''stream''.", "The name ''Dvina'' resembles strongly ''Danuvius'' which itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''dānu'', meaning \"large river\".The Finno-Ugric names (Livonian), (Estonian), and (Finnish) all stem from Proto-Finnic ''väin'', meaning \"a large, peacefully rolling river\"." ], [ "Geography", "The total catchment area of the river is , of which are in Belarus.===Tributaries ===The following rivers are tributaries to the river Daugava (from source to mouth):Left: Mezha, Kasplya, Dysna, Laucesa, Berezauka, Eglona, Pikstere, ŅegaRight: Usvyacha, Palata, Drysa, Dubna, Aiviekste, Pērse, Dīvaja, Ogre" ], [ "History", "The Swedish army bombarding the fortress of Dünamünde at the Daugava's estuary in LatviaHumans have settled at the mouth of the Daugava and along the shores of the Gulf of Riga for millennia, initially participating in a hunter-gatherer economy and utilizing the waters of the Daugava estuary for fishing and gathering.", "Beginning around the sixth century CE, Viking explorers crossed the Baltic Sea and entered the Daugava River, navigating upriver into the Baltic interior.In medieval times, the Daugava was part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, an important route for the transport of furs from the north and of Byzantine silver from the south.", "The Riga area, inhabited by the Finnic-speaking Livs, became a key location of settlement and defence of the mouth of the Daugava at least as early as the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the now destroyed fort at Torņakalns on the west bank of the Daugava in present-day Riga.", "Since the Late Middle Ages, the western part of the Daugava basin has come under the rule of various peoples and states; for example, the Latvian town of Daugavpils variously came under papal, Slavonic, Polish, German, and Russian rule until the restoration of the Latvian independence in 1990 at the end of the Cold War." ], [ "Settlements", "Daugava sunset in RigaThe following are some of the cities and towns built along the Daugava:=== Russia ====== Belarus ====== Latvia ===" ], [ "Environment", "Port of Riga on the DaugavaThe river began experiencing environmental deterioration in the Soviet era due to collective agriculture (producing considerable adverse water pollution runoff) and hydroelectric power projects.", "This is the river that the Vula river flows into.=== Water quality ===Upstream of the Latvian town of Jekabpils, the river's pH has a characteristic value of about 7.8 (slight alkaline).", "In this area, the concentration of ionic calcium is around 43 milligrams per liter, nitrate is about 0.82 milligrams per liter, ionic phosphate is 0.038 milligrams per liter, and oxygen saturation is 80%.", "The high nitrate and phosphate load of the Daugava has contributed to the extensive buildup of phytoplankton biomass in the Baltic Sea; the Oder and Vistula rivers also contribute to the high nutrient loading of the Baltic.In Belarus, water pollution of the Daugava is considered moderately severe, with the chief sources being treated wastewater, fish-farming, and agricultural chemical runoff (such as herbicides, pesticides, nitrates, and phosphates)." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Francis W. Carter and David Turnock.", "2002.Environmental problems of East Central Europe.", "442 pages Google eBook" ], [ "External links", "* Daugava River photos at flickr" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Datsun" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Datsun''' (, ) was a Japanese automobile manufacturer brand owned by Nissan.", "Datsun's original production run began in 1931.From 1958 to 1986, only vehicles exported by Nissan were identified as Datsun.", "Nissan phased out the Datsun brand in March 1986, but relaunched it in June 2013 as the brand for low-cost vehicles manufactured for emerging markets.", "Nissan considered phasing out the Datsun brand for a second time in 2019 and 2020, eventually discontinuing the struggling brand in April 2022.In 1931, DAT Motorcar Co. chose to name its new small car \"Datson\", a name which indicated the new car's smaller size when compared to the DAT's larger vehicle already in production.", "When Nissan took control of DAT in 1934, the name \"Datson\" was changed to \"Datsun\", because \"son\" also means \"loss\" ('''損''' ''son'') in Japanese and also to honour the sun depicted in the national flag – thus the name ''Datsun'': .", "The Datsun name is internationally well known for the 510, Fairlady roadsters, and the Z and ZX coupés." ], [ "History", "===Origin of Datsun===Before the Datsun brand name came into being, an automobile named the DAT car was built in 1914, by the , in the Azabu-Hiroo District in Tokyo.", "The new car's name was an acronym of the initials of the company partners:* * * Incidentally, ''datto'' (how a native Japanese speaker would pronounce \"dat\") means to \"dash off like a startled rabbit\" (脱兎), which was considered a good name for the little car.", "The firm was renamed Kaishinsha Motorcar Co. in 1918, seven years after their establishment and again, in 1925, to DAT Motorcar Co. DAT Motors constructed trucks in addition to the DAT passenger cars.", "In fact, their output focused on trucks since there was almost no consumer market for passenger cars at the time.", "Beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were assembled for the military market.", "The low demand from the military market during the 1920s forced DAT to consider merging with other automotive industries.", "In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based also known as Jitsuyo Motors (established 1919, as a Kubota subsidiary) to become in Osaka until 1932.", "(Jitsuyo Jidosha began producing a three-wheeled vehicle with an enclosed cab called the Gorham in 1920, and the following year produced a four-wheeled version.", "From 1923 to 1925, the company produced light cars and trucks under the name of Lila.", ")The DAT corporation had been selling full size cars to Japanese consumers under the DAT name since 1914.In 1930, the Japanese government created a ministerial ordinance that allowed cars with engines up to 500 cc to be driven without a license.", "DAT Automobile Manufacturing began development of a line of 495 cc cars to sell in this new market segment, calling the new small cars \"Datson\" – meaning \"Son of DAT\".", "The name was changed to \"Datsun\" two years later in 1933.The first prototype Datson was completed in the summer of 1931.The production vehicle was called the Datson Type 10, and \"approximately ten\" of these cars were sold in 1931.They sold around 150 cars in 1932, now calling the model the Datsun Type 11.In 1933, government rules were revised to permit engines, and Datsun increased the displacement of their microcar engine to the maximum allowed.", "These larger displacement cars were called Type 12s.By 1935, the company had established a true production line, following the example of Ford, and were producing a car closely resembling the Austin 7.There is evidence that six of these early Datsuns were exported to New Zealand in 1936, a market they then re-entered in May 1962.In 1937, Datsun's biggest pre-war year, 8593 were built, with some exported to Australia in knock-down form.After Japan went to war with China in 1937, passenger car production was restricted, so by 1938, Datsun's Yokohama plant concentrated on building trucks for the Imperial Japanese Army.When the Pacific War ended, Datsun would turn to provide trucks for the Occupation forces.", "This lasted until car production resumed in 1947.As before the war, Datsun closely patterned their cars on contemporary Austin products: postwar, the Devon and Somerset were selected.", "For Datsun's smaller cars (and trucks), such as the DB and DS series, they depended on designs based on the pre-war Austin Seven.", "The heavier trucks, meanwhile, were based on Chevrolet's 1937 design with an engine of Graham-Paige design.", "Nissan also built the 4W60 Patrol, based on the Willys Jeep, and the 4W70 Carrier, based on the Dodge M37.Not until January 1955 did Datsun offer a fully indigenous design.That year, the Occupation returned production facilities to Japanese control, and Datsun introduced the 110 saloon and the 110-based 120 pickup.===Datsun in the American market===The \"classic\" Datsun logo, based on the Flag of Japan and Japan's nickname as the \"Land of the Rising Sun\".", "After the Nissan rebrand, the logo remained the same, with \"Datsun\" replaced by \"Nissan\".The use of the ''Datsun'' name in the American market derives from the name Nissan used for its production cars.", "In fact, the cars produced by Nissan already used the Datsun brand name, a successful brand in Japan since 1932, long before World War II.", "Before the entry into the American market in 1958, Nissan did not produce cars under the Nissan brand name, but only trucks.", "Their in-house-designed cars were always branded as ''Datsuns''.", "Hence, for Nissan executives it would be only natural to use such a successful name when exporting models to the United States.", "Only in the 1960s did Datsun begin to brand some automobile models as ''Nissans'', like the Patrol and a small test batch of about 100 Cedric luxury sedans, and then not again until the 1980s.", "The Japanese market Z-car (sold as the Fairlady Z) also had Nissan badging.", "In the United States, the Nissan branch was named \"''Nissan Motor Corporation in U.S.A.''\", and chartered on September 28, 1960, in California, but the small cars the firm exported to America were still named Datsun.Corporate choice favored Datsun, so as to distance the parent factory Nissan's association by Americans with Japanese military manufacture.", "In fact Nissan's involvement in Japan's military industries was substantial.", "The company's car production at the Yokohama plant shifted towards military needs just a few years after the first passenger cars rolled off the assembly line, on April 11, 1935.By 1939 Nissan's operations had moved to Manchuria, then under Japanese occupation, where its founder and President, Yoshisuke Ayukawa, established the Manchurian Motor Company to manufacture military trucks.Ayukawa, a well-connected and aggressive risk taker, also made himself a principal partner of the Japanese Colonial Government of Manchukuo.", "Ultimately, Nissan Heavy Industries emerged near the end of the war as an important player in Japan's war machinery.", "After the war ended, Soviet Union seized all of Nissan's Manchuria assets, while the Occupation Forces made use of over half of the Yokohama plant.", "General MacArthur had Ayukawa imprisoned for 21 months as a war criminal.", "After release he was forbidden from returning to any corporate or public office until 1951.He was never allowed back into Nissan, which returned to passenger car manufacture in 1947 and to its original name of Nissan Motor Company Ltd. in 1949.Datsun FairladyAmerican service personnel in their teens or early twenties during the Second World War would be in prime car-buying age by 1960, if only to find an economical small second car for their growing family needs.", "Yutaka Katayama (Mr. \"K\"), former president of Nissan's American operations, would have had his personal wartime experiences in mind supporting the name Datsun.", "Katayama's visit to Nissan's Manchuria truck factory in 1939 made him realise the appalling conditions prevalent on the assembly lines, leading him to abandon the firm.", "In 1945, near the end of the war, Katayama was ordered to return to the Manchurian plant, however he rebuffed these calls and refused to return.Datsun 240Z (US model)Katayama desired to build and sell passenger cars to people, not to the military; for him, the name \"''Datsun''\" had survived the war with its purity intact, not \"''Nissan''\".", "This obviously led Katayama to have problems with the corporate management.", "The discouragement felt by Katayama as regards his prospects at Nissan, led to his going on the verge of resigning, when Datsun's 1958 Australian Mobilgas victories vaulted him, as leader of the winning Datsun teams, to national prominence in a Japan bent on regaining international status.The company's first product to be exported around the world was the 113, with a proprietary four-cylinder engine.Datsun entered the American market in 1958, with sales in California.", "By 1959, the company had dealers across the U.S. and began selling the 310 (known as Bluebird domestically).", "From 1962 to 1969 the Nissan Patrol utility vehicle was sold in the United States (as a competitor to the Toyota Land Cruiser J40 series), making it the only Nissan-badged product sold in the US prior to that name's introduction worldwide decades later.From 1960 on, exports and production continued to grow.", "A new plant was built at Oppama, south of Yokohama; it opened in 1962.The next year, Bluebird sales first topped 200,000, and exports touched 100,000.By 1964, Bluebird was being built at 10,000 cars a month.For 1966, Datsun debuted the Sunny/1000, allowing kei car owners to move up to something bigger.", "That same year, Datsun won the East African Safari Rally and merged with Prince Motors, giving the company the Skyline model range, as well as a test track at Murayama.The company introduced the Bluebird 510 in 1967.This was followed in 1968 with the iconic 240Z, which proved affordable sports cars could be built and sold profitably: it was soon the world's #1-selling sports car.", "It relied on an engine based on the Bluebird and used Bluebird suspension components.", "It would go on to two outright wins in the East African Rally.Katayama was made Vice President of the Nissan North American subsidiary in 1960, and as long as he was involved in decision making, both as North American Vice President from 1960 to 1965, and then President of Nissan Motor Company U.S.A. from 1965 to 1975, the cars were sold as Datsuns.", "\"What we need to do is improve our car's efficiency gradually and creep up slowly before others notice.", "Then, before Detroit realizes it, we will have become an excellent car maker, and the customers will think so too.", "If we work hard to sell our own cars, we won't be bothered by whatever the other manufacturers do.", "If all we do is worry about the other cars in the race, we will definitely lose.", "\"===Datsun in Europe===Datsun Cherry 100A (E10, 1970–1977)In 1935, the very first Datsun-badged vehicle was shipped to Britain by car magnate Sir Herbert Austin.", "The vehicle, a Type 14, was never meant for the road or production, but was a part of a patent dispute as Austin saw a number of similarities to the car with the Austin 7 Ruby.", "Nissan began exporting Datsun-badged cars to the United Kingdom in 1968, at which time foreign cars were a rarity, with only a small percentage of cars being imported – some of the most popular examples at the time including the Renault 16 from France and Volkswagen Beetle from West Germany.", "The first European market that Nissan had entered was Finland, where sales began in 1962.Within a few years, it was importing cars to most of Western Europe.Datsun was particularly successful on the British market.", "It sold just over 6,000 cars there as late as 1971, but its sales surged to more than 30,000 the following year and continued to climb over the next few years, with well-priced products including the Cherry 100A and Sunny 120Y proving particularly popular, at a time when the British motor industry was plagued by strikes and British Leyland in particular was gaining a reputation for building cars which had major issues with build quality and reliability.", "During the 1970s and early 1980s, Nissan frequently enjoyed the largest market share in Britain of any foreign carmaker.By the early 1980s, the Nissan badge was gradually appearing on Datsun-badged cars, and eventually the Datsun branding was phased out, the final new car with a Datsun badge being the Micra supermini, launched in Britain from June 1983.By the end of 1984, the Datsun branding had completely disappeared in Britain, although it lingered elsewhere until 1986.===Rebranding===Datsun 720In Japan, there appears to have been what probably constituted a long-held 'official' company bias against use of the name \"Datsun\".", "At the time, Kawamata was a veteran of Nissan, in the last year of his presidency, a powerful figure whose experience in the firm exceeded two decades.", "His rise to its leadership position occurred in 1957 in part because of his handling of the critical Nissan workers' strike that began May 25, 1953, and ran for 100 days.", "During his tenure as president, Kawamata stated that he \"regretted that his company did not imprint its corporate name on cars, the way Toyota does.", "'Looking back, we wish we had started using Nissan on all of our cars,' he says.", "'But Datsun was a pet name for the cars when we started exporting.", "'\"Ultimately, the decision was made to stop using the brand name ''Datsun'' worldwide, in order to strengthen the company name ''Nissan''.", "\"The decision to change the name Datsun to Nissan in the U.S. was announced in the autumn (September/October) of 1981.The rationale was that the name change would help the pursuit of a global strategy.", "A single name worldwide would increase the possibility that advertising campaigns, brochures, and promotional materials could be used across countries and simplify product design and manufacturing.", "Further, potential buyers would be exposed to the name and product when traveling to other countries.", "Industry observers, however, speculated that the most important motivation was that a name change would help Nissan market stocks and bonds in the U.S.", "They also presumed substantial ego involvement, since the absence of the Nissan name in the U.S. surely rankled Nissan executives who had seen Toyota and Honda become household words.", "\"Ultimately, the name change campaign lasted for a three-year period from 1982 to 1984 – Datsun badged vehicles had been progressively fitted with small \"Nissan\" and \"Datsun by Nissan\" badges from the late 1970s onward until the Nissan name was given prominence in 1983 – although in some export markets, vehicles continued to wear both the Datsun and Nissan badges until 1986.In the United Kingdom for example, the Nissan name initially was used as a prefix to the model name, with Datsun still being used as the manufacturer's name (e.g.", "Datsun-Nissan Micra) from 1982 until 1984.In the United States, the Nissan name was used for some new vehicles for 1982 such as the Nissan Stanza and the Nissan Sentra while the Datsun name was used on existing vehicles through 1983 including – confusingly enough – the Datsun Maxima, which like the Stanza and Sentra was also a new model for 1982, albeit as a renamed Datsun 810.The Maxima and Z continue in production in North America as of 2021, as Nissan's last direct link to its Datsun years.The name change had cost Nissan a figure in the region of US$500 million.", "Operational costs included the changing of signs at 1,100 Datsun dealerships, and amounted to US$30 million.", "Another US$200 million were spent during the 1982 to 1986 advertising campaigns, where the ''\"Datsun, We Are Driven!\"''", "campaign (which was adopted in late 1977 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis and subsequent 1979 energy crisis) yielded to ''\"The Name is Nissan\"'' campaign (the latter campaign was used for some years beyond 1985).", "Another US$50 million was spent on Datsun advertisements that were paid for but stopped or never used.", "Five years after the name change program was over, ''Datsun'' still remained more familiar than ''Nissan''.===Datsun truck===Nissan DatsunIn 2001, Nissan marketed its D22 pick-up model in Japan with the name ''Datsun''.", "This time however, the use of the brand name was wholly restricted to this one specific model name.", "Production of this model was between May 2001 and October 2002." ], [ "Relaunch", "Carlos Ghosn at Datsun Go launch in New Delhi, India, 2013.On 20 March 2012, it was announced that Nissan would revive the Datsun marque as a low-cost car brand for use in Indonesia, Nepal, South Africa, India, and Russia, and on 15 July 2013, nearly three decades after it was phased out, the name was formally resurrected.", "Nissan said the brand's reputation for value and reliability would help it gain market share in emerging markets.Datsun on-Do (2014–2020)The Datsun brand was relaunched in New Delhi, India, with the Datsun Go, which went on sale in India in early 2014.Datsun models are sold in Indonesia, Russia, India, Nepal and South Africa since 2014.The brand entered Kazakhstan in 2015, and Belarus and Lebanon in 2016.The Datsun Go was being built at the Renault-Nissan plant in Chennai, India.", "It was also produced in Indonesia.", "The Go is based on the same Nissan V platform as the Nissan Micra.", "The Go+, a 5+2 seater station wagon, was added to the range in September 2013.In February 2014, the redi-Go concept car was presented.", "The redi-Go crossover became available in India mid-2015.In April 2014, the first model for the Russian market, the Datsun on-Do based on Lada Granta, was launched.In November 2019, it was announced that Datsun would stop its production in Indonesia and Russia in 2020.In April 2022, Nissan announced that it is shutting down the production of Datsun cars in India.===Models===* Datsun Go (2013–2022)* Datsun Go+ (2013–2022)* Datsun on-Do (2014–2020)* Datsun mi-Do (2015–2020)* Datsun redi-Go (2016–2022)* Datsun Cross (2018–2020)" ], [ "See also", "* Datsun Sports* Laurence Hartnett* Yutaka Katayama* Nissan* Nissan Motor Car Carrier* Sports Car International Top Sports Cars" ], [ "References", "Daniels, Jeff.", "\"Datsun: Powerful Challenger from the East\", in Northey, Tom, ed.", "''World of Automobiles'', Volume 5, pp.", "495–497.London: Orbis, 1974." ], [ "External links", "* Official site in Russia* Official site in Indonesia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dynamite" ], [ "Introduction", "DiagramPreparation of dynamite during the construction of the Douglas Dam, 1942.", "'''Dynamite''' is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers.", "It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and was patented in 1867.It rapidly gained wide-scale use as a more robust alternative to the traditional black powder explosives.", "It allows the use of nitroglycerine's favorable explosive properties while greatly reducing its risk of accidental detonation." ], [ "History", "\"Nobels extradynamit\" manufactured by Nobel's old company, Nitroglycerin AktiebolagetWomen mixing dynamite at Nobel's Ardeer factory, 1897Dynamite was invented by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel in 1866 and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder.Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel Nobel, was an industrialist, engineer, and inventor.", "He built bridges and buildings in Stockholm and founded Sweden's first rubber factory.", "His construction work inspired him to research new methods of blasting rock that were more effective than black powder.", "After some bad business deals in Sweden, in 1838 Immanuel moved his family to Saint Petersburg, where Alfred and his brothers were educated privately under Swedish and Russian tutors.", "At the age of 17, Alfred Nobel was sent abroad for two years; in the United States he met Swedish engineer John Ericsson and in France studied under famed chemist Théophile-Jules Pelouze and his pupil Ascanio Sobrero, who had first synthesized nitroglycerin in 1847.Pelouze cautioned Nobel against using nitroglycerine as a commercial explosive because of its great sensitivity to shock.In 1857, Nobel filed the first of several hundred patents, mostly concerning air pressure, gas and fluid gauges, but remained fascinated with nitroglycerin's potential as an explosive.", "Nobel, along with his father and brother Emil, experimented with various combinations of nitroglycerin and black powder.", "Nobel came up with a way to safely detonate nitroglycerin by inventing the detonator, or blasting cap, that allowed a controlled explosion set off from a distance using a fuse.", "In 1863 Nobel performed his first successful detonation of pure nitroglycerin, using a blasting cap made of a copper percussion cap and mercury fulminate.", "In 1864, Alfred Nobel filed patents for both the blasting cap and his method of synthesizing nitroglycerin, using sulfuric acid, nitric acid and glycerin.", "On 3 September 1864, while experimenting with nitroglycerin, Emil and several others were killed in an explosion at the factory at Immanuel Nobel's estate at Heleneborg.", "After this, Alfred founded the company Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget in Vinterviken to continue work in a more isolated area and the following year moved to Germany, where he founded another company, Dynamit Nobel.Despite the invention of the blasting cap, the instability of nitroglycerin rendered it useless as a commercial explosive.", "To solve this problem, Nobel sought to combine it with another substance that would make it safe for transport and handling but would not reduce its effectiveness as an explosive.", "He tried combinations of cement, coal, and sawdust, but was unsuccessful.", "Finally, he tried diatomaceous earth, which is fossilized algae, that he brought from the Elbe River near his factory in Hamburg, which successfully stabilized the nitroglycerin into a portable explosive.Nobel obtained patents for his inventions in England on 7 May 1867 and in Sweden on 19 October 1867.After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safe alternative to black powder and nitroglycerin.", "Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were quickly shut down.", "A few American businessmen got around the patent by using absorbents other than diatomaceous earth, such as resin.Nobel originally sold dynamite as \"Nobel's Blasting Powder\" and later changed the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word ''dýnamis'' (), meaning \"power\"." ], [ "Manufacture", "===Form===Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about long and about in diameter, with a mass of about .", "A stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ (megajoule) of energy.", "Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter-Stick or Half-Stick) or by weight.Dynamite is usually rated by \"weight strength\" (the amount of nitroglycerin it contains), usually from 20% to 60%.", "For example, ''40% dynamite'' is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% \"dope\" (the absorbent storage medium mixed with the stabilizer and any additives).===Storage considerations===The maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions.Over time, regardless of the sorbent used, sticks of dynamite will \"weep\" or \"sweat\" nitroglycerin, which can then pool in the bottom of the box or storage area.", "For that reason, explosive manuals recommend the regular up-ending of boxes of dynamite in storage.", "Crystals will form on the outside of the sticks, causing them to be even more sensitive to shock, friction, and temperature.", "Therefore, while the risk of an explosion without the use of a blasting cap is minimal for fresh dynamite, old dynamite is dangerous.", "Modern packaging helps eliminate this by placing the dynamite into sealed plastic bags and using wax-coated cardboard.Dynamite is moderately sensitive to shock.", "Shock resistance tests are usually carried out with a drop-hammer: about 100 mg of explosive is placed on an anvil, upon which a weight of between is dropped from different heights until detonation is achieved.", "With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm, nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm, dynamite with 15 to 30 cm, and ammoniacal explosives with 40 to 50 cm.===Major manufacturers===Advertisement for the Ætna Explosives Company of New York.====South Africa====For several decades beginning in the 1940s, the largest producer of dynamite in the world was the Union of South Africa.", "There the De Beers company established a factory in 1902 at Somerset West.", "The explosives factory was later operated by AECI (African Explosives and Chemical Industries).", "The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centered on the Witwatersrand.", "The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 it was already producing 340,000 cases, each, annually.", "A rival factory at Modderfontein was producing another 200,000 cases per year.There were two large explosions at the Somerset West plant during the 1960s.", "Some workers died, but the loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and its earth works, and the planting of trees that directed the blasts upward.", "There were several other explosions at the Modderfontein factory.", "After 1985, pressure from trade unions forced AECI to phase out the production of dynamite.", "The factory then went on to produce ammonium nitrate emulsion-based explosives that are safer to manufacture and handle.====United States====Dynamite was first manufactured in the US by the Giant Powder Company of San Francisco, California, whose founder had obtained the exclusive rights from Nobel in 1867.Giant was eventually acquired by DuPont, which produced dynamite under the Giant name until Giant was dissolved by DuPont in 1905.Thereafter, DuPont produced dynamite under its own name until 1911–12, when its explosives monopoly was broken up by the U.S.", "Circuit Court in the \"Powder Case\".", "Two new companies were formed upon the breakup, the Hercules Powder Company and the Atlas Powder Company, which took up the manufacture of dynamite (in different formulations).Currently, only Dyno Nobel manufactures dynamite in the US.", "The only facility producing it is located in Carthage, Missouri, but the material is purchased from Dyno Nobel by other manufacturers who put their labels on the dynamite and boxes." ], [ "Non-dynamite explosives", "Other explosives are often referred to or confused with dynamite:===TNT===Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is often assumed to be the same as (or confused for) dynamite largely because of the ubiquity of both explosives during the 20th century.", "This incorrect connection between TNT and dynamite was enhanced by cartoons such as Bugs Bunny, where animators labeled any kind of bomb (ranging from sticks of dynamite to kegs of black powder) as TNT, because the acronym was shorter and more memorable and did not require literacy to recognize that TNT meant \"bomb\".Aside from both being high explosives, TNT and dynamite have little in common.", "TNT is a second generation castable explosive adopted by the military, while dynamite, in contrast, has never been popular in warfare because it degenerates quickly under severe conditions and can be detonated by either fire or a wayward bullet.", "The German armed forces adopted TNT as a filling for artillery shells in 1902, some 40 years after the invention of dynamite, which is a first generation phlegmatized explosive primarily intended for civilian earthmoving.", "TNT has never been popular or widespread in civilian earthmoving, as it is considerably more expensive and less powerful by weight than dynamite, as well as being slower to mix and pack into boreholes.", "TNT's primary asset is its remarkable insensitivity and stability: it is waterproof and incapable of detonating without the extreme shock and heat provided by a blasting cap (or a sympathetic detonation); this stability also allows it to be melted at , poured into high explosive shells and allowed to re-solidify, with no extra danger or change in the TNT's characteristics.", "Accordingly, more than 90% of the TNT produced in America was always for the military market, with most TNT used for filling shells, hand grenades and aerial bombs, and the remainder being packaged in brown \"bricks\" (not red cylinders) for use as demolition charges by combat engineers.===\"Extra\" dynamite===In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman invented \"ammonium dynamite\", a form of explosive that used ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin.", "Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of nitroglycerin.It is rated by either \"weight strength\" (the amount of ammonium nitrate in the medium) or \"cartridge strength\" (the potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain size of a standard explosive).", "For example, high-explosive ''65% Extra dynamite'' has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate and 35% \"dope\" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers and additives).", "Its \"cartridge strength\" would be its weight in pounds times its strength in relation to an equal amount of ANFO (the civilian baseline standard) or TNT (the military baseline standard).", "For example, 65% ammonium dynamite with a 20% cartridge strength would mean the stick was equal to an equivalent weight strength of 20% ANFO.===\"Military dynamite\"===\"Military dynamite\" is a dynamite substitute, formulated without nitroglycerin.", "It contains 75% RDX, 15% TNT, 5% SAE 10 motor oil, and 5% cornstarch, but is much safer to store and handle for longer periods than Nobel's dynamite.", "Military dynamite substitutes much more stable chemicals for nitroglycerin." ], [ "Regulation", "Various countries around the world have enacted explosives laws and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, and possess explosives or ingredients." ], [ "See also", "* Blast fishing* Blasting machine* Dynamite gun* Nobel Prize* Relative effectiveness factor" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cartwright, A. P. (1964).", "''The dynamite Company: The Story of African Explosives and Chemical Industries Limited''.", "Cape Town: Purnell & Sons (S.A.) (Pty) Ltd.* * Schück, H. and Sohlman, R. (1929).", "''The Life of Alfred Nobel''.", "London: William Heinemann Ltd." ], [ "External links", "* Alfred Nobel’s dynamite companies* Oregon State Police – Arson and Explosives Section (Handling instructions and photos)* (Dynamite US patent)* Dynamite and TNT at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Fincher" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Andrew Leo Fincher''' (born August 28, 1962) is an American film director.", "His films, most of which are psychological thrillers, have collectively grossed over $2.1 billion worldwide and have received 40 Academy Award nominations, including three Best Director nominations for him.", "He has also received four Primetime Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards, a BAFTA Award, and a Golden Globe Award.Fincher co-founded the production company Propaganda Films in 1986.He directed numerous music videos for the company, including Madonna's \"Express Yourself\" in 1989 and \"Vogue\" in 1990, both of which won him the MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction.", "He received two Grammy Awards for Best Music Video for \"Love Is Strong\" (1994) by the Rolling Stones and \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) by Justin Timberlake featuring Jay-Z.He made his feature film debut with ''Alien 3'' (1992) and gained his breakthrough with ''Seven'' (1995).", "He has since directed ''The Game'' (1997), ''Fight Club'' (1999), ''Panic Room'' (2002), ''Zodiac'' (2007), ''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo'' (2011), ''Gone Girl'' (2014), and ''The Killer'' (2023).", "He received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for the dramas ''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button'' (2008), ''The Social Network'' (2010), and ''Mank'' (2020).In television, Fincher has served as an executive producer and director for the Netflix series ''House of Cards'' (2013–2018) and ''Mindhunter'' (2017–2019), winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode of the former.", "He also executive produced and co-created the Netflix animated series ''Love, Death & Robots'' (2019–present) which received three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program." ], [ "Early life", "David Andrew Leo Fincher was born in Denver on August 28, 1962.His mother, Claire Mae (née Boettcher), was a mental health nurse from South Dakota who worked in drug addiction programs.", "His father, Howard Kelly \"Jack\" Fincher (1930–2003), was an author from Oklahoma who worked as a reporter and bureau chief for ''Life'' magazine.", "When Fincher was two years old, the family moved to San Anselmo, California, where he counted filmmaker George Lucas among his neighbors.", "He became fascinated with filmmaking at the age of eight and began making films on an 8mm camera.", "In a 2012 interview, he said:As a teenager, Fincher moved to Ashland, Oregon, where he attended Ashland High School.", "He directed plays and designed sets and lighting after school, was a non-union projectionist at Varsity Theatre, and worked as a production assistant at the KOBI news station in Medford.", "He supported himself by working as a busboy, dishwasher, and fry cook." ], [ "Career", "===1983–1991: Early work===While establishing himself in the film industry, Fincher was employed at John Korty's studio as a production head.", "Gaining further experience, he became a visual effects producer, working on the animated ''Twice Upon a Time'' (1983) with George Lucas.", "He was hired by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) in 1983 as an assistant cameraman and matte photographer and worked on ''Return of the Jedi'' (1983) and ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (1984).", "In 1984, he left ILM to direct a television commercial for the American Cancer Society that depicted a fetus smoking a cigarette.This quickly brought Fincher to the attention of producers in Los Angeles, and he was soon given the opportunity to direct Rick Springfield's 1985 documentary, ''The Beat of the Live Drum''.", "Set on a directing career, Fincher co-founded production company Propaganda Films and started directing commercials and music videos.", "Other directors such as Michael Bay, Antoine Fuqua, Michel Gondry, Spike Jonze, Alex Proyas, Paul Rachman, Mark Romanek, Zack Snyder and Gore Verbinski also honed their skills at Propaganda Films before moving on to feature films.Fincher directed TV commercials for many companies including Levi's, Converse, Nike, Pepsi, Revlon, Sony, Coca-Cola and Chanel, although he loathed doing them.", "Starting in 1984, Fincher began his foray into music videos.", "He directed videos for various artists including singer-songwriters Rick Springfield, Don Henley, Martha Davis, Paula Abdul, rock band the Outfield, and R&B singer Jermaine Stewart.", "Fincher's 1990 music video for \"Freedom!", "'90\" was one of the most successful for George Michael.He directed Michael Jackson's \"Who Is It\", Aerosmith's \"Janie's Got A Gun\" and Billy Idol's \"Cradle of Love\".", "For Madonna, he directed the videos for \"Express Yourself\", \"Oh Father\", \"Bad Girl\" and \"Vogue\".", "The black-and-white video for \"Vogue\" took inspiration from the films of the 1920s and 1930s and has been frequently cited as one of the best videos of all time.", "Between 1984 and 1993, Fincher was credited as a director for 53 music videos.", "He referred to the production of music videos as his own \"film school\", in which he learned how to work efficiently within a small budget and time frame.===1992–2000: Breakthrough===In 1990, 20th Century Fox hired Fincher to replace Vincent Ward as the director for the science-fiction horror ''Alien 3'' (1992), his film directorial debut.", "It was the third installment in the ''Alien'' franchise starring Sigourney Weaver.", "The film was released in May 1992 to a mixed reception from critics and was considered weaker than the preceding films.", "From the beginning, ''Alien 3'' was hampered by studio intervention and several abandoned scripts.", "Peter Travers of the ''Rolling Stone'' called the film \"bold and haunting\", despite the \"struggle of nine writers\" and \"studio interference\".The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects.", "Years later, Fincher publicly expressed his dismay and subsequently disowned the film.", "In the book ''Director's Cut: Picturing Hollywood in the 21st Century'', Fincher blames the producers for their lack of trust in him.", "In an interview with ''The Guardian'' in 2009, he stated, \"No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me.", "\"After this critical disappointment, Fincher eschewed reading film scripts or directing another project.", "He briefly retreated to directing commercials and music videos, including the video for the song \"Love Is Strong\" by the Rolling Stones in 1994, which won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video.", "Shortly, Fincher decided to make a foray back into film.", "He read Andrew Kevin Walker's original screenplay for ''Seven'' (1995), which had been revised by Jeremiah Chechik, the director attached to the project at one point.", "Fincher expressed no interest in directing the revised version, so New Line Cinema agreed to keep the original ending.", "Starring Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, R. Lee Ermey, and Kevin Spacey, it tells the story of two detectives who attempt to identify a serial killer who bases his murders on the Christian seven deadly sins.", "''Seven'' was positively received by film critics and was one of the highest-earning films of 1995, grossing more than $320 million worldwide.", "Writing for ''Sight and Sound'', John Wrathall said it \"stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since ''Manhunter''\" and Roger Ebert opined that ''Seven'' is \"one of the darkest and most merciless films ever made in the Hollywood mainstream.", "\"Following ''Seven'', Fincher directed a music video for \"6th Avenue Heartache\" by the Wallflowers and went on to direct his third feature film, the mystery thriller ''The Game'' (1997), written by the duo John Brancato and Michael Ferris.", "Fincher also hired ''Seven'' screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker to contribute and polish the script.", "Filmed on location in San Francisco, the story follows an investment banker, played by Michael Douglas, who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), where he becomes involved in a \"game\" that integrates with his everyday life, making him unable to differentiate between game and reality.", "Almar Haflidason of the BBC was critical of the ending, but praised the visuals—\"Fincher does a marvelous job of turning ordinary city locations into frightening backdrops, where every corner turned is another step into the unknown\".", "Upon ''The Game'''s release in September 1997, the film received generally favorable reviews but performed moderately at the box office.", "''The Game'' was later included in the Criterion Collection.In August 1997, Fincher agreed to direct ''Fight Club'', based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk.", "It was his second film with 20th Century Fox after the troubled production of ''Alien 3''.", "Starring Brad Pitt, Edward Norton and Helena Bonham Carter, the film is about a nameless office worker suffering from insomnia, who meets a salesman, and together form an underground fighting club as a form of therapy.", "Fox struggled with the marketing of the film, and were concerned that it would have a limited audience.", "''Fight Club'' premiered on October 15, 1999, in the United States to a polarized response and modest box office success; the film grossed $100.9 million against a budget of $63 million.", "Initially, many critics thought the film was \"a violent and dangerous express train of masochism and aggression.\"", "However, in following years, ''Fight Club'' became a cult favorite and gained acknowledgement for its multilayered themes; the film has been the source of critical analysis from academics and film critics.In 1999, Fincher was shortlisted by Columbia Pictures, as one of the potential directors to helm ''Spider-Man'' (2002), a live-action adaptation of the fictional comic-book character of the same name.", "Fincher's pitch featured an older, experienced version of the titular character in his adult years and the post-adolescent portion of his life as a photographer and his crime-fighting double life as a vigilante, with a more grounded, character-driven and drama-oriented tone and direction.", "Fincher later said of his pitch, \"I went in and told them what I might be interested in doing, and they hated it\".", "Sam Raimi was chosen as director instead.===2001–2010: Continued success===Jesse Eisenberg and Fincher at the 2010 New York Film Festival.In 2001, Fincher served as an executive producer for the first season of ''The Hire'', a series of short films to promote BMW automobiles.", "The films were released on the internet in 2001.Next in 2002, Fincher returned to another feature film, a thriller titled ''Panic Room''.", "The story follows a single mother and her daughter who hide in a safe room of their new home, during a home invasion by a trio.", "Starring Jodie Foster (who replaced Nicole Kidman), Forest Whitaker, Kristen Stewart, Dwight Yoakam, and Jared Leto, it was theatrically released on March 29, 2002, after a month delay, to critical acclaim and commercial success.In North America, the film earned $96.4 million.", "In other countries, it grossed $100 million for a worldwide $196.4 million.", "Mick LaSalle of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' praised the filmmakers for their \"fair degree of ingenuity... for 88 minutes of excitement\" and the convincing performance given by Foster.", "Fincher acknowledged ''Panic Room'' for being more mainstream, describing the film, \"It's supposed to be a popcorn movie—there are no great, overriding implications.", "It's just about survival.", "\"Five years after ''Panic Room'', Fincher returned on March 2, 2007, with ''Zodiac'', a thriller based on Robert Graysmith's books about the search for the Zodiac, a real life serial murderer who terrorized communities between the late 1960s and early 1970s.", "Fincher first learned of the project after being approached by producer Brad Fischer; he was intrigued by the story due to his childhood personal experience.", "\"The highway patrol had been following our school buses\", he recalled.", "His father told him, \"There's a serial killer who has killed four or five people... who's threatened to... shoot the children as they come off the bus.", "\"After extensive research on the case with fellow producers, Fincher formed a principal cast of Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, Robert Downey Jr., Anthony Edwards and Brian Cox.", "It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot in digital, with a Thomson Viper FilmStream HD camera.", "However, high-speed film cameras were used for particular murder scenes.", "''Zodiac'' was well received, appearing in more than two hundred top ten lists (only ''No Country for Old Men'' and ''There Will Be Blood'' appeared in more).", "However, the film struggled at the United States box office, earning $33 million, but did better overseas with a gross of $51.7 million.", "Worldwide, ''Zodiac'' was a moderate success.", "Despite a campaign by Paramount Pictures, the film did not receive any Academy Award or Golden Globe nominations.In 2008, Fincher was attached to a film adaptation of the science-fiction novel, ''Rendezvous with Rama'' by Arthur C. Clarke, however, Fincher said the film is unlikely to go ahead due to problems with the script.", "His next project was ''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button'' (2008), an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's eponymous 1923 short story, about a man who is born as a seventy-year-old baby and ages in reverse.", "The romantic-drama marked Fincher's third collaboration with Brad Pitt, who stars opposite Cate Blanchett.", "The budget for the film was estimated to be $167 million, with very expensive visual effects utilized for Pitt's character.Filming started in November 2006 in New Orleans, taking advantage of Louisiana's film incentive.", "The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2008, in the United States to a commercial success and warm reception.", "Writing for the ''USA Today'', Claudia Puig praises the \"graceful and poignant\" tale despite it being \"overlong and not as emotionally involving as it could be\".", "The film received thirteen Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Fincher, Best Actor for Pitt, and Best Supporting Actress for Taraji P. Henson, and won three, for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Visual Effects.Fincher directed the 2010 film ''The Social Network'', a biographical drama about Facebook founder, Mark Zuckerberg and his legal battles.", "The screenplay was written by Aaron Sorkin, who adapted it from the book ''The Accidental Billionaires''.", "It stars Jesse Eisenberg as Zuckerberg, with a supporting cast of Andrew Garfield, Justin Timberlake, Armie Hammer and Max Minghella.", "Principal photography started in October 2009 in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the film was released one year later.", "''The Social Network'' was also a commercial success, earning $224.9 million worldwide.", "At the 83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations and won three awards; soundtrack composers Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross won for Best Original Score, and the other two awards were for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing.", "The film received awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Original Score at the 68th Golden Globe Awards.", "Critics including Roger Ebert, complimented the writing, describing the film as having \"spellbinding dialogue.", "It makes an untellable story clear and fascinating\".=== 2011–present: Established auteur ===Rooney Mara, Daniel Craig, and Fincher at the premiere of ''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo''In 2011, Fincher followed the success of ''The Social Network'' with ''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo'', a psychological thriller based on the novel by Swedish writer Stieg Larsson.", "Screenwriter Steven Zaillian spent three months analyzing the novel, writing notes and deleting elements to achieve a suitable running time.", "Featuring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander, it follows Blomkvist's investigation to solve what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared four decades ago.", "To maintain the novel's setting, the film was primarily shot in Sweden.The soundtrack, composed by collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, was described by A. O. Scott of ''The New York Times'' as, \"unnerving and powerful\".", "Upon the film's release in December, reviews were generally favorable, according to review aggregator Metacritic.", "Scott adds, \"Mr. Fincher creates a persuasive ambience of political menace and moral despair\".", "Philip French of ''The Guardian'' praises the \"authentic, quirky detail\" and faithful adaptation.", "The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Actress for Mara, and won the award for Best Film Editing.", "In 2012, Fincher signed a first look deal with Regency Enterprises.In 2013, Fincher served as an executive producer for the Netflix television series ''House of Cards'', a political thriller about a Congressman's quest for revenge, of which he also directed the first two episodes.", "The series received positive reviews, earning nine Primetime Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series.", "Fincher won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the first episode.", "He also directed a music video for the first time since 2005, \"Suit & Tie\" by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z, which won a Grammy Award for Best Music Video.Following the publication of Dave Cullen's book, ''Columbine'', which was adapted into a play in 2014, Fincher considered making it into a film, however, the idea was dropped due to its sensitive nature.", "That same year, Fincher signed a deal with HBO for three television series - ''Utopia'' (an adaptation of the British series, to be written by Gillian Flynn), ''Shakedown'', and ''Videosyncrazy''.", "In August 2015, budget disputes between him and the network halted production.", "Three years later, in 2018, ''Utopia'' was picked up by Amazon Studios, with Gillian Flynn as creator.Fincher directed ''Gone Girl'' (2014), an adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novel of the same name, starring Ben Affleck and Rosamund Pike.", "He even met with Flynn to discuss his interest in the project before a director was selected.", "Set in Missouri, the story begins as a mystery that follows the events surrounding Nick Dunne (Affleck), who becomes the prime suspect in the sudden disappearance of his wife Amy (Pike).", "A critical and commercial success, the film earned $369 million worldwide against a $61 million budget, making it Fincher's highest-grossing work to date.", "Writing for ''Salon'' magazine, Andrew O'Hehir praises the \"tremendous ensemble cast who mesh marvelously\", adding, \"All the technical command of image, sound and production design for which Fincher is justly famous is here as well.\"", "''Gone Girl'' garnered awards and nominations in a various categories; Pike earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress and Fincher received his third Golden Globe nomination for Best Director.Fincher and 199x199pxBetween 2016 and 2019, Fincher directed, produced and served as showrunner for another series, ''Mindhunter'', starring Holt McCallany and Jonathan Groff.", "The series, based on the book ''Mind Hunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit'', debuted on Netflix worldwide on October 13, 2017.He has expressed interest in eventually making a third season of ''Mindhunter'', which was put on indefinite hold in 2020.In 2023, Fincher confirmed that Netflix will not be making a third season of ''Mindhunter'', saying \"I'm very proud of the first two seasons.", "But it's a very expensive show and, in the eyes of Netflix, we didn't attract enough of an audience to justify such an investment for Season 3.", "\"In June 2017, Jim Gianopulos of Paramount Pictures announced that a sequel to ''World War Z'' was \"in advanced development\" with Fincher and Brad Pitt.", "Producers Dede Gardner and Jeremy Kleiner said that Fincher would begin directing it in June 2019.However, in February 2019, Paramount cancelled the project.", "As of 2019, Fincher serves as an executive producer for ''Love, Death & Robots'', an animated science-fiction web series for Netflix.In July 2019, Fincher signed on to direct ''Mank'', a biopic about ''Citizen Kane'' screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz.", "''Mank'' received a limited theatrical release on November 13, 2020, and was made available on Netflix on December 4.Gary Oldman portrayed Mankiewicz, and the film received ten Academy Award nominations, winning two for Best Cinematography and Best Production Design.Fincher served as an executive producer on a series titled ''Voir'' (2021) for Netflix.", "In 2022, Fincher made his first foray in animation directing an episode for the third season of ''Love, Death & Robots''.", "The episode is titled \"Bad Travelling\" and was written by ''Seven'' screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker.", "In February 2021, it was reported that Fincher would direct an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Killer'' for Netflix, with Andrew Kevin Walker writing the screenplay and Michael Fassbender attached to star.", "It premiered at the 80th Venice International Film Festival.", "It began a limited theatrical release in October 2023 and was subsequently released on Netflix on 10 November." ], [ "Filmmaking style and techniques", "=== Influences ===Fincher did not attend film school.", "He has listed filmmakers George Roy Hill, Alfred Hitchcock, Stanley Kubrick, Alan J. Pakula, Ridley Scott, and Martin Scorsese as his major influences.", "His personal favorite films include ''Rear Window'' (1954), ''Lawrence of Arabia'' (1962), ''The Graduate'' (1967), ''Paper Moon'' (1973), ''American Graffiti'' (1973), ''Jaws'' (1975), ''All the President's Men'' (1976), ''Taxi Driver'' (1976), ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' (1977), and ''Zelig'' (1983).", "He suggested that his film ''Panic Room'' is a combination of ''Rear Window'' and ''Straw Dogs'' (1971).For ''Seven'', Fincher and cinematographer Darius Khondji were inspired by films ''The French Connection'' (1971) and ''Klute'' (1971), as well as the work of photographer Robert Frank.", "He has cited graphic designer Saul Bass as an inspiration for his films' title sequences; Bass designed many such sequences for prominent directors, including Hitchcock and Kubrick.=== Method ===Fincher's filmmaking process always begins with extensive research and preparation, although he has said the process is different every time: \"I enjoy reading a script that you can see in your head, and then I enjoy the casting and I enjoy the rehearsal, and I enjoy all the meetings about what it should be, what it could be, what it might be.\"", "He has admitted to having autocratic tendencies and prefers to micromanage every aspect of a film's production.", "Icelandic film producer Sigurjón Sighvatsson, with whom Fincher has collaborated for decades, has said that \"Fincher was always a rebel... always challenging the status quo\".Known for his perfectionism and meticulous eye for detail, Fincher performs thorough research when casting actors to ensure their suitability for the part.", "His colleague Max Daly said, \"He's really good at finding the one detail that was missed.", "He knows more than anybody.\"", "Producer Laura Ziskin said of him, \"He's just scary smart, sort of smarter than everyone else in the room.\"", "He approaches editing like \"intricate mathematical problems\".", "Long-time collaborator Angus Wall said that editing ''Zodiac'' was like \"putting together a Swiss watch... all the pieces are so beautifully machined\".", "He elaborated, \"Fincher is incredibly specific.", "He never settles.", "And there's a purity that shows in his work.", "\"When working with actors, Fincher is known to demand a grueling series of takes to capture a scene perfectly.", "For instance, the ''Zodiac'' cast members were required to do upwards of 70 takes for certain scenes, much to the displeasure of Jake Gyllenhaal.", "Rooney Mara had to endure 99 takes for a scene in ''The Social Network'' and said that Fincher enjoys challenging people.", "''Gone Girl'' averaged 50 takes per scene.", "In one of the episodes for ''Mindhunter'', it was reported that a nine-minute scene took 11 hours to shoot.", "When asked about this method, Fincher said, \"I hate earnestness in performance... usually by take 17 the earnestness is gone.\"", "He added that he wants a scene to be as natural and authentic as possible.", "Some actors appreciate this approach, arguing that the subtle adjustments have a big difference in the way a scene is carried.", "Others have been critical, with R. Lee Ermey stating, \"Fincher wants puppets.", "He doesn't want actors that are creative.", "\"Fincher prefers shooting with Red digital cameras, under natural or pre-existing light conditions rather than using elaborate lighting setups.", "Fincher is known to use computer-generated imagery, which is mostly unnoticeable to the viewer.", "He does not normally use hand-held cameras during filming, instead preferring cameras on a tripod.", "He said, \"Handheld has a powerful psychological stranglehold.", "It means something specific and I don't want to cloud what's going on with too much meaning.\"", "He has experimented with the disembodied camera movement, notably in ''Panic Room'', where the camera glides around the house to give the impression of surveillance by an unseen observer.=== Style and themes ===One element of Fincher's visual style is the specific way in which he uses tilt, pan, and track in the camera movements.", "When a character is in motion or expressing emotions, the camera moves at the exact same speed and direction as their body.", "The movements are choreographed precisely between the actors and camera operators.", "The resulting effect helps the audience connect with the character to understand their feelings.", "Similarly, in his music videos, Fincher appreciated that the visuals should enhance the listening experience.", "He would cut around the vocals, and let the choreography finish before cutting the shot.", "Camera movements are synchronized to the beat of the music.Some regard Fincher as an auteur filmmaker, although he dislikes being associated with that term.", "Much of his work is influenced by classical film noir and neo noir genres.", "Fincher's visual style also includes using monochromatic and desaturated colors of blue, green, and yellow, representing the world that the characters are in.", "In ''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo'', Fincher uses heavy desaturation for certain scenes, and increases or decreases the effect based on the story or characters' emotions.", "Erik Messerschmidt, cinematographer for ''Mindhunter'', explained the color palette: \"The show has a desaturated green-yellow look... it helps give the show its period feel.\"", "He states the effect is achieved through production design, costumes, and filming locations—not necessarily through lighting used on set.", "Fincher also favors detailed and pronounced shadows, as well as using minimal light.", "When asked about his use of dim lighting, he said bright lights make the color of skin appear unnatural, and that the lights and colors in his films represent \"the way the world looks to him\".Fincher has explored themes of martyrdom, alienation, and dehumanization of modern culture.", "In addition to the wider themes of good and evil, his characters are usually troubled, discontented, and flawed; they are often unable to socialize and suffer from loneliness.", "In ''Seven'', ''Zodiac'', and ''The Social Network'', themes of pressure and obsession are explored, leading to the character's downfall.", "Quoting historian Frank Krutnik, the writer Piers McCarthy argues that \"the protagonists of these films are not totally in control of their actions but are subject to darker, inner impulses\".In a 2017 interview, Fincher explained his fascination of sinister themes: \"There was always a house in any neighborhood that I ever lived in that all the kids on the street wondered, 'What are those people up to?'", "We sort of attach the sinister to the mundane in order to make things interesting...", "I think it's also because in order for something to be evil, it almost has to cloak itself as something else.\"", "Fincher once stated, \"I think people are perverts.", "I've maintained that.", "That's the foundation of my career.", "\"=== Collaborators ===Frequent Fincher collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus RossOver the course of his career, Fincher has shown loyalty to many members of his cast and crew.", "As a music video director, he collaborated with Paula Abdul five times, as well as Madonna and Rick Springfield four times each.", "Once he made the transition to feature films, he cast Brad Pitt in three of them.", "He said of Pitt, \"On-screen and off-screen, Brad's the ultimate guy... he has such a great ease with who he is.\"", "Bob Stephenson, Michael Massee, Christopher John Fields, John Getz, Elias Koteas, Zach Grenier, Charles Dance, Rooney Mara, Jared Leto, and Richmond Arquette have also appeared in at least two of his films.", "''Fight Club'' was scored by the Dust Brothers, who at that point had never scored a film.", "Describing their working relationship with Fincher, they said he \"was not hanging over our shoulders telling us what to do\" and that the only direction he gave was to make the music sound as great as the score from ''The Graduate'' (1967).", "Nine Inch Nails members Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross composed the music for ''The Social Network'', ''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo'', ''Gone Girl'', ''Mank'', and ''The Killer''.", "The musicians describe their working relationship as \"collaborative, respectful, and inspiring\" although quipped that it \"hasn't gotten any easier\".", "Many years before the duo worked with Fincher, he arranged for a remix of the Nine Inch Nails song \"Closer\" to play over the opening credits of ''Seven''.", "Howard Shore composed the scores for ''Seven'', ''The Game'', and ''Panic Room''.Darius Khondji and Jeff Cronenweth have served as cinematographers for Fincher's films.", "Khondji said, \"Fincher deserves a lot of credit.", "It was his influence that pushed me to experiment and got me as far as I did.\"", "Fincher has hired sound designer Ren Klyce in all his films since 1995 and trusts him \"implicitly\".", "He has worked with film editor Angus Wall since 1988.Wall has worked on seven of his films, five of which as editor.Donald Graham Burt has served as a production designer for six films and Bob Wagner has served as an assistant director for six.", "Casting director Laray Mayfield has worked with Fincher for over 20 years.", "In a 2010 interview, Fincher said, \"You don't have to love all of your co-collaborators, but you do have to respect them.", "And when you do, when you realize that people bring stuff to the table that's not necessarily your experience, but if you allow yourself to relate to it, it can enrich the buffet that you're going to bring with you into the editing room.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Fincher married model Donya Fiorentino (sister of actress Linda Fiorentino).", "They had one daughter together, Phelix Imogen (born 1994), before divorcing in 1995.Fincher married producer Ceán Chaffin in 2013." ], [ "Works", "'''Directed feature films''' Year Title Distributor1992''Alien 3''20th Century Fox1995''Se7en''New Line Cinema1997''The Game''PolyGram Filmed Entertainment1999''Fight Club''20th Century Fox2002''Panic Room''Sony Pictures Releasing 2007''Zodiac''Paramount Pictures / Warner Bros. Pictures2008''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button''2010''The Social Network''Sony Pictures Releasing 2011''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo''2014''Gone Girl''20th Century Fox2020''Mank''Netflix2023''The Killer''" ], [ "Awards and recognitions", "Tim Walker of ''The Independent'' praised Fincher's work, stating \"His portrayals of the modern psyche have a power and precision that few film-makers can match.\"", "In 2003, Fincher was ranked 39th in ''The Guardian'''s 40 best directors.", "In 2012, ''The Guardian'' listed him again in their ranking of 23 best film directors in the world, applauding \"his ability to sustain tone and tension\".", "In 2016'', Zodiac'' and ''The Social Network'' appeared in the BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century list.", "In addition to films, Fincher has often been admired for producing some of the most creative music videos.Fincher received three Academy Award for Best Director nominations for ''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button'' (2008), ''The Social Network'' (2010), and ''Mank'' (2020).", "He won both the BAFTA Award for Best Direction and the Golden Globe Award for Best Director for ''The Social Network''.", "He also received two Grammy Awards for \"Love Is Strong\" (1995) by ''The Rolling Stones'' and \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z as well as four Primetime Emmy Awards for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for ''House of Cards'' (2013) and three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program for ''Love, Death & Robots''." ], [ "See also", "* David Fincher's unrealized projects" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of decades, centuries, and millennia" ], [ "Introduction", "The list below includes links to articles with further details for each decade, century, and millennium from 13,000BC to AD3000.Century Decades 13th millennium BC · 13,000–12,001 BC 12th millennium BC · 12,000–11,001 BC 11th millennium BC · 11,000–10,001 BC 10th millennium BC · 10,000–9001 BC 9th millennium BC · 9000–8001 BC 8th millennium BC · 8000–7001 BC 7th millennium BC · 7000–6001 BC 6th millennium BC · 6000–5001 BC 5th millennium BC · 5000–4001 BC 4th millennium BC · 4000–3001 BC 40th century BC 39th century BC 38th century BC 37th century BC 36th century BC 35th century BC 34th century BC 33rd century BC 32nd century BC 31st century BC 3rd millennium BC · 3000–2001 BC 30th century BC 29th century BC 28th century BC 27th century BC 26th century BC 25th century BC 24th century BC 23rd century BC 22nd century BC 21st century BC 2nd millennium BC · 2000–1001 BC 20th century BC 19th century BC 18th century BC 1790s BC 1780s BC 1770s BC 1760s BC 1750s BC 1740s BC 1730s BC 1720s BC 1710s BC 1700s BC 17th century BC 1690s BC 1680s BC 1670s BC 1660s BC 1650s BC 1640s BC 1630s BC 1620s BC 1610s BC 1600s BC 16th century BC 1590s BC 1580s BC 1570s BC 1560s BC 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC 1500s BC 15th century BC 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC 1440s BC 1430s BC 1420s BC 1410s BC 1400s BC 14th century BC 1390s BC 1380s BC 1370s BC 1360s BC 1350s BC 1340s BC 1330s BC 1320s BC 1310s BC 1300s BC 13th century BC 1290s BC 1280s BC 1270s BC 1260s BC 1250s BC 1240s BC 1230s BC 1220s BC 1210s BC 1200s BC 12th century BC 1190s BC 1180s BC 1170s BC 1160s BC 1150s BC 1140s BC 1130s BC 1120s BC 1110s BC 1100s BC 11th century BC 1090s BC 1080s BC 1070s BC 1060s BC 1050s BC 1040s BC 1030s BC 1020s BC 1010s BC 1000s BC 1st millennium BC · 1000–1 BC 10th century BC 990s BC 980s BC 970s BC 960s BC 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC 900s BC 9th century BC 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC 800s BC 8th century BC 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC 740s BC 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC 700s BC 7th century BC 690s BC 680s BC 670s BC 660s BC 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC 600s BC 6th century BC 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC 510s BC 500s BC 5th century BC 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 4th century BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 3rd century BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 2nd century BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 1st century BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 1st millennium · AD 1–1000 1st century 0s 10s 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s 70s 80s 90s 2nd century 100s 110s 120s 130s 140s 150s 160s 170s 180s 190s 3rd century 200s 210s 220s 230s 240s 250s 260s 270s 280s 290s 4th century 300s 310s 320s 330s 340s 350s 360s 370s 380s 390s 5th century 400s 410s 420s 430s 440s 450s 460s 470s 480s 490s 6th century 500s 510s 520s 530s 540s 550s 560s 570s 580s 590s 7th century 600s 610s 620s 630s 640s 650s 660s 670s 680s 690s 8th century 700s 710s 720s 730s 740s 750s 760s 770s 780s 790s 9th century 800s 810s 820s 830s 840s 850s 860s 870s 880s 890s 10th century 900s 910s 920s 930s 940s 950s 960s 970s 980s 990s 2nd millennium · AD 1001–2000 11th century 1000s 1010s 1020s 1030s 1040s 1050s 1060s 1070s 1080s 1090s 12th century 1100s 1110s 1120s 1130s 1140s 1150s 1160s 1170s 1180s 1190s 13th century 1200s 1210s 1220s 1230s 1240s 1250s 1260s 1270s 1280s 1290s 14th century 1300s 1310s 1320s 1330s 1340s 1350s 1360s 1370s 1380s 1390s 15th century 1400s 1410s 1420s 1430s 1440s 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s 1490s 16th century 1500s 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s 1560s 1570s 1580s 1590s 17th century 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s 1640s 1650s 1660s 1670s 1680s 1690s 18th century 1700s 1710s 1720s 1730s 1740s 1750s 1760s 1770s 1780s 1790s 19th century 1800s 1810s 1820s 1830s 1840s 1850s 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 20th century 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 3rd millennium · AD 2001–3000 21st century 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2050s 2060s 2070s 2080s 2090s" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* List of years* Timelines of world history* List of timelines* Chronology* See calendar and list of calendars for other groupings of years.", "* See history, history by period, and periodization for different organizations of historical events.", "* For earlier time periods, see Timeline of the Big Bang, Geologic time scale, Timeline of evolution, and Logarithmic timeline." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Douglas Engelbart" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Douglas Carl Engelbart''' (January 30, 1925 – July 2, 2013) was an American engineer and inventor, and an early computer and Internet pioneer.", "He is best known for his work on founding the field of human–computer interaction, particularly while at his Augmentation Research Center Lab in SRI International, which resulted in creation of the computer mouse, and the development of hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to graphical user interfaces.", "These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968.Engelbart's law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him.NLS, the \"oN-Line System\", developed by the Augmentation Research Center under Engelbart's guidance with funding primarily from ARPA (as DARPA was then known), demonstrated numerous technologies, most of which are now in widespread use; it included the computer mouse, bitmapped screens, hypertext; all of which were displayed at \"The Mother of All Demos\" in 1968.The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, and NLS was renamed Augment (now the Doug Engelbart Institute).", "At both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them and retired in 1986.In 1988, Engelbart and his daughter Christina launched the Bootstrap Institute – later known as The Doug Engelbart Institute – to promote his vision, especially at Stanford University; this effort did result in some DARPA funding to modernize the user interface of Augment.", "In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the U.S.'s highest technology award.", "In December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th anniversary of the \"Mother of All Demos\"." ], [ "Early life and education", "Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon, on January 30, 1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and Gladys Charlotte Amelia Munson Engelbart.", "His ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent.He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne (three years older), and a brother David (14 months younger).", "The family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8.His father died one year later.", "He graduated from Portland's Franklin High School in 1942.Midway through his undergraduate years at Oregon State University, he served two years in the United States Navy as a radio and radar technician in the Philippines.", "It was there, on the remote island of Leyte in a small traditional hut on stilts, that he read Vannevar Bush's article \"As We May Think\", which would have a large influence on his thinking and work.", "He returned to Oregon State and completed his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in 1948.While at Oregon State, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity.", "He was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance.", "In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing.", "It was there he met Ballard Fish (August 18, 1928 – June 18, 1997), who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist.", "They were married in Portola State Park on May 5, 1951.Soon after, Engelbart left Ames to pursue graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley.", "At Berkeley, he studied electrical engineering with a specialty in computers, earning his MS in 1953 and his PhD in 1955." ], [ "Career and accomplishments", "prototype of a computer mouse, as designed by Bill English from Engelbart's sketches=== Guiding philosophy ===Engelbart's career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no career goals other than \"a steady job, getting married and living happily ever after\".", "Over several months he reasoned that:# he would focus his career on making the world a better place# any serious effort to make the world better would require some kind of organized effort that harnessed the collective human intellect of all people to contribute to effective solutions.# if you could dramatically improve how we do that, you'd be boosting every effort on the planet to solve important problems – the sooner the better# computers could be the vehicle for dramatically improving this capability.In 1945, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bush's article \"As We May Think\", a call to action for making knowledge widely available as a national peacetime grand challenge.", "He had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen.", "He envisioned intellectual workers sitting at display \"working stations\", flying through information space, harnessing their collective intellectual capacity to solve important problems together in much more powerful ways.", "Harnessing collective intellect, facilitated by interactive computers, became his life's mission at a time when computers were viewed as number crunching tools.As a graduate student at Berkeley, he assisted in the construction of CALDIC.", "His graduate work led to eight patents.", "After completing his doctorate, Engelbart stayed on at Berkeley as an assistant professor for a year before departing when it became clear that he could not pursue his vision there.", "Engelbart then formed a startup company, Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctoral research on storage devices, but after a year decided instead to pursue the research he had been dreaming of since 1951.=== SRI and the Augmentation Research Center ===Engelbart took a position at SRI International (known then as Stanford Research Institute) in Menlo Park, California in 1957.He worked for Hewitt Crane on magnetic devices and miniaturization of electronics; Engelbart and Crane became close friends.", "At SRI, Engelbart soon obtained a dozen patents, and by 1962 produced a report about his vision and proposed research agenda titled ''Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework''.", "Among other highlights, this paper introduced \"Building Information Modelling\", which architectural and engineering practice eventually adopted (first as \"parametric design\") in the 1990s and after.This led to funding from ARPA to launch his work.", "Engelbart recruited a research team in his new Augmentation Research Center (ARC, the lab he founded at SRI).", "Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed \"bootstrapping strategy\".", "He designed the strategy to accelerate the rate of innovation of his lab.The ARC became the driving force behind the design and development of the oN-Line System (NLS).", "He and his team developed computer interface elements such as bitmapped screens, the mouse, hypertext, collaborative tools, and precursors to the graphical user interface.", "He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most computers were inaccessible to individuals who could only use computers through intermediaries (see batch processing), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems.Apple Macintosh Plus mice, 1986Engelbart applied for a patent in 1967 and received it in 1970, for the wooden shell with two metal wheels (computer mouse – ), which he had developed with Bill English, his lead engineer, sometime before 1965.In the patent application it is described as an \"X-Y position indicator for a display system\".", "Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the \"mouse\" because the tail came out the end.", "His group also called the on-screen Cursor a \"bug\", but this term was not widely adopted.", "Engelbart's original cursor was displayed as an arrow pointing upward, but was slanted to the left upon its deployment in the XEROX PARC machine to better distinguish between on-screen text and the cursor in the machine's low-resolution interface.", "The now-familiar cursor arrow is characterized by a vertical left side and a 45-degree angle on the right.He never received any royalties for the invention of the mouse.", "During an interview, he said, \"SRI patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value.", "Some years later it was learned that they had licensed it to Apple Computer for something like $40,000.\"", "Engelbart showcased the chorded keyboard and many more of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at The Mother of All Demos.=== Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas ===Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity by the mid-1970s.", "As early as 1970, several of his researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for Xerox PARC, in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing.", "Engelbart saw the future in collaborative, networked, timeshare (client-server) computers, which younger programmers rejected in favor of the personal computer.", "The conflict was both technical and ideological: the younger programmers came from an era where centralized power was highly suspect, and personal computing was just barely on the horizon.Beginning in 1972, several key ARC personnel were involved in Erhard Seminars Training (EST), with Engelbart ultimately serving on the corporation's board of directors for many years.", "Although EST had been recommended by other researchers, the controversial nature of EST and other social experiments reduced the morale and social cohesion of the ARC community.", "The 1969 Mansfield Amendment, which ended military funding of non-military research, the end of the Vietnam War, and the end of the Apollo program gradually reduced ARC's funding from ARPA and NASA throughout the early 1970s.SRI's management, which disapproved of Engelbart's approach to running the center, placed the remains of ARC under the control of artificial intelligence researcher Bertram Raphael, who negotiated the transfer of the laboratory to Tymshare in 1976.Engelbart's house in Atherton, California burned down during this period, causing him and his family further problems.", "Tymshare took over NLS and the lab that Engelbart had founded, hired most of the lab's staff (including its creator as a Senior Scientist), renamed the software ''Augment'', and offered it as a commercial service via its new Office Automation Division.", "Tymshare was already somewhat familiar with NLS; when ARC was still operational, it had experimented with its own local copy of the NLS software on a minicomputer called OFFICE-1, as part of a joint project with ARC.At Tymshare, Engelbart soon found himself further marginalized.", "Operational concerns at Tymshare overrode Engelbart's desire to conduct ongoing research.", "Various executives, first at Tymshare and later at McDonnell Douglas, which acquired Tymshare in 1984, expressed interest in his ideas, but never committed the funds or the people to further develop them.", "His interest inside of McDonnell Douglas was focused on the enormous knowledge management and IT requirements involved in the life cycle of an aerospace program, which served to strengthen Engelbart's resolve to motivate the information technology arena toward global interoperability and an open hyperdocument system.", "Engelbart retired from McDonnell Douglas in 1986, determined to pursue his work free from commercial pressure.=== Bootstrap and the Doug Engelbart Institute ===Teaming with his daughter, Christina Engelbart, he founded the Bootstrap Institute in 1988 to coalesce his ideas into a series of three-day and half-day management seminars offered at Stanford University from 1989 to 2000.By the early 1990s there was sufficient interest among his seminar graduates to launch a collaborative implementation of his work, and the Bootstrap Alliance was formed as a non-profit home base for this effort.", "Although the invasion of Iraq and subsequent recession spawned a rash of belt-tightening reorganizations which drastically redirected the efforts of their alliance partners, they continued with the management seminars, consulting, and small-scale collaborations.", "In the mid-1990s they were awarded some DARPA funding to develop a modern user interface to Augment, called Visual AugTerm (VAT), while participating in a larger program addressing the IT requirements of the Joint Task Force.Engelbart was Founder Emeritus of the Doug Engelbart Institute, which he founded in 1988 with his daughter Christina Engelbart, who is Executive Director.", "The Institute promotes Engelbart's philosophy for boosting Collective IQ—the concept of dramatically improving how we can solve important problems together—using a strategic ''bootstrapping'' approach for accelerating our progress toward that goal.", "In 2005, Engelbart received a National Science Foundation grant to fund the open source HyperScope project.", "The Hyperscope team built a browser component using Ajax and Dynamic HTML designed to replicate Augment's multiple viewing and jumping capabilities (linking within and across various documents).=== Later years and death ===Engelbart attended the Program for the Future 2010 Conference where hundreds of people convened at The Tech Museum in San Jose and online to engage in dialog about how to pursue his vision to augment collective intelligence.The most complete coverage of Engelbart's bootstrapping ideas can be found in ''Boosting Our Collective IQ'', by Douglas C. Engelbart, 1995.This includes three of Engelbart's key papers, edited into book form by Yuri Rubinsky and Christina Engelbart to commemorate the presentation of the 1995 SoftQuad Web Award to Doug Engelbart at the World Wide Web conference in Boston in December 1995.Only 2,000 softcover copies were printed, and 100 hardcover, numbered and signed by Engelbart and Tim Berners-Lee.", "Engelbart's book is now being republished by the Doug Engelbart Institute.Two comprehensive histories of Engelbart's laboratory and work are in ''What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry'' by John Markoff and ''A Heritage of Innovation: SRI's First Half Century'' by Donald Neilson.", "Other books on Engelbart and his laboratory include ''Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing'' by Thierry Bardini and ''The Engelbart Hypothesis: Dialogs with Douglas Engelbart'', by Valerie Landau and Eileen Clegg in conversation with Douglas Engelbart.", "All four of these books are based on interviews with Engelbart as well as other contributors in his laboratory.Engelbart served on the Advisory Boards of the University of Santa Clara Center for Science, Technology, and Society, Foresight Institute, Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, The Technology Center of Silicon Valley, and The Liquid Information Company.Engelbart had four children, Gerda, Diana, Christina and Norman with his first wife Ballard, who died in 1997 after 47 years of marriage.", "He remarried on January 26, 2008, to writer and producer Karen O'Leary Engelbart.", "An 85th birthday celebration was held at the Tech Museum of Innovation.", "Engelbart died at his home in Atherton, California, on July 2, 2013, due to kidney failure.", "A close friend and fellow internet pioneer, Ted Nelson, gave a speech paying tribute to Engelbart.", "According to the Doug Engelbart Institute, his death came after a long battle with Alzheimer's disease, which he was diagnosed with in 2007.Engelbart was 88 and was survived by his second wife, the four children from his first marriage, and nine grandchildren.=== Anecdotal notes ===Historian of science Thierry Bardini argues that Engelbart's complex personal philosophy (which drove all his research) foreshadowed the modern application of the concept of coevolution to the philosophy and use of technology.", "Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the principle of linguistic relativity developed by Benjamin Lee Whorf.", "Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved technologies.", "He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Since the late 1980s, prominent individuals and organizations have recognized the seminal importance of Engelbart's contributions.", "In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award.", "In 1997, he was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the ACM Turing Award.", "To mark the 30th anniversary of Engelbart's 1968 demo, in 1998 the Stanford Silicon Valley Archives and the Institute for the Future hosted ''Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution'', a symposium at Stanford University's Memorial Auditorium, to honor Engelbart and his ideas.", "He was inducted into National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998.Engelbart was awarded the Stibitz-Wilson Award from the American Computer & Robotics Museum in 1998.Also in 1998, Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) SIGCHI awarded Engelbart the CHI Lifetime Achievement Award.", "ACM SIGCHI later inducted Engelbart into the CHI Academy in 2002.Engelbart was awarded The Franklin Institute's Certificate of Merit in 1996 and the Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1999 in Computer and Cognitive Science.", "In early 2000 Engelbart produced, with volunteers and sponsors, what was called ''The Unfinished Revolution – II'', also known as the ''Engelbart Colloquium'' at Stanford University, to document and publicize his work and ideas to a larger audience (live, and online).In December 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the country's highest technology award.", "In 2001 he was awarded the British Computer Society's Lovelace Medal.", "In 2005, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum \"for advancing the study of human–computer interaction, developing the mouse input device, and for the application of computers to improving organizational efficiency.\"", "He was honored with the Norbert Wiener Award, which is given annually by Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility.", "Robert X. Cringely did an hour-long interview with Engelbart on December 9, 2005, in his NerdTV video podcast series.On December 9, 2008, Engelbart was honored at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 \"Mother of All Demos\".", "This event, produced by SRI International, was held at Memorial Auditorium at Stanford University.", "Speakers included several members of Engelbart's original Augmentation Research Center (ARC) team including Don Andrews, Bill Paxton, Bill English, and Jeff Rulifson, Engelbart's chief government sponsor Bob Taylor, and other pioneers of interactive computing, including Andy van Dam and Alan Kay.", "In addition, Christina Engelbart spoke about her father's early influences and the ongoing work of the Doug Engelbart Institute.In June 2009, the New Media Consortium recognized Engelbart as an NMC Fellow for his lifetime of achievements.", "In 2011, Engelbart was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame.", "Engelbart received the first honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree from Yale University in May 2011." ], [ "See also", "* Dynamic knowledge repository* Global brain* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " The ''Doug Engelbart Foundation'' claims the book was not authorized by Douglas Engelbart and he was not a co-author.", "* How Douglas Engelbart Invented the Future \| Innovation \| Smithsonian" ], [ "External links", "* Doug Engelbart's official Web site and home of the Doug Engelbart Institute (formerly Bootstrap)* * Douglas Engelbart Interviewed by John Markoff of the New York Times (recorded March 26, 2002)* Guide to the Douglas C. Engelbart Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries (with new accessions added in 2016)* \"The Augmentation of Douglas Engelbart\", a documentary film directed by Daniel Silveira, 2018" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diamond" ], [ "Introduction", "Main diamond producing countries'''Diamond''' is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic.", "Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure, but diamond is metastable and converts to it at a negligible rate under those conditions.", "Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools.", "They are also the reason that diamond anvil cells can subject materials to pressures found deep in the Earth.Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it (two exceptions are boron and nitrogen).", "Small numbers of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange, or red.", "Diamond also has a very high refractive index and a relatively high optical dispersion.Most natural diamonds have ages between 1 billion and 3.5 billion years.", "Most were formed at depths between in the Earth's mantle, although a few have come from as deep as .", "Under high pressure and temperature, carbon-containing fluids dissolved various minerals and replaced them with diamonds.", "Much more recently (hundreds to tens of million years ago), they were carried to the surface in volcanic eruptions and deposited in igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites.Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gases by chemical vapor deposition (CVD).", "Imitation diamonds can also be made out of materials such as cubic zirconia and silicon carbide.", "Natural, synthetic, and imitation diamonds are most commonly distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements." ], [ "Properties", "Diamond is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal.", "Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond.", "The two most common allotropes of pure carbon are diamond and graphite.", "In graphite the bonds are sp2 orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes, with each bound to three nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart.", "In diamond they are sp3 and the atoms form tetrahedra with each bound to four nearest neighbors.", "Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, and of all known substances diamond has the greatest number of atoms per unit volume, which is why it is both the hardest and the least compressible.", "It also has a high density, ranging from 3150 to 3530 kilograms per cubic metre (over three times the density of water) in natural diamonds and 3520 kg/m in pure diamond.", "In graphite, the bonds between nearest neighbors are even stronger, but the bonds between parallel adjacent planes are weak, so the planes easily slip past each other.", "Thus, graphite is much softer than diamond.", "However, the stronger bonds make graphite less flammable.Diamonds have been adopted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics.", "It has the highest thermal conductivity and the highest sound velocity.", "It has low adhesion and friction, and its coefficient of thermal expansion is extremely low.", "Its optical transparency extends from the far infrared to the deep ultraviolet and it has high optical dispersion.", "It also has high electrical resistance.", "It is chemically inert, not reacting with most corrosive substances, and has excellent biological compatibility.=== Thermodynamics ===Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbonThe equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond are well established theoretically and experimentally.", "The equilibrium pressure varies linearly with temperature, between at and at (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point).", "However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist.", "At normal temperature and pressure, and , the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible.", "However, at temperatures above about , diamond rapidly converts to graphite.", "Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at , a pressure of is needed.Above the graphite–diamond–liquid carbon triple point, the melting point of diamond increases slowly with increasing pressure; but at pressures of hundreds of GPa, it decreases.", "At high pressures, silicon and germanium have a BC8 body-centered cubic crystal structure, and a similar structure is predicted for carbon at high pressures.", "At , the transition is predicted to occur at .Research results published in an article in the scientific journal ''Nature Physics'' in 2010 suggest that at ultrahigh pressures and temperatures (about 10 million atmospheres or 1 TPa and 50,000 °C) diamond melts into a metallic fluid.", "The extreme conditions required for this to occur are present in the ice giants Neptune and Uranus.", "Both planets are made up of approximately 10 percent carbon and could hypothetically contain oceans of liquid carbon.", "Since large quantities of metallic fluid can affect the magnetic field, this could serve as an explanation as to why the geographic and magnetic poles of the two planets are unaligned.=== Crystal structure ===Diamond unit cell, showing the tetrahedral structureThe most common crystal structure of diamond is called diamond cubic.", "It is formed of unit cells (see the figure) stacked together.", "Although there are 18 atoms in the figure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells and each atom in the center of a face is shared by two, so there are a total of eight atoms per unit cell.", "The length of each side of the unit cell is denoted by ''a'' and is 3.567 angstroms.The nearest neighbour distance in the diamond lattice is 1.732''a''/4 where ''a'' is the lattice constant, usually given in Angstrøms as ''a'' = 3.567 Å, which is 0.3567 nm.A diamond cubic lattice can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices with one displaced by of the diagonal along a cubic cell, or as one lattice with two atoms associated with each lattice point.", "Viewed from a crystallographic direction, it is formed of layers stacked in a repeating ABCABC ... pattern.", "Diamonds can also form an ABAB ... structure, which is known as hexagonal diamond or lonsdaleite, but this is far less common and is formed under different conditions from cubic carbon.=== Crystal habit ===One face of an uncut octahedral diamond, showing trigons (of positive and negative relief) formed by natural chemical etchingDiamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as ''macles''.", "As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron, or disdyakis dodecahedron.", "The crystals can have rounded-off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated.", "Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in ''nyf'', an opaque gum-like skin.Some diamonds contain opaque fibers.", "They are referred to as ''opaque'' if the fibers grow from a clear substrate or ''fibrous'' if they occupy the entire crystal.", "Their colors range from yellow to green or gray, sometimes with cloud-like white to gray impurities.", "Their most common shape is cuboidal, but they can also form octahedra, dodecahedra, macles, or combined shapes.", "The structure is the result of numerous impurities with sizes between 1 and 5 microns.", "These diamonds probably formed in kimberlite magma and sampled the volatiles.Diamonds can also form polycrystalline aggregates.", "There have been attempts to classify them into groups with names such as boart, ballas, stewartite, and framesite, but there is no widely accepted set of criteria.", "Carbonado, a type in which the diamond grains were sintered (fused without melting by the application of heat and pressure), is black in color and tougher than single crystal diamond.", "It has never been observed in a volcanic rock.", "There are many theories for its origin, including formation in a star, but no consensus.=== Mechanical ======= Hardness ====The extreme hardness of diamond in certain orientations makes it useful in materials science, as in this pyramidal diamond embedded in the working surface of a Vickers hardness tester.Diamond is the hardest material on the qualitative Mohs scale.", "To conduct the quantitative Vickers hardness test, samples of materials are struck with a pyramid of standardized dimensions using a known force - a diamond crystal is used for the pyramid to permit a wide range of materials to be tested.", "From the size of the resulting indentation, a Vickers hardness value for the material can be determined.", "Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.", "This does not mean that it is infinitely hard, indestructible, or unscratchable.", "Indeed, diamonds can be scratched by other diamonds and worn down over time even by softer materials, such as vinyl phonograph records.Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection, and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice).", "Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates.The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone.", "Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well.", "Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia.", "These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds.", "Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth.", "Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness.", "It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges.Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it.", "Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones.", "Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature.", "The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly, using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones; these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges.", "Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion.", "Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds \"by eye\".==== Toughness ====Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property ''toughness'', which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact.", "The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 50–65 MPa·m1/2.This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughness over 80MPa·m1/2.As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage.", "Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others.", "Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting.", "\"Impact toughness\" is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds.==== Yield strength ====Diamond has compressive yield strength of 130–140GPa.", "This exceptionally high value, along with the hardness and transparency of diamond, are the reasons that diamond anvil cells are the main tool for high pressure experiments.", "These anvils have reached pressures of .", "Much higher pressures may be possible with nanocrystalline diamonds.==== Elasticity and tensile strength ====Usually, attempting to deform bulk diamond crystal by tension or bending results in brittle fracture.", "However, when single crystalline diamond is in the form of micro/nanoscale wires or needles (~100–300nanometers in diameter, micrometers long), they can be elastically stretched by as much as 9–10 percent tensile strain without failure, with a maximum local tensile stress of , very close to the theoretical limit for this material.=== Electrical conductivity ===Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.", "The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity.", "Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition.", "This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments.Thin needles of diamond can be made to vary their electronic band gap from the normal 5.6 eV to near zero by selective mechanical deformation.High-purity diamond wafers 5 cm in diameter exhibit perfect resistance in one direction and perfect conductance in the other, creating the possibility of using them for quantum data storage.", "The material contains only 3 parts per million of nitrogen.", "The diamond was grown on a stepped substrate, which eliminated cracking.=== Surface property ===Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot be wet by water, but can be easily wet and stuck by oil.", "This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds.", "However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature.The surface of diamonds is partially oxidized.", "The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow.", "That is to say, this heat treatment partially removes oxygen-containing functional groups.", "But diamonds (sp3C) are unstable against high temperature (above about ) under atmospheric pressure.", "The structure gradually changes into sp2C above this temperature.", "Thus, diamonds should be reduced below this temperature.=== Chemical stability ===At room temperature, diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases.In an atmosphere of pure oxygen, diamond has an ignition point that ranges from to ; smaller crystals tend to burn more easily.", "It increases in temperature from red to white heat and burns with a pale blue flame, and continues to burn after the source of heat is removed.", "By contrast, in air the combustion will cease as soon as the heat is removed because the oxygen is diluted with nitrogen.", "A clear, flawless, transparent diamond is completely converted to carbon dioxide; any impurities will be left as ash.", "Heat generated from cutting a diamond will not ignite the diamond, and neither will a cigarette lighter, but house fires and blow torches are hot enough.", "Jewelers must be careful when molding the metal in a diamond ring.Diamond powder of an appropriate grain size (around 50microns) burns with a shower of sparks after ignition from a flame.", "Consequently, pyrotechnic compositions based on synthetic diamond powder can be prepared.", "The resulting sparks are of the usual red-orange color, comparable to charcoal, but show a very linear trajectory which is explained by their high density.", "Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about .=== Color ===Brown diamonds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.The most famous colored diamond, the Hope DiamondDiamond has a wide band gap of corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225nanometers.", "This means that pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal.", "Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities.", "The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong, and only atoms of nitrogen, boron, and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents).", "Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt.", "Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds.", "Boron is responsible for the blue color.", "Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice.", "Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds.", "In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red.", "\"Black\", or carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance.", "Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless.", "Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw.", "The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present.", "The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the ''normal color range'', and applies a grading scale from \"D\" (colorless) to \"Z\" (light yellow).", "Yellow diamonds of high color saturation or a different color, such as pink or blue, are called ''fancy colored'' diamonds and fall under a different grading scale.In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched over US$24 million at a Christie's auction.", "In May 2009, a blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euros, or US$9.5 million at the time).", "That record was, however, beaten the same year: a vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.=== Clarity ===Clarity is one of the 4C's (color, clarity, cut and carat weight) that helps in identifying the quality of diamonds.", "The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) developed 11 clarity scales to decide the quality of a diamond for its sale value.", "The GIA clarity scale spans from Flawless (FL) to included (I) having internally flawless (IF), very, very slightly included (VVS), very slightly included (VS) and slightly included (SI) in between.", "Impurities in natural diamonds are due to the presence of natural minerals and oxides.", "The clarity scale grades the diamond based on the color, size, location of impurity and quantity of clarity visible under 10x magnification.", "Inclusions in diamond can be extracted by optical methods.", "The process is to take pre-enhancement images, identifying the inclusion removal part and finally removing the diamond facets and noises.=== Fluorescence ===UV light (top) and normal light (bottom)Extremely rare purple fluorescent diamonds from the Ellendale L-Channel deposit in AustraliaBetween 25% and 35% of natural diamonds exhibit some degree of fluorescence when examined under invisible long-wave ultraviolet light or higher energy radiation sources such as X-rays and lasers.", "Incandescent lighting will not cause a diamond to fluoresce.", "Diamonds can fluoresce in a variety of colours including blue (most common), orange, yellow, white, green and very rarely red and purple.", "Although the causes are not well understood, variations in the atomic structure, such as the number of nitrogen atoms present are thought to contribute to the phenomenon.=== Thermal conductivity ===Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity (900–).", "Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity." ], [ "Geology", "Diamonds are extremely rare, with concentrations of at most parts per billion in source rock.", "Before the 20th century, most diamonds were found in alluvial deposits.", "Loose diamonds are also found along existing and ancient shorelines, where they tend to accumulate because of their size and density.", "Rarely, they have been found in glacial till (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana), but these deposits are not of commercial quality.", "These types of deposit were derived from localized igneous intrusions through weathering and transport by wind or water.Most diamonds come from the Earth's mantle, and most of this section discusses those diamonds.", "However, there are other sources.", "Some blocks of the crust, or terranes, have been buried deep enough as the crust thickened so they experienced ultra-high-pressure metamorphism.", "These have evenly distributed ''microdiamonds'' that show no sign of transport by magma.", "In addition, when meteorites strike the ground, the shock wave can produce high enough temperatures and pressures for ''microdiamonds'' and ''nanodiamonds'' to form.", "Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters.", "Popigai impact structure in Russia may have the world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, and formed by an asteroid impact.A common misconception is that diamonds form from highly compressed coal.", "Coal is formed from buried prehistoric plants, and most diamonds that have been dated are far older than the first land plants.", "It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones, but diamonds formed in this way are rare, and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal.=== Surface distribution ===Geologic provinces of the world.", "The pink and orange areas are shields and platforms, which together constitute cratons.Diamonds are far from evenly distributed over the Earth.", "A rule of thumb known as Clifford's rule states that they are almost always found in kimberlites on the oldest part of cratons, the stable cores of continents with typical ages of 2.5billion years or more.", "However, there are exceptions.", "The Argyle diamond mine in Australia, the largest producer of diamonds by weight in the world, is located in a ''mobile belt'', also known as an ''orogenic belt'', a weaker zone surrounding the central craton that has undergone compressional tectonics.", "Instead of kimberlite, the host rock is lamproite.", "Lamproites with diamonds that are not economically viable are also found in the United States, India, and Australia.", "In addition, diamonds in the Wawa belt of the Superior province in Canada and microdiamonds in the island arc of Japan are found in a type of rock called lamprophyre.Kimberlites can be found in narrow (1 to 4 meters) dikes and sills, and in pipes with diameters that range from about 75 m to 1.5 km.", "Fresh rock is dark bluish green to greenish gray, but after exposure rapidly turns brown and crumbles.", "It is hybrid rock with a chaotic mixture of small minerals and rock fragments (clasts) up to the size of watermelons.", "They are a mixture of xenocrysts and xenoliths (minerals and rocks carried up from the lower crust and mantle), pieces of surface rock, altered minerals such as serpentine, and new minerals that crystallized during the eruption.", "The texture varies with depth.", "The composition forms a continuum with carbonatites, but the latter have too much oxygen for carbon to exist in a pure form.", "Instead, it is locked up in the mineral calcite ().All three of the diamond-bearing rocks (kimberlite, lamproite and lamprophyre) lack certain minerals (melilite and kalsilite) that are incompatible with diamond formation.", "In kimberlite, olivine is large and conspicuous, while lamproite has Ti-phlogopite and lamprophyre has biotite and amphibole.", "They are all derived from magma types that erupt rapidly from small amounts of melt, are rich in volatiles and magnesium oxide, and are less oxidizing than more common mantle melts such as basalt.", "These characteristics allow the melts to carry diamonds to the surface before they dissolve.=== Exploration ===Diavik Mine, on an island in Lac de Gras in northern CanadaKimberlite pipes can be difficult to find.", "They weather quickly (within a few years after exposure) and tend to have lower topographic relief than surrounding rock.", "If they are visible in outcrops, the diamonds are never visible because they are so rare.", "In any case, kimberlites are often covered with vegetation, sediments, soils, or lakes.", "In modern searches, geophysical methods such as aeromagnetic surveys, electrical resistivity, and gravimetry, help identify promising regions to explore.", "This is aided by isotopic dating and modeling of the geological history.", "Then surveyors must go to the area and collect samples, looking for kimberlite fragments or ''indicator minerals''.", "The latter have compositions that reflect the conditions where diamonds form, such as extreme melt depletion or high pressures in eclogites.", "However, indicator minerals can be misleading; a better approach is geothermobarometry, where the compositions of minerals are analyzed as if they were in equilibrium with mantle minerals.Finding kimberlites requires persistence, and only a small fraction contain diamonds that are commercially viable.", "The only major discoveries since about 1980 have been in Canada.", "Since existing mines have lifetimes of as little as 25 years, there could be a shortage of new diamonds in the future.=== Ages ===Diamonds are dated by analyzing inclusions using the decay of radioactive isotopes.", "Depending on the elemental abundances, one can look at the decay of rubidium to strontium, samarium to neodymium, uranium to lead, argon-40 to argon-39, or rhenium to osmium.", "Those found in kimberlites have ages ranging from , and there can be multiple ages in the same kimberlite, indicating multiple episodes of diamond formation.", "The kimberlites themselves are much younger.", "Most of them have ages between tens of millions and 300 million years old, although there are some older exceptions (Argyle, Premier and Wawa).", "Thus, the kimberlites formed independently of the diamonds and served only to transport them to the surface.", "Kimberlites are also much younger than the cratons they have erupted through.", "The reason for the lack of older kimberlites is unknown, but it suggests there was some change in mantle chemistry or tectonics.", "No kimberlite has erupted in human history.=== Origin in mantle ===Eclogite with centimeter-size garnet crystalsRed garnet inclusion in a diamondMost gem-quality diamonds come from depths of 150–250 km in the lithosphere.", "Such depths occur below cratons in ''mantle keels'', the thickest part of the lithosphere.", "These regions have high enough pressure and temperature to allow diamonds to form and they are not convecting, so diamonds can be stored for billions of years until a kimberlite eruption samples them.Host rocks in a mantle keel include harzburgite and lherzolite, two type of peridotite.", "The most dominant rock type in the upper mantle, peridotite is an igneous rock consisting mostly of the minerals olivine and pyroxene; it is low in silica and high in magnesium.", "However, diamonds in peridotite rarely survive the trip to the surface.", "Another common source that does keep diamonds intact is eclogite, a metamorphic rock that typically forms from basalt as an oceanic plate plunges into the mantle at a subduction zone.A smaller fraction of diamonds (about 150 have been studied) come from depths of 330–660 km, a region that includes the transition zone.", "They formed in eclogite but are distinguished from diamonds of shallower origin by inclusions of majorite (a form of garnet with excess silicon).", "A similar proportion of diamonds comes from the lower mantle at depths between 660 and 800 km.Diamond is thermodynamically stable at high pressures and temperatures, with the phase transition from graphite occurring at greater temperatures as the pressure increases.", "Thus, underneath continents it becomes stable at temperatures of 950degrees Celsius and pressures of 4.5 gigapascals, corresponding to depths of 150kilometers or greater.", "In subduction zones, which are colder, it becomes stable at temperatures of 800 °C and pressures of 3.5gigapascals.", "At depths greater than 240 km, iron–nickel metal phases are present and carbon is likely to be either dissolved in them or in the form of carbides.", "Thus, the deeper origin of some diamonds may reflect unusual growth environments.In 2018 the first known natural samples of a phase of ice called Ice VII were found as inclusions in diamond samples.", "The inclusions formed at depths between 400 and 800 km, straddling the upper and lower mantle, and provide evidence for water-rich fluid at these depths.=== Carbon sources ===The mantle has roughly one billion gigatonnes of carbon (for comparison, the atmosphere-ocean system has about 44,000 gigatonnes).", "Carbon has two stable isotopes, 12C and 13C, in a ratio of approximately 99:1 by mass.", "This ratio has a wide range in meteorites, which implies that it also varied a lot in the early Earth.", "It can also be altered by surface processes like photosynthesis.", "The fraction is generally compared to a standard sample using a ratio δ13C expressed in parts per thousand.", "Common rocks from the mantle such as basalts, carbonatites, and kimberlites have ratios between −8 and −2.On the surface, organic sediments have an average of −25 while carbonates have an average of 0.Populations of diamonds from different sources have distributions of δ13C that vary markedly.", "Peridotitic diamonds are mostly within the typical mantle range; eclogitic diamonds have values from −40 to +3, although the peak of the distribution is in the mantle range.", "This variability implies that they are not formed from carbon that is ''primordial'' (having resided in the mantle since the Earth formed).", "Instead, they are the result of tectonic processes, although (given the ages of diamonds) not necessarily the same tectonic processes that act in the present.=== Formation and growth ===Age zones in a diamond.Diamonds in the mantle form through a ''metasomatic'' process where a C–O–H–N–S fluid or melt dissolves minerals in a rock and replaces them with new minerals.", "(The vague term C–O–H–N–S is commonly used because the exact composition is not known.)", "Diamonds form from this fluid either by reduction of oxidized carbon (e.g., CO2 or CO3) or oxidation of a reduced phase such as methane.Using probes such as polarized light, photoluminescence, and cathodoluminescence, a series of growth zones can be identified in diamonds.", "The characteristic pattern in diamonds from the lithosphere involves a nearly concentric series of zones with very thin oscillations in luminescence and alternating episodes where the carbon is resorbed by the fluid and then grown again.", "Diamonds from below the lithosphere have a more irregular, almost polycrystalline texture, reflecting the higher temperatures and pressures as well as the transport of the diamonds by convection.=== Transport to the surface ===Diagram of a volcanic pipeGeological evidence supports a model in which kimberlite magma rises at 4–20 meters per second, creating an upward path by hydraulic fracturing of the rock.", "As the pressure decreases, a vapor phase exsolves from the magma, and this helps to keep the magma fluid.", "At the surface, the initial eruption explodes out through fissures at high speeds (over ).", "Then, at lower pressures, the rock is eroded, forming a pipe and producing fragmented rock (breccia).", "As the eruption wanes, there is pyroclastic phase and then metamorphism and hydration produces serpentinites.=== Double diamonds ===Double diamond discovered in the Ellendale Diamond Field, Western AustraliaIn rare cases, diamonds have been found that contain a cavity within which is a second diamond.", "The first double diamond, the Matryoshka, was found by Alrosa in Yakutia, Russia, in 2019.Another one was found in the Ellendale Diamond Field in Western Australia in 2021.=== In space ===Although diamonds on Earth are rare, they are very common in space.", "In meteorites, about three percent of the carbon is in the form of nanodiamonds, having diameters of a few nanometers.", "Sufficiently small diamonds can form in the cold of space because their lower surface energy makes them more stable than graphite.", "The isotopic signatures of some nanodiamonds indicate they were formed outside the Solar System in stars.High pressure experiments predict that large quantities of diamonds condense from methane into a \"diamond rain\" on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune.", "Some extrasolar planets may be almost entirely composed of diamond.Diamonds may exist in carbon-rich stars, particularly white dwarfs.", "One theory for the origin of carbonado, the toughest form of diamond, is that it originated in a white dwarf or supernova.", "Diamonds formed in stars may have been the first minerals." ], [ "Industry", "brilliant cut diamond set in a ringThe most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials.", "The markets for gem-grade and industrial-grade diamonds value diamonds differently.=== Gem-grade diamonds ===The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds.", "In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem.", "Four characteristics, known informally as the ''four Cs'', are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are its mass in ''carats'' (a carat being equal to 0.2grams), ''cut'' (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), ''color'' (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and ''clarity'' (how free is it from inclusions).", "A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists.", "Although most gem-grade diamonds are sold newly polished, there is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g.", "pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.).", "One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; in 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India.", "Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, the Diamond District in New York City, the Diamond Exchange District in Tel Aviv and Amsterdam.", "One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large-pit mine that can produce between of diamonds per year).", "Secondary alluvial diamond deposits, on the other hand, tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled.", "This makes Antwerp a de facto \"world diamond capital\".", "The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds.", "Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.The De Beers company, as the world's largest diamond mining company, holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British businessman Cecil Rhodes.", "De Beers is currently the world's largest operator of diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds.", "The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers-operated mines.", "De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40% of annual world diamond production.", "For most of the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed through De Beers, but by 2001–2009 the figure had decreased to around 45%, and by 2013 the company's market share had further decreased to around 38% in value terms and even less by volume.", "De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale).", "This was well documented in the press but remains little known to the general public.As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa.", "As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada.", "Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis, but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October 2009.Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP, which is the world's largest mining company; Rio Tinto, the owner of the Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines; and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.Diamond polisher in AmsterdamFurther down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds.", "The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the US, Europe and Asia.", "In 2000, the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts.", "WFDB's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives).", "The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide.", "Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, and Tel Aviv.", "Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana.", "Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America.", "The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economically feasible.Diamonds prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called ''bourses''.", "There are 28 registered diamond bourses in the world.", "Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer.", "Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset (\"loose\").", "According to the Rio Tinto, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.==== Cutting ====The Daria-i-Noor Diamond—an example of unusual diamond cut and jewelry arrangement.Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called \"cutting\".", "Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow.", "Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience.", "Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product.", "The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%.", "Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations.", "For example, the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape.", "Some of them may be considered as classical, such as round, pear, marquise, oval, hearts and arrows diamonds, etc.", "Some of them are special, produced by certain companies, for example, Phoenix, Cushion, Sole Mio diamonds, etc.The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone.", "It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds.", "The following issues are considered:* The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation.", "Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions.", "* Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws.", "The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept.", "* Splitting a diamond with a hammer is difficult, a well-calculated, angled blow can cut the diamond, piece-by-piece, but it can also ruin the diamond itself.", "Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable.After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing.", "Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time-consuming.", "The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians.", "After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process.", "Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry.", "Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.==== Marketing ====Diamond balance scale 0.01–25 carat jeweler's measuring toolMarketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity.N.", "W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before.", "N. W. Ayer's marketing included product placement, advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand, and associations with celebrities and royalty.", "Without advertising the De Beers brand, De Beers was advertising its competitors' diamond products as well, but this was not a concern as De Beers dominated the diamond market throughout the 20th century.", "De Beers' market share dipped temporarily to second place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29% in terms of carats mined, rather than sold.", "The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011.De Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than completely \"generic\" diamond products.", "The campaign was perhaps best captured by the slogan \"a diamond is forever\".", "This slogan is now being used by De Beers Diamond Jewelers, a jewelry firm which is a 50/50% joint venture between the De Beers mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate.Brown-colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes.", "They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even being assessed on the diamond color scale).", "After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems.", "The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds; 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown.=== Industrial-grade diamonds ===A scalpel with synthetic diamond bladeClose-up photograph of an angle grinder blade with tiny diamonds shown embedded in the metalA diamond knife blade used for cutting ultrathin sections (typically 70 to 350 nm) for transmission electron microscopyIndustrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications.", "Eighty percent of mined diamonds (equal to about annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and are used industrially.", "In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; in 2014, of synthetic diamonds were produced, 90% of which were produced in China.", "Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some lower-grade stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use).", "Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools.", "As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds.", "Common industrial applications of this property include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive.", "Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds (bort) with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes.", "Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high-pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.", "With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible.", "The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics.=== Mining ===Approximately of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about are synthesized annually.Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia.", "They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to the surface.", "The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of ''blood diamonds'' or ''conflict diamonds'' by African paramilitary groups.", "The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world.Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds.", "The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density.", "Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand.", "Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.Siberia's Udachnaya diamond minealt=A clear octahedral stone protrudes from a black rockHistorically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India.", "India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.Currently, one of the most prominent Indian mines is located at Panna.Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa.", "Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of have been mined since that date.", "Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon.", "Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana.", "In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.", "The Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas is open to the public, and is the only mine in the world where members of the public can dig for diamonds.Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, according to the British Geological Survey.", "Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42metric tons per year in the 1990s.", "There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil.", "Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.==== Political issues ==== Unsustainable diamond mining in Sierra LeoneIn some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations.", "Diamonds sold through this process are known as ''conflict diamonds'' or ''blood diamonds''.In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central and western Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in 2002.The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups.", "This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities.", "Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in.", "According to the International Diamond Manufacturers Association, conflict diamonds constitute 2–3% of all diamonds traded.", "Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered \"clean\".The Canadian Government has set up a body known as the Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct to help authenticate Canadian diamonds.", "This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the \"conflict free\" label of Canadian diamonds.Mineral resource exploitation in general causes irreversible environmental damage, which must be weighed against the socio-economic benefits to a country." ], [ "Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements", "=== Synthetics ===Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth.", "The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones.", "This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century.", "However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size.", "It is possible to make colorless synthetic gemstones that, on a molecular level, are identical to natural stones and so visually similar that only a gemologist with special equipment can tell the difference.The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so-called ''high-pressure high-temperature'' (HPHT) processes.", "The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities.", "Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD).", "The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure).", "It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them into chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch, or laser.", "This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture).As of 2010, nearly all 5,000 million carats (1,000tonnes) of synthetic diamonds produced per year are for industrial use.", "Around 50% of the 133 million carats of natural diamonds mined per year end up in industrial use.", "Mining companies' expenses average 40 to 60 US dollars per carat for natural colorless diamonds, while synthetic manufacturers' expenses average for synthetic, gem-quality colorless diamonds.", "However, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for a fancy-colored diamond because only 0.01% of natural diamonds are fancy-colored, while most synthetic diamonds are colored in some way.File:HPHTdiamonds2.JPG\|alt=Six crystals of cubo-octahedral shapes, each about 2 millimeters in diameter.", "Two are pale blue, one is pale yellow, one is green-blue, one is dark blue and one green-yellow.\|Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature techniqueFile:Apollo synthetic diamond.jpg\|alt=A round, clear gemstone with many facets, the main face being hexagonal, surrounded by many smaller facets.\|Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition=== Simulants ===Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbide set in a ringA diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond, and may be referred to as diamante.", "Cubic zirconia is the most common.", "The gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly to produce than cubic zirconia.", "Both are produced synthetically.=== Enhancements ===Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways.", "These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more \"diamond-like\" appearance.", "One such substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond.", "Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant.", "Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.=== Identification ===Cathodoluminescence image of a diamond, taken in a scanning electron microscopeEarly diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond.", "This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used nowadays.", "Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity.", "Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations.", "These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip.", "One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop.", "This test takes about two to three seconds.Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques.", "Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test.", "Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds.", "They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds.", "\"Perfect\" crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other.Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy, and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond's origin.", "They also use specially made instruments to aid them in the identification process.", "Two screening instruments are the ''DiamondSure'' and the ''DiamondView'', both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA.Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond.", "CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence.", "D–J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's Diamond Spotter.", "Stones in the D–Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers.", "Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds.Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic.", "Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab.", "Examples of commercial screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp), Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp), and D-Secure (DRC Techno)." ], [ "Etymology, earliest use and composition discovery", "The name ''diamond'' is derived from (''adámas''), 'proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed', from ἀ- (''a-''), 'not' + (''damáō''), 'to overpower, tame'.", "Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna, and Godavari.", "Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000years but most likely 6,000years.Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India.", "Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history.", "The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.In 1772, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon.", "Later in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment.", "By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, he established the chemical equivalence of these substances." ], [ "See also", "* Deep carbon cycle* Diamondoid* List of diamonds** List of largest rough diamonds* List of minerals* Superhard material" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " " ], [ "External links", " Properties of diamond: Ioffe database*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dr. Dre" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Andre Romell Young''' (born February 18, 1965), known professionally as '''Dr.", "Dre''', is an American record producer and rapper.", "He is the founder and CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics, and co-founded and was the president of Death Row Records.", "Young began his career as a member of the World Class Wreckin' Cru in 1985, and later found fame with the gangsta rap group N.W.A.", "The group popularized explicit lyrics in hip hop to detail the violence of street life.", "During the early 1990s, Young was credited as a key figure in the crafting and popularization of West Coast G-funk, a subgenre of hip hop characterized by a synthesizer foundation and slow, heavy production.Young's solo debut studio album ''The Chronic'' (1992), released under Death Row Records, made him one of the best-selling American music artists of 1993.It earned him a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for the single \"Let Me Ride\", as well as several accolades for the single \"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\".", "That year, he produced Death Row labelmate Snoop Doggy Dogg's debut album ''Doggystyle'' and mentored producers such as his stepbrother Warren G (leading to the multi-platinum debut ''Regulate...G Funk Era'' in 1994) and Snoop Dogg's cousin Daz Dillinger (leading to the double-platinum debut ''Dogg Food'' by Tha Dogg Pound in 1995), and would later mentor other producers including Mel-Man and Scott Storch.", "In 1996, Young left Death Row Records to establish his own label, Aftermath Entertainment.", "He produced a compilation album, ''Dr.", "Dre Presents: The Aftermath'', in 1996, and released his second solo album, ''2001'', in 1999.During the 2000s, Young focused on producing other artists, occasionally contributing vocals.", "He signed Eminem in 1998 and 50 Cent in 2002, and heavily produced their output while they were signed with Aftermath.", "Through the label, Dre signed other artists including the Game, Kendrick Lamar, Anderson .Paak, Silk Sonic, Busta Rhymes, Eve, and Rakim, among others.", "He has won seven Grammy Awards, including Producer of the Year, Non-Classical.", "''Rolling Stone'' ranked him number 56 on the list of 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.", "Outside of music, Young has acted in films such as ''Set It Off'', ''The Wash'', and ''Training Day''.Accusations of Young's violence against women have been widely publicized.", "Following his assault of television host Dee Barnes, he was fined US$2,500, given two years' probation, and ordered to perform 240 hours of community service, part of which he fulfilled by making an anti-violence public service announcement.", "A civil suit was settled out of court.", "In 2015, Michel'le, the mother of one of his children, accused him of domestic violence during their time together as a couple.", "The abusive relationship is portrayed in her 2016 biopic ''Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le''.", "Lisa Johnson, the mother of three of Young's children, stated that he beat her many times, including while she was pregnant.", "She was granted a restraining order against him.", "Former labelmate Tairrie B claimed to that Young assaulted her at a party in 1990, in response to her track \"Ruthless Bitch\".", "Two weeks following the release of his third album, ''Compton'' in August 2015, he issued an apology to the women \"I've hurt\"." ], [ "Early life", "Andre Romell Young was born in Compton, California, on February 18, 1965, the son of Theodore and Verna Young.", "His middle name is derived from the Romells, his father's amateur R&B group.", "His parents married in 1964, separated in 1968, and divorced in 1972.His mother later remarried to Curtis Crayon and had three children: sons Jerome and Tyree (both deceased) and daughter Shameka.In 1976, Dre began attending Vanguard Junior High School in Compton, but due to gang violence, he transferred to the safer suburban Roosevelt Junior High School.", "The family moved often and lived in apartments and houses in Compton, Carson, Long Beach, and the Watts and South Central neighborhoods of Los Angeles.", "Dre has said that he was mostly raised by his grandmother in the New Wilmington Arms housing project in Compton.", "His mother later married Warren Griffin, which added three step-sisters and one step-brother to the family; the latter would eventually begin rapping under the name Warren G. Dre is also the cousin of producer Sir Jinx.Dre attended Centennial High School in Compton during his freshman year in 1979, but transferred to Fremont High School in South Central Los Angeles due to poor grades.", "He attempted to enroll in an apprenticeship program at Northrop Aviation Company, but poor grades at school made him ineligible.", "Thereafter, he focused on his social life and entertainment for the remainder of his high school years.Dre's frequent absences from school jeopardized his position as a diver on his school's swim team.", "After high school, he attended Chester Adult School in Compton following his mother's demands for him to get a job or continue his education.", "After brief attendance at a radio broadcasting school, he relocated to the residence of his father and residence of his grandparents before returning to his mother's house." ], [ "Musical career", "===1985–1986: World Class Wreckin' Cru===Inspired by the Grandmaster Flash song \"The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel\", Dr. Dre often attended a club called Eve's After Dark to watch many DJs and rappers performing live.", "He subsequently became a DJ in the club, initially under the name \"Dr. J\", based on the nickname of Julius Erving, his favorite basketball player.", "At the club, he met aspiring rapper Antoine Carraby, later to become member DJ Yella of N.W.A.", "Soon afterwards he adopted the moniker Dr. Dre, a mix of previous alias Dr. J and his first name, referring to himself as the \"Master of Mixology\".Eve After Dark had a back room with a small four-track studio.", "In this studio, Dre and Yella recorded several demos.", "In their first recording session, they recorded a song entitled \"Surgery\".", "Dr. Dre's earliest recordings were released in 1994 on a compilation titled ''Concrete Roots''.", "Critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described the compiled music, released \"several years before Dre developed a distinctive style\", as \"surprisingly generic and unengaging\" and \"for dedicated fans only\".Dre later joined the musical group World Class Wreckin' Cru, which released its debut album under the Kru-Cut label in 1985.The group would become stars of the electro-hop scene that dominated early-mid 1980s West Coast hip hop.", "\"Surgery\", which was officially released after being recorded prior to the group's official formation, would prominently feature Dr. Dre on the turntable.", "The record would become the group's first hit, selling 50,000 copies within the Compton area.", "Dr. Dre and DJ Yella also performed mixes for local radio station KDAY, boosting ratings for its afternoon rush-hour show ''The Traffic Jam''.===1986–1991: N.W.A and Ruthless Records===Poster for one of N.W.A's first concerts at a Compton skating rink, 1988In 1986, Dr. Dre met rapper O'Shea Jackson—known as Ice Cube—who collaborated with him to record songs for Ruthless Records, a hip hop record label run by local rapper Eazy-E. N.W.A and fellow West Coast rapper Ice-T are widely credited as seminal artists of the gangsta rap genre, a profanity-heavy subgenre of hip hop, replete with gritty depictions of urban crime and gang lifestyle.", "Not feeling constricted to racially charged political issues pioneered by rap artists such as Public Enemy or Boogie Down Productions, N.W.A favored themes and uncompromising lyrics, offering stark descriptions of violent, inner-city streets.", "Propelled by the hit \"Fuck tha Police\", the group's first full album ''Straight Outta Compton'' became a major success, despite an almost complete absence of radio airplay or major concert tours.", "The Federal Bureau of Investigation sent Ruthless Records a warning letter in response to the song's content.After Ice Cube left N.W.A in 1989 over financial disputes, Dr. Dre produced and performed for much of the group's second album ''Efil4zaggin''.", "He also produced tracks for a number of other acts on Ruthless Records, including Eazy-E's 1988 solo debut ''Eazy-Duz-It'', Above the Law's 1990 debut ''Livin' Like Hustlers'', Michel'le's 1989 self-titled debut, the D.O.C.", "'s 1989 debut ''No One Can Do It Better'', J.J. Fad's 1988 debut ''Supersonic'' and funk rock musician Jimmy Z's 1991 album ''Muzical Madness''.===1991–1996: ''The Chronic'' and Death Row Records===After a dispute with Eazy-E, Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in 1991 under the advice of friend, and N.W.A lyricist, the D.O.C.", "and his bodyguard at the time, Suge Knight.", "Knight, a notorious strongman and intimidator, was able to have Eazy-E release Young from his contract and, using Dr. Dre as his flagship artist, founded Death Row Records.", "In 1992, Young released his first single, the title track to the film ''Deep Cover'', a collaboration with rapper Snoop Dogg, whom he met through Warren G. Dr. Dre's debut solo album was ''The Chronic'', released under Death Row Records with Suge Knight as executive producer.", "Young ushered in a new style of rap, both in terms of musical style and lyrical content, including introducing a number of artists to the industry including Snoop Dogg, Kurupt, Daz Dillinger, RBX, the Lady of Rage, Nate Dogg and Jewell.Logo used by ''Chronic''-era Dr. DreOn the strength of singles such as \"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\", \"Let Me Ride\", and \"Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')\" (known as \"Dre Day\" for radio and television play), all of which featured Snoop Dogg as guest vocalist, ''The Chronic'' became a cultural phenomenon, its G-funk sound dominating much of hip hop music for the early 1990s.", "In 1993, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album triple platinum, and Dr. Dre also won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for his performance on \"Let Me Ride\".", "For that year, ''Billboard'' magazine also ranked Dr. Dre as the eighth-best-selling musical artist, ''The Chronic'' as the sixth-best-selling album, and \"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\" as the 11th-best-selling single.Grammy nominations.Besides working on his own material, Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg's debut album ''Doggystyle'', which became the first debut album for an artist to enter the ''Billboard'' 200 album charts at number one.", "In 1994 Dr. Dre produced some songs on the soundtracks to the films ''Above the Rim'' and ''Murder Was the Case''.", "He collaborated with fellow N.W.A member Ice Cube for the song \"Natural Born Killaz\" in 1995.For the film ''Friday'', Dre recorded \"Keep Their Heads Ringin'\", which reached number ten on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and number 1 on the Hot Rap Singles (now Hot Rap Tracks) charts.In 1995, Death Row Records signed rapper 2Pac, and began to position him as their major star: he collaborated with Dr. Dre on the commercially successful single \"California Love\", which became both artists' first song to top the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.However, in March 1996 Young left the label amidst a contract dispute and growing concerns that label boss Suge Knight was corrupt, financially dishonest and out of control.", "Later that year, he formed his own label, Aftermath Entertainment, under the distribution label for Death Row Records, Interscope Records.", "Subsequently, Death Row Records suffered poor sales by 1997, especially following the death of 2Pac and the racketeering charges brought against Knight.Dr.", "Dre also appeared on the single \"No Diggity\" by R&B group Blackstreet in 1996: it too was a sales success, topping the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks, and later won the award for Best R&B Vocal by a Duo or Group at the 1997 Grammy Awards.", "After hearing it for the first time, several of Dr. Dre's former Death Row colleagues, including 2Pac, recorded and attempted to release a song titled \"Toss It Up\", containing numerous insults aimed at Dr. Dre and using a deliberately similar instrumental to \"No Diggity\", but were forced to replace the production after Blackstreet issued the label with a cease and desist order stopping them from distributing the song.===1996–2000: Move to Aftermath Entertainment and ''2001''===Logo used by ''2001''-era Dr. DreThe ''Dr.", "Dre Presents the Aftermath'' album, released on November 26, 1996, featured songs by Dr. Dre himself, as well as by newly signed Aftermath Entertainment artists, and a solo track \"Been There, Done That\", intended as a symbolic farewell to gangsta rap.", "Despite being certified platinum by the RIAA, the album was not very popular among music fans.", "In October 1996, Dre performed \"Been There, Done That\" on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "In 1997, Dr. Dre produced several tracks on the Firm's ''The Album''; it was met with largely negative reviews from critics.", "Rumors began to abound that Aftermath was facing financial difficulties.", "Aftermath Entertainment also faced a trademark infringement lawsuit by the underground thrash metal band Aftermath.", "''First Round Knock Out'', a compilation of various tracks produced and performed by Dr. Dre, was also released in 1996, with material ranging from World Class Wreckin' Cru to N.W.A to Death Row recordings.", "Dr. Dre chose to take no part in the ongoing East Coast–West Coast hip hop rivalry of the time, instead producing for, and appearing on, several New York artists' releases, such as Nas' \"Nas Is Coming\", LL Cool J's \"Zoom\" and Jay-Z's \"Watch Me\".The turning point for Aftermath came in 1998, when Dre's close friend, Jimmy Iovine, the co-founder of Interscope Records (parent label for Aftermath), suggested that Dr. Dre sign Eminem, a white rapper from Detroit.", "Dre produced three songs and provided vocals for two on Eminem's successful and controversial debut album ''The Slim Shady LP'', released in 1999.The Dr. Dre-produced lead single from that album, \"My Name Is\", brought Eminem to public attention for the first time, and the success of ''The Slim Shady LP'' – it reached number two on the ''Billboard'' 200 and received general acclaim from critics – revived the label's commercial ambitions and viability.Ticket for Dr. Dre's Up in Smoke Tour in Albany, New York, July 2000Dr.", "Dre's second solo album, ''2001'', released on November 16, 1999, was considered an ostentatious return to his gangsta rap roots.", "It was initially titled ''The Chronic 2000'' to imply being a sequel to his debut solo effort ''The Chronic'' but was re-titled ''2001'' after Death Row Records released an unrelated compilation album with the title ''Suge Knight Represents: Chronic 2000'' in May 1999.Other tentative titles included ''The Chronic 2001'' and ''Dr.", "Dre''.The album featured numerous collaborators, including Devin the Dude, Snoop Dogg, Kurupt, Xzibit, Nate Dogg, Eminem, Knoc-turn'al, King T, Defari, Kokane, Mary J. Blige and new protégé Hittman, as well as co-production between Dre and new Aftermath producer Mel-Man.", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the website AllMusic described the sound of the album as \"adding ominous strings, soulful vocals, and reggae\" to Dr. Dre's style.", "The album was highly successful, charting at number two on the ''Billboard'' 200 charts and has since been certified six times platinum, validating a recurring theme on the album: Dr. Dre was still a force to be reckoned with, despite the lack of major releases in the previous few years.", "The album included popular hit singles \"Still D.R.E.\"", "and \"Forgot About Dre\", both of which Dr. Dre performed on NBC's ''Saturday Night Live'' on October 23, 1999.Dr.", "Dre won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical in 2000, and joined the Up in Smoke Tour with fellow rappers Eminem, Snoop Dogg, and Ice Cube that year as well.===2000–2010: Focus on production and ''Detox''===Dr.", "Dre in 2008Following the success of ''2001'', Dr. Dre focused on producing songs and albums for other artists.", "He co-produced six tracks on Eminem's landmark ''Marshall Mathers LP'', including the Grammy-winning lead single, \"The Real Slim Shady\".", "The album itself earned a Grammy and proved to be the fastest-selling rap album of all time, moving 1.76 million units in its first week alone.", "He produced the single \"Family Affair\" by R&B singer Mary J. Blige for her album ''No More Drama'' in 2001.He also produced \"Let Me Blow Ya Mind\", a duet by rapper Eve and No Doubt lead singer Gwen Stefani and signed R&B singer Truth Hurts to Aftermath in 2001.Dr.", "Dre produced and rapped on singer and Interscope labelmate Bilal's 2001 single \"Fast Lane\", which barely missed the Top 40 of the R&B charts.", "He later assisted in the production of Bilal's second album, ''Love for Sale'', which Interscope controversially shelved because of its creative direction.", "Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem's 2002 release, ''The Eminem Show''.", "He produced three songs on the album, one of which was released as a single, and he appeared in the award-winning video for \"Without Me\".", "He also produced the D.O.C.", "'s 2003 album ''Deuce'', where he made a guest appearance on the tracks \"Psychic Pymp Hotline\", \"Gorilla Pympin'\" and \"Judgment Day\".In 2002, Dr. Dre signed rapper 50 Cent to Aftermath in a joint venture between Interscope and Eminem's Shady Records.", "Dr. Dre served as executive producer for 50 Cent's commercially successful February 2003 debut studio album ''Get Rich or Die Tryin'''.", "Dr. Dre produced or co-produced four tracks on the album, including the hit single \"In da Club\".", "Eminem's fourth album since joining Aftermath, ''Encore'', again saw Dre taking on the role of executive producer, and this time he was more actively involved in the music, producing or co-producing a total of eight tracks, including three singles.Dr.", "Dre also produced \"How We Do\", a 2005 hit single from rapper the Game from his album ''The Documentary'', as well as tracks on 50 Cent's successful second album ''The Massacre''.", "For an issue of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine in April 2005, Dr. Dre was ranked 54th out of 100 artists for ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list \"The Immortals: The Greatest Artists of All Time\".", "Kanye West wrote the summary for Dr. Dre, where he stated Dr. Dre's song \"Xxplosive\" as where he \"got (his) whole sound from\".In November 2006, Dr. Dre began working with Raekwon on his album ''Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II''.", "He also produced tracks for the rap albums ''Buck the World'' by Young Buck, ''Curtis'' by 50 Cent, ''Tha Blue Carpet Treatment'' by Snoop Dogg, and ''Kingdom Come'' by Jay-Z.", "Dre also appeared on Timbaland's track \"Bounce\", from his 2007 solo album, ''Timbaland Presents Shock Value'' alongside, Missy Elliott, and Justin Timberlake.", "During this period, the D.O.C.", "stated that Dre had been working with him on his fourth album ''Voices through Hot Vessels'', which he planned to release after ''Detox'' arrived.Planned but unreleased albums during Dr. Dre's tenure at Aftermath have included a full-length reunion with Snoop Dogg titled ''Breakup to Makeup'', an album with fellow former N.W.A member Ice Cube which was to be titled ''Heltah Skeltah'', an N.W.A reunion album, and a joint album with fellow producer Timbaland titled ''Chairmen of the Board''.In 2007, Dr. Dre's third studio album, formerly known as ''Detox'', was slated to be his final studio album.", "Work for the upcoming album dates back to 2001, where its first version was called \"the most advanced rap album ever\", by producer Scott Storch.", "Later that same year, he decided to stop working on the album to focus on producing for other artists, but then changed his mind; the album had initially been set for a fall 2005 release.", "Producers confirmed to work on the album include DJ Khalil, Nottz, Bernard \"Focus\" Edwards Jr., Hi-Tek, J.R. Rotem, RZA, and Jay-Z.", "Snoop Dogg claimed that ''Detox'' was finished, according to a June 2008 report by ''Rolling Stone'' magazine.After another delay based on producing other artists' work, ''Detox'' was then scheduled for a 2010 release, coming after 50 Cent's ''Before I Self Destruct'' and Eminem's ''Relapse'', an album for which Dr. Dre handled the bulk of production duties.", "In a Dr Pepper commercial that debuted on May 28, 2009, he premiered the first official snippet of ''Detox''.", "50 Cent and Eminem asserted in a 2009 interview on BET's ''106 & Park'' that Dr. Dre had around a dozen songs finished for ''Detox''.On December 15, 2008, Dre appeared in the remix of the song \"Set It Off\" by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall (also with Pusha T); the remix debuted on DJ Skee's radio show.", "At the beginning of 2009, Dre produced, and made a guest vocal performance on, the single \"Crack a Bottle\" by Eminem and the single sold a record 418,000 downloads in its first week and reached the top of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart on the week of February 12, 2009.Along with this single, in 2009 Dr. Dre produced or co-produced 19 of 20 tracks on Eminem's album ''Relapse''.", "These included other hit singles \"We Made You\", \"Old Time's Sake\", and \"3 a.m.\" (The only track Dre did not produce was the Eminem-produced single \"Beautiful\".", ").On April 20, 2010, \"Under Pressure\", featuring Jay-Z and co-produced with Scott Storch, was confirmed by Jimmy Iovine and Dr. Dre during an interview at Fenway Park as the album's first single.", "The song leaked prior to its intended release in an unmixed, unmastered form without a chorus on June 16, 2010; however, critical reaction to the song was lukewarm, and Dr. Dre later announced in an interview that the song, along with any other previously leaked tracks from ''Detox''s recording process, would not appear on the final version of the album.Two genuine singles – \"Kush\", a collaboration with Snoop Dogg and fellow rapper Akon, and \"I Need a Doctor\" with Eminem and singer Skylar Grey – were released in the United States during November 2010 and February 2011 respectively: the latter achieved international chart success, reaching number four on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and later being certified double platinum by the RIAA and the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).", "On June 25, 2010, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers honored Dr. Dre with its Founders Award for inspiring other musicians.===2010–2020: ''The Planets'', hiatus, Coachella, and ''Compton''===2012 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.In an August 2010 interview, Dr. Dre stated that an instrumental album, ''The Planets'', was in its first stages of production; each song being named after a planet in the Solar System.", "On September 3, Dr. Dre showed support to longtime protégé Eminem, and appeared on his and Jay-Z's Home & Home Tour, performing hit songs such as \"Still D.R.E.", "\", \"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\", and \"Crack a Bottle\", alongside Eminem and another protégé, 50 Cent.", "Sporting an \"R.I.P.", "Proof\" shirt, Dre was honored by Eminem telling Detroit's Comerica Park to do the same.", "They did so, by chanting \"DEEE-TOX\", to which he replied, \"I'm coming!", "\"On November 14, 2011, Dre announced that he would be taking a break from music after he finished producing for artists Slim the Mobster and Kendrick Lamar.", "In this break, he stated that he would \"work on bringing his Beats By Dre to a standard as high as Apple\" and would also spend time with his family.", "On January 9, 2012, Dre headlined the final nights of the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2012.In June 2014, Marsha Ambrosius stated that she had been working on Detox, but added that the album would be known under another title .", "In September 2014, Aftermath in-house producer Dawaun Parker confirmed the title change and stated that over 300 beats had been created for the album over the years, but few of them have had vocals recorded over them.The length of time that ''Detox'' had been recorded for, as well as the limited amount of material that had been officially released or leaked from the recording sessions, had given it considerable notoriety within the music industry.", "Numerous release dates (including the ones mentioned above) had been given for the album over the years since it was first announced, although none of them transpired to be genuine.", "Several musicians closely affiliated with Dr. Dre, including Snoop Dogg, fellow rappers 50 Cent, the Game and producer DJ Quik, had speculated in interviews that the album will never be released, due to Dr. Dre's business and entrepreneurial ventures having interfered with recording work, as well as causing him to lose motivation to record new material.On August 1, 2015, Dre announced that he would release what would be his final album, titled ''Compton''.", "It is inspired by the N.W.A biopic, ''Straight Outta Compton'', and is a compilation-style album, featuring a number of frequent collaborators, including Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, Xzibit and the Game, among others.", "It was initially released on Apple Music on August 7, with a retail version releasing on August 21.In an interview with ''Rolling Stone'', he revealed that he had about 20 to 40 tracks for ''Detox'' but he did not release it because it did not meet his standards.", "Dre also revealed that he suffers from social anxiety and due to this, remains secluded and out of attention.On February 12, 2016, it was revealed that Apple would create its first original scripted television series for its then-upcoming Apple TV+ streaming service.", "Titled ''Vital Signs'', it was set to reflect Dre's life.", "He was also an executive producer on the show before the show's cancellation sometime in September 2018, due to an overly graphic concept of drugs, gun violence and sex.", "In October 2016, Sean Combs brought out Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg and others on his Bad Boy reunion tour.In 2018, he produced four songs on ''Oxnard'' by Anderson .Paak.", "He was the executive producer on the album, as so its follow-up, 2019's ''Ventura''.===2020–present: return to production and Super Bowl halftime show ===Dr.", "Dre was the executive producer of Eminem's 2020 release, ''Music to Be Murdered By''.", "He produced four songs on the album.", "He also produced two songs on the deluxe edition of the album, ''Side B'', and appeared on the song, \"Gunz Blazing\".", "On September 30, 2021, it was revealed that Dre would perform at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige, and Kendrick Lamar.", "In December 2021, an update for the video game, ''Grand Theft Auto Online'', predominantly featured Dre and added some of his previously unreleased tracks which was released as an EP, ''The Contract'', on February 3, 2022.Around this time, Dre announced he was collaborating with Marsha Ambrosius on ''Casablanco'', and with Mary J. Blige on an upcoming album.", "Later that year, Snoop Dogg announced that he and Dr. Dre are in the process of recording their new album, ''Missionary''.", "Snoop said the album will be released via Death Row and Aftermath.", "On February 13, 2022, Dr. Dre performed at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, and Mary J. Blige, with surprise appearances from 50 Cent and Anderson.", "Paak.", "The performance was met with critical acclaim and is the first Super Bowl halftime show to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live).", "The show also won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Production Design for a Variety Special and Outstanding Music Direction.", "The same year, he produced numerous songs including \"The King and I\", a collaboration between Eminem and CeeLo Green for the 2022 biopic, ''Elvis,'' and a remix of Kanye West's song \"Use This Gospel\" for DJ Khaled's album ''God Did''.", "In September 2022, it was reported that Dr. Dre will compose the original score for the upcoming animated series, ''Death for Hire: The Origin of Tehk City''.", "The show is created by Ice-T and Arabian Prince; based on the graphic novel of the same title, it features the voice talent of Ice-T, his wife Coco Austin, Snoop Dogg, Busta Rhymes, and Treach among others.In February 2023, Dre and Marsha Ambrosius held a listening party for the ''Casablanco'' album in Los Angeles." ], [ "Other ventures", "===Film appearances===Dr.", "Dre made his first on screen appearance as a weapons dealer in the 1996 bank robbery movie ''Set It Off''.", "In 2001, Dr. Dre also appeared in the movies ''The Wash'' and ''Training Day''.", "A song of his, \"Bad Intentions\" (featuring Knoc-Turn'Al and produced by Mahogany), was featured on ''The Wash'' soundtrack.", "Dr. Dre also appeared on two other songs \"On the Blvd.\"", "and \"The Wash\" along with his co-star Snoop Dogg.", "===Crucial Films===In February 2007, it was announced that Dr. Dre would produce dark comedies and horror films for New Line Cinema-owned company Crucial Films, along with longtime video director Phillip Atwell.", "Dr. Dre announced \"This is a natural switch for me, since I've directed a lot of music videos, and I eventually want to get into directing.\"", "Along with fellow member Ice Cube, Dr. Dre produced ''Straight Outta Compton'' (2015), a biographical film about N.W.A.===Entrepreneurship======= Beats Electronics ====Beats by Dr. Dre logoIn 2006, Dre co-founded Beats Electronics with his partner, Jimmy Iovine.", "Its first brand of headphones were launched in July 2008.The line consisted of Beats Studio, a circumaural headphone; Beats Tour, an in-ear headphone; Beats Solo & Solo HD, a supra-aural headphone; Beats Spin; Heartbeats by Lady Gaga, also an in-ear headphone; and Diddy Beats.", "In late 2009, Hewlett-Packard participated in a deal to bundle Beats By Dr. Dre with some HP laptops and headsets.", "HP and Dr. Dre announced the deal on October 9, 2009, at a press event.", "An exclusive laptop, known as the HP ENVY 15 Beats limited edition, was released for sale October 22.In January 2014, Beats Music was introduced and launched as a streaming service.", "Then, in May, technology giant Apple purchased the Beats brand for $3.4 billion.", "The deal made Dr. Dre the \"richest man in hip hop\".", "Dr. Dre became an Apple employee in an executive role, and worked with Apple for years.", "As of 2022, it was found that Apple had subtracted $200 million from the deal after entertainer Tyrese Gibson revealed the news of the acquisition on social media a month before it was completed without the company's permission.===Philanthropy===During May 2013, Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine donated a $70-million endowment to the University of Southern California to create the USC Jimmy Iovine and Andre Young Academy for Arts, Technology and the Business of Innovation.", "The goal of the academy has been stated as \"to shape the future by nurturing the talents, passions, leadership and risk-taking of uniquely qualified students who are motivated to explore and create new art forms, technologies, and business models.\"", "The first class of the academy began in September 2014.In June 2017, it was announced that Dr. Dre had committed $10 million to the construction of a performing arts center for the new Compton High School.", "The center will encompass creative resources and a 1,200-seat theater, and is expected to break ground in 2020.The project is a partnership between Dr. Dre and the Compton Unified School District.===Commercial endorsements===In 2002 and 2003, Dr. Dre appeared in TV commercials for Coors Light beer.Beginning in 2009, Dr. Dre appeared in TV commercials that also featured his Beats Electronics product line.", "A 2009 commercial for the Dr Pepper soft drink had Dr. Dre DJing with Beats headphones and playing a brief snippet off the never-released ''Detox'' album.", "In 2010, Dr. Dre had a cameo in a commercial for HP laptops that featured a plug for Beats Audio.", "Then in 2011, the Chrysler 300S \"Imported from Detroit\" ad campaign had a commercial narrated by Dr. Dre and including a plug for Beats Audio.===Dr.", "Dre started Burning Man rumors===An urban legend surfaced in 2011 when a Tumblr blog titled Dr. Dre Started Burning Man began promulgating the notion that the producer, rapper and entrepreneur had discovered Burning Man in 1995 during a music video shoot and offered to cover the cost of the event's permit from the Nevada Bureau of Land Management under an agreement with the festival's organizers that he could institute an entrance fee system, which had not existed before his participation.", "This claim was supported by an alleged letter from Dre to Nicole Threatt Young that indicated that Dre had shared his experience witnessing the Burning Man festival with her.", "''Business Insider'' mentions the portion of the letter where Dr. Dre purportedly states \"someone should get behind this ... and make some money off these fools\" and compares Dr. Dre's potential entrepreneurial engagement with Burning Man as a parallel to Steve Jobs's efforts to centralize and profit from the otherwise unorganized online music industry.", "According to ''Salon'', Dr. Dre's ethos seems to be aligned with seven of the ten principles of the Burning Man community: \"radical self-reliance, radical self-expression, communal effort, civic responsibility, leaving no trace, participation and immediacy.\"" ], [ "Musical influences and style", "===Production style===Dre in 2011Dre is noted for his evolving production style, while always keeping in touch with his early musical sound and re-shaping elements from previous work.", "At the beginning of his career as a producer for the World Class Wreckin Cru with DJ Alonzo Williams in the mid-1980s, his music was in the electro-hop style pioneered by the Unknown DJ, and that of early hip-hop groups like the Beastie Boys and Whodini.In 1987, Dr. Dre sampled the Ohio Players' ARP synth riffs from their 1973 funk hit \"Funky Worm\" in the N.W.A song \"Dopeman\".", "Being the first hip-hop producer to sample the song, Dre both paved the way for the future popularization of the G-funk style within hip-hop, and established heavy synthesizer solos as an integral part of his production style.", "Dr. Dre was also one of the very first producers to interpolate the then little-known drum break from The Winstons' \"Amen, Brother\" in the N.W.A song \"Straight Outta Compton\".", "This break has since becοme a staple in not only hip-hop, but all popular music, having been used in over 1700 songs.From ''Straight Outta Compton'' on, Dre uses live musicians to replay old melodies rather than sampling them.", "With Ruthless Records, collaborators included guitarist Mike \"Crazy Neck\" Sims, multi-instrumentalist Colin Wolfe, DJ Yella and sound engineer Donovan \"The Dirt Biker\" Sound.", "Dre is receptive of new ideas from other producers, one example being his fruitful collaboration with Above the Law's producer Cold 187um while at Ruthless.", "Cold 187 um was at the time experimenting with 1970s P-Funk samples (Parliament, Funkadelic, Bootsy Collins, George Clinton etc.", "), that Dre also used.", "Dre has since been accused of \"stealing\" the concept of G-funk from Cold 187 um.Upon leaving Ruthless and forming Death Row Records in 1991, Dre called on veteran West Coast DJ Chris \"the Glove\" Taylor and sound engineer Greg \"Gregski\" Royal, along with Colin Wolfe, to help him on future projects.", "His 1992 album ''The Chronic'' is thought to be one of the most well-produced hip-hop albums of all time.", "Musical themes included hard-hitting synthesizer solos played by Wolfe, bass-heavy compositions, background female vocals and Dre fully embracing 1970s funk samples.", "Dre used a minimoog synth to replay the melody from Leon Haywood's 1972 song \"I Wanna Do Somethin' Freaky to You\" for the Chronic's first single \"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\" which became a global hit.", "For his new protégé Snoop Doggy Dogg's album ''Doggystyle'', Dre collaborated with then 19-year-old producer Daz Dillinger, who received co-production credits on songs \"Serial Killa\" and \"For all My Niggaz & Bitches\", The Dramatics bass player Tony \"T. Money\" Green, guitarist Ricky Rouse, keyboardists Emanuel \"Porkchop\" Dean and Sean \"Barney Rubble\" Thomas and engineer Tommy Daugherty, as well as Warren G and Sam Sneed, who are credited with bringing several samples to the studio.The influence of ''The Chronic'' and ''Doggystyle'' on the popular music of the 1990s went not only far beyond the West Coast, but beyond hip-hop as a genre.", "Artists as diverse as Master P (\"Bout It, Bout It\"), George Michael (\"Fastlove\"), Mariah Carey (\"Fantasy\"), Adina Howard (\"Freak Like Me\"), Luis Miguel (\"Dame\"), and The Spice Girls (\"Say You'll Be There\") used G-funk instrumentation in their songs.", "Bad Boy Records producer Chucky Thompson stated in the April 2004 issue of ''XXL'' magazine that the sound of ''Doggystyle'' and ''The Chronic'' was the basis for the Notorious B.I.G.", "'s 1995 hit single \"Big Poppa\":In 1994, starting with the ''Murder was the Case'' soundtrack, Dre attempted to push the boundaries of G-funk further into a darker sound.", "In songs such as \"Murder was the Case\" and \"Natural Born Killaz\", the synthesizer pitch is higher and the drum tempo is slowed down to 91 BPM (87 BPM in the remix) to create a dark and gritty atmosphere.", "Percussion instruments, particularly sleigh bells, are also present.", "Dre's frequent collaborators from this period included Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania natives Stuart \"Stu-B-Doo\" Bullard, a multi-instrumentalist from the Ozanam Strings Orchestra, Sam Sneed, Stephen \"Bud'da\" Anderson, and percussionist Carl \"Butch\" Small.", "This style of production has been influential far beyond the West Coast.", "The beat for the Houston-based group Geto Boys 1996 song \"Still\" follows the same drum pattern as \"Natural Born Killaz\" and Eazy E's \"Wut Would U Do\" (a diss to Dre) is similar to the original \"Murder was the Case\" instrumental.", "This style of production is usually accompanied by horror and occult-themed lyrics and imagery, being crucial to the creation of horrorcore.By 1996, Dre was again looking to innovate his sound.", "He recruited keyboardist Camara Kambon to play the keys on \"Been There, Done That\", and through Bud'da and Sam Sneed he was introduced to fellow Pittsburgh native Melvin \"Mel-Man\" Bradford.", "At this time, he also switched from using the E-mu SP-1200 to the Akai MPC3000 drum kit and sampler, which he still uses today.", "Beginning with his 1996 compilation Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath, Dre's production has taken a less sample-based approach, with loud, layered snare drums dominating the mix, while synthesizers are still omnipresent.", "In his critically acclaimed second album, 2001, live instrumentation takes the place of sampling, a famous example being \"The Next Episode\", in which keyboardist Camara Kambon re-played live the main melody from David McCallum's 1967 jazz-funk work \"The Edge\".", "For every song on ''2001'', Dre had a keyboardist, guitarist and bassist create the basic parts of the beat, while he himself programmed the drums, did the sequencing and overdubbing and added sound effects, and later mixed the songs.", "During this period, Dre's signature \"west coast whistle\" riffs are still present albeit in a lower pitch, as in \"Light Speed\", \"Housewife\", \"Some L.A. Niggaz\" and Eminem's \"Guilty Conscience\" hook.", "The sound of \"2001\" had tremendous influence on hip-hop production, redefining the West Coast's sound and expanding the G-funk of the early 1990s.", "To produce the album, Dre and Mel-Man relied on the talents of Scott Storch and Camara Kambon on the keys, Mike Elizondo and Colin Wolfe on bass guitar, Sean Cruse on lead guitar and sound engineers Richard \"Segal\" Huredia and Mauricio \"Veto\" Iragorri.From the mid-2000s, Dr. Dre has taken on a more soulful production style, using more of a classical piano instead of a keyboard, and having claps replace snares, as evidenced in songs such as Snoop Dogg's \"Imagine\" and \"Boss' Life\", Busta Rhymes' \"Get You Some\" and \"Been Through the Storm\", Stat Quo's \"Get Low\" and \"The Way It Be\", Jay-Z's \"Lost One\", Nas' \"Hustlers\", and several beats on Eminem's Relapse album.", "Soul and R&B pianist Mark Batson, having previously worked with The Dave Matthews Band, Seal and Maroon 5 has been credited as the architect of this sound.", "Besides Batson, Aftermath producer and understudy of Dre's, Dawaun Parker, who has named Q-Tip and J Dilla as his primary influences, is thought to be responsible for giving Dre's newest beats an East Coast feel.Despite an occasional hint of trap about the beats and an intriguingly warped use of autotune in his ''Compton'' song, \"Darkside/Gone\", his production seems to stand slightly apart from current trends in hip-hop like Eminem's song \"Little Engine\" with an ominous horrorcore beat — reminiscent of some of his works on Eminem's album Relapse – or the West Coast joint Lock It Up.===Production equipment===Dr.", "Dre has said that his primary instrument in the studio is the Akai MPC3000, a drum machine and sampler, and that he often uses as many as four or five to produce a single recording.", "He cites 1970s funk musicians such as George Clinton, Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield as his primary musical influences.", "Unlike most rap producers, he tries to avoid samples as much as possible, preferring to have studio musicians re-play pieces of music he wants to use, because it allows him more flexibility to change the pieces in rhythm and tempo.", "In 2001 he told ''Time'' magazine, \"I may hear something I like on an old record that may inspire me, but I'd rather use musicians to re-create the sound or elaborate on it.", "I can control it better.", "\"Other equipment he uses includes the E-mu SP-1200 drum machine and other keyboards from such manufacturers as Korg, Rhodes, Wurlitzer, Moog, and Roland.", "Dr. Dre also stresses the importance of equalizing drums properly, telling ''Scratch'' in 2004 that he \"used the same drum sounds on a couple of different songs on one album before but you'd never be able to tell the difference because of the EQ\".", "Dr. Dre also uses the digital audio workstation Pro Tools and uses the software to combine hardware drum machines and vintage analog keyboards and synthesizers.After founding Aftermath Entertainment in 1996, Dr. Dre took on producer Mel-Man as a co-producer, and his music took on a more synthesizer-based sound, using fewer vocal samples (as he had used on \"Lil' Ghetto Boy\" and \"Let Me Ride\" on ''The Chronic'', for example).", "Mel-Man has not shared co-production credits with Dr. Dre since approximately 2002, but fellow Aftermath producer Focus has credited Mel-Man as a key architect of the signature Aftermath sound.In 1999, Dr. Dre started working with Mike Elizondo, a bassist, guitarist, and keyboardist who has also produced, written and played on records for female singers such as Poe, Fiona Apple and Alanis Morissette, In the past few years Elizondo has since worked for many of Dr. Dre's productions.", "Dr. Dre also told ''Scratch'' magazine in a 2004 interview that he has been studying piano and music theory formally, and that a major goal is to accumulate enough musical theory to score movies.", "In the same interview he stated that he has collaborated with famed 1960s songwriter Burt Bacharach by sending him hip hop beats to play over, and hopes to have an in-person collaboration with him in the future.===Work ethic===Dr.", "Dre has stated that he is a perfectionist and is known to pressure the artists with whom he records to give flawless performances.", "In 2006, Snoop Dogg told the website Dubcnn.com that Dr. Dre had made new artist Bishop Lamont re-record a single bar of vocals 107 times.", "Dr. Dre has also stated that Eminem is a fellow perfectionist, and attributes his success on Aftermath to his similar work ethic.", "He gives a lot of input into the delivery of the vocals and will stop an MC during a take if it is not to his liking.", "However, he gives MCs that he works with room to write lyrics without too much instruction unless it is a specifically conceptual record, as noted by Bishop Lamont in the book ''How to Rap''.A consequence of his perfectionism is that some artists who initially sign deals with Dr. Dre's Aftermath label never release albums.", "In 2001, Aftermath released the soundtrack to the movie ''The Wash'', featuring a number of Aftermath acts such as Shaunta, Daks, Joe Beast and Toi.", "To date, none have released full-length albums on Aftermath and have apparently ended their relationships with the label and Dr. Dre.", "Other noteworthy acts to leave Aftermath without releasing albums include King Tee, ''2001'' vocalist Hittman, Joell Ortiz, Raekwon and Rakim.===Collaborators and co-producers===Dr.", "Dre performing with Snoop Dogg, 2012Over the years, word of other collaborators who have contributed to Dr. Dre's work has surfaced.", "During his tenure at Death Row Records, it was alleged that Dr. Dre's stepbrother Warren G and Tha Dogg Pound member Daz made many uncredited contributions to songs on his solo album ''The Chronic'' and Snoop Doggy Dogg's album ''Doggystyle'' (Daz received production credits on Snoop's similar-sounding, albeit less successful album ''Tha Doggfather'' after Young left Death Row Records).It is known that Scott Storch, who has since gone on to become a successful producer in his own right, contributed to Dr. Dre's second album ''2001''; Storch is credited as a songwriter on several songs and played keyboards on several tracks.", "In 2006 he told ''Rolling Stone'':Current collaborator Mike Elizondo, when speaking about his work with Young, describes their recording process as a collaborative effort involving several musicians.", "In 2004 he claimed to ''Songwriter Universe'' magazine that he had written the foundations of the hit Eminem song \"The Real Slim Shady\", stating, \"I initially played a bass line on the song, and Dr. Dre, Tommy Coster Jr. and I built the track from there.", "Eminem then heard the track, and he wrote the rap to it.\"", "This account is essentially confirmed by Eminem in his book ''Angry Blonde'', stating that the tune for the song was composed by a studio bassist and keyboardist while Dr. Dre was out of the studio but Young later programmed the song's beat after returning.A group of disgruntled former associates of Dr. Dre complained that they had not received their full due for work on the label in the September 2003 issue of ''The Source''.", "A producer named Neff-U claimed to have produced the songs \"Say What You Say\" and \"My Dad's Gone Crazy\" on ''The Eminem Show'', the songs \"If I Can't\" and \"Back Down\" on 50 Cent's ''Get Rich or Die Tryin''', and the beat featured on Dr. Dre's commercial for Coors beer.Although Young studies piano and music theory, he serves as more of a conductor than a musician himself, as Josh Tyrangiel of ''Time'' magazine has noted:Although Snoop Dogg retains working relationships with Warren G and Daz, who are alleged to be uncredited contributors on the hit albums ''The Chronic'' and ''Doggystyle'', he states that Dr. Dre is capable of making beats without the help of collaborators, and that he is responsible for the success of his numerous albums.", "Dr. Dre's prominent studio collaborators, including Scott Storch, Elizondo, Mark Batson and Dawaun Parker, have shared co-writing, instrumental, and more recently co-production credits on the songs where he is credited as the producer.Anderson .Paak also praised Dr. Dre in a 2016 interview with ''Music Times'', telling the publication that it was a dream come true to work with Dre.===Ghostwriters===It is acknowledged that most of Dr. Dre's raps are written for him by others, though he retains ultimate control over his lyrics and the themes of his songs.", "As Aftermath producer Mahogany told ''Scratch'': \"It's like a class room in the booth.", "He'll have three writers in there.", "They'll bring in something, he'll recite it, then he'll say, 'Change this line, change this word,' like he's grading papers.", "\"As seen in the credits for tracks Young has appeared on, there are often multiple people who contribute to his songs (although often in hip hop many people are officially credited as a writer for a song, even the producer).In the book ''How to Rap'', RBX explains that writing ''The Chronic'' was a \"team effort\" and details how he ghostwrote \"Let Me Ride\" for Dre.", "In regard to ghostwriting lyrics he says, \"Dre doesn't profess to be no super-duper rap dude – Dre is a super-duper producer\".", "As a member of N.W.A, the D.O.C.", "wrote lyrics for him while he stuck with producing.", "Jay-Z ghostwrote lyrics for the single \"Still D.R.E.\"", "from Dr. Dre's album ''2001''." ], [ "Personal life", "On December 15, 1981, when Dre was 16 years old and his then-girlfriend Cassandra Joy Greene was 15 years old, the two had a son named Curtis, who was brought up by Greene and first met Dre 20 years later.", "Curtis performed as a rapper under the name Hood Surgeon.In 1983, Dre and Lisa Johnson had a daughter named La Tanya Danielle Young.", "Dre and Johnson have three daughters together.In 1988, Dre and Jenita Porter had a son named Andre Young Jr.", "In 1990, Porter sued Dre, seeking $5,000 of child support per month.", "On August 23, 2008, Andre died at the age of 20 from an overdose of heroin and morphine at his mother's Woodland Hills home.From 1987 to 1996, Dre dated singer Michel'le, who frequently contributed vocals to Ruthless Records and Death Row Records albums.", "In 1991, they had a son named Marcel.In April 1992, after a verbal dispute with his engineer, Dre was consequently shot four times in his leg.On May 25, 1996, Dre married Nicole (née Plotzker) Threatt, who was previously married to basketball player Sedale Threatt.", "They have two children together: a son named Truice (born 1997) and a daughter named Truly (born 2001).In 2001, Dre earned a total of about US$52 million from selling part of his share of Aftermath Entertainment to Interscope Records and his production of such hit songs that year as \"Family Affair\" by Mary J. Blige.", "''Rolling Stone'' magazine thus named him the second highest-paid artist of the year.", "Dr. Dre was ranked 44th in 2004 from earnings of $11.4 million, primarily from production royalties from such projects as albums from G-Unit and D12 and the single \"Rich Girl\" by singer Gwen Stefani and rapper Eve.", "''Forbes'' estimated his net worth at US$270 million in 2012.The same publication later reported that he acquired US$110 million via his various endeavors in 2012, making him the highest–paid artist of the year.", "Income from the 2014 sale of Beats to Apple, contributing to what ''Forbes'' termed \"the biggest single-year payday of any musician in history\", made Dr. Dre the world's richest musical performer of 2015.In 2014, Dre purchased a $40 million home in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles from its previous owners, NFL player Tom Brady and supermodel Gisele Bündchen.It was reported that Dre suffered a brain aneurysm on January 5, 2021, and that he was admitted to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center's ICU in Los Angeles, California.", "Hours after his admission to the hospital, Dre's home was targeted for an attempted burglary.", "He eventually received support from LeBron James, Martin Lawrence, LL Cool J, Missy Elliott, Snoop Dogg, Eminem, Ice Cube, 50 Cent, Ellen DeGeneres, Ciara, her husband Russell Wilson, T.I., Quincy Jones and others.", "In February, he was released with a following message on Instagram: \"Thanks to my family, friends and fans for their interest and well wishes.", "I'm doing great and getting excellent care from my medical team.", "I will be out of the hospital and back home soon.", "Shout out to all the great medical professionals at Cedars.", "One Love\"In December 2021, Dre finalized his divorce from Nicole Threatt for a reported sum of $100 million of his estate.Dre is a fan of both the Los Angeles Rams of the NFL, and the Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA." ], [ "Controversies and legal issues", "===Violence against women===Dre has been accused of multiple incidents of violence against women.On January 27, 1991, at a music industry party at the Po Na Na Souk club in Hollywood, Dr. Dre assaulted television host Dee Barnes of the Fox television program ''Pump it Up!", "'', following an episode of the show.", "Barnes had interviewed NWA, which was followed by an interview with Ice Cube in which Cube mocked NWA.", "Barnes filed a $22.7 million lawsuit in response to the incident.", "Subsequently, Dr. Dre was fined $2,500, given two years' probation, ordered to undergo 240 hours of community service, and given a spot on an anti-violence public service announcement on television.", "The civil suit was settled out of court.", "Barnes stated that he \"began slamming her face and the right side of her body repeatedly against a wall near the stairway\".", "Dr. Dre later commented: \"People talk all this shit, but you know, somebody fucks with me, I'm gonna fuck with them.", "I just did it, you know.", "Ain't nothing you can do now by talking about it.", "Besides, it ain't no big thing – I just threw her through a door.", "\"In March 2015, Michel'le, the mother of one of Dre's children, accused him of subjecting her to domestic violence during their time together as a couple, but did not initiate legal action.", "Their abusive relationship is portrayed in her 2016 biopic ''Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le''.", "Dre threatened a lawsuit against Lifetime, Sony Pictures and filmmakers of ''Surviving Compton'' in a cease and desist, but never ultimately took action.Interviewed by Ben Westhoff for the book ''Original Gangstas: the Untold Story of Dr Dre, Eazy-E, Ice Cube, Tupac Shakur, and the Birth of West Coast Rap'', Lisa Johnson stated that Dre beat her many times, including while she was pregnant.", "She was granted a restraining order against him.Former labelmate Tairrie B claimed that Dre assaulted her at a post-Grammy party in 1990, in response to her track \"Ruthless Bitch\".During press for the 2015 film ''Straight Outta Compton'', questions about the portrayal and behavior of Dre and other prominent figures in the rap community about violence against women – and the question about its absence in the film – were raised.", "The discussion about the film led to Dre addressing his past behavior in the press.", "In August 2015, in an interview with ''Rolling Stone'', Dre lamented his abusive past, saying, \"I made some fucking horrible mistakes in my life.", "I was young, fucking stupid.", "I would say all the allegations aren't true—some of them are.", "Those are some of the things that I would like to take back.", "It was really fucked up.", "But I paid for those mistakes, and there's no way in hell that I will ever make another mistake like that again.", "\"In a statement to ''The New York Times'' on August 21, 2015, exactly two weeks after his album, ''Compton'', was released, Dre again addressed his abusive past, stating, \"25 years ago I was a young man drinking too much and in over my head with no real structure in my life.", "However, none of this is an excuse for what I did.", "I've been married for 19 years and every day I'm working to be a better man for my family, seeking guidance along the way.", "I'm doing everything I can so I never resemble that man again. ...", "I apologize to the women I've hurt.", "I deeply regret what I did and know that it has forever impacted all of our lives.", "\"In the 2017 film ''The Defiant Ones'', Dr. Dre explained about the Dee Barnes incident again, \"This was a very low point in my life.", "I've done a lot of stupid shit in my life.", "A lot of things I wish I could go and take back.", "I've experienced abuse.", "I've watched my mother get abused.", "So there's absolutely no excuse for it.", "No woman should ever be treated that way.", "Any man that puts his hands on a female is a fucking idiot.", "He's out of his fucking mind, and I was out of my fucking mind at the time.", "I fucked up, I paid for it, I'm sorry for it, and I apologize for it.", "I have this dark cloud that follows me, and it's going to be attached to me forever.", "It's a major blemish on who I am as a man.", "\"=== Second divorce ===Dre's wife, Nicole Plotzker-Young, filed for divorce in June 2020, citing irreconcilable differences.", "In November 2020, she filed legal claims that Dre engaged in verbal violence and infidelity during their marriage.", "She also stated that he tore up their prenuptial agreement that he wanted her to sign out of anger.", "Dre's representative responded, calling her claims of infidelity and violence in their marriage \"false\".", "Before being released from the Cedar-Sinai Medical Center, he was ordered to pay Plotzker-Young $2 million in temporary spousal support.", "Between the spring and summer of the year, Dre was ordered by the Los Angeles County judge to pay his ex-wife over $300,000 a month in spousal support.", "The $2 million extension request was also dismissed, due to insufficient claims.", "In July 2021, Dr. Dre was ordered by the Los Angeles Superior Court Judge to pay an additional $293,306 a month to his estranged wife in spousal support starting August 1 until she decides to remarry or \"further order of the Court\".", "Then, in August, the judge denied his wife's request for a protective order, due to her being afraid of Dre after a snippet leaked on Instagram of him rapping about the divorce proceedings and his possible brain aneurysm earlier that February; in this snippet, he called his wife a \"greedy bitch\".", "In mid-October, Dr. Dre was served more divorce papers, during his grandmother's funeral.", "That same month, Dre was officially deemed \"single\" by the judge.", "The financial owings in this case included expenses of Dre's Malibu, Palisades and Hollywood Hills homes, but not his stock in past ownership of Beats Electronics, prior to its sale to Apple in 2014.As of December 2021, the divorce proceedings have entered its final stages.", "On December 28, the divorce was settled with Dre keeping most of his assets and income due to the prenuptial agreement, although he would have to pay a 9-figure settlement within one year.===Copyright lawsuits===During the course of ''2001''s popularity, Dr. Dre was involved in several lawsuits.", "Lucasfilm Ltd., the film company behind the Star Wars film franchise, sued him over the use of the THX-trademarked \"Deep Note\".", "The Fatback Band also sued Dr. Dre over alleged infringement regarding its song \"Backstrokin'\" in his song \"Let's Get High\" from the ''2001'' album; Dr. Dre was ordered to pay $1.5 million to the band in 2003.French jazz musician Jacques Loussier sued Aftermath for $10 million in March 2002, claiming that the Dr. Dre-produced Eminem track \"Kill You\" plagiarized his composition \"Pulsion\".", "The online music file-sharing company Napster also settled a lawsuit with him and metal band Metallica in mid-2001, agreeing to block access to certain files that artists do not want to have shared on the network.Another copyright-related lawsuit hit Dr. Dre in the fall of 2002, when Sa Re Ga Ma, a film and music company based in Calcutta, India, sued Aftermath Entertainment over an uncredited sample of the Lata Mangeshkar song \"Thoda Resham Lagta Hai\" on the Aftermath-produced song \"Addictive\" by singer Truth Hurts.", "In February 2003, a judge ruled that Aftermath would have to halt sales of Truth Hurts' album ''Truthfully Speaking'' if the company would not credit Mangeshkar.===Other===On June 28, 1992, hours before midnight, a barbecue grill and an overfill of charcoal caused Dre's Calabasas mansion to set on fire.", "Two firefighters who exhausted the fire were treated in the hospital for minor injuries.", "The fire caused over $125,000 in home damages.Dre pleaded guilty in October 1992 in a case of battery of a police officer and was convicted on two additional battery counts stemming from a brawl in the lobby of the New Orleans hotel in May 1991.In 1993, he was convicted of battery after an altercation with a man who stood outside the front porch of his Woodland Hills home in front of the musician's girlfriend.", "He claimed that Dre broke his jaw as a result.On January 10, 1994, Dre was arrested after leading police on a 90 mph pursuit through Beverly Hills in his 1987 Ferrari.", "It was revealed that Dr. Dre had a blood alcohol of 0.16, twice the state of California's legal limit.", "The conviction violated the conditions of parole following Dre's battery conviction in 1993; he pleaded no contest and was sentenced to eight months in prison in September 1994.He was ordered to pay a $1,053 fine and attend an alcohol education program.In November 2004, at the ''Vibe'' magazine awards show in Los Angeles, Dr. Dre was attacked by a fan named Jimmy James Johnson, who was supposedly asking for an autograph.", "In the resulting scuffle, then-G-Unit rapper Young Buck stabbed the man.", "Johnson claimed that Suge Knight, president of Death Row Records, paid him $5,000 to assault Dre in order to humiliate him before he received his Lifetime Achievement Award.", "Knight immediately went on CBS's ''The Late Late Show'' to deny involvement and insisted that he supported Dr. Dre and wanted Johnson charged.", "In September 2005, Johnson was sentenced to a year in prison and ordered to stay away from Dr. Dre until 2008.On October 30, 2015, Ruthless co-founder Jerry Heller filed suit against Dre, Ice Cube, Eazy-E's widow, Tomica Woods-Wright, director F. Gary Gray and Universal Pictures for defamation of character and copyright infringement over the biopic, ''Straight Outta Compton''.", "The lawsuit states that depictions of Heller in the film, portrayed by Paul Giamatti, were wrongfully taken from an autobiography he wrote about his involvement with Ruthless and N.W.A.", "The case was taken to court in June 2016 where a judge criticized the filing, saying that the film was \"approved to portray these facts in \"colorful and hyperbolic\" terms\".", "On September 2, 2016, Jerry Heller died of a car accident, preceded by a heart attack.", "However, his lawsuit kept on through his legal team and members of his estate.", "In October 2018, the lawsuit was dropped, costing Heller's estate $35 million for punitive and $75 million for compensatory damages.On April 4, 2016, TMZ and the ''New York Daily News'' reported that Suge Knight had accused Dre and the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department of a kill-for-hire plot in the 2014 shooting of Knight in club 1 OAK.", "Three months later, in July, Dre was reportedly detained by police after confronting a next-door neighbor in Malibu about a test drive.", "It was also alleged that he brandished a handgun on the neighbor, but no evidence would be linked and Dre was soon released.On May 8, 2018, Dre lost a name trademark filing to a Pennsylvania gynecologist named Draion Burch, who previously filed a trademark petition in 2015 to use his nickname, Dr. Drai, which has the similar pronunciation.", "Then, on June 26, Dre and Jimmy Iovine were ordered to pay $25 million to former partner and creative designer Steven Lamar, who sued the two co-founders for $100 million in unpaid royalties for designing the early Beats headphone models.", "The lawsuit was filed in 2015 after news broke out of Apple's acquisition of the headphone brand a year prior.In August 2021, Dr. Dre's oldest daughter LaTanya Young spoke out about being homeless and unable to support her four children.", "She is currently working for UberEats and DoorDash, and she also works at warehouse jobs.", "She is living in debt in her SUV while her children are living with friends.", "Dr. Dre has allegedly stopped supporting LaTanya financially since January 2020 because she has \"spoken about him in the press\"." ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===* ''The Chronic'' (1992)* ''2001'' (1999)* ''Compton'' (2015)===Soundtrack albums===* ''Deep Cover'' (1992)* ''The Wash'' (2001)===Collaboration albums==='''with World Class Wreckin' Cru'''* ''World Class'' (1985)* ''Rapped in Romance'' (1986)'''with N.W.A.", "'''* ''N.W.A.", "and the Posse'' (1987)* ''Straight Outta Compton'' (1988)* ''100 Miles and Runnin''' (1990)* ''Niggaz4Life'' (1991)'''with Marsha Ambrosius'''* ''Casablanco'' (TBD)'''with Snoop Dogg'''* ''Missionary'' (TBD)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "===American Music Awards=== YearNominated workAwardResult1994Dr.", "DreFavorite Rap/Hip-Hop New ArtistDr.", "DreFavorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist2001Dr.", "DreFavorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist===BET Hip Hop Awards=== 2014 Himself Hustler of the Year 2015 2016 Producer of the Year ''Compton'' Album of the Year ===Grammy Awards===Dr.", "Dre has won eight Grammy Awards.", "Four of them are for his production work.1990\"We're All in the Same Gang\" Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group1994\"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\" (with Snoop Doggy Dogg)\"Let Me Ride\"Best Rap Solo Performance1996\"Keep Their Heads Ringin'\"1997\"California Love\" (with 2Pac & Roger Troutman)Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group1998\"No Diggity\" (with Blackstreet & Queen Pen)Best R&B Song2000\"Still D.R.E.\"", "(with Snoop Dogg)Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group\"Guilty Conscience\" (with Eminem)2001\"Forgot About Dre\" (with Eminem)\"The Next Episode\" (with Snoop Dogg, Kurupt & Nate Dogg)''The Marshall Mathers LP'' (as engineer)Album of the YearBest Rap Album ''2001''HimselfProducer of the Year, Non-Classical20022003\"Knoc\" (with Knoc-turn'al & Missy Elliott)Best Music Video, Short Form''The Eminem Show'' (as producer)Album of the Year2004\"In da Club\" (as songwriter)Best Rap Song2006''Love.", "Angel.", "Music.", "Baby.''", "(as producer)Album of the Year\"Encore\" (with Eminem & 50 Cent)Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group2010\"Crack a Bottle\" (with Eminem & 50 Cent)''Relapse'' (as engineer)Best Rap Album2011''Recovery'' (as producer)Album of the Year2012\"I Need a Doctor\" (with Eminem & Skylar Grey)Best Rap/Sung CollaborationBest Rap Song2014''good kid, m.A.A.d city'' (as featured artist)Album of the Year2016''Compton''Best Rap Album2017''Straight Outta Compton'' Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media2020 ''Ventura'' (as engineer)Best R&B Album2024 Himself (as a member of N.W.A.", ")Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award===MTV Video Music Awards===YearNominated workAwardResult1993\"Nuthin' But a 'G' Thang\"Best Rap Video1994\"Let Me Ride\"1995\"Keep Their Heads Ringin'\"1997\"Been There, Done That\"Best Choreography in a Video1999\"My Name Is\"Best Direction\"Guilty Conscience\"Breakthrough Video2000\"The Real Slim Shady\"Best Direction in a Video2000\"Forgot About Dre\"Best Rap Video2001\"Stan\"Best Direction in a Video2009\"Nuthin' But a 'G' Thang\"Best Video (That Should Have Won a Moonman)===Primetime Emmy Awards=== 2022 ''The Pepsi Super Bowl LVI Halftime Show'' Outstanding Variety Special (Live)" ], [ "Filmography", "+ Films Year Title Role Notes 1992 ''Niggaz4Life: The Only Home Video'' Himself Documentary 1996 ''Set It Off'' Black Sam Minor role 1999 ''Whiteboyz'' Don Flip Crew #1 Minor role 2000 ''Up in Smoke Tour'' Himself Concert film 2001 ''Training Day'' Paul Minor role 2001''The Wash'' Sean Main role 2012 ''Something from Nothing: The Art of Rap'' Himself Documentary 2015 ''Unity'' Narrator Documentary 2017 ''The Defiant Ones'' Himself Documentary 2023 ''Dear Mama'' Himself Docuseries+ Video games Year Title Role Notes 2005 ''50 Cent: Bulletproof'' Grizz Voice role and likeness2020''Grand Theft Auto Online: The Cayo Perico Heist''HimselfVoice role and likeness; cameo 2021''Grand Theft Auto Online: The Contract''Voice role and likeness; update also features new music created by Dre for the game+ Biographical portrayals in film Year Title Portrayed by Notes 2015 ''Straight Outta Compton'' Corey Hawkins Biographical film about N.W.A 2016 ''Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le'' Chris Hamilton Biographical film about Michel'le 2017 ''All Eyez on Me'' Harold Moore Biographical film about Tupac Shakur" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * " ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Delicate Arch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Delicate Arch''' is a freestanding natural arch located in Arches National Park, near Moab in Grand County, Utah, United States.", "The arch is the most widely recognized landmark in Arches National Park and is depicted on Utah license plates and a postage stamp commemorating Utah's centennial anniversary of admission to the Union in 1886.The Olympic torch relay for the 2002 Winter Olympics passed through the arch." ], [ "History", "Delicate Arch and adjacent large panhole at sunset, February 2011Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as \"the Chaps\" and \"the Schoolmarm's Bloomers\" by local cowboys.", "Many other names have been applied to this arch including \"Bloomers Arch\", \"Marys Bloomers\", \"Old Maids Bloomers\", \"Pants Crotch\", \"Salt Wash Arch\", and \"School Marms Pants\".", "The arch was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of 1933–1934.Although there is a rumor that the names of Delicate Arch and Landscape Arch were inadvertently exchanged due to a signage mixup by the National Park Service (NPS), this is false.This arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a national monument (Arches National Monument) in 1929 and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in 1938.In the 1950s, the NPS investigated the possibility of applying a clear plastic coating to the arch to protect it from further erosion and eventual destruction.", "The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles.Nature photographer Michael Fatali started a fire under the arch in September 2000 to demonstrate nighttime photography techniques to a group of amateur photographers.", "The fire discolored portions of the sandstone near the arch.", "Fatali was placed on probation and fined $10,900 in restitution to the NPS for the cost of cleanup efforts.In 2017, the United Utah Party was founded, and chose Delicate Arch as its official party logo." ], [ "Geology", "Delicate Arch is formed of Entrada Sandstone.", "The original sandstone fin was gradually worn away by weathering and erosion, leaving the arch.", "Other arches in the park were formed the same way but, due to placement and less dramatic shape, are not as famous." ], [ "Ecology", "During the summer, white-throated swifts (''Aeronautes saxatalis'') nest in the top of the arch." ], [ "Climbing", "In May 2006, climber Dean Potter performed as many as six free solo ascents of the arch.", "Climbing Delicate Arch was not explicitly forbidden under the rules in force at the time, which only stated that routes \"may be closed\" on any named arch; however, most climbers accepted that the named arch formations should not be climbed.", "The NPS has since closed the loophole by disallowing climbs on any named arch within the park year-round.", "Slacklining and the placement of new fixed anchors on new climbs are also prohibited.Controversy ensued when photographs taken after Potter's climb appeared to show damage caused by a climbing technique called top roping.", "Potter stated on several occasions that he never damaged the arch, and no photos exist of Potter using a top rope setup on the arch.", "Previous climbers may have top-roped the arch, leaving the existing rope scars.", "Potter did admit to using a counterweighted rope over the top of the arch, within a natural groove, as well as four cams in a horizontal crack of harder rock at the summit.", "He used the rope and cams for protection while rehearsing his free solo route and to rappel back down after the free solos.", "Two fellow climbers also ascended via fixed ropes, one of whom recorded video of Potter from the top." ], [ "Tourism", "Delicate Arch is one of the main tourist draws in Arches National Park.", "The parking lot at the Delicate Arch Trailhead, although large, fills up quickly on most days.", "The trail to Delicate Arch is 3 miles (4.8 kilometer) round trip with an elevation change of 480 feet (146 meters).", "The trail is well defined for the first 1/2 mile, then does a steep incline over open rock.", "There is a narrow ledge for the last 200 yards (183 meter) before reaching the arch." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Arches National Park Delicate Arch page* Arches National Park Trails Page* Panorama Under Arch (archived 9 June 2009)* Beautiful Places episode of Delicate Arch (archived 28 June 2010)* Panoramic View of Delicate Arch at Sunset" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deed poll" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''deed poll''' (plural: '''deeds poll''') is a legal document binding on a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an intention or create an obligation.", "It is a deed, and not a contract, because it binds only one party." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"deed\", also known in this context as a \"specialty\", is common to signed written undertakings not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, \"signed, sealed and delivered\", or even merely \"executed as a deed\") is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the obligation.", "\"Poll\" is an archaic legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an \"indenture\", so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet, then the copies separated by being irregularly torn or cut, i.e.", "\"indented\", so that each party had a document with corresponding tears, to discourage forgery)." ], [ "Use for changing name", "The most common use is a name change through a deed of change of name (often referred to simply as a ''deed poll'').", "Deeds poll are used for this purpose in countries and regions including in the United Kingdom (except in Scotland), Ireland, Hong Kong, and Singapore.", "In the UK, a deed poll can also be used to change a child's name, as long as everyone with parental responsibility for the child consents to it and the child does not object to it.", "The child's parents execute the deed poll on the child's behalf.", "In some other jurisdictions, a person may simply start using a new name without any formal legal process.", "The usual requirements are that the new name must be used exclusively and that the change must not be made with the intent to defraud.", "In English law, a person must notify every creditor of a change of name by deed poll.In Australia, prior to 1 November 2000, name change was accomplished by deed poll but now is done by completing a Change of Name form." ], [ "Other uses", "Another common use is to partition land.", "This form of deed poll is commonly used in Hong Kong.A deed poll may also be used (in England and Wales) for clergy of the Church of England to relinquish their holy orders.Bonds and powers of attorney are examples of deeds poll.", "A will is not a deed poll, not being made under seal, and being subject to separate statutory requirements." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Change your name by deed poll - UK Government advice* Enrolment of Deeds and other Documents at the UK Ministry of Justice website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Documentary film" ], [ "Introduction", "16 mm spring-wound Bolex \"H16\" reflex cameraa popular entry-level camera used in film schoolsA '''documentary film''' or '''documentary''' is a non-fictional motion picture intended to \"document reality, primarily for instruction, education or maintaining a historical record\".", "Bill Nichols has characterized the documentary in terms of \"a filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception that remains a practice without clear boundaries\".Early documentary films, originally called \"actuality films\", briefly lasted for one minute or less.", "Over time, documentaries have evolved to become longer in length and to include more categories.", "Some examples are educational, observational and docufiction.", "Documentaries are very informative, and are often used within schools as a resource to teach various principles.", "Documentary filmmakers have a responsibility to be truthful to their vision of the world without intentionally misrepresenting a topic.Social media platforms (such as YouTube) have provided an avenue for the growth of the documentary-film genre.", "These platforms have increased the distribution area and ease-of-accessibility." ], [ "Definition", "The cover of Bolesław Matuszewski's 1898 book ''Une nouvelle source de l'histoire (A New Source of History)'', the first publication about documentary function of cinematographyPolish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film.", "He wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema, ''Une nouvelle source de l'histoire'' (\"A New Source of History\") and ''La photographie animée'' (\"Animated photography\").", "Both were published in 1898 in French and were among the earliest written works to consider the historical and documentary value of the film.", "Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect and keep safe visual materials.The word \"documentary\" was coined by Scottish documentary filmmaker John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty's film ''Moana'' (1926), published in the ''New York Sun'' on 8 February 1926, written by \"The Moviegoer\" (a pen name for Grierson).Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the \"original\" actor and \"original\" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts for interpreting the modern world; and that materials \"thus taken from the raw\" can be more real than the acted article.", "In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as \"creative treatment of actuality\" has gained some acceptance; however, this position is at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov's credos of provocation to present \"life as it is\" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously), and \"life caught unawares\" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as \"a factual film which is dramatic.\"", "Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents.", "Scholar Betsy McLane asserted that documentaries are for filmmakers to convey their views about historical events, people, and places which they find significant.", "Therefore, the advantage of documentaries lies in introducing new perspectives which may not be prevalent in traditional media such as written publications and school curricula.Documentary practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects.", "It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, or personal expression." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-1900 ===Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event.", "Single-shot moments were captured on film, such as a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work.", "These short films were called \"actuality\" films; the term \"documentary\" was not coined until 1926.Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length, due to technological limitations.", "Examples can be viewed on YouTube.Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them.", "One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, ''The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight''.", "Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States.In May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film a few surgical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals.", "In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Matuszewski and Clément Maurice to record his surgical operations.", "They started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898.Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations.", "Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of.", "For scientific purposes, after 1906, Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series ''Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées'' (1906), and the four-film ''Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne'' (1911).", "These and five other of Doyen's films survive.Frame from one of Gheorghe Marinescu's science films (1899)Between July 1898 and 1901, the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest: ''Walking Troubles of Organic Hemiplegy'' (1898), ''The Walking Troubles of Organic Paraplegies'' (1899), ''A Case of Hysteric Hemiplegy Healed Through Hypnosis'' (1899), ''The Walking Troubles of Progressive Locomotion Ataxy'' (1900), and ''Illnesses of the Muscles'' (1901).", "All these short films have been preserved.", "The professor called his works \"studies with the help of the cinematograph,\" and published the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of ''La Semaine Médicale'' magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902.In 1924, Auguste Lumière recognized the merits of Marinescu's science films: \"I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving ''La Semaine Médicale'', but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies.", "I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me.", "Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way.", "\"=== 1900–1920 ===Geoffrey Malins with an aeroscope camera during World War ITravelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century.", "They were often referred to by distributors as \"scenics\".", "Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time.", "An important early film which moved beyond the concept of the scenic was ''In the Land of the Head Hunters'' (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans.Contemplation is a separate area.", "Pathé is the best-known global manufacturer of such films in the early 20th century.", "A vivid example is ''Moscow Clad in Snow'' (1909).Biographical documentaries appeared during this time, such as the feature ''Eminescu-Veronica-Creangă'' (1914) on the relationship between the writers Mihai Eminescu, Veronica Micle and Ion Creangă (all deceased at the time of the production), released by the Bucharest chapter of Pathé.Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor (known for the feature ''With Our King and Queen Through India'' (1912)) and Prizma Color (known for ''Everywhere With Prizma'' (1919) and the five-reel feature ''Bali the Unknown'' (1921)) used travelogues to promote the new color processes.", "In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fiction feature films.Also during this period, Frank Hurley's feature documentary film, ''South'' (1919) about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was released.", "The film documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914.=== 1920s ======= Romanticism ====''Nanook of the North'' posterWith Robert J. Flaherty's ''Nanook of the North'' in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism.", "Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic documentary films during this time period, often showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then.", "For instance, in ''Nanook of the North'', Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead.", "Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's ''Nanook'' and ''Moana'' with two romanticized documentaries, ''Grass'' (1925) and ''Chang'' (1927), both directed by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack.==== City-symphony ====The city-symphony sub film genre consisted of avant-garde films during the 1920s and 1930s.", "These films were particularly influenced by modern art, namely Cubism, Constructivism, and Impressionism.", "According to art historian and author Scott Macdonald, city-symphony films can be described as, \"An intersection between documentary and avant-garde film: an ''avant-doc''\"; however, A.L.", "Rees suggests regarding them as avant-garde films.Early titles produced within this genre include: ''Manhatta'' (New York; dir.", "Paul Strand, 1921); ''Rien que les heures/Nothing But The Hours'' (France; dir.", "Alberto Cavalcanti, 1926); ''Twenty Four Dollar Island'' (dir.", "Robert J. Flaherty, 1927); ''Moscow'' (dir.", "Mikhail Kaufman, 1927); ''Études sur Paris'' (dir.", "André Sauvage, 1928); ''The Bridge'' (1928) and ''Rain'' (1929), both by Joris Ivens; ''São Paulo, Sinfonia da Metrópole'' (dir.", "Adalberto Kemeny, 1929), ''Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis'' (dir.", "Walter Ruttmann, 1927); ''Man with a Movie Camera'' (dir.", "Dziga Vertov, 1929); ''Douro, Faina Fluvial'' (dir.", "Manoel de Oliveira, 1931); and ''Rhapsody in Two Languages'' (dir.", "Gordon Sparling, 1934).A city-symphony film, as the name suggests, is most often based around a major metropolitan city area and seeks to capture the life, events and activities of the city.", "It can use abstract cinematography (Walter Ruttman's ''Berlin'') or may use Soviet montage theory (Dziga Vertov's, ''Man with a Movie Camera'').", "Most importantly, a city-symphony film is a form of cinepoetry, shot and edited in the style of a \"symphony\".In this shot from ''Man with a Movie Camera'', Mikhail Kaufman acts as a cameraman risking his life in search of the best shot.The European continental tradition (''See:'' Realism) focused on humans within human-made environments, and included the so-called \"''city-symphony''\" films such as Walter Ruttmann's, ''Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis'' (of which Grierson noted in an article that ''Berlin,'' represented what a documentary should not be); Alberto Cavalcanti's, ''Rien que les heures;'' and Dziga Vertov's ''Man with a Movie Camera''.", "These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde.==== ''Kino-Pravda'' ====Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet ''Kino-Pravda'' (literally, \"cinematic truth\") newsreel series of the 1920s.", "Vertov believed the camerawith its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motioncould render reality more accurately than the human eye, and created a film philosophy from it.==== Newsreel tradition ====The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film.", "Newsreels at this time were sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening.", "For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them.=== 1930s–1940s ===The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point.", "One of the most celebrated and controversial propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film ''Triumph of the Will'' (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler.", "Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed ''Borinage'' (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region.", "Luis Buñuel directed a \"surrealist\" documentary ''Las Hurdes'' (1933).Pare Lorentz's ''The Plow That Broke the Plains'' (1936) and ''The River'' (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's ''The City'' (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints.", "Frank Capra's ''Why We Fight'' (1942–1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war.", "Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature-length documentaries, ''Legong: Dance of the Virgins'' (1935) filmed in Bali, and ''Kilou the Killer Tiger'' (1936) filmed in Indochina.In Canada, the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was set up for the same propaganda reasons.", "It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels.Conference of \"World Union of documentary films\" in 1948 Warsaw featured famous directors of the era: Basil Wright (on the left), Elmar Klos, Joris Ivens (2nd from the right), and Jerzy Toeplitz.In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson.", "They became known as the Documentary Film Movement.", "Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary.", "Examples of their work include ''Drifters'' (John Grierson), ''Song of Ceylon'' (Basil Wright), ''Fires Were Started'', and ''A Diary for Timothy'' (Humphrey Jennings).", "Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J.", "B. Priestley.", "Among the best known films of the movement are ''Night Mail'' and ''Coal Face''.", "''Calling Mr. Smith'' (1943) is an anti-Nazi color film created by Stefan Themerson which is both a documentary and an avant-garde film against war.", "It was one of the first anti-Nazi films in history.=== 1950s–1970s ===Lennart Meri (1929–2006), the second President of the Republic of Estonia, directed documentaries several years before his presidency.", "His film ''The Winds of the Milky Way'' won a silver medal at the New York Film Festival in 1977.==== Cinéma-vérité ====Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints.", "Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded.Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American \"direct cinema\" (or more accurately \"cinéma direct\"), pioneered by, among others, Canadians Allan King, Michel Brault, and Pierre Perrault, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles.The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects.", "Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.The films ''Chronicle of a Summer'' (Jean Rouch), ''Dont Look Back'' (D. A. Pennebaker), ''Grey Gardens'' (Albert and David Maysles), ''Titicut Follies'' (Frederick Wiseman), ''Primary'' and ''Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment'' (both produced by Robert Drew), ''Harlan County, USA'' (directed by Barbara Kopple), ''Lonely Boy'' (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films.The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions.", "There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one.", "From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film.", "The editors of the movementsuch as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Meyer, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovdeare often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits.Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include ''Les Raquetteurs'', ''Showman'', ''Salesman'', ''Near Death'', and ''The Children Were Watching''.==== Political weapons ====In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often regarded as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing society.", "(''The Hour of the Furnaces'', from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Arnold Vincent Kudales Sr., influenced a whole generation of filmmakers.", "Among the many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was \"Chile: A Special Report\", public television's first in-depth expository look at the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia.A June 2020 article in ''The New York Times'' reviewed the political documentary ''And She Could Be Next'', directed by Grace Lee and Marjan Safinia.", "The ''Times'' described the documentary not only as focusing on women in politics, but more specifically on women of color, their communities, and the significant changes they have wrought upon America.=== Modern documentaries ===Box office analysts have noted that the documentary film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as ''Fahrenheit 9/11'', ''Super Size Me'', ''Food, Inc.'', ''Earth'', ''March of the Penguins'', and ''An Inconvenient Truth'' among the most prominent examples.", "Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 30 years from the cinéma vérité style introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject.", "The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are very personal, such as Marlon Riggs's ''Tongues Untied'' (1989) and ''Black Is...Black Ain't'' (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials.Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour ''Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years'' (1986Part 1 and 1989Part 2) by Henry Hampton, ''4 Little Girls'' (1997) by Spike Lee, ''The Civil War'' by Ken Burns, and UNESCO-awarded independent film on slavery ''500 Years Later'', express not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views.", "Some films such as ''The Thin Blue Line'' by Errol Morris incorporate stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore's ''Roger & Me'' place far more interpretive control with the director.", "The commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as \"mondo films\" or \"docu-ganda.\"", "However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to problematic ontological foundations.Documentary filmmakers are increasingly using social impact campaigns with their films.", "Social impact campaigns seek to leverage media projects by converting public awareness of social issues and causes into engagement and action, largely by offering the audience a way to get involved.", "Examples of such documentaries include ''Kony 2012'', ''Salam Neighbor, Gasland'', ''Living on One Dollar'', and ''Girl Rising''.Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive.", "Within the past decade, the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source.Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of \"reality television\" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged.", "The \"making-of\" documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced.", "Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices.", "The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' ''Voices of Iraq'', where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves.==== Documentaries without words ====Films in the documentary form without words have been made.", "''Listen to Britain'', directed by Humphrey Jennings and Stuart McAllister in 1942, is a wordless meditation on wartime Britain.", "From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the similar ''Baraka'' could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no spoken content.", "''Koyaanisqatsi'' (part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States.", "''Baraka'' tries to capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies.", "''Bodysong'' was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for \"Best British Documentary.", "\"The 2004 film ''Genesis'' shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, sex, and death, with some, but little, narration.==== Narration styles ====; Voice-over narratorThe traditional style for narration is to have a dedicated narrator read a script which is dubbed onto the audio track.", "The narrator never appears on camera and may not necessarily have knowledge of the subject matter or involvement in the writing of the script.", "; Silent narrationThis style of narration uses title screens to visually narrate the documentary.", "The screens are held for about 5–10 seconds to allow adequate time for the viewer to read them.", "They are similar to the ones shown at the end of movies based on true stories, but they are shown throughout, typically between scenes.", "; Hosted narratorIn this style, there is a host who appears on camera, conducts interviews, and who also does voice-overs." ], [ "Other forms", "=== Hybrid documentary ===The release of ''The Thin Blue Line'' (1988) directed by Errol Morris introduced possibilities for emerging forms of the hybrid documentary.", "Indeed, it was disqualified for an Academy Award because of the stylized recreations.", "Traditional documentary filmmaking typically removes signs of fictionalization to distinguish itself from fictional film genres.", "Audiences have recently become more distrustful of the media's traditional fact production, making them more receptive to experimental ways of telling facts.", "The hybrid documentary implements truth games to challenge traditional fact production.", "Although it is fact-based, the hybrid documentary is not explicit about what should be understood, creating an open dialogue between subject and audience.", "Clio Barnard's ''The Arbor'' (2010), Joshua Oppenheimer's ''The Act of Killing'' (2012), Mads Brügger's ''The Ambassador'', and Alma Har'el's ''Bombay Beach'' (2011) are a few notable examples.=== Docufiction ===Docufiction is a hybrid genre from two basic ones, fiction film and documentary, practiced since the first documentary films were made.=== Fake-fiction ===Fake-fiction is a genre which deliberately presents real, unscripted events in the form of a fiction film, making them appear as staged.", "The concept was introduced by Pierre Bismuth to describe his 2016 film ''Where is Rocky II?", "''=== DVD documentary ===A DVD documentary is a documentary film of indeterminate length that has been produced with the sole intent of releasing it for direct sale to the public on DVD, which is different from a documentary being made and released first on television or on a cinema screen (a.k.a.", "theatrical release) and subsequently on DVD for public consumption.This form of documentary release is becoming more popular and accepted as costs and difficulty with finding TV or theatrical release slots increases.", "It is also commonly used for more \"specialist\" documentaries, which might not have general interest to a wider TV audience.", "Examples are military, cultural arts, transport, sports, animals, etc.=== Compilation films ===Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with ''The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty''.", "More recent examples include ''Point of Order!''", "(1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings.", "Similarly, ''The Last Cigarette'' combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.Poetic documentaries, which first appeared in the 1920s, were a sort of reaction against both the content and the rapidly crystallizing grammar of the early fiction film.", "The poetic mode moved away from continuity editing and instead organized images of the material world by means of associations and patterns, both in terms of time and space.", "Well-rounded characters\"lifelike people\"were absent; instead, people appeared in these films as entities, just like any other, that are found in the material world.", "The films were fragmentary, impressionistic, lyrical.", "Their disruption of the coherence of time and spacea coherence favored by the fiction films of the daycan also be seen as an element of the modernist counter-model of cinematic narrative.", "The \"real world\"Nichols calls it the \"historical world\"was broken up into fragments and aesthetically reconstituted using film form.", "Examples of this style include Joris Ivens' ''Rain'' (1928), which records a passing summer shower over Amsterdam; László Moholy-Nagy's ''Play of Light: Black, White, Grey (1930)'', in which he films one of his own kinetic sculptures, emphasizing not the sculpture itself but the play of light around it; Oskar Fischinger's abstract animated films; Francis Thompson's ''N.Y., N.Y.'' (1957), a city symphony film; and Chris Marker's ''Sans Soleil'' (1982).Expository documentaries speak directly to the viewer, often in the form of an authoritative commentary employing voiceover or titles, proposing a strong argument and point of view.", "These films are rhetorical, and try to persuade the viewer.", "(They may use a rich and sonorous male voice.)", "The (voice-of-God) commentary often sounds \"objective\" and omniscient.", "Images are often not paramount; they exist to advance the argument.", "The rhetoric insistently presses upon us to read the images in a certain fashion.", "Historical documentaries in this mode deliver an unproblematic and \"objective\" account and interpretation of past events.Examples: TV shows and films like ''Biography'', ''America's Most Wanted'', many science and nature documentaries, Ken Burns' ''The Civil War'' (1990), Robert Hughes' ''The Shock of the New'' (1980), John Berger's ''Ways Of Seeing'' (1974), Frank Capra's wartime ''Why We Fight'' series, and Pare Lorentz's ''The Plow That Broke The Plains'' (1936).=== Observational ===Film team at Port of Dar es Salaam with two ferriesObservational documentaries attempt to spontaneously observe their subjects with minimal intervention.", "Filmmakers who worked in this subgenre often saw the poetic mode as too abstract and the expository mode as too didactic.", "The first observational docs date back to the 1960s; the technological developments which made them possible include mobile lightweight cameras and portable sound recording equipment for synchronized sound.", "Often, this mode of film eschewed voice-over commentary, post-synchronized dialogue and music, or re-enactments.", "The films aimed for immediacy, intimacy, and revelation of individual human character in ordinary life situations.=== Types ==='''Participatory documentaries''' believe that it is impossible for the act of filmmaking to not influence or alter the events being filmed.", "What these films do is emulate the approach of the anthropologist: participant-observation.", "Not only is the filmmaker part of the film, we also get a sense of how situations in the film are affected or altered by their presence.", "Nichols: \"The filmmaker steps out from behind the cloak of voice-over commentary, steps away from poetic meditation, steps down from a fly-on-the-wall perch, and becomes a social actor (almost) like any other.", "(Almost like any other because the filmmaker retains the camera, and with it, a certain degree of potential power and control over events.)\"", "The encounter between filmmaker and subject becomes a critical element of the film.", "Rouch and Morin named the approach cinéma vérité, translating Dziga Vertov's kinopravda into French; the \"truth\" refers to the truth of the encounter rather than some absolute truth.", "'''Reflexive documentaries''' do not see themselves as a transparent window on the world; instead, they draw attention to their own constructedness, and the fact that they are representations.", "How does the world get represented by documentary films?", "This question is central to this subgenre of films.", "They prompt us to \"question the authenticity of documentary in general.\"", "It is the most self-conscious of all the modes, and is highly skeptical of \"realism\".", "It may use Brechtian alienation strategies to jar us, in order to \"defamiliarize\" what we are seeing and how we are seeing it.", "'''Performative documentaries''' stress subjective experience and emotional response to the world.", "They are strongly personal, unconventional, perhaps poetic and/or experimental, and might include hypothetical enactments of events designed to make us experience what it might be like for us to possess a certain specific perspective on the world that is not our own, e.g.", "that of black, gay men in Marlon Riggs's ''Tongues Untied'' (1989) or Jenny Livingston's ''Paris Is Burning'' (1991).", "This subgenre might also lend itself to certain groups (e.g.", "women, ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, etc.)", "to \"speak about themselves\".", "Often, a battery of techniques, many borrowed from fiction or avant-garde films, are used.", "Performative docs often link up personal accounts or experiences with larger political or historical realities.=== Educational films ===Documentaries are shown in schools around the world in order to educate students.", "Used to introduce various topics to children, they are often used with a school lesson or shown many times to reinforce an idea." ], [ "Translation", "There are several challenges associated with translation of documentaries.", "The main two are working conditions and problems with terminology.=== Working conditions ===Documentary translators very often have to meet tight deadlines.", "Normally, the translator has between five and seven days to hand over the translation of a 90-minute programme.", "Dubbing studios typically give translators a week to translate a documentary, but in order to earn a good salary, translators have to deliver their translations in a much shorter period, usually when the studio decides to deliver the final programme to the client sooner or when the broadcasting channel sets a tight deadline, e.g.", "on documentaries discussing the latest news.Another problem is the lack of postproduction script or the poor quality of the transcription.", "A correct transcription is essential for a translator to do their work properly, however many times the script is not even given to the translator, which is a major impediment since documentaries are characterised by \"the abundance of terminological units and very specific proper names\".", "When the script is given to the translator, it is usually poorly transcribed or outright incorrect making the translation unnecessarily difficult and demanding because all of the proper names and specific terminology have to be correct in a documentary programme in order for it to be a reliable source of information, hence the translator has to check every term on their own.", "Such mistakes in proper names are for instance: \"Jungle Reinhard instead of Django Reinhart, Jorn Asten instead of Jane Austen, and Magnus Axle instead of Aldous Huxley\".=== Terminology ===The process of translation of a documentary programme requires working with very specific, often scientific terminology.", "Documentary translators are not usually specialists in a given field.", "Therefore, they are compelled to undertake extensive research whenever asked to make a translation of a specific documentary programme in order to understand it correctly and deliver the final product free of mistakes and inaccuracies.", "Generally, documentaries contain a large number of specific terms, with which translators have to familiarise themselves on their own, for example:The documentary ''Beetles, Record Breakers'' makes use of 15 different terms to refer to beetles in less than 30 minutes (longhorn beetle, cellar beetle, stag beetle, burying beetle or gravediggers, sexton beetle, tiger beetle, bloody nose beetle, tortoise beetle, diving beetle, devil's coach horse, weevil, click beetle, malachite beetle, oil beetle, cockchafer), apart from mentioning other animals such as horseshoe bats or meadow brown butterflies.This poses a real challenge for the translators because they have to render the meaning, i.e.", "find an equivalent, of a very specific, scientific term in the target language and frequently the narrator uses a more general name instead of a specific term and the translator has to rely on the image presented in the programme to understand which term is being discussed in order to transpose it in the target language accordingly.", "Additionally, translators of minorised languages often have to face another problem: some terms may not even exist in the target language.", "In such cases, they have to create new terminology or consult specialists to find proper solutions.", "Also, sometimes the official nomenclature differs from the terminology used by actual specialists, which leaves the translator to decide between using the official vocabulary that can be found in the dictionary, or rather opting for spontaneous expressions used by real experts in real life situations." ], [ "See also", "* Actuality film* Citizen media* Concert film* Dance film* Docudrama* Ethnofiction* Ethnographic film* List of documentary films* List of documentary film festivals* List of documentary television channels* List of directors and producers of documentaries* Mockumentary* Mondo film* Nature documentary* Outline of film* Participatory video* Political cinema* Public-access television* Reality film* Rockumentary* Sponsored film* Visual anthropology* Women's cinema=== Some documentary film awards ===* Grierson Awards* Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature* Joris Ivens Award, International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA), (named after Joris Ivens)* Filmmaker Award, Margaret Mead Film Festival* Grand Prize, Visions du Réel" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources and bibliography", "* Aitken, Ian (ed.).", "''Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film''.", "New York: Routledge, 2005..* Barnouw, Erik.", "''Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film'', 2nd rev.", "ed.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1993..", "Still a useful introduction.", "* Ron Burnett.", "\"Reflections on the Documentary Cinema\" * Burton, Julianne (ed.).", "''The Social Documentary in Latin America''.", "Pittsburgh, Penn.", ": University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990..* Dawson, Jonathan.", "\"Dziga Vertov\".", "* Ellis, Jack C., and Betsy A. McLane.", "\"A New History of Documentary Film.\"", "New York: Continuum International, 2005., .", "* Godmilow, Jill: ''Kill the Documentary.", "A Letter to Filmmakers, Students and Scholars'', Foreword by Bill Nichols, Columbia UP, New York 2022* Goldsmith, David A.", "''The Documentary Makers: Interviews with 15 of the Best in the Business''.", "Hove, East Sussex: RotoVision, 2003..* * Klotman, Phyllis R. and Culter, Janet K.(eds.).", "''Struggles for Representation: African American Documentary Film and Video'' Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999..* Leach, Jim, and Jeannette Sloniowski (eds.).", "''Candid Eyes: Essays on Canadian Documentaries''.", "Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2003., .", "* Nichols, Bill.", "''Introduction to Documentary'', Bloomington, Ind.", ": Indiana University Press, 2001., .", "* Nichols, Bill.", "''Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary''.", "Bloomington, Ind.", ": Indiana University Press, 1991., .", "* Nornes, Markus.", "''Forest of Pressure: Ogawa Shinsuke and Postwar Japanese Documentary''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007., .", "* Nornes, Markus.", "''Japanese Documentary Film: The Meiji Era through Hiroshima''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003., .", "* Rotha, Paul, ''Documentary diary; An Informal History of the British Documentary Film, 1928–1939''.", "New York: Hill and Wang, 1973..* Saunders, Dave.", "''Direct Cinema: Observational Documentary and the Politics of the Sixties''.", "London: Wallflower Press, 2007., .", "* Saunders, Dave.", "''Documentary: The Routledge Film Guidebook''.", "London: Routledge, 2010.", "* Tobias, Michael.", "''The Search for Reality: The Art of Documentary Filmmaking''.", "Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions 1997.", "* Walker, Janet, and Diane Waldeman (eds.).", "''Feminism and Documentary''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999., .", "* Wyver, John.", "''The Moving Image: An International History of Film, Television & Radio''.", "Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. in association with the British Film Institute, 1989..* Murdoch.edu , Documentaryreading list=== Ethnographic film ===* Emilie de Brigard, \"The History of Ethnographic Film,\" in ''Principles of Visual Anthropology'', ed.", "Paul Hockings.", "Berlin and New York City : Mouton de Gruyter, 1995, pp. 13–43.", "* Leslie Devereaux, \"Cultures, Disciplines, Cinemas,\" in ''Fields of Vision.", "Essays in Film Studies, Visual Anthropology and Photography'', ed.", "Leslie Devereaux & Roger Hillman.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995, pp. 329–339.", "* Faye Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod and Brian Larkin (eds.", "), ''Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain''.", "Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002..* Anna Grimshaw, ''The Ethnographer's Eye: Ways of Seeing in Modern Anthropology''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001..* Karl G. Heider, ''Ethnographic Film''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.", "* Luc de Heusch, ''Cinéma et Sciences Sociales'', Paris: UNESCO, 1962.Published in English as ''The Cinema and Social Science.", "A Survey of Ethnographic and Sociological Films''.", "UNESCO, 1962.", "* Fredric Jameson, ''Signatures of the Visible''.", "New York & London: Routledge, 1990.", "* Pierre-L. Jordan, ''Premier Contact-Premier Regard'', Marseille: Musées de Marseille.", "Images en Manoeuvres Editions, 1992.", "* André Leroi-Gourhan, \"Cinéma et Sciences Humaines.", "Le Film Ethnologique Existe-t-il?,\" ''Revue de Géographie Humaine et d'Ethnologie'' 3 (1948), pp. 42–50.", "* David MacDougall, ''Transcultural Cinema''.", "Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998..* David MacDougall, \"Whose Story Is It?,\" in ''Ethnographic Film Aesthetics and Narrative Traditions'', ed.", "Peter I. Crawford and Jan K. Simonsen.", "Aarhus, Intervention Press, 1992, pp. 25–42.", "* Fatimah Tobing Rony, ''The Third Eye: Race, Cinema and Ethnographic Spectacle''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996..* Georges Sadoul, ''Histoire Générale du Cinéma''.", "Vol.", "1, ''L'Invention du Cinéma 1832–1897''.", "Paris: Denöel, 1977, pp. 73–110.", "* Pierre Sorlin, ''Sociologie du Cinéma'', Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1977, pp. 7–74.", "* Charles Warren, \"Introduction, with a Brief History of Nonfiction Film,\" in ''Beyond Document.", "Essays on Nonfiction Film'', ed.", "Charles Warren.", "Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 1996, pp. 1–22.", "* Ismail Xavier, \"Cinema: Revelação e Engano\", in ''O Olhar'' , ed.", "Adauto Novaes.", "São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1993, pp.", "367–384." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Day of the Tentacle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Day of the Tentacle''''', also known as '''''Maniac Mansion II: Day of the Tentacle''''', is a 1993 graphic adventure game developed and published by LucasArts.", "It is the sequel to the 1987 game ''Maniac Mansion''.", "The plot follows Bernard Bernoulli and his friends Hoagie and Laverne as they attempt to stop the evil Purple Tentacle - a sentient, disembodied tentacle - from taking over the world.", "The player takes control of the trio and solves puzzles while using time travel to explore different periods of history.Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer co-led the game's development, their first time in such a role.", "The pair carried over a limited number of elements from ''Maniac Mansion'' and forwent the character selection aspect to simplify development.", "Inspirations included Chuck Jones cartoons and the history of the United States.", "''Day of the Tentacle'' was the eighth LucasArts game to use the SCUMM engine.The game was released simultaneously on floppy disk and CD-ROM to critical acclaim and commercial success.", "Critics focused on its cartoon-style visuals and comedic elements.", "''Day of the Tentacle'' has featured regularly in lists of \"top\" games published more than two decades after its release, and has been referenced in popular culture.", "A remastered version of ''Day of the Tentacle'' was developed by Schafer's current studio, Double Fine Productions, and released in March 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with an iOS and Linux port released in July the same year, and then later for Xbox One in October 2020." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Day of the Tentacle'' follows the point-and-click two-dimensional adventure game formula, first established by the original ''Maniac Mansion''.", "Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse.", "To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of nine commands arrayed on the screen (such as \"pick up\", \"use\", or \"talk to\") and then on an object in the world.", "This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, ''Sam & Max Hit the Road'', the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen.", "''Day of the Tentacle'' uses time travel extensively; early in the game, the three main protagonists are separated across time by the effects of a faulty time machine.", "The player, after completing certain puzzles, can then freely switch between these characters, interacting with the game's world in separate time periods.", "Certain small inventory items can be shared by placing the item into the \"Chron-o-Johns\", modified portable toilets that instantly transport objects to one of the other time periods, while other items are shared by simply leaving the item in a past time period to be picked up by a character in a future period.", "Changes made to a past time period will affect a future one, and many of the game's puzzles are based on the effect of time travel, the aging of certain items, and alterations of the time stream.", "For example, one puzzle requires the player, while in the future era where Purple Tentacle has succeeded, to send a medical chart of a Tentacle back to the past, having it used as the design of the American flag, then collecting one such flag in the future to be used as a Tentacle disguise to allow that character to roam freely.The whole original ''Maniac Mansion'' game can be played on a computer resembling a Commodore 64 inside the ''Day of the Tentacle'' game; this practice has since been repeated by other game developers, but at the time of ''Day of the Tentacle's'' release, it was unprecedented." ], [ "Plot", "Five years after the events of ''Maniac Mansion'', Purple Tentacle—a mutant monster and lab assistant created by mad scientist Dr. Fred Edison—drinks toxic sludge from a river behind Dr. Fred's laboratory.", "The sludge causes him to grow a pair of flipper-like arms, develop vastly increased intelligence, and have a thirst for global domination.", "Dr. Fred plans to resolve the issue by killing Purple Tentacle and his harmless, friendly brother Green Tentacle, but Green Tentacle sends a plea of help to his old friend, the nerd Bernard Bernoulli.", "Bernard travels to the Edison family motel with his two housemates, deranged medical student Laverne and roadie Hoagie, and frees the tentacles.", "Purple Tentacle escapes to resume his quest to take over the world.The game displays the point-and-click interface below the scene.", "Time travel and interaction with cartoon versions of figures from American colonial history, such as John Hancock, Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, are key to gameplay.Since Purple Tentacle's plans are flawless and unstoppable, Dr. Fred decides to use his Chron-o-John time machines to send Bernard, Laverne, and Hoagie to the day before to turn off his Sludge-o-Matic machine, thereby preventing Purple Tentacle's exposure to the sludge.", "However, because Dr. Fred used an imitation diamond rather than a real diamond as a power source for the time machine, the Chron-o-Johns break down in operation.", "Laverne is sent 200 years in the future, where humanity has been enslaved and Purple Tentacle rules the world from the Edison mansion, while Hoagie is dropped 200 years in the past, where the motel is being used by the Founding Fathers as a retreat to write the United States Constitution.", "Bernard is returned to the present.", "To salvage Dr. Fred's plan, Bernard must acquire a replacement diamond for the time machine, while both Hoagie and Laverne must restore power to their respective Chron-o-John pods by plugging them in.", "To overcome the lack of electricity in the past, Hoagie recruits the help of Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Fred's ancestor, Red Edison, to build a superbattery to power his pod, while Laverne evades capture by the tentacles long enough to run an extension cord to her unit.", "The three send small objects back and forth in time through the Chron-o-Johns and make changes to history to help the others complete their tasks.Eventually, Bernard uses Dr. Fred's family fortune of royalties from the use of their likeness in ''Maniac Mansion'' to purchase a real diamond, while his friends manage to power their Chron-o-Johns.", "Soon, the three are reunited in the present.", "Purple Tentacle arrives, hijacks a Chron-o-John, and takes it to the previous day to prevent them from turning off the sludge machine; he is pursued by Green Tentacle in another pod.", "With only one Chron-o-John pod left, Bernard, Hoagie, and Laverne use it to pursue the tentacles to the previous day, while Dr. Fred uselessly tries to warn them of using the pod together, referencing the film ''The Fly''.", "Upon arriving, the trio exit the pod only to discover that they have been turned into a three-headed monster, their bodies merging into one during the transfer.", "Meanwhile, Purple Tentacle has used the time machine to bring countless versions of himself from different moments in time to the same day to prevent the Sludge-o-Matic from being deactivated.", "Bernard and his friends defeat the Purple Tentacles guarding the Sludge-o-Matic, turn off the machine, and prevent the whole series of events from ever happening.", "Returning to the present, Dr. Fred discovers that the three have not been turned into a monster at all but have just gotten stuck in the same set of clothes; they are then ordered by Dr. Fred to get out of his house.", "The game ends with the credits rolling over a tentacle-shaped American flag, one of the more significant results of their tampering in history." ], [ "Development", "Following a string of successful adventure games, LucasArts assigned Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer to lead development of a new game.", "The two had previously assisted Ron Gilbert with the creation of ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' and ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'', and the studio felt that Grossman and Schafer were ready to manage a project.", "The company believed that the pair's humor matched well with that of ''Maniac Mansion'' and suggested working on a sequel.", "The two developers agreed and commenced production.", "Gilbert and Gary Winnick, the creators of ''Maniac Mansion'', collaborated with Grossman and Schafer on the initial planning and writing.", "The total budget for the game was about $600,000, according to Schafer.=== Creative design ===In planning the plot, the four designers considered a number of concepts, eventually choosing an idea of Gilbert's about time travel that they believed was the most interesting.", "The four discussed what time periods to focus on, settling on the Revolutionary War and the future.", "The Revolutionary War offered opportunities to craft many puzzles around that period, such as changing the Constitution to affect the future.", "Grossman noted the appeal of the need to make wide-sweeping changes such as the Constitution just to achieve a small personal goal, believing this captured the essence of adventure games.", "The future period allowed them to explore the nature of cause and effect without any historical bounds.", "Grossman and Schafer decided to carry over previous characters that they felt were the most entertaining.", "The two considered the Edison family \"essential\" and chose Bernard because of his \"unqualified nerdiness\".", "Bernard was considered \"everyone's favorite character\" from ''Maniac Mansion'', and was the clear first choice for the protagonists.", "The game's other protagonists, Laverne and Hoagie, were based on a Mexican ex-girlfriend of Grossman's and a Megadeth roadie named Tony that Schafer had met, respectively.", "Schafer and Grossman planned to use a character selection system similar to the first game but felt that it would have complicated the design process and increased production costs.", "Believing that it added little to the gameplay, they removed it early in the process and reduced the number of player characters from six to three.", "The dropped characters included Razor, a female musician from the previous game; Moonglow, a short character in baggy clothes; and Chester, a black beat poet.", "Ideas for Chester, however, morphed into new twin characters in the Edison family.", "The smaller number of characters reduced the strain on the game's engine in terms of scripting and animation.The staff collaboratively designed the characters.", "They first discussed the character personalities, which Larry Ahern used to create concept art.", "Ahern wanted to make sure that the art style was consistent and the character designs were established early, in contrast to what had happened with ''Monkey Island 2'', in which various artists came in later to help fill in necessary art assets as necessary, creating a disjointed style.", "Looney Tunes animation shorts, particularly the Chuck Jones-directed ''Rabbit of Seville'', ''What's Opera, Doc?", "'', and ''Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century'' inspired the artistic design.", "The cartoonish style also lent itself to providing larger visible faces to enable more expressive characters.", "Peter Chan designed backgrounds, spending around two days to progress from concept sketch to final art for each background.", "Chan too used Looney Tunes as influence for the backgrounds, trying to emulate the style of Jones and Maurice Noble.", "Ahern and Chan went back and forth with character and background art to make sure both styles worked together without too much distraction.", "They further had Jones visit their studio during development to provide input into their developing art.", "The choice of art style inspired further ideas from the designers.", "Grossman cited cartoons featuring Pepé Le Pew, and commented that the gag involving a painted white stripe on Penelope Pussycat inspired a puzzle in the game.", "The artists spent a year creating the in-game animations.The script was written in the evening when fewer people were in the office.", "Grossman considered it the easiest aspect of production, but encountered difficulties when writing with others around.Grossman and Schafer brainstormed regularly to devise the time travel puzzles and collaborated with members of the development team as well as other LucasArts employees.", "They would identify puzzle problems and work towards a solution similar to how the game plays.", "Most issues were addressed prior to programming, but some details were left unfinished to work on later.", "The staff conceived puzzles involving the U.S.'s early history based on their memory of their compulsory education, and using the more legendary aspects of history, such as George Washington cutting down a cherry tree to appeal to international audiences.", "To complete the elements, Grossman researched the period to maintain historical accuracy, visiting libraries and contacting reference librarians.", "The studio, however, took creative license towards facts to fit them into the game's design.", "''Day of the Tentacle'' features a four-minute-long animated opening credit sequence, the first LucasArts game to have such.", "Ahern noted that their previous games would run the credits over primarily still shots which would only last for a few minutes, but with ''Tentacle'', the team had grown so large that they worried this approach would be boring to players.", "They assigned Kyle Balda, an intern at CalArts, to create the animated sequence, with Chan helping to create minimalist backgrounds to aid in the animation.", "Originally this sequence was around seven minutes long, and included the three characters arriving at the mansion and releasing Purple Tentacle.", "Another LucasArts designer, Hal Barwood, suggested they cut it in half, leading to the shortened version as in the released game, and having the player take over when they arrive at the mansion.=== Technology and audio ===''Day of the Tentacle'' uses the SCUMM engine developed for ''Maniac Mansion''.", "LucasArts had gradually modified the engine since its creation.", "For example, the number of input verbs was reduced and items in the character's inventory are represented by icons rather than text.", "While implementing an animation, the designers encountered a problem later discovered to be a limitation of the engine.", "Upon learning of the limitation, Gilbert reminisced about the file size of the first game.", "The staff then resolved to include it in the sequel.", "''Day of the Tentacle'' was the first LucasArts adventure game to feature voice work on release.", "The game was not originally planned to include voice work, as at the time, the install base for CD-ROM was too low.", "As they neared the end of 1992, CD-ROM sales grew significantly.", "The general manager of LucasArts, Kelly Flock, recognizing that the game would not be done in time by the end of the year to make the holiday release, suggested that the team include voice work for the game, giving them more time.Voice director Tamlynn Barra managed that aspect of the game.", "Schafer and Grossman described how they imagined the characters' voices and Barra sought audition tapes of voice actors to meet the criteria.", "She presented the best auditions to the pair.", "Schafer's sister Ginny was among the auditions, and she was chosen for Nurse Edna.", "Schafer opted out of the decision for her selection to avoid nepotism.", "Grossman and Schafer encountered difficulty selecting a voice for Bernard.", "To aid the process, Grossman commented that the character should sound like Les Nessman from the television show ''WKRP in Cincinnati''.", "Barra responded that she knew the agent of the character's actor, Richard Sanders, and brought Sanders on the project.", "Denny Delk and Nick Jameson were among those hired, and provided voice work for around five characters each.", "Recording for the 4,500 lines of dialog occurred at Studio 222 in Hollywood.", "Barra directed the voice actors separately from a sound production booth.", "She provided context for each line and described aspects of the game to aid the actors.", "The voice work in Day of the Tentacle was widely praised for its quality and professionalism in comparison to Sierra's talkie games of the period which suffered from poor audio quality and limited voice acting (some of which consisted of Sierra employees rather than professional talent).The game's music was composed by Peter McConnell, Michael Land, and Clint Bajakian.", "The three had worked together to share the duties equally of composing the music for ''Monkey Island 2'' and ''Fate of Atlantis'', and continued this approach for ''Day of the Tentacle''.", "According to McConnell, he had composed most of the music taking place in the game's present, Land for the future, and Bajakian for the past, outside of Dr. Fred's theme for the past which McConnell had done.", "The music was composed around the cartoonish nature of the gameplay, further drawing on Looney Tunes' use of parodying classical works of music, and playing on set themes for all of the major characters in the game.", "Many of these themes had to be composed to take into account different processing speeds of computers at the time, managed by the iMUSE music interface; such themes would include shorter repeating patterns that would play while the game's screen scrolled across, and then once the screen was at the proper place, the music would continue on to a more dramatic phrase.", "''Day of the Tentacle'' was one of the first games concurrently released on CD-ROM and floppy disk.", "A floppy disk version was created to accommodate consumers that had yet to purchase CD-ROM drives.", "The CD-ROM format afforded the addition of audible dialog.", "The capacity difference between the two formats necessitated alterations to the floppy disk version.", "Grossman spent several weeks reducing files sizes and removing files such as the audio dialog to fit the game onto six diskettes." ], [ "Reception", "''Day of the Tentacle'' was a moderate commercial success; according to ''Edge'', it sold roughly 80,000 copies by 2009.Tim Schafer saw this as an improvement over his earlier projects, the ''Monkey Island'' games, which had been commercial flops.", "The game was critically acclaimed.", "Charles Ardai of ''Computer Gaming World'' wrote in September 1993: \"Calling ''Day of the Tentacle'' a sequel to ''Maniac Mansion'' ... is a little like calling the space shuttle a sequel to the slingshot\".", "He enjoyed the game's humor and interface, and praised the designers for removing \"dead end\" scenarios and player character death.", "Ardai lauded the voice acting, writing that it \"would have done the late Mel Blanc proud\", and compared the game's humor, animation, and camera angles to \"Looney Toons gems from the 40s and 50s\".", "He concluded: \"I expect that this game will keep entertaining people for quite some time to come\".", "In April 1994 the magazine said of the CD version that Sanders's Bernard was among \"many other inspired performances\", concluding that \"Chuck Jones would be proud\".", "In May 1994 the magazine said of one multimedia kit bundling the CD version that \"it packs more value into the kit than the entire software packages of some of its competitors\".", "Sandy Petersen of ''Dragon'' stated that its graphics \"are in a stupendous cartoony style\", while praising its humor and describing its sound and music as \"excellent\".", "Although the reviewer considered it \"one of the best\" graphic adventure games, he noted that, like LucasArts' earlier ''Loom'', it was extremely short; he wrote that he \"felt cheated somehow when I finished the game\".", "He ended the review, \"Go, Lucasfilm!", "Do this again, but do make the next game longer!", "\".Phil LaRose of ''The Advocate'' called it \"light-years ahead of the original\", and believed that its \"improved controls, sound and graphics are an evolutionary leap to a more enjoyable gaming experience\".", "He praised the interface, and summarized the game as \"another of the excellent LucasArts programs that place a higher premium on the quality of entertainment and less on the technical knowledge needed to make it run\".", "The ''Boston Herald''s Geoff Smith noted that \"the animation of the cartoonlike characters is of TV quality\", and praised the removal of dead ends and character death.", "He ended: \"It's full of lunacy, but for anyone who likes light-hearted adventure games, it's well worth trying\".", "Vox Day of ''The Blade'' called its visuals \"well done\" and compared them to those of ''The Ren & Stimpy Show''.", "The writer praised the game's humor, and said that \"both the music and sound effects are hilarious\"; he cited the voice performance of Richard Sanders as a high point.", "He summarized the game as \"both a good adventure and a funny cartoon\".Lim Choon Wee of the ''New Straits Times'' highly praised the game's humor, which he called \"brilliantly funny\".", "The writer commented that the game's puzzles relied on \"trial and error\" with \"no underlying logic\", but opined that the game \"remains fun\" despite this issue, and concluded that ''Day of the Tentacle'' was \"definitely the comedy game of the year\".", "Daniel Baum of ''The Jerusalem Post'' called it \"one of the funniest, most entertaining and best-programmed computer games I have ever seen\", and lauded its animation.", "He wrote that the game provided \"a more polished impression\" than either ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' or ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge''.", "The writer claimed that its high system requirements were its only drawback, and believed that a Sound Blaster card was required to fully appreciate the game.", "In a retrospective review, Adventure Gamers' Chris Remo wrote: \"If someone were to ask for a few examples of games that exemplify the best of the graphic adventure genre, ''Day of the Tentacle'' would certainly be near the top\".", "''Day of the Tentacle'' has been featured regularly in lists of \"top\" games.", "In 1994, ''PC Gamer US'' named ''Day of the Tentacle'' the 46th best computer game ever.", "In June 1994 it and ''Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers'' won ''Computer Gaming World''s Adventure Game of the Year award.", "The editors wrote that \"''Day of the Tentacle''s fluid animation sequences underscore a strong script and solid game play ... story won out over technological innovation in this genre\".", "In 1996, the magazine ranked it as the 34th best game of all time, writing: \"''DOTT'' completely blew away its ancestor, ''Maniac Mansion'', with its smooth animated sequences, nifty plot and great voiceovers\".", "Adventure Gamers included the game as the top entry on its 20 Greatest Adventure Games of All Time List in 2004, and placed it sixth on its Top 100 All-Time Adventure Games in 2011.The game has appeared on several IGN lists.", "The website rated it number 60 and 84 on its top 100 games list in 2005 and 2007, respectively.", "IGN named ''Day of the Tentacle'' as part of their top 10 LucasArts adventure games in 2009, and ranked the Purple Tentacle 82nd in a list of top 100 videogame villains in 2010.ComputerAndVideoGames.com ranked it at number 30 in 2008, and GameSpot also listed ''Day of the Tentacle'' as one of the greatest games of all time." ], [ "Legacy", "Fans of ''Day of the Tentacle'' created a webcomic, ''The Day After the Day of the Tentacle'', using the game's graphics.", "The 1993 LucasArts game ''Zombies Ate My Neighbors'' features a stage dedicated to ''Day of the Tentacle''.", "The artists for ''Day of the Tentacle'' shared office space with the ''Zombies Ate My Neighbors'' development team.", "The team included the homage after frequently seeing artwork for ''Day of the Tentacle'' during the two games' productions.", "In describing what he considered \"the most rewarding moment\" of his career, Grossman stated that the game's writing and use of spoken and subtitled dialog assisted a learning-disabled child in learning how to read.", "Telltale Games CEO Dan Connors commented in 2009 that an episodic game based on ''Day of the Tentacle'' was \"feasible\", but depended on the sales of the ''Monkey Island'' games released that year.In 2018, a fan-made sequel, ''Return of the Tentacle'', was released free by a team from Germany.", "The game imitates the art style of the ''Remastered'' edition and features full voice acting." ], [ "Remasters", "=== ''Special Edition'' ===According to Kotaku, a remastered version of ''Day of the Tentacle'' was in the works at LucasArts Singapore before the sale of LucasArts to Disney in 2012.Though never officially approved, the game used a pseudo-3D art style and was nearly 80% complete, according to one person close to the project, but was shelved in the days before the closure of LucasArts.=== ''Remastered'' ===The remastered version of ''Day of the Tentacle'' retains the cartoon-style animation but uses more detailed characters and backgrounds.A remastered version of ''Day of the Tentacle'' was developed by Schafer and his studio, Double Fine Productions.", "The remaster was released on March 22, 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with a Linux version released at July 11 together with a mobile port for iOS.", "The Playstation 4 and Playstation Vita versions are cross-buy and also feature cross-save.", "An Xbox One port came in October 2020.The remastered game was released as a free PlayStation Plus title for the month of January 2017.Schafer credited both LucasArts and Disney for help in creating the remaster, which follows from a similar remastering of ''Grim Fandango'', as well by Double Fine, in January 2015.Schafer said when they originally were about to secure the rights to ''Grim Fandango'' from LucasArts to make the remaster, they did not originally have plans to redo the other LucasArts adventure games, but with the passionate response, they got on the news of the ''Grim Fandango'' remaster, they decided to continue these efforts.", "Schafer described getting the rights to ''Day of the Tentacle'' a \"miracle\" though aided by the fact that many of the executives in the legal rights chain had fond memories of playing these games and helped to secure the rights.", "2 Player Productions, which has worked before with Double Fine to document their game development process, also created a mini-documentary for ''Day of the Tentacle Remastered'', which included a visit to the Skywalker Ranch, where LucasArts games were originally developed, where much of the original concept art and digital files for the game and other LucasArts adventure games were archived.", "''Day of the Tentacle Remastered'' retains its two-dimensional cartoon-style art, redrawn at a higher resolution for modern computers.", "The high resolution character art was updated by a team led by Yujin Keim with the consultation of Ahern and Chan.", "Keim's team used many of the original sketches of characters and assets from the two and emulated their style with improvements for modern graphics systems.", "Matt Hansen worked on recreating the background assets in high resolution.", "As with the ''Grim Fandango'' remaster, the player can switch back and forth between the original graphics and the high-resolution version.", "The game includes a more streamlined interaction menu, a command wheel akin to the approach used in ''Broken Age'', but the player can opt to switch back to the original interface.", "The game's soundtrack has been redone within MIDI adapted to work with the iMUSE system.", "There is an option to listen to commentary from the original creators, including Schafer, Grossman, Chan, McConnell, Ahern, and Bajakian.", "The remaster contains the fully playable version of the original ''Maniac Mansion'', though no enhancements have been made to that game-within-a-game.", "''Day of the Tentacle Remastered'' has received positive reviews, with the PC version having an aggregate review score of 87/100 tallied by ''Metacritic''.", "Reviewers generally praised the game as having not lost its charm since its initial release, but found some aspects of the remastering to be lackluster.", "Richard Corbett for ''Eurogamer'' found the game \"every bit as well crafted now as it was in 1993\", but found the processes used to provide high-definition graphics from the original 16-bit graphics to making some of the required shortcuts taken in 1993 for graphics, such as background dithering and low animation framerates, more obvious on modern hardware.", "''IGN''s Jared Petty also found the remastered to still be enjoyable, and found the improvement on the graphics to be \"glorious\", but worried that the lack of a hint system, as was added in ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' remastered version, would put off new players to the game.", "Bob Mackey for ''USgamer'' found that while past remastered adventure games have highlighted how much has changed in gamers' expectations since the heyday of adventure games in the 1990s, ''Day of the Tentacle Remastered'' \"rises above these issues to become absolutely timeless\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Douglas Adams" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Douglas Noel Adams''' (11 March 1952 – 11 May 2001) was an English author, humorist, and screenwriter, best known for ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (HHGTTG)''.", "Originally a 1978 BBC radio comedy, ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' developed into a \"trilogy\" of five books that sold more than 15 million copies in his lifetime.", "It was further developed into a television series, several stage plays, comics, a video game, and a 2005 feature film.", "Adams's contribution to UK radio is commemorated in The Radio Academy's Hall of Fame.Adams also wrote ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency'' (1987) and ''The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul'' (1988), and co-wrote ''The Meaning of Liff'' (1983), ''The Deeper Meaning of Liff'' (1990) and ''Last Chance to See'' (1990).", "He wrote two stories for the television series ''Doctor Who'', co-wrote ''City of Death'' (1979), and served as script editor for its seventeenth season.", "He co-wrote the sketch \"Patient Abuse\" for the final episode of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "A posthumous collection of his selected works, including the first publication of his final (unfinished) novel, was published as ''The Salmon of Doubt'' in 2002.Adams was a self-proclaimed \"radical atheist\", an advocate for environmentalism and conservation, and a lover of fast cars, technological innovation and the Apple Macintosh." ], [ "Early life", "Adams was born in Cambridge on 11 March 1952 to Christopher Douglas Adams (1927–1985), a management consultant and computer salesman, former probation officer and lecturer on probationary group therapy techniques, and nurse Janet (1927–2016), née Donovan.", "The family moved a few months after his birth to the East End of London, where his sister, Susan, was born three years later.", "His parents divorced in 1957; Douglas, Susan and their mother moved then to an RSPCA animal shelter in Brentwood, Essex, run by his maternal grandparents.", "Each remarried, giving Adams four half-siblings.", "A great-grandfather was the playwright Benjamin Franklin Wedekind.===Education===Adams attended Primrose Hill Primary School in Brentwood.", "At the age of nine, he passed the entrance exam for Brentwood School.", "He attended the prep school from 1959 to 1964, then the main school until December 1970.Adams was tall by age 12, and stopped growing at .", "His form master, Frank Halford, said that Adams's height had made him stand out and that he had been self-conscious about it.", "His ability to write stories made him well known in the school.", "Adams became the only student ever to be awarded a ten out of ten by Halford for creative writing – something he remembered for the rest of his life, particularly when facing writer's block.Some of his earliest writing was published at the school, such as a report on its photography club in ''The Brentwoodian'' in 1962, or spoof reviews in the school magazine ''Broadsheet'', edited by Paul Neil Milne Johnstone, who later became a character in ''The Hitchhiker's Guide''.", "He also designed the cover of one issue of the ''Broadsheet'', and had a letter and short story published in ''The Eagle'', the boys' comic, in 1965.A poem entitled \"A Dissertation on the task of writing a poem on a candle and an account of some of the difficulties thereto pertaining\" written by Adams in January 1970 at the age of 17, was discovered in a cupboard at the school in early 2014.On the strength of an essay on religious poetry that discussed the Beatles and William Blake, he was awarded an Exhibition in English at St John's College, Cambridge (where his father had also been a student), going up in 1971.He wanted to join the Footlights, an invitation-only student comedy club that has acted as a hothouse for comic talent.", "He was not elected immediately as he had hoped, and started to write and perform in revues with Will Adams (no relation) and Martin Smith; they formed a group called \"Adams-Smith-Adams\".", "He became a member of the Footlights by 1973.Despite doing very little work – he recalled having completed three essays in three years – he graduated in 1974 with a 2:2 in English literature." ], [ "Career", "===Writing===After leaving university Adams moved back to London, determined to break into TV and radio as a writer.", "An edited version of the ''Footlights Revue'' appeared on BBC2 television in 1974.A version of the Revue performed live in London's West End led to Adams being discovered by Monty Python's Graham Chapman.", "The two formed a brief writing partnership, earning Adams a writing credit in episode 45 of ''Monty Python'' for a sketch called \"Patient Abuse\".", "The pair also co-wrote the \"Marilyn Monroe\" sketch which appeared on the soundtrack album of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.", "Adams is one of only two people other than the original Python members to get a writing credit (the other being Neil Innes).Monty Python'' appearance, in full surgeon's garbAdams had two brief appearances in the fourth series of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "At the beginning of episode 42, \"The Light Entertainment War\", Adams is in a surgeon's mask (as Dr. Emile Koning, according to on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while Michael Palin narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another but never gets started.", "At the beginning of episode 44, \"Mr. Neutron\", Adams is dressed in a pepper-pot outfit and loads a missile onto a cart driven by Terry Jones, who is calling for scrap metal (\"Any old iron...\").", "The two episodes were broadcast in November 1974.Adams and Chapman also attempted non-Python projects, including ''Out of the Trees''.At this point Adams's career stalled; his writing style was unsuited to the then-current style of radio and TV comedy.", "To make ends meet he took a series of odd jobs, including as a hospital porter, barn builder, and chicken shed cleaner.", "He was employed as a bodyguard by a Qatari family, who had made their fortune in oil.During this time Adams continued to write and submit sketches, though few were accepted.", "In 1976 his career had a brief improvement when he wrote and performed ''Unpleasantness at Brodie's Close'' at the Edinburgh Fringe festival.", "By Christmas, work had dried up again, and a depressed Adams moved to live with his mother.", "The lack of writing work hit him hard and low confidence became a feature of Adams's life; \"I have terrible periods of lack of confidence ...", "I briefly did therapy, but after a while I realised it was like a farmer complaining about the weather.", "You can't fix the weather – you just have to get on with it\".Some of Adams's early radio work included sketches for ''The Burkiss Way'' in 1977 and ''The News Huddlines''.", "He also wrote, again with Chapman, the 20 February 1977 episode of ''Doctor on the Go'', a sequel to the ''Doctor in the House'' television comedy series.", "After the first radio series of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' became successful, Adams was made a BBC radio producer, working on ''Week Ending'' and a pantomime called ''Black Cinderella Two Goes East''.", "He left after six months to become the script editor for ''Doctor Who''.In 1979, Adams and John Lloyd wrote scripts for two half-hour episodes of ''Doctor Snuggles'': \"The Remarkable Fidgety River\" and \"The Great Disappearing Mystery\" (episodes eight and twelve).", "John Lloyd was also co-author of two episodes from the original ''Hitchhiker'' radio series (\"Fit the Fifth\" and \"Fit the Sixth\", also known as \"Episode Five\" and \"Episode Six\"), as well as ''The Meaning of Liff'' and ''The Deeper Meaning of Liff''.====Work on ''Doctor Who''====Adams sent the script for the ''HHGG'' pilot radio programme to the ''Doctor Who'' production office in 1978, and was commissioned to write ''The Pirate Planet''.", "He had also previously attempted to submit a potential film script, called ''Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen'', which later became his novel ''Life, the Universe and Everything'' (which in turn became the third ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' radio series).", "Adams then went on to serve as script editor on the show for its seventeenth season in 1979.Altogether, he wrote three ''Doctor Who'' serials starring Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor:* ''The Pirate Planet'' (the second serial in the ''Key to Time'' arc, in ''season 16'')* ''City of Death'' (with producer Graham Williams, from an original storyline by writer David Fisher.", "It was transmitted under the pseudonym \"David Agnew\")* ''Shada'' (only partially filmed; not televised due to industry disputes, but was later completed using animation for the unfinished scenes and broadcast as \"Doctor Who: The Lost Episode\" on BBC America 19 July 2018)The episodes authored by Adams are some of the few that were not originally novelised, as Adams would not allow anyone else to write them and asked for a higher price than the publishers were willing to pay.", "''Shada'' was later adapted as a novel by Gareth Roberts in 2012 and ''City of Death'' and ''The Pirate Planet'' by James Goss in 2015 and 2017 respectively.Elements of ''Shada'' and ''City of Death'' were reused in Adams's later novel ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency'', in particular, the character of Professor Chronotis.", "Big Finish Productions eventually remade ''Shada'' as an audio play starring Paul McGann as the Doctor.", "Accompanied by partially animated illustrations, it was webcast on the BBC website in 2003, and subsequently released as a two-CD set later that year.", "An omnibus edition of this version was broadcast on the digital radio station BBC7 on 10 December 2005.In the ''Doctor Who'' 2012 Christmas episode \"The Snowmen\", writer Steven Moffat was inspired by a storyline that Adams pitched called ''The Doctor Retires''.====''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''====''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' was a concept for a science-fiction comedy radio series pitched by Adams and radio producer Simon Brett to BBC Radio 4 in 1977.Adams came up with an outline for a pilot episode, as well as a few other stories (reprinted in Neil Gaiman's book ''Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion'') that could be used in the series.Towel Day 2005 in Innsbruck, Austria, where Adams first had the idea of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide''.", "In the novels, a towel is the most useful thing a space traveller can have.", "The annual Towel Day (25 May) was first celebrated in 2001, two weeks after Adams's death.According to Adams, the idea for the title occurred to him while he lay drunk in a field in Innsbruck, Austria, gazing at the stars.", "He was carrying a copy of the ''Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe'', and it occurred to him that \"somebody ought to write a ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''\".Despite the original outline, Adams was said to make up the stories as he wrote.", "He turned to John Lloyd for help with the final two episodes of the first series.", "Lloyd contributed bits from an unpublished science fiction book of his own, called ''GiGax''.", "Very little of Lloyd's material survived in later adaptations of ''Hitchhiker's'', such as the novels and the TV series.", "The TV series was based on the first six radio episodes, and sections contributed by Lloyd were largely re-written.BBC Radio 4 broadcast the first radio series weekly in the UK starting 8 March 1978, lasting until April.", "The series was distributed in the United States by National Public Radio.", "Following the success of the first series, another episode was recorded and broadcast, which was commonly known as the Christmas Episode.", "A second series of five episodes was broadcast one per night, during the week of 21–25 January 1980.While working on the radio series (and with simultaneous projects such as ''The Pirate Planet'') Adams developed problems keeping to writing deadlines that got worse as he published novels.", "Adams was never a prolific writer and usually had to be forced by others to do any writing.", "This included being locked in a hotel suite with his editor for three weeks to ensure that ''So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish'' was completed.", "He was quoted as saying, \"I love deadlines.", "I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by.\"", "Despite the difficulty with deadlines, Adams wrote five novels in the series, published in 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984, and 1992.The books formed the basis for other adaptations, such as three-part comic book adaptations for each of the first three books, an interactive text-adventure computer game, and a photo-illustrated edition, published in 1994.This latter edition featured a 42 Puzzle designed by Adams, which was later incorporated into paperback covers of the first four ''Hitchhiker's'' novels (the paperback for the fifth re-used the artwork from the hardback edition).In 1980, Adams began attempts to turn the first ''Hitchhiker's'' novel into a film, making several trips to Los Angeles, and working with Hollywood studios and potential producers.", "The next year, the radio series became the basis for a BBC television mini-series broadcast in six parts.", "When he died in 2001 in California, he had been trying again to get the film project started with Disney, which had bought the rights in 1998.The screenplay got a posthumous re-write by Karey Kirkpatrick, and the resulting film was released in 2005.Radio producer Dirk Maggs had consulted with Adams, first in 1993, and later in 1997 and 2000 about creating a third radio series, based on the third novel in the ''Hitchhiker's'' series.", "They also discussed the possibilities of radio adaptations of the final two novels in the five-book \"trilogy\".", "As with the film, this project was realised only after Adams's death.", "The third series, ''The Tertiary Phase'', was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in September 2004 and was subsequently released on audio CD.", "With the aid of a recording of his reading of ''Life, the Universe and Everything'' and editing, Adams can be heard playing the part of Agrajag posthumously.", "''So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish'' and ''Mostly Harmless'' made up the fourth and fifth radio series, respectively (on radio they were titled ''The Quandary Phase'' and ''The Quintessential Phase'') and these were broadcast in May and June 2005, and also subsequently released on Audio CD.", "The last episode in the last series (with a new, \"more upbeat\" ending) concluded with, \"The very final episode of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' by Douglas Adams is affectionately dedicated to its author.", "\"====''Dirk Gently'' series====Adams in March 2000Between Adams's first trip to Madagascar with Mark Carwardine in 1985, and their series of travels that formed the basis for the radio series and non-fiction book ''Last Chance to See'', Adams wrote two other novels with a new cast of characters.", "''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency'' was published in 1987, and was described by its author as \"a kind of ghost-horror-detective-time-travel-romantic-comedy-epic, mainly concerned with mud, music and quantum mechanics\".A sequel, ''The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul'', was published a year later.", "This was an entirely original work, Adams's first since ''So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish.''", "After the book tour, Adams set off on his round-the-world excursion which supplied him with the material for ''Last Chance to See''.", "''The Salmon of Doubt'' was incomplete when published posthumously.===Music===Adams played the guitar left-handed and had a collection of twenty-four left-handed guitars when he died (having received his first guitar in 1964).", "He also studied piano in the 1960s.", "Pink Floyd and Procol Harum had important influence on Adams's work.====Pink Floyd====Adams's official biography shares its name with the song \"Wish You Were Here\" by Pink Floyd.", "The opening section of \"Shine On You Crazy Diamond\" was featured in a section of the third episode of the original 1978 ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' radio series (broadcast only, cut from commercial releases).", "Adams was friends with Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and, on Adams's 42nd birthday, he was invited to make a guest appearance at Pink Floyd's concert of 28 October 1994 at Earls Court in London, playing guitar on the songs \"Brain Damage\" and \"Eclipse\".", "Adams chose the name for Pink Floyd's 1994 album, ''The Division Bell'', by picking the words from the lyrics to one of its tracks, \"High Hopes\".", "Pink Floyd and the song \"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun\" in particular, inspired Adams to create the rock band Disaster Area who appear in ''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe'', who planned to crash a space ship into a nearby star as a stunt during a concert.", "Gilmour also performed at Adams's memorial service in 2001, and what would have been Adams's 60th birthday party in 2012.===Computer games and projects===Douglas Adams created an interactive fiction version of ''HHGG'' with Steve Meretzky from Infocom in 1984.In 1986 he participated in a week-long brainstorming session with the Lucasfilm Games team for the game ''Labyrinth''.", "Later he was also involved in creating ''Bureaucracy'' as a parody of events in his own life.Adams was a founder-director and Chief Fantasist of The Digital Village, a digital media and Internet company with which he created ''Starship Titanic'', a Codie award-winning and BAFTA-nominated adventure game, which was published in 1998 by Simon & Schuster.", "Terry Jones wrote the accompanying book, entitled ''Douglas Adams' Starship Titanic'', since Adams was too busy with the computer game to do both.", "In April 1999, Adams initiated the h2g2 collaborative writing project, an experimental attempt at making ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' a reality, and at harnessing the collective brainpower of the internet community.", "It was hosted by BBC Online from 2001 to 2011.In 1990, Adams wrote and presented a television documentary programme ''Hyperland'' which featured Tom Baker as a \"software agent\" (similar to the assistant pictured in Apple's Knowledge Navigator video of future concepts from 1987), and interviews with Ted Nelson, the co-inventor of hypertext and the person who coined the term.", "Adams was an early adopter and advocate of hypertext." ], [ "Personal beliefs and activism", "===Atheism and views on religion===Adams described himself as a \"radical atheist\", adding \"radical\" for emphasis so he would not be asked if he meant agnostic.", "He told American Atheists that this conveyed the fact that he really meant it.", "He imagined a sentient puddle who wakes up one morning and thinks, \"This is an interesting world I find myself in – an interesting hole I find myself in – fits me rather neatly, doesn't it?", "In fact it fits me staggeringly well, must have been made to have me in it!\"", "to express his disbelief in the fine-tuned universe argument for God.He remained fascinated by religion because of its effect on human affairs.", "\"I love to keep poking and prodding at it.", "I've thought about it so much over the years that that fascination is bound to spill over into my writing.", "\"The evolutionary biologist and atheist Richard Dawkins invited Adams to participate in his 1991 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, where Dawkins calls Adams from the audience to read a passage from ''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe'' which satirizes the absurdity of the thought that any one species would exist on Earth merely to serve as a meal to another species, such as humans.", "Dawkins also uses Adams's influence to exemplify arguments for non-belief in his 2006 book ''The God Delusion''.", "Dawkins dedicated the book to Adams, whom he jokingly called \"possibly my only convert\" to atheism and wrote on his death that \"Science has lost a friend, literature has lost a luminary, the mountain gorilla and the black rhino have lost a gallant defender.", "\"===Environmental activism===Adams was also an environmental activist who campaigned on behalf of endangered species.", "This activism included the production of the non-fiction radio series ''Last Chance to See'', in which he and naturalist Mark Carwardine visited rare species such as the kākāpō and baiji, and the publication of a tie-in book of the same name.", "In 1992, this was made into a CD-ROM combination of audiobook, e-book and picture slide show.Adams and Mark Carwardine contributed the 'Meeting a Gorilla' passage from ''Last Chance to See'' to the book ''The Great Ape Project''.", "This book, edited by Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer, launched a wider-scale project in 1993, which calls for the extension of moral equality to include all great apes, human and non-human.In 1994, he participated in a climb of Mount Kilimanjaro while wearing a rhino suit for the British charity organisation Save the Rhino International.", "Puppeteer William Todd-Jones, who had originally worn the suit in the London Marathon to raise money and bring awareness to the group, also participated in the climb wearing a rhino suit; Adams wore the suit while travelling to the mountain before the climb began.", "About £100,000 was raised through that event, benefiting schools in Kenya and a black rhinoceros preservation programme in Tanzania.", "Adams was also an active supporter of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund.Since 2003, Save the Rhino has held an annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture around the time of his birthday to raise money for environmental campaigns.===Technology and innovation===Adams bought his first word processor in 1982, having considered one as early as 1979.His first purchase was a Nexu.", "In 1983, when he and Jane Belson went to Los Angeles, he bought a DEC Rainbow.", "Upon their return to England, Adams bought an Apricot, then a BBC Micro and a Tandy 1000.In ''Last Chance to See'', Adams mentions his Cambridge Z88, which he had taken to Zaire on a quest to find the northern white rhinoceros.Adams's posthumously published work, ''The Salmon of Doubt'', features several articles by him on the subject of technology, including reprints of articles that originally ran in ''MacUser'', and in ''The Independent on Sunday''.", "In these, Adams claims that one of the first computers he ever saw was a Commodore PET, and that he had \"adored\" his Apple Macintosh (\"or rather my family of however many Macintoshes it is that I've recklessly accumulated over the years\") since he first saw one at Infocom's offices in Boston in 1984.Adams was a Macintosh user from the time they first came out in 1984 until his death in 2001.He was the first person to buy a Mac in Europe, the second being Stephen Fry.", "Adams was also an \"Apple Master\", celebrities whom Apple made into spokespeople for its products (others included John Cleese and Gregory Hines).", "Adams's contributions included a rock video that he created using the first version of iMovie with footage featuring his daughter Polly.", "The video was available on Adams's .Mac homepage.", "Adams installed and started using the first release of Mac OS X in the weeks leading up to his death.", "His last post to his own forum was in praise of Mac OS X and the possibilities of its Cocoa programming framework.", "He said it was \"awesome...\", which was also the last word he wrote on his site.Adams used email to correspond with Steve Meretzky in the early 1980s, during their collaboration on Infocom's version of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''.", "While living in New Mexico in 1993 he set up another e-mail address and began posting to his own USENET newsgroup, alt.fan.douglas-adams, and occasionally, when his computer was acting up, to the comp.sys.mac hierarchy.", "Challenges to the authenticity of his messages later led Adams to set up a message forum on his own website to avoid the issue.", "In 1996, Adams was a keynote speaker at the Microsoft Professional Developers Conference (PDC) where he described the personal computer as being a modelling device.", "The video of his keynote speech is archived on Channel 9.Adams was also a keynote speaker for the April 2001 Embedded Systems Conference in San Francisco, one of the major technical conferences on embedded system engineering." ], [ "Personal life", "Adams moved to Upper Street, Islington, in 1981 and to Duncan Terrace, a few minutes' walk away, in the late 1980s.In the early 1980s, Adams had an affair with novelist Sally Emerson, who was separated from her husband at that time.", "Adams later dedicated his book ''Life, the Universe and Everything'' to Emerson.", "In 1981, Emerson returned to her husband, Peter Stothard, a contemporary of Adams at Brentwood School, and later editor of ''The Times''.", "Adams was soon introduced by friends to Jane Belson, with whom he later became romantically involved.", "Belson was the \"lady barrister\" mentioned in the jacket-flap biography printed in his books during the mid-1980s (\"He Adams lives in Islington with a lady barrister and an Apple Macintosh\").", "The two lived in Los Angeles together during 1983, while Adams worked on an early screenplay adaptation of ''Hitchhiker's''.", "When the deal fell through, they moved back to London, and after several separations (\"He is currently not certain where he lives, or with whom\") and a broken engagement, they married on 25 November 1991.Adams and Belson had one daughter together, Polly Jane Rocket Adams, born on 22 June 1994, shortly after Adams turned 42.In 1999, the family moved from London to Santa Barbara, California, where they lived until his death.", "Following the funeral, Jane Belson and Polly Adams returned to London.", "Belson died on 7 September 2011 of cancer, aged 59." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Adams's gravestone, Highgate Cemetery, North LondonAdams died of a heart attack due to undiagnosed coronary artery disease on 11 May 2001, aged 49, after resting from his regular workout at a private gym in Montecito, California.", "His funeral was held on 16 May in Santa Barbara.", "His ashes were placed in Highgate Cemetery in north London in June 2002.A memorial service was held on 17 September 2001 at St Martin-in-the-Fields church, Trafalgar Square, London.", "This became the first church service broadcast live on the web by the BBC.Two days before Adams died, the Minor Planet Center announced the naming of asteroid 18610 Arthurdent.", "In 2005, the asteroid 25924 Douglasadams was named in his memory.In May 2002, ''The Salmon of Doubt'' was published, containing many short stories, essays, and letters, as well as eulogies from Richard Dawkins, Stephen Fry (in the UK edition), Christopher Cerf (in the US edition), and Terry Jones (in the US paperback edition).", "It also includes eleven chapters of his unfinished novel, ''The Salmon of Doubt'', which was originally intended to become a new Dirk Gently novel, but might have later become the sixth ''Hitchhiker'' novel.Other events after Adams's death included a webcast production of ''Shada'', allowing the complete story to be told, radio dramatisations of the final three books in the ''Hitchhiker's'' series, and the completion of the film adaptation of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''.", "The film, released in 2005, posthumously credits Adams as a producer, and several design elements – including a head-shaped planet seen near the end of the film – incorporated Adams's features.A 12-part radio series based on the Dirk Gently novels was announced in 2007.BBC Radio 4 also commissioned a third Dirk Gently radio series based on the incomplete chapters of ''The Salmon of Doubt'', and written by Kim Fuller; but this was dropped in favour of a BBC TV series based on the two completed novels.", "A sixth ''Hitchhiker'' novel, ''And Another Thing...'', by ''Artemis Fowl'' author Eoin Colfer, was released on 12 October 2009 (the 30th anniversary of the first book), published with the support of Adams's estate.", "A BBC Radio 4 ''Book at Bedtime'' adaptation and an audio book soon followed.On 25 May 2001, two weeks after Adams's death, his fans organised a tribute known as Towel Day, which has been observed every year since then.An Apple Macintosh SE/30 once owned by Adams can be seen on display at The Centre for Computing History in Cambridge.In 2018, John Lloyd presented an hour-long episode of the BBC Radio Four documentary ''Archive on 4'', discussing Adams' private papers, which are held at St John's College, Cambridge.", "The episode is available online.Travessa Douglas Adams, a street at in São José, Santa Catarina, Brazil is named in Adams's honour.In March 2021, Unbound announced a crowdfunder for ''42: the wildly improbable ideas of Douglas Adams'', on the 20th anniversary of his death, a book based on Adams's papers, edited by Kevin Jon Davies.The annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lectures began in 2003." ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Work Category Result Reference1979 Hugo Award''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' (shared with Geoffrey Perkins)Best Dramatic Presentation" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy ===+YearTitleISBN1979''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''1980''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe''1982''Life, the Universe and Everything''1984''So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish''1992''Mostly Harmless''=== Dirk Gently ===+YearTitleISBNNotes1987''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency''1988''The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul''2002''The Salmon of Doubt''Unfinished novel, posthumous publicationIncludes short stories, essays, and interviews by Adams=== Short stories ===+YearTitlePublished InNotes1975''The Private Life of Genghis Khan''''The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book''Co-written with Graham Chapman, based upon their sketch of the same name1986''A Christmas Fairly Story''Co-written with Terry Jones''Supplement to The Meaning of Liff'' Co-written with John Lloyd and Stephen FryYoung Zaphod Plays It SafeSet in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy 1996Young Zaphod Plays It Safe (revised version)''The Wizards of Odd'' 2002''The Salmon of Doubt''=== Non-fiction ===+YearTitleISBNNotes1983''The Meaning of Liff''Co-written with John Lloyd1990''The Deeper Meaning of Liff''Co-written with John Lloyd''Last Chance to See''Co-written with Mark Carwardine=== Other works ===+YearTitleNotes1980''A Liar's Autobiography: Volume VI''Co-written with Graham Chapman, David Sherlock, Alex Martin, and David A. Yallop1985''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts''With a foreword by Geoffrey Perkins1986''The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book''As editor with Peter Fincham.", "Also contributor, see above1997''Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic: A Novel''By Terry Jones, based on Adams' game ''Starship Titanic''1999h2g2As creator.", "Open source, online, comic encyclopaedia" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film ===+YearTitleNotes2005''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''Posthumous, co-written with Karey Kirkpatrick=== Television ===Year Title Notes Broadcaster1974''Monty Python's Flying Circus''\"Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Liberal Party\": Patient Abuse sketch (1974)BBC Two1976''Out of the Trees''Pilot, co-written with Graham Chapman and Bernard McKennaBBC Two1977''Doctor on the Go''\"For Your Own Good\" (1977)ITV1978–1979, 1983''Doctor Who''4 stories with 13 episodes* \"The Pirate Planet\" (1978, 4 episodes)* \"Destiny of the Daleks\" (1979, 4 episodes) (co-written with Terry Nation, uncredited)* \"City of Death\" (co-written with Graham Williams, 1979, credited as \"David Agnew\", 4 episodes)* \"The Five Doctors\" (1983) (clips from his partially filmed but unaired script for 1980s \"Shada\")He was also script editor throughout season 17BBC One1979''Doctor Snuggles''2 episodes; \"The Great Disappearing Mystery\" and \"The Remarkable Fidgety River\" ITV1979''Not the Nine O'Clock News''Unknown episodesBBC Two1981''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''Also creator, adapted from his radio series and novel of the same nameBBC Two1990''Hyperland''DocumentaryBBC Two2018''Doctor Who: The Lost Episode''Posthumous release, adapted from the unaired \"Shada\" episodeBBC America=== Radio ===+YearTitleNotes1978–1984''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''Referred to as The Primary and Secondary Phases of the series.", "Subsequent episodes were produced following Adams' death2000''The Internet: The Last Battleground of the 20th century''''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future''=== Video games ===+YearTitle1984''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''1987''Bureaucracy''1998''Starship Titanic''" ], [ "See also", "* List of animal rights advocates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Adams, Douglas (1998).", "Is there an Artificial God?", ", speech at ''Digital Biota 2'', Cambridge, England, September 1998.", "* * Dawkins, Richard (2003).", "\"Eulogy for Douglas Adams\", in ''A devil's chaplain: reflections on hope, lies, science, and love''.", "Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.", "* Felch, Laura (2004).", "Don't Panic: Douglas Adams and the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Neil Gaiman , May 2004* Ray, Mohit K (2007).", "''Atlantic Companion to Literature in English'', Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.", "* * * Webb, Nick (2005a).", "''Wish You Were Here: The Official Biography of Douglas Adams''.", "Ballantine Books.", "* Webb, Nick (2005b).", "\"Adams, Douglas Noël (1952–2001)\", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, January 2005.Retrieved 25 October 2005." ], [ "Further reading", "===Articles===* Herbert, R. (1980).", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Book Review).", "Library Journal, 105(16), 1982.", "* Adams, J., & Brown, R. (1981).", "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Book Review).", "School Library Journal, 27(5), 74.", "* Nickerson, S. L. (1982).", "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (Book).", "Library Journal, 107(4), 476.", "* Nickerson, S. L. (1982).", "Life, the Universe, and Everything (Book).", "Library Journal, 107(18), 2007.", "* Morner, C. (1982).", "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (Book Review).", "School Library Journal, 28(8), 87.", "* Morner, C. (1983).", "Life, the Universe and Everything (Book Review).", "School Library Journal, 29(6), 93.", "* Shorb, B.", "(1985).", "So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish (Book).", "School Library Journal, 31(6), 90.", "* The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (Book).", "(1989).", "Atlantic (02769077), 263(4), 99.", "* Hoffert, B., & Quinn, J.", "(1990).", "Last Chance To See (Book).", "Library Journal, 115(16), 77.", "* Reed, S. S., & Cook, I. I.", "(1991).", "Dances with .", "People, 35(19), 79.", "* Last Chance to See (Book).", "(1991).", "Science News, 139(8), 126.", "* Field, M. M., & Steinberg, S. S. (1991).", "Douglas Adams.", "Publishers Weekly, 238(6), 62.", "* Dieter, W. (1991).", "Last Chance to See (Book).", "Smithsonian, 22(3), 140.", "* Dykhuis, R. (1991).", "Last Chance To See (Book).", "Library Journal, 116(1), 140.", "* Beatty, J.", "(1991).", "Good Show (Book).", "Atlantic (02769077), 267(3), 131.", "* A guide to the future.", "(1992).", "Maclean's, 106(44), 51.", "* Zinsser, J.", "(1993).", "Audio reviews: Fiction.", "Publishers Weekly, 240(9), 24.", "* Taylor, B., & Annichiarico, M. (1993).", "Audio reviews.", "Library Journal, 118(2), 132.", "* Good reads.", "(1995).", "NetGuide, 2(4), 109.", "* Stone, B.", "(1998).", "The unsinkable starship.", "Newsweek, 131(15), 78.", "* Gaslin, G. (2001).", "Galaxy Quest.", "Entertainment Weekly, (599), 79.", "* So long, and thanks for all the fish.", "(2001).", "Economist, 359(8222), 79.", "* Geier, T., & Raftery, B. M. (2001).", "Legacy.", "Entertainment Weekly, (597), 11.", "* Passages.", "(2001).", "Maclean's, 114(21), 13.", "* Don't panic!", "Douglas Adams to keynote Embedded show.", "(2001).", "Embedded Systems Programming, 14(3), 10.", "* Ehrenman, G. (2001).", "World Wide Weird.", "InternetWeek, (862), 15.", "* Zaleski, J.", "(2002).", "The Salmon of Doubt (Book).", "Publishers Weekly, 249(15), 43.", "* Mort, J.", "(2002).", "The Salmon of Doubt (Book).", "Booklist, 98(16), 1386.", "* Lewis, D. L. (2002).", "Last Time Round The Galaxy.", "Quadrant Magazine, 46(9), 84.", "* Burns, A.", "(2002).", "The Salmon of Doubt (Book).", "Library Journal, 127(15), 111.", "* Burns, A., & Rhodes, B.", "(2002).", "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (Book).", "Library Journal, 127(19), 118.", "* Kaveney, R. (2002).", "A cheerful whale.", "TLS, (5173), 23.", "* Pearl, N., & Welch, R. (2003).", "The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy (Book).", "Library Journal, 128(11), 124.", "* Preying on composite materials.", "(2003).", "R&D Magazine, 45(6), 44.", "* Webb, N. (2003).", "The Berkeley Hotel hostage.", "Bookseller, (5069), 25.", "* The author who toured the universe.", "(2003).", "Bookseller, (5060), 35.", "* Osmond, A.", "(2005).", "Only human.", "Sight & Sound, 15(5), 12–15.", "* Culture vulture.", "(2005).", "Times Educational Supplement, (4640), 19.", "* Maughan, S. (2005).", "Audio Bestsellers/Fiction.", "Publishers Weekly, 252(30), 17.", "* Hitchhiker At The Science Museum.", "(2005).", "In Britain, 14(10), 9.", "* Rea, A.", "(2005).", "The Adams asteroids.", "New Scientist, 185(2488), 31.", "* Most Improbable Adventure.", "(2005).", "Popular Mechanics, 182(5), 32.", "* The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy: The Tertiary Phase.", "(2005).", "Publishers Weekly, 252(14), 21.", "* Bartelt, K. R. (2005).", "Wish You Were Here: The Official Biography of Douglas Adams.", "Library Journal, 130(4), 86.", "* Larsen, D. (2005).", "I was a teenage android.", "New Zealand Listener, 198(3390), 37–38.", "* Tanner, J. C. (2005).", "Simplicity: it's hard.", "Telecom Asia, 16(6), 6.", "* Nielsen Bookscan Charts.", "(2005).", "Bookseller, (5175), 18–21.", "* Buena Vista launches regional site to push Hitchhiker's movie.", "(2005).", "New Media Age, 9.", "* Shynola bring Beckland to life.", "(2005).", "Creative Review, 25(3), 24–26.", "* Carwardine, M. (15 September 2007).", "The baiji: So long and thanks for all the fish.", "New Scientist.", "pp. 50–53.", "* Czarniawska, B.", "(2008).", "Accounting and gender across times and places: An excursion into fiction.", "Accounting, Organizations & Society, 33(1), 33–47.", "* Pope, M. (2008).", "Life, the Universe, Religion and Science.", "Issues, (82), 31–34.", "* Bearne, S. (2008).", "BBC builds site to trail Last Chance To See TV series.", "New Media Age, 08.", "* Arrow to reissue Adams.", "(2008).", "Bookseller, (5352), 14.", "* Page, B.", "(2008).", "Colfer is new Hitchhiker.", "Bookseller, (5350), 7.", "* I've got a perfect puzzle for you.", "(2009).", "Bookseller, (5404), 42.", "* Mostly Harmless.... (2009).", "Bookseller, (5374), 46.", "* Penguin and PanMac hitch a ride together.", "(2009).", "Bookseller, (5373), 6.", "* Adams, Douglas.", "Britannica Biographies serial online.", "October 2010;:1* Douglas (Noël) Adams (1952–2001).", "Hutchinson's Biography Database serial online.", "July 2011;:1* My life in books.", "(2011).", "Times Educational Supplement, (4940), 27.===Other===* , established by him, and still operated by The Digital Village* * Douglas Adams speech at Digital Biota 2 (1998) (The audio of the speech) * Guardian Books \"Author Page\", with profile and links to further articles.", "* Douglas Adams & his Computer article about his Mac IIfx* BBC2 ''Omnibus'' tribute to Adams, presented by Kirsty Wark, 4 August 2001* Mueller, Rick and Greengrass, Joel (2002).", "''Life, The Universe and Douglas Adams'', documentary.", "* Simpson, M.J. (2001).", "''The Pocket Essential Hitchhiker's Guide''.", ".", "Updated April 2005 * Special edition of BBC ''Bookclub'' featuring Douglas Adams, first broadcast 2 January 2000 on BBC Radio 4" ], [ "External links", " * * * Interview with Douglas Adams, ''A DISCUSSION WITH National Authors on Tour'' TV Series, Episode No.", "33 (1992)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drum and bass" ], [ "Introduction", "An example of a D&B song in the subgenre of liquid D&B'''Drum and bass''' (commonly abbreviated as '''DnB''', '''D&B''', or '''D'n'B''') is a genre of electronic dance music characterised by fast breakbeats (typically 165–185 beats per minute) with heavy bass and sub-bass lines, samples, and synthesizers.", "The genre grew out of the UK's jungle scene in the 1990s.", "DJ Dextrous, a trailblazer in the early days of Jungle music, seen here showcasing his skills behind the decks during a performance in Switzerland in 2015.The popularity of drum and bass at its commercial peak ran parallel to several other UK dance styles.", "A major influence was the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound that influenced jungle's bass-heavy sound.", "Another feature of the style is the complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat.", "Drum and bass subgenres include breakcore, ragga jungle, hardstep, darkstep, techstep, neurofunk, ambient drum and bass, liquid funk (also known as liquid drum and bass), jump up, drumfunk, sambass, and drill 'n' bass.", "Drum and bass has been influenced by many other genres like hip hop, big beat, dubstep, house, trip hop, ambient music, techno, jazz, rock and pop.", "Drum and bass is dominated by a relatively small group of record labels.", "Major international music labels had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene until BMG Rights Management acquired RAM in February 2016.Since then, the genre has seen a significant growth in exposure.", "Whilst the origin of drum and bass music is in the UK, the genre has evolved considerably with many other prominent fanbases located all over the world.Adam F performs at Listen at Club Alchemy in New Haven, Connecticut, on September 3, 2006." ], [ "History", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a growing nightclub and overnight outdoor event culture gave birth to new genres in the rave scene including breakbeat hardcore, darkcore, and hardcore jungle, which combined sampled syncopated beats, or breakbeats, and other samples from a wide range of different musical genres and, occasionally, samples of music, dialogue and effects from films and television programmes.", "From as early as 1991, tracks were beginning to strip away some of the heavier sampling and \"hardcore noises\" and create more bassline and breakbeat led tracks.", "Some tracks increasingly took their influence from reggae and this style would become known as hardcore jungle (later to become simply jungle), whilst darkcore (with producers such as Goldie, Doc Scott, 4hero, and 2 Bad Mice) were experimenting with sounds and creating a blueprint for drum and bass, especially noticeable by late 1993.By 1994, jungle had begun to gain mainstream popularity, and fans of the music (often referred to as junglists) became a more recognisable part of youth subculture.", "The genre further developed, incorporating and fusing elements from a wide range of existing musical genres, including the raggamuffin sound, dancehall, MC chants, dub basslines, and increasingly complex, heavily edited breakbeat percussion.", "Despite the affiliation with the ecstasy-fuelled rave scene, jungle also inherited associations with violence and criminal activity, both from the gang culture that had affected the UK's hip-hop scene and as a consequence of jungle's often aggressive or menacing sound and themes of violence (usually reflected in the choice of samples).", "However, this developed in tandem with the often positive reputation of the music as part of the wider rave scene and dancehall-based Jamaican music culture prevalent in London.", "By 1995, whether as a reaction to, or independently of this cultural schism, some jungle producers began to move away from the ragga-influenced style and create what would become collectively labelled, for convenience, as drum and bass.As the genre became generally more polished and sophisticated technically, it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations and gain widespread acceptance (circa 1995–1997).", "It also began to split into recognisable subgenres such as hardstep, jump up, ragga, techstep, and what was known at the time as intelligent.", "As more melodic and often jazz-influenced subgenres of drum and bass called atmospheric or intelligent (Blame and Blu Mar Ten) and jazzstep (4Hero, Roni Size) gained mainstream appeal, additional subgenres emerged including techstep in 1996, drawing influence from techno.The emergence of related styles such as liquid funk brought a wave of new artists (Carlito & Addiction, Solid State/DJ Dextrous, Subject 13 and Fellowship being amongst the early pioneers to champion the sound) incorporating new ideas and techniques, supporting continual evolution of the genre.", ", drum and bass makes frequent appearances in mainstream media and popular culture including in television, as well as being a major reference point for subsequent genres such as grime and dubstep, and producing successful artists including Chase & Status, Netsky, Metrik, and Pendulum.", "''Pitchfork'' noted a \"rising zoomer affinity\" for the genre in the 2020s." ], [ "Musical features", "Drum and bass incorporates a number of scenes and styles, from the highly electronic, industrial sounds of techstep to the use of conventional, acoustic instrumentation that characterise the more jazz-influenced end of the spectrum.", "The sounds of drum and bass are extremely varied due to the range of influences behind the music.", "Drum and bass could at one time be defined as a strictly electronic musical genre, with the only \"live\" element being the DJ's selection and mixing of records during a set.", "\"Live\" drum and bass using electric, electronic and acoustic instruments played by musicians on stage emerged over the ensuing years of the genre's development.===Influences===A very obvious and strong influence on jungle and drum and bass, thanks to the British African-Caribbean sound system scene, is the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound, with pioneers like King Tubby, Peter Tosh, Sly & Robbie, Bill Laswell, Lee Perry, Mad Professor, Roots Radics, Bob Marley and Buju Banton heavily influencing the music.", "This influence has lessened with time, but is still evident, with many tracks containing ragga vocals.As a musical style built around funk or syncopated rock and roll breaks, James Brown, Al Green, Marvin Gaye, Ella Fitzgerald, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Billie Holiday, Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, the Supremes, the Commodores, Jerry Lee Lewis, and even Michael Jackson acted as funk influences on the music.", "Jazz pioneer Miles Davis has been named as a possible influence.", "Blues artists such as Lead Belly, Robert Johnson, Charlie Patton, Muddy Waters and B.B King have also been cited by producers as inspirations.", "Even modern avant-garde composers such as Henryk Gorecki have received mention.", "One of the most influential tracks in drum and bass history was \"Amen Brother\" by The Winstons, which contains a drum solo that has since become known as the \"Amen break\", which, after being extensively used in early hip hop music, went on to become the basis for the rhythms used in drum and bass.Kevin Saunderson released a series of bass-heavy, minimal techno cuts as Reese/The Reese Project in the late '80s, which were hugely influential in drum and bass.", "One of his more famous basslines (Reese – \"Just Want Another Chance\", Incognito Records, 1988) was indeed sampled on Renegade's ''Terrorist'' and countless others since, being known simply as the 'Reese' bassline.", "He followed these up with equally influential (and bassline-heavy) tracks in the UK hardcore style as Tronik House in 1991–1992.Another Detroit artist who was important to the scene was Carl Craig.", "The sampled-up jazz break on Craig's ''Bug in the Bassbin'' was also influential on the newly emerging sound.", "DJs at the Heaven nightclub on \"Rage\" nights used to play it as fast as their Technics record decks would go, pitching it up in the process.By the late 1980s and early 1990s, the tradition of breakbeat use in hip hop production had influenced the sound of breakbeat hardcore, which in turn led to the emergence of jungle, drum and bass, and other genres that shared the same use of broken beats.", "Drum and bass shares many musical characteristics with hip-hop, though it is nowadays mostly stripped of lyrics.", "Grandmaster Flash, Roger Troutman, Afrika Bambaata, Run DMC, Mac Dre, Public Enemy, Schooly D, N.W.A, Kid Frost, Wu-Tang Clan, Dr. Dre, Mos Def, Beastie Boys and the Pharcyde are very often directly sampled, regardless of their general influence.Clearly, drum and bass has been influenced by other music genres, though influences from sources external to the electronic dance music scene perhaps lessened following the shifts from jungle to drum and bass, and through to so-called \"intelligent drum and bass\" and techstep.", "It still remains a fusion music style.Some tracks are illegally remixed and released on white label (technically bootleg), often to acclaim.", "For example, DJ Zinc's remix of The Fugees' \"Ready or Not\", also known as \"Fugee Or Not\", was eventually released with the Fugees' permission after talk of legal action, though ironically, the Fugees' version infringed Enya's copyright to an earlier song.", "White labels, along with dubplates, played an important part in drum and bass musical culture.===Drum elements=======Sampling====The Amen break was synonymous with early drum and bass productions but other samples have had a significant impact, including the Apache, Funky Drummer, \"Soul Pride\", \"Scorpio\" and \"Think (About It)\" breaks.", "Early pioneers often used Akai samplers and sequencers on the Atari ST to create their tracks.====Synthesis====Roland TR-808 Rhythm Composer, produced 1980–1984, had a bass drum sound which became very important in drum and bass.Of equal importance is the TR-808 kick drum, an artificially down-pitched or elongated bass drum sound sampled from Roland's classic TR-808 drum machine, and a sound which has been subject to an enormous amount of experimentation over the years.====Rhythm composition====Many drum and bass tracks have featured more than one sampled breakbeat in them and a technique of switching between two breaks after each bar developed.", "A more recent commonly used break is the \"Tramen\", which combines the Amen break, a James Brown funk breakbeat (\"Tighten Up\" or \"Samurai\" break) and an Alex Reece drum and bass breakbeat.The relatively fast drum beat forms a canvas on which a producer can create tracks to appeal to almost any taste and often will form only a background to the other elements of the music.", "Syncopated breakbeats remain the most distinctive element as without these a high-tempo 4/4 dance track could be classified as techno or gabber.The complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat is another facet of production on which producers can spend a very large amount of time.", "The Amen break is generally acknowledged to have been the most-used (and often considered the most powerful) break in drum and bass.===Bass elements===The genre places great importance on the bassline, in this case a deep sub-bass musical pattern which can be felt physically through powerful sound systems due to the low-range frequencies favoured.", "There has been considerable exploration of different timbres in the bass line region, particularly within techstep.", "The bass lines most notably originate from sampled sources or synthesizers.", "Bass lines performed with a bass instrument, whether it is electric, acoustic or a double bass, are less common.===Atmospheric elements===Atmospheric pads and samples may be added over the fundamental drum and bass to provide different feels.", "These have included \"light\" elements such as ambient pads as found in ambient electronica and samples of jazz and world musics, or \"dark\" elements such as dissonant pads and sci-fi samples to induce anxiety in the dancer.===Vocal and melodic elements===Old-school DnB usually included an MC providing vocals.", "Some styles (such as jazz-influenced DnB) also include melodic instruments soloing over the music.===Tempo===Drum and bass is usually between 160 and 180 BPM, in contrast to other breakbeat-based dance styles such as nu skool breaks, which maintain a slower pace at around 130–140 BPM.", "A general upward trend in tempo has been observed during the evolution of drum and bass.", "The earliest forms of drum and bass clocked in at around 130 bpm in 1990/1991, speeding up to around 155–165 BPM by 1993.Since around 1996, drum and bass tempos have predominantly stayed in the 170–180 range.", "Recently, some producers have started to once again produce tracks with slower tempos (that is, in the 150-170 bpm range), but the mid-170s tempo is still a hallmark of the drum and bass sound.A track combining the same elements (broken beat, bass, production techniques) as a drum and bass track, but with a slower tempo (say 140 BPM), might not be drum and bass, but instead may qualify as a drum and bass-influenced breakbeat track.===Drop===Many mixing points begin or end with a \"drop\".", "The drop is the point in a track where a switch of rhythm or bassline occurs and usually follows a recognisable build section and breakdown.", "Sometimes, the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tracks, as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point.", "Some DJs prefer to combine breakbeats, a more difficult exercise.", "Some drops are so popular that the DJ will \"rewind\" or \"reload\" or \"lift up\" the record by spinning it back and restarting it at the build.", "The drop is often a key point from the point of view of the dance floor, since the drum breaks often fade out to leave an ambient intro playing.", "When the beats re-commence they are often more complex and accompanied by a heavier bassline, encouraging the crowd to begin dancing." ], [ "Live performance", "Pendulum performing live in 2010Drum and bass exhibits a full frequency response which can sometimes only be fully appreciated on sound systems which can handle very low frequencies, including sub-bass frequencies that are often felt more than heard.", "As befits its name, the bass element of the music is particularly pronounced, with the comparatively sparse arrangements of drum and bass tracks allowing room for basslines that are deeper than most other forms of dance music.", "Drum and bass tracks are meticulously designed to create a hard-hitting emotional impact, with the drums complementing the bass to deliver a pulsating, powerful experience.", "Consequently, drum and bass parties are often advertised as featuring uncommonly loud and bass-heavy sound systems.There are however many albums specifically designed for personal listening.", "The DJ mix is a particularly popular form of release, with a popular DJ or producer mixing live, or on a computer, a variety of tracks for personal listening.", "Additionally, there are many albums containing unmixed tracks, suited for home or car listening.===DJ performance===Although this practice has declined in popularity, DJs are often accompanied by one or more MCs, drawing on the genre's roots in hip hop and reggae/ragga.MCs do not generally receive the same level of recognition as producer/DJs, and some events are specifically marketed as being MC-free.", "There are relatively few well-known drum and bass MCs, mainly based in London and Bristol, including Stevie Hyper D (deceased), the Ragga Twins, Dynamite MC, Skibadee(deceased) and MC Tali.===Live instrument performance===Aphrodite in 2009 at Pirate Station, the world's largest drum and bass festival at that time, in MoscowMany musicians have adapted drum and bass to live performances, which feature instruments such as drums (acoustic or electronic), samplers, synthesizers, turntables, bass (either upright or electric) and guitars (acoustic or electric).", "Samplers have also been used live by assigning samples to a specific drum pad or key on drum pads or synthesizers.", "MCs are frequently featured in live performances." ], [ "Subgenres", "Congo Natty, a ragga jungle artistSmaller scenes within the drum and bass community have developed and the scene as a whole has become much more fractured into specific subgenres, which have been grouped into \"light\" (influenced by ambient, jazz, and world music) and \"heavy\" (influenced by industrial music, sci-fi, and anxiety) styles, including:===Mainstream drum and bass===* '''Jump-up''', appearing in the mid-1990s, employs heavy and energetic drum and bass, characterised by robotic and heavy bass sounds.", "It also is generally less serious and contains more humour than other subgenres.", "* '''Drumstep''' or '''halftime''' is a combination of drum and bass and dubstep, where the beat structure is half time, while the remaining elements still adhere to the usual sub-bass and tempo of drum and bass.", "'''Drill 'n' bass''' (also known as '''fungle''' and '''spunk jazz''') consists of very complex and chopped up rhythms, rapid and irregularly syncopated basslines and often ambient elements similar to earlier subgenres of IDM (like ambient techno).", "The subgenre was developed by names like Squarepusher, Luke Vibert (known as Plug) and Aphex Twin.=== Light drum and bass === '''Intelligent drum & bass''' or '''intelligent jungle''' is a smoother style, influenced by ambient music, chillout, jazz and soul music.", "It was pioneered by such artists as Omni Trio, Peshay, Seba, Blu Mar Ten, Deep Blue, Photek, LTJ Bukem and his label Good Looking Records, and the label Moving Shadow.", "* '''Jazzstep''', '''jazzy jungle''', '''jazz & bass''' or '''drum & jazz''' demonstrates heavy influence by jazz.", "It uses typical jazz scales, rhythms and instrumentation.", "* '''Liquid drum and bass''' (or simply \"liquid\") draws heavily on harmonic and melodic grooves* '''Sambass''', a Brazilian drum and bass style, incorporates elements from samba, bossa nova and other Latin music styles.", "Pioneered by artists such as DJ Marky.=== Heavy drum and bass ===* '''Darkstep''' is characterised by fast drums and a general dark mood, drawing influences from dark ambient, industrial and hardcore music.", "* '''Techstep''' is characterised by sci-fi soundscapes and samples from science fiction culture.", "Pioneered by artists such as Bad Company UK, Ed Rush, Optical, Dom & Roland, and the label Moving Shadow.", "* '''Neurofunk''' or '''neuro''' is the progression from techstep incorporating more elements from jazz and funk.", "* '''Hardstep''' is a harder style which uses gritty basslines and heavy yet simple electronic melodies.", "* '''Metal & Bass''' or '''Bass Metal''' is a style which specifically uses Heavy Metal guitar riffs.", "Pioneered by artists such as Concord Dawn, Counterstrike, Zardonic, Dirtyphonics, Pendulum and others.===Genres influenced by drum and bass===Born around the same time as jungle, breakcore and digital hardcore share many of the elements of drum and bass and to the uninitiated, tracks from the extreme end of drum and bass may sound identical to breakcore thanks to speed, complexity, impact and maximum sonic density combined with musical experimentation.", "German drum and bass DJ The Panacea is also one of the leading digital hardcore artists.", "Raggacore resembles a faster version of the ragga-influenced jungle music of the 1990s, similar to breakcore but with more friendly dancehall beats (dancehall itself being a very important influence on drum and bass).", "Darkcore, a direct influence on drum and bass, was combined with influences of drum and bass itself leading to the creation of darkstep.", "There is considerable crossover from the extreme edges of drum and bass, breakcore, darkcore, digital hardcore and raggacore with fluid boundaries.Intelligent dance music (IDM) is a form of art music based on DnB and other electronic dance musics, exploring their boundaries using ideas from science, technology, contemporary classical music and progressive rock, often creating un-danceable, art gallery style music.Ghettotech, a club music genre from Detroit, contains synth and basslines similar to drum and bass." ], [ "Industry", "===Record labels===Drum and bass is dominated by a small group of record labels.", "These are mainly run by DJ-producers, such as London Elektricity's Hospital Records, Andy C and Scott Bourne's RAM, Goldie's Metalheadz, Fabio and Sarah Sandy's Creative Source Records, DJ Dextrous's King of the Jungle Records, Subversive Recordings and State of the Art Recordings, Kasra's Critical Music, DJ Friction's Shogun Audio, DJ Fresh's Breakbeat Kaos, Ed Rush & Optical's Virus Recordings, Futurebound's Viper Recordings and DJ Hype, Pascal, NoCopyrightSounds and formerly DJ Zinc's True Playaz (known as Real Playaz as of 2006).Prior to 2016, the major international music labels such as Sony Music and Universal had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene, with the exception of some notable signings, including Pendulum's ''In Silico'' LP to Warner.", "Roni Size's label played a big, if not the biggest, part in the creation of drum and bass with their dark, baseline sounds.", "V Recordings also played a large part of the development of drum and bass.BMG Rights Management acquired Ram Records in February 2016, making a strategic investment to help RAM Records (a London-based drum and bass record company co-owned by Andy C and his business partner Scott Bourne).", "RAM Records has been pushing the boundaries of drum and bass further into the mainstream with artists such as Chase and Status and Sub Focus.Now defunct labels, include Rob Playford's Moving Shadow, running from 1990 until 2007, which played a pivotal role in the nineties drum and bass scene, releasing records by artists such as Omni Trio.===Formats and distribution=======Purchasing====Originally drum and bass was mostly sold in 12-inch vinyl single format.", "With the emergence of drum and bass into mainstream music markets, more albums, compilations and DJ mixes started to be sold on CDs.", "As digital music became more popular, websites focused on electronic music, such as Beatport, began to sell drum and bass in digital format.====Distributors (wholesale)====The bulk of drum and bass vinyl records and CDs are distributed globally and regionally by a relatively small number of companies such as SRD (Southern Record Distributors), ST Holdings, & Nu Urban Music Limited.As of 11 September 2012, Nu Urban ceased trading and RSM Tenon were instructed to assist in convening statutory meetings of members and creditors to appoint a liquidator.", "This left many labels short on sales, as Nu Urban were one of the main distributors for the vinyl market in the drum and bass scene.===Regional scenes=======Anglosphere====Despite its roots in the UK, which is still treated as the \"home\" of drum and bass, the style has firmly established itself around the world.", "There are strong scenes in other English-speaking countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States.===Media presence===Today, drum and bass is widely promoted using different methods such as video sharing services like YouTube and Dailymotion, blogs, radio, and television, the latter being the most uncommon method.", "More recently, music networking websites such as SoundCloud and Mixcloud have become powerful tools for artist recognition, providing a vast platform that enables quick responses to new tracks.", "Record labels have adopted the use of podcasts.", "Prior to the rise of the internet, drum and bass was commonly broadcast over pirate radio.====Radio====The three highest-profile radio stations playing drum and bass shows are BBC Radio 1 with The Drum and Bass Show - formerly with Friction, who was replaced with René LaVice in 2017, simulcast in the US and Canada on Sirius XM, and DJ Hype on Kiss 100 in London.", "Fabio and Grooverider previously held a long-standing drum and bass show on Radio 1.Radio 1 also had the ''One in the Jungle'' show.The BBC's Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra used to feature the genre heavily, with DJ Bailey (show axed as of 29 August 2012) and Crissy Criss (show axed as of August 2014) as its advocates.", "The network also organises a week-long tour of the UK each year called Xtra Bass.", "London pirate radio stations have been instrumental in the development of drum and bass, with stations such as Kool FM (which continues to broadcast today having done so since 1991), Origin FM, Don FM (the only drum and bass pirate to have gained a temporary legal licence), Renegade Radio 107.2FM, Rude FM, Wax FM and Eruption among the most influential.As of 2014, despite higher profile stations such as 1Xtra scaling back their drum and bass specialist coverage, the genre has made its way into UK top 10 charts with drum and bass inspired tracks from artists such as Rudimental and Sigma.", "Earlier in August 2014, before Crissy Criss' show was axed, the BBC held a whole prime time evening event dedicated to showcasing drum and bass by allowing four major labels to participate.As of November 2014, six drum & bass songs had reached the no.1 spot on the UK's top 40 chart, since the genre was first being played on the radio, around 1993.The first of these was in 2012.The fact that all six of these songs reached number 1 in only two years shows the increase in popularity and commercialisation of the genre in recent years.", "The artists who produced these songs are Sigma, Rudimental and DJ Fresh (all had two No.1 hits).=====Internet radio=====Internet radio stations, acting in the same light as pirate stations, have also been an instrumental part in promoting drum and bass music; the majority of them funded by listener and artist donations.Drum and bass was supported by Ministry of Sound radio from the early 2000s until 2014 and later featuring Tuesday shows from labels such as Metalheadz, Fabio & Grooverider, DJ Marky, Viper Recordings, Shogun Audio and Hospital Records.", "From September 2014, Ministry abruptly dropped all non-mainstream genres to focus on mainstream EDM, causing disappointment amongst the fans of the D&B community.=====North American radio=====In Toronto since 1994, ''The Prophecy'' on 89.5 CIUT-FM with Marcus Visionary, DJ Prime and Mr. Brown, is North America's longest running jungle radio show.Album 88.5 (Atlanta) and C89.5fm (Seattle) have shows showcasing drum and bass.Seattle also has a long-standing electronica show known as ''Expansions'' on 90.3 FM KEXP.", "The rotating DJs include Kid Hops, whose shows are made up mostly of drum and bass.", "In Columbus, Ohio WCBE 90.5 has a two-hour electronic only showcase, ''All Mixed Up'', Saturday nights at 10 pm.", "At the same time, WUFM 88.7 plays its ''Electronic Playground''.Tulsa, Oklahoma's rock station, 104.5 The Edge, has a two-hour show starting at 10 pm Saturday nights called ''Edge Essential Mix'', mixed by DJ Demko, showcasing electronic and drum and bass style.", "While the aforementioned shows in Ohio rarely play drum and bass, the latter plays the genre with some frequency.In Tucson, Arizona, 91.3 FM KXCI has a two-hour electronic show known as ''Digital Empire'', Friday nights at 10 pm (MST).", "Resident DJ Trinidad showcases various styles of electronica, with the main focus being drum and bass, jungle and dubstep.In Augusta, Georgia, Zarbizarre of the Cereal Killaz hosts a show called ''FreQuency'' on WHHD on Friday nights from 11 pm until 1 am, showcasing drum and bass during the second hour of the show.====Magazines====The best-known drum and bass publication was ''Kmag'' magazine (formerly called ''Knowledge Magazine'') before it went completely online in August 2009.Although it is still live, after 20 years Kmag ceased updating their site at the end of 2014.Kmag has announced a book to celebrate their 25th anniversary to be published in December 2019.Kmag's publishing arm, Vision, published Brian Belle-Fortune's ''All Crews Journeys Through Jungle Drum & Bass Culture'' in 2004.Other publications include the longest-running drum and bass magazine worldwide, ''ATM Magazine'', and Austrian-based ''Resident''.", "London-based ''DJ'' magazine has also been running a widely respected drum and bass reviews page since 1994, written by Alex Constantinides, which many followers refer to when seeking out new releases to investigate.", "In 2012 he stopped writing the reviews, and they are now contributed by Whisky Kicks." ], [ "Mainstream acceptance", "The earliest mainstream drum and bass releases include Goldie's album ''Timeless'' from 1995.Other early examples include the Mercury Music Prize-winning album ''New Forms'' (1997) from Reprazent; 4hero's Mercury-nominated ''Two Pages'' from 1998; and then, in the 2000s, Pendulum's ''Hold Your Colour'' in 2005 (the best-selling drum and bass album).In 2012, drum and bass achieved its first UK No.", "1 single, \"Hot Right Now\", by DJ Fresh, which was one of the fastest-selling singles of 2012 at the time of release, launching the career of Rita Ora in the process.Numerous video games (such as Hudson Soft's ''Bomberman Hero'', Hi-Rez Studios' ''Tribes: Ascend'', Electronic Arts' ''Need for Speed: Undercover'', Rockstar Games' ''Grand Theft Auto'' series, and Sony's ''Wipeout'' series from ''Pure'' onward) have contained drum and bass tracks.", "Microsoft Studios' ''Forza Horizon 2, 3, 4 and 5'' feature a Hospital Records radio channel dedicated to the genre.The genre has some popularity in film soundtracks.", "Hive's \"Ultrasonic Sound\" appeared on ''The Matrix''s soundtrack, and the E-Z Rollers' song \"Walk This Land\" appeared in the film ''Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels''.", "Ganja Kru's \"Super Sharp Shooter\" can be heard in the 2006 film ''Johnny Was''.The Channel 4 show ''Skins'' uses the genre in some episodes, notably in the first series' third episode, \"Jal\", where Shy FX and UK Apache's \"Original Nuttah\" was played in Fazer's club." ], [ "See also", "* List of electronic music genres* List of jungle and drum and bass artists* List of jungle and drum and bass emcees" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle / Drum and Bass Culture'' (2005) by Brian Belle-Fortune (), nonfiction* \"Roots 'n Future\" in ''Energy Flash'' (1998) by Simon Reynolds, Picador (), nonfiction (British edition)* ''Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture'' (1998) by Simon Reynolds, Routledge.", "(), nonfiction (American edition)* ''Rumble in the Jungle: The Invisible History of Drum and Bass'' (2002) by Steven Quinn, in: ''Transformations'', No 3 (2002), nonfiction () PDF file* ''State of Bass: Jungle – The Story So Far'' (1997) by Martin James, Boxtree (), nonfiction* ''The Rough Guide to Drum 'n' Bass'' (1999) by Peter Shapiro and Alexix Maryon (), nonfiction* ''King Rat'' (1998) by China Miéville (), fiction" ], [ "External links", "* bassblog.pro - drum and bass mixes, since 2009* t.me/bassblogpro - drum and bass mixes on Telegram* DnbLyrics.com - the biggest collection of drum and bass lyrics* History of drum & bass - a BBC timeline with track listings, quotes and samples" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Donald Knuth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Donald Ervin Knuth''' ( ; born January 10, 1938) is an American computer scientist and mathematician.", "He is a professor emeritus at Stanford University.", "He is the 1974 recipient of the ACM Turing Award, informally considered the Nobel Prize of computer science.", "Knuth has been called the \"father of the analysis of algorithms\".Knuth is the author of the multi-volume work ''The Art of Computer Programming''.", "He contributed to the development of the rigorous analysis of the computational complexity of algorithms and systematized formal mathematical techniques for it.", "In the process, he also popularized the asymptotic notation.", "In addition to fundamental contributions in several branches of theoretical computer science, Knuth is the creator of the TeX computer typesetting system, the related METAFONT font definition language and rendering system, and the Computer Modern family of typefaces.As a writer and scholar, Knuth created the WEB and CWEB computer programming systems designed to encourage and facilitate literate programming, and designed the MIX/MMIX instruction set architectures.", "He strongly opposes the granting of software patents, and has expressed his opinion to the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organisation." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Donald Knuth was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Ervin Henry Knuth and Louise Marie Bohning.", "He describes his heritage as \"Midwestern Lutheran German\".", "His father owned a small printing business and taught bookkeeping.", "While a student at Milwaukee Lutheran High School, Knuth thought of ingenious ways to solve problems.", "For example, in eighth grade, he entered a contest to find the number of words that the letters in \"Ziegler's Giant Bar\" could be rearranged to create; the judges had identified 2,500 such words.", "With time gained away from school due to a fake stomach ache Knuth used an unabridged dictionary and determined whether each dictionary entry could be formed using the letters in the phrase.", "Using this algorithm, he identified over 4,500 words, winning the contest.", "As prizes, the school received a new television and enough candy bars for all of his schoolmates to eat.===Education===Knuth received a scholarship in physics to the Case Institute of Technology (now part of Case Western Reserve University) in Cleveland, Ohio, enrolling in 1956.He also joined the Beta Nu Chapter of the Theta Chi fraternity.", "While studying physics at Case, Knuth was introduced to the IBM 650, an early commercial computer.", "After reading the computer's manual, Knuth decided to rewrite the assembly and compiler code for the machine used in his school because he believed he could do it better.In 1958, Knuth created a program to help his school's basketball team win its games.", "He assigned \"values\" to players in order to gauge their probability of scoring points, a novel approach that ''Newsweek'' and ''CBS Evening News'' later reported on.Knuth was one of the founding editors of the Case Institute's ''Engineering and Science Review'', which won a national award as best technical magazine in 1959.He then switched from physics to mathematics, and received two degrees from Case in 1960: his Bachelor of Science, and simultaneously a master of science by a special award of the faculty, who considered his work exceptionally outstanding.In 1963, with mathematician Marshall Hall as his adviser, he earned a PhD in mathematics from the California Institute of Technology, with a thesis titled ''Finite Semifields and Projective Planes''.===Early work===In 1963, after receiving his PhD, Knuth joined Caltech's faculty as an assistant professor.Knuth accepted a commission to write a book on computer programming language compilers.", "While working on this project, he decided that he could not adequately treat the topic without first developing a fundamental theory of computer programming, which became ''The Art of Computer Programming''.", "He originally planned to publish this as a single book, but as he developed his outline for the book, he concluded that he required six volumes, and then seven, to thoroughly cover the subject.", "He published the first volume in 1968.Just before publishing the first volume of ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Knuth left Caltech to accept employment with the Institute for Defense Analyses' Communications Research Division, then situated on the Princeton campus, which was performing mathematical research in cryptography to support the National Security Agency.In 1967, Knuth attended a Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics conference and someone asked what he did.", "At the time, computer science was partitioned into numerical analysis, artificial intelligence, and programming languages.", "Based on his study and ''The Art of Computer Programming'' book, Knuth decided the next time someone asked he would say, \"Analysis of algorithms\".In 1969, Knuth left his position at Princeton to join the Stanford University faculty, where he became Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science in 1977.He became Professor of The Art of Computer Programming in 1990, and has been emeritus since 1993." ], [ "Writings", "Knuth is a writer, as well as a computer scientist.=== ''The Art of Computer Programming'' (''TAOCP'') ===In the 1970s, Knuth called computer science \"a totally new field with no real identity.", "And the standard of available publications was not that high.", "A lot of the papers coming out were quite simply wrong. ...", "So one of my motivations was to put straight a story that had been very badly told.", "\"From 1972 to 1973, Knuth spent a year at the University of Oslo among people such as Ole-Johan Dahl.", "This is where he had originally intended to write the seventh volume in his book series, which was to deal with programming languages.", "But Knuth had finished only the first two volumes when he came to Oslo, and thus spent the year on the third volume, next to teaching.", "The third volume came out just after Knuth returned to Stanford in 1973.By 2011, Volume 4A had been published.", "''Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science'' 2nd ed., which originated with an expansion of the mathematical preliminaries section of Volume 1 of ''TAoCP'', was published in 1994.In April 2020, Knuth said he anticipated that Volume 4 will have at least parts A through F. Volume 4B was published in October 2022.=== Other works ===Knuth is also the author of ''Surreal Numbers'', a mathematical novelette on John Conway's set theory construction of an alternate system of numbers.", "Instead of simply explaining the subject, the book seeks to show the development of the mathematics.", "Knuth wanted the book to prepare students for doing original, creative research.In 1995, Knuth wrote the foreword to the book ''A=B'' by Marko Petkovšek, Herbert Wilf and Doron Zeilberger.", "He also occasionally contributes language puzzles to ''Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics''.Knuth has delved into recreational mathematics.", "He contributed articles to the ''Journal of Recreational Mathematics'' beginning in the 1960s, and was acknowledged as a major contributor in Joseph Madachy's ''Mathematics on Vacation''.Knuth also appears in a number of Numberphile and Computerphile videos on YouTube, where he discusses topics from writing ''Surreal Numbers'' to why he does not use email.===Works about his religious beliefs===In addition to his writings on computer science, Knuth, a Lutheran, is also the author of ''3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated'', in which he examines the Bible by a process of systematic sampling, namely an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book.", "Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers led by Hermann Zapf.", "Knuth was invited to give a set of lectures at MIT on the views on religion and computer science behind his 3:16 project, resulting in another book, ''Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About'', where he published the lectures ''God and Computer Science''.===Opinion on software patents===Knuth strongly opposes granting software patents to trivial solutions that should be obvious, but has expressed more nuanced views for nontrivial solutions such as the interior-point method of linear programming.", "He has expressed his disagreement directly to both the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organisation." ], [ "Programming", "===Digital typesetting===In the 1970s the publishers of TAOCP abandoned Monotype in favor of phototypesetting.", "Knuth became so frustrated with the inability of the latter system to approach the quality of the previous volumes, which were typeset using the older system, that he took time out to work on digital typesetting and created TeX and Metafont.===Literate programming===While developing TeX, Knuth created a new methodology of programming, which he called literate programming, because he believed that programmers should think of programs as works of literature:Knuth embodied the idea of literate programming in the WEB system.", "The same WEB source is used to ''weave'' a TeX file, and to ''tangle'' a Pascal source file.", "These in their turn produce a readable description of the program and an executable binary respectively.", "A later iteration of the system, CWEB, replaces Pascal with C, C++, and Java.Knuth used WEB to program TeX and METAFONT, and published both programs as books, both originally published the same year: ''TeX: The Program'' (1986); and ''METAFONT: The Program'' (1986).", "Around the same time, LaTeX, the now-widely adopted macro package based on TeX, was first developed by Leslie Lamport, who later published its first user manual in 1986." ], [ "Personal life", "Donald Knuth married Nancy Jill Carter on 24 June 1961, while he was a graduate student at the California Institute of Technology.", "They have two children: John Martin Knuth and Jennifer Sierra Knuth.Knuth gives informal lectures a few times a year at Stanford University, which he calls \"Computer Musings\".", "He was a visiting professor at the Oxford University Department of Computer Science in the United Kingdom until 2017 and an Honorary Fellow of Magdalen College.Knuth is an organist and a composer.", "He and his father served as organists for Lutheran congregations.", "Knuth and his wife have a 16-rank organ in their home.", "In 2016 he completed a piece for organ, ''Fantasia Apocalyptica'', which he calls a \"translation of the Greek text of the Revelation of Saint John the Divine into music\".", "It was premièred in Sweden on January 10, 2018.===Chinese name===Knuth's Chinese name is Gao Dena ().", "He was given this name in 1977 by Frances Yao shortly before making a three-week trip to China.", "In the 1980 Chinese translation of Volume 1 of ''The Art of Computer Programming'' (), Knuth explains that he embraced his Chinese name because he wanted to be known by the growing numbers of computer programmers in China at the time.", "In 1989, his Chinese name was placed atop the ''Journal of Computer Science and Technology'' header, which Knuth says \"makes me feel close to all Chinese people although I cannot speak your language\".===Health concerns===In 2006, Knuth was diagnosed with prostate cancer.", "He underwent surgery in December that year and said, \"a little bit of radiation therapy ... as a precaution but the prognosis looks pretty good\" in his video autobiography.===Humor===Knuth's reward checksKnuth used to pay a finder's fee of $2.56 for any typographical errors or mistakes discovered in his books, because \"256 pennies is one hexadecimal dollar\", and $0.32 for \"valuable suggestions\".", "According to an article in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's ''Technology Review'', these Knuth reward checks are \"among computerdom's most prized trophies\".", "Knuth had to stop sending real checks in 2008 due to bank fraud, and now gives each error finder a \"certificate of deposit\" from a publicly listed balance in his fictitious \"Bank of San Serriffe\".He once warned a correspondent, \"Beware of bugs in the above code; I have only proved it correct, not tried it.", "\"Knuth published his first \"scientific\" article in a school magazine in 1957 under the title \"The Potrzebie System of Weights and Measures\".", "In it, he defined the fundamental unit of length as the thickness of ''Mad'' No.", "26, and named the fundamental unit of force \"whatmeworry\".", "''Mad'' published the article in issue No.", "33 (June 1957).To demonstrate the concept of recursion, Knuth intentionally referred \"Circular definition\" and \"Definition, circular\" to each other in the index of ''The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1''.The preface of ''Concrete Mathematics'' has the following paragraph:At the TUG 2010 Conference, Knuth announced a satirical XML-based successor to TeX, titled \"iTeX\" (, performed with a bell ringing), which would support features such as arbitrarily scaled irrational units, 3D printing, input from seismographs and heart monitors, animation, and stereophonic sound." ], [ "Awards and honors", "In 1971, Knuth received the first ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award.", "He has received various other awards, including the Turing Award, the National Medal of Science, the John von Neumann Medal, and the Kyoto Prize.Knuth was elected a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) in 1980 in recognition of his contributions to the field of computer science.In 1990 he was awarded the one-of-a-kind academic title ''Professor of The Art of Computer Programming'', which has since been revised to ''Professor Emeritus of The Art of Computer Programming''.Knuth was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1975.He was also elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1981 for organizing vast subject areas of computer science so that they are accessible to all segments of the computing community.", "In 1992, he became an associate of the French Academy of Sciences.", "Also that year, he retired from regular research and teaching at Stanford University in order to finish ''The Art of Computer Programming''.", "He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 2003.Knuth was elected as a Fellow (first class of Fellows) of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics in 2009 for his outstanding contributions to mathematics.", "He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.", "In 2012, he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society and a member of the American Philosophical Society.", "Other awards and honors include:* First ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award, 1971* Turing Award, 1974* Lester R. Ford Award, 1975 and 1993* Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecturer, 1978* National Medal of Science, 1979* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1985* Franklin Medal, 1988* John von Neumann Medal, 1995* Harvey Prize from the Technion, 1995* Kyoto Prize, 1996* Fellow of the Computer History Museum \"for his fundamental early work in the history of computing algorithms, development of the TeX typesetting language, and for major contributions to mathematics and computer science.\"", "1998* Asteroid 21656 Knuth, named in his honor in May 2001* Katayanagi Prize, 2010* BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of Information and Communication Technologies, 2010* Turing Lecture, 2011* Stanford University School of Engineering Hero Award, 2011* Flajolet Lecture Prize, 2014" ], [ "Publications", "A short list of his publications include:''The Art of Computer Programming'':# # # # # # # # # # # # # ''Computers and Typesetting'' (all books are hardcover unless otherwise noted):# , x+483pp.# (softcover).# , xviii+600pp.# , xii+361pp.# (softcover).# , xviii+566pp.# , xvi+588pp.# Books of collected papers:# # # # # , (paperback)# , (paperback)# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no.", "191), 2010.", "(cloth), (paperback)# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Fun and Games (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no.", "192), 2011.", "(cloth), (paperback)# Donald E. Knuth, Companion to the Papers of Donald Knuth (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no.", "202), 2011.", "(cloth), (paperback)Other books:# xiv+657 pp.# # Donald E. Knuth, The Stanford GraphBase: A Platform for Combinatorial Computing (New York, ACM Press) 1993.second paperback printing 2009.# Donald E. Knuth, 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions), 1990.# Donald E. Knuth, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About (Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes no 136), 2001.# Donald E. Knuth, MMIXware: A RISC Computer for the Third Millennium (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag— Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no.", "1750), 1999.viii+550pp.", "# Donald E. Knuth and Silvio Levy, The CWEB System of Structured Documentation (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1993.iv+227pp.", ".", "Third printing 2001 with hypertext support, ii + 237 pp.# Donald E. Knuth, Tracy L. Larrabee, and Paul M. Roberts, Mathematical Writing (Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America), 1989.ii+115pp # Daniel H. Greene and Donald E. Knuth, Mathematics for the Analysis of Algorithms (Boston: Birkhäuser), 1990.viii+132pp.", "# Donald E. Knuth, , 1976.106pp.", "# Donald E. Knuth, Stable Marriage and Its Relation to Other Combinatorial Problems: An Introduction to the Mathematical Analysis of Algorithms.", "# Donald E. Knuth, Axioms and Hulls (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag—Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no.", "606), 1992.ix+109pp." ], [ "See also", "* Asymptotic notation* Attribute grammar* CC system* Dancing Links* Knuth -yllion* Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm* Knuth Prize* Knuth shuffle* Knuth's Algorithm X* Knuth's Simpath algorithm* Knuth's up-arrow notation* Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm* Davis–Knuth dragon* Bender–Knuth involution* Trabb Pardo–Knuth algorithm* Fisher–Yates shuffle* Robinson–Schensted–Knuth correspondence* Man or boy test* Plactic monoid* Quater-imaginary base* TeX* Termial* The Complexity of Songs* Uniform binary search* List of pioneers in computer science* List of science and religion scholars" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Donald Knuth's home page at Stanford University.", "** Knuth discusses software patenting, structured programming, collaboration and his development of TeX.", "* * * * * * Biography of Donald Knuth from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences* Donald Ervin Knuth – Stanford Lectures (Archive)* Interview with Donald Knuth by Lex Fridman* Siobhan Roberts, The Yoda of Silicon Valley.", "''The New York Times'', 17 December 2018." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dairy product" ], [ "Introduction", "Milk products and production relationships'''Dairy products''' or '''milk products''', also known as '''lacticinia''', are food products made from (or containing) milk.", "The most common dairy animals are cow, water buffalo, nanny goat, and ewe.", "Dairy products include common grocery store food around the world such as yogurt, cheese, milk and butter.", "A facility that produces dairy products is a ''dairy''.", "Dairy products are consumed worldwide to varying degrees.", "Some people avoid some or all dairy products because of lactose intolerance, veganism, or other health reasons or beliefs." ], [ "Types of dairy product", "=== Milk ===All dairy products derive from milkCondensed milkMilk is produced after optional homogenization or pasteurization, in several grades after standardization of the fat level, and possible addition of the bacteria ''Streptococcus lactis'' and ''Leuconostoc citrovorum''.", "Milk can be broken down into several different categories based on type of product produced, including cream, butter, cheese, infant formula, and yogurt.Milk varies in fat content.", "Skim milk is milk with zero fat, while whole milk products contain fat.Milk is an ingredient in many confectioneries.", "Milk can be added to chocolate to produce milk chocolate.=== Cream ===Whipped cream=== Butter ===Butter, mostly milk fat, produced by churning cream* ''Ghee'' also called, clarified butter, by gentle heating of butter and removal of the solid matter''Smen'', a fermented, clarified butter used in Moroccan cookingAnhydrous milkfat (clarified butter)=== Fermented ===Kefir is a fermented probiotic dairy drinkFermented milk products include:=== Yogurt ===Yogurt, milk fermented by thermophilic bacteria, mainly ''Streptococcus salivarius'' ssp.", "''thermophilus'' and ''Lactobacillus delbrueckii'' ssp.", "''bulgaricus'' sometimes with additional bacteria, such as ''Lactobacillus acidophilus''=== Cheese ===Cheese, produced by coagulating milk, separating curds from whey, and letting it ripen, generally with bacteria, and sometimes also with certain molds.=== Custard ===* Custard, thickened with eggs* Imitation custard, thickened with starch=== Frozen ===Ice creamIce cream, slowly frozen cream, milk, flavors and emulsifying additives (dairy ice cream)Gelato, slowly frozen milk and water, lesser fat than ice creamIce milk, low-fat version of ice creamFrozen custardFrozen yogurt, yogurt with emulsifiers=== Casein ===" ], [ "Consumption patterns worldwide", "Rates of dairy consumption vary widely worldwide.", "High-consumption countries consume more than per capita per year.", "These countries are: Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Costa Rica, most European countries, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, North America and Pakistan.", "Medium-consumption countries consume to 150 kg per capita per year.", "These countries are: India, Iran, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Mongolia, New Zealand, North and Southern Africa, most of the Middle East, and most of Latin America and the Caribbean.", "Low-consumption countries consume under 30 kg per capita per year.", "These countries are: Senegal, most of Central Africa, and most of East and Southeast Asia." ], [ "Lactose levels", "For those with some degree of lactose intolerance, considering the amount of lactose in dairy products can be important to health.+Dairy productAmount of lactoseMilkHighestButterMinimal (made from milk fat)Hard cheeseVery lowSoft cheeseMore than hard cheese" ], [ "Intolerance and health research", "Dairy products may upset the digestive system in individuals with lactose intolerance or a milk allergy.", "People who experience lactose intolerance usually avoid milk and other lactose-containing dairy products, which may cause mild side effects, such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea.", "Such individuals may use non-dairy milk substitutes.===Cancer===The American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR), World Cancer Research Fund International (WCRF), Cancer Council Australia (CCA) and Cancer Research UK have stated that there is strong evidence that consumption of dairy products decreases risk of colorectal cancer.", "The AICR, WCRF, CCA and Prostate Cancer UK have stated that there is limited but suggestive evidence that dairy products increase risk of prostate cancer.", "The American Cancer Society (ACS) have stated that because dairy products \"may lower the risk of some cancers and possibly increase the risk of others, the ACS does not make specific recommendations on dairy food consumption for cancer prevention.", "\"It has been suggested that consumption of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in dairy products could increase cancer risk, particularly prostate cancer.", "However, a 2018 review by the Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (COC) concluded that there is \"insufficient evidence to draw any firm conclusions as to whether exposure to dietary IGF-1 is associated with an increased incidence of cancer in consumers\".", "The COC also stated it is unlikely that there would be absorption of intact IGF-1 from food by most consumers.A 2019 review concluded that higher-quality research was needed to characterise valid associations between dairy consumption and risk of and/or cancer-related mortality.", "A 2021 umbrella review found strong evidence that consumption of dairy products decreases risk of colorectal cancer.", "Fermented dairy is associated with significantly decreased bladder cancer and colorectal cancer risk.A 2023 review found no association between consumption of dairy products and breast cancer.===Cardiovascular disease===The American Medical Association (AMA) recommends that people replace full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products.", "In 2017, the AMA stated that there is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease.", "In 2021, they stated that \"taken together, replacing full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products and other sources of unsaturated fat shifts the composition of dietary patterns toward higher unsaturated to saturated fat ratios that are associated with better cardiovascular health\".In 2017, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand published an umbrella review which found an \"overall neutral effect of dairy on cardiovascular risk for the general population\".", "Their position paper stated that \"the evidence overall suggests dairy products can be included in a heart-healthy eating pattern and choosing reduced-fat dairy over full-fat dairy reduces risk for some, but not all, cardiovascular risk factors\".In 2019 the National Heart Foundation of Australia published a position statement on full fat dairy products, \"Based on current evidence, there is not enough evidence to recommend full fat over reduced fat products or reduced fat over full fat products for the general population.", "For people with elevated cholesterol and those with existing coronary heart disease, reduced fat products are recommended.\"", "The position statement also noted that the \"evidence for milk, yoghurt and cheese does not extend to butter, cream, ice-cream and dairy-based desserts; these products should be avoided in a heart healthy eating pattern\".Recent reviews of randomized controlled trials have found that dairy intake from cheese, milk and yogurt does not have detrimental effects on markers of cardiometabolic health.===Other===Consumption of dairy products such as low-fat and whole milk have been associated with an increased acne risk, however, there is no conclusive evidence.", "Fermented and low-fat dairy products are associated with a decreased risk of diabetes.", "Consumption of dairy products are also associated with a decreased risk of gout.A 2023 review found that higher intake of dairy products is significantly associated with a lower risk of inflammatory bowel disease." ], [ "Avoidance on principle", "Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health-related reasons.", "Some religions restrict or do not allow the consumption of dairy products.", "For example, some scholars of Jainism advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows.", "Orthodox Judaism requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together, as prescribed in Deuteronomy 14:21.Veganism is the avoidance of all animal products, including dairy products, most often due to the ethics regarding how dairy products are produced.", "The ethical reasons for avoiding meat and dairy products include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, and the environmental effect of dairy production.", "According to a report of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization in 2010 the dairy sector accounted for 4 percent of global human-made greenhouse gas emissions." ], [ "See also", " List of dairy products* List of dairy product companies in the United States* Dairy industry in the United States* Dairy industry in the United Kingdom* Swiss cheeses and dairy products" ], [ "References and notes", "=== Notes ====== References ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fuquay, John W. ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences'' (2nd Edition, 4 vol 2011), comprehensive coverage.", "*Rankin, H. F. (1922) ''Imbucase: the Story of the B. C. I. C. of the Ministry of Food''.", "Edinburgh: Edinburgh Press (B.C.I.C.=Butter and Cheese Imports Committee)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dave Grohl" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Eric Grohl''' (born January 14, 1969) is an American musician.", "He is the founder of the rock band Foo Fighters, for which he is the lead singer, guitarist, and principal songwriter.", "Prior to forming Foo Fighters, he was the drummer of the rock band Nirvana from 1990 to 1994.At 17, Grohl joined the punk rock band Scream after the departure of their drummer Kent Stax.", "Grohl became the drummer for Nirvana after Scream broke up in 1990.Nirvana's second album, ''Nevermind'' (1991), was the first to feature Grohl on drums and became a worldwide success.", "After Nirvana disbanded following the death of Kurt Cobain in 1994, Grohl formed Foo Fighters as a one-man project.", "The first Foo Fighters album was released in 1995, and a full band was assembled to tour and record under the Foo Fighters name; they have released 11 studio albums.Grohl is the drummer and co-founder of the rock supergroup Them Crooked Vultures, and has recorded and toured with Queens of the Stone Age.", "He has also participated in the side projects Late!", "and Probot.", "Grohl began directing Foo Fighters music videos in 1997 and released his debut documentary, ''Sound City'', in 2013.It was followed by the documentary miniseries ''Sonic Highways'' (2014) and the documentary film ''What Drives Us'' (2021).", "In 2021, Grohl released an autobiography, ''The Storyteller: Tales of Life and Music''.", "In 2022, he and the Foo Fighters starred as themselves in the comedy horror film ''Studio 666.", "''In 2010, Grohl was described by the ''Classic Rock Drummers'' co-author Ken Micallef as one of the most influential rock musicians of the previous 20 years.", "Grohl was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as part of Nirvana in 2014 and as a member of Foo Fighters in 2021." ], [ "Early life", "David Eric Grohl was born in Warren, Ohio, on January 14, 1969, the son of teacher Virginia Jean (née Hanlon) and newswriter James Harper Grohl.", "He is of German, Slovak (on father's side), Irish and English (on mother's side) descent.", "In addition to being an award-winning journalist, James had also served as the special assistant to Senator Robert Taft Jr. and was described as \"a talented political observer who possessed the ability to call every major election with uncanny accuracy\".", "When he was a child, Grohl's family moved to Springfield, Virginia.", "When he was seven, his parents divorced, and he was subsequently raised by his mother.", "At the age of 12, he began learning to play guitar.", "He grew tired of lessons and instead taught himself, eventually playing in bands with friends.", "He said, \"I was going in the direction of faster, louder, darker while my sister, Lisa, three years older, was getting seriously into new wave territory.", "We'd meet in the middle sometimes with Bowie and Siouxsie and the Banshees.", "\"At 13, Grohl and his sister spent the summer at their cousin Tracey's house in Evanston, Illinois.", "Tracey introduced them to punk rock by taking the pair to shows by a variety of punk bands.", "His first concert was Naked Raygun at The Cubby Bear in Chicago in 1982.Grohl recalled, \"From then on we were totally punk.", "We went home and bought ''Maximumrocknroll'' and tried to figure it all out.\"", "In Virginia, he attended Thomas Jefferson High School as a freshman and was elected class vice-president.", "In that capacity, he managed to play pieces of songs by punk bands like Circle Jerks and Bad Brains over the school intercom before his morning announcements.", "His mother decided he should transfer to Bishop Ireton High School in Alexandria because his cannabis use was lowering his grades.", "He stayed there for two years, beginning with a repeat of his first year.", "After his second year, he transferred yet again to Annandale High School.", "While in high school, he played in several local bands, including a stint as guitarist in a band called Freak Baby.", "During this period, he taught himself to play drums.", "When Freak Baby fired its bass player and reshuffled its lineup, Grohl switched to drums.", "The reconstituted band renamed itself Mission Impossible.Grohl said he did not take formal drumming lessons and instead learned by listening to Rush and punk rock.", "Rush drummer Neil Peart was an early influence: \"When I got ''2112'' when I was eight years old, it fucking changed the direction of my life.", "I heard the drums.", "It made me want to become a drummer.\"", "During his developing years as a drummer, Grohl cited John Bonham as his greatest influence, and eventually had Bonham's three-rings symbol tattooed on his right shoulder.", "Mission Impossible rebranded themselves Fast before breaking up, after which Grohl joined the hardcore punk band Dain Bramage in December 1985.Dain Bramage ended in March 1987 when Grohl quit without warning to join Scream, having produced the ''I Scream Not Coming Down'' LP.", "Many of Grohl's early influences were at the 9:30 Club, a music venue in Washington, D.C.", "He said, \"I went to the 9:30 Club hundreds of times.", "I was always so excited to get there, and I was always bummed when it closed.", "I spent my teenage years at the club and saw some shows that changed my life.\"" ], [ "Career", "=== Scream (1986–1990) ===Grohl with Scream in 1989As a teenager in DC, Grohl briefly contemplated joining shock-rockers Gwar, who were looking for a drummer.", "At age 17, Grohl auditioned with local Washington, D.C., favorites Scream to fill the vacancy left by the departure of drummer Kent Stax.", "In order to be considered for the position, Grohl lied about his age, claiming he was older.", "To Grohl's surprise, the band asked him to join, so he dropped out of high school in his junior year.", "He has been quoted as saying, \"I was 17 and extremely anxious to see the world, so I did it.", "\"Over the next four years, Grohl toured extensively with Scream, recording a live album (their show of May 4, 1990, in Alzey, Germany, being released by Tobby Holzinger as ''Your Choice Live Series Vol.10'') and two studio albums, ''No More Censorship'' and ''Fumble'', on which Grohl penned and sang vocals on the song \"Gods Look Down\".", "During a Toronto stop on their 1987 tour, Grohl played drums for Iggy Pop at a CD release party held at famed club the El Mocambo.", "In 1990, Scream unexpectedly disbanded midtour following the departure of bassist Skeeter Thompson.===Nirvana (1990–1994)===While playing in Scream, Grohl became a fan of the Melvins and eventually befriended them.", "During a 1990 tour stop on the West Coast, Melvins guitarist Buzz Osborne took his friends Kurt Cobain and Krist Novoselic, of the band Nirvana, to see Scream.", "Following the breakup of Scream, Grohl called Osborne for advice.", "Osborne informed him that Nirvana was looking for a drummer and gave Grohl the phone numbers of Cobain and Novoselic, who invited Grohl to Seattle to audition.", "Grohl passed the audition and soon joined the band.", "Novoselic later said, \"We knew in two minutes that he was the right drummer.\"", "Grohl told ''Q'': \"I remember being in the same room with them and thinking, 'What?", "''That'''s Nirvana?", "Are you kidding?'", "Because on their record cover they looked like psycho lumberjacks...", "I was like, 'What, that little dude and that big motherfucker?", "You're kidding me'.", "\"When Grohl joined Nirvana, the band had already recorded several demos for the follow-up to their debut album ''Bleach'', having spent time recording with producer Butch Vig in Wisconsin.", "Initially, the plan was to release the album on Sub Pop, but the band received a great deal of interest based on the demos.", "Grohl spent the initial months with Nirvana traveling to various labels as the band shopped for a deal, eventually signing with DGC Records.", "In the spring of 1991, the band entered Sound City Studios in Los Angeles to record ''Nevermind'' (as seen in Grohl's 2013 documentary ''Sound City'').", "''Nevermind'' (1991) exceeded all expectations and became a worldwide commercial success.", "At the same time, Grohl was compiling and recording his own material, which he released on a cassette called ''Pocketwatch'' in 1992 on indie label Simple Machines.", "Rather than using his own name, Grohl released the cassette under the pseudonym \"Late!", "\"In the later years of Nirvana, Grohl's songwriting contributions increased.", "In Grohl's initial months in Olympia, Cobain overheard him working on a song called \"Color Pictures of a Marigold\", and the two subsequently worked on it together.", "Grohl would later record the song for the ''Pocketwatch'' cassette.", "Grohl stated in a 2014 episode of ''Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways'' that Cobain reacted by kissing him upon first hearing a demo of \"Alone + Easy Target\" that Grohl had recently recorded.During the sessions for ''In Utero'', Nirvana decided to re-record \"Color Pictures of a Marigold\" and released this version as a B-side on the \"Heart-Shaped Box\" single, titled simply \"Marigold\".", "Grohl also contributed the main guitar riff for \"Scentless Apprentice\".", "Cobain admitted in a late 1993 MTV interview that he initially thought the riff was \"kind of boneheaded\", but was gratified at how the song developed (a process captured in part in a demo on the Nirvana box set ''With the Lights Out'').", "Cobain said that he was excited at the possibility of having Novoselic and Grohl contribute more to the band's songwriting.Prior to their 1994 European tour, the band scheduled session time at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle to work on demos.", "For most of the three-day session, Cobain was absent, so Novoselic and Grohl worked on demos of their own songs.", "They completed several of Grohl's songs, including future Foo Fighters songs \"Exhausted\", \"Big Me\", \"February Stars\", and \"Butterflies\".", "Cobain arrived on the third day and the band recorded a demo of \"You Know You're Right\".", "It was Nirvana's final studio recording; on April 8, 1994, Cobain was found dead of a self-inflicted shotgun wound at his home.", "Two decades later, on April 10, 2014, Grohl was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Nirvana.=== Foo Fighters (1994–present) =======Initial post-Nirvana activity====Following Cobain's suicide in April 1994, Grohl went into isolation and retreated for several months, unsure what to do next.", "He ended up leaving Seattle entirely, winding up in County Kerry, Ireland.", "In a 2022 interview with ''The Pit'', Grohl noted:In October 1994, he scheduled studio time at Robert Lang Studios and quickly recorded a fifteen-track demo.", "With the exception of a single guitar part on \"X-Static\" played by Greg Dulli of The Afghan Whigs, Grohl performed all of the instruments himself.Grohl wondered if his future might be in drumming for other bands.", "In November, Grohl took a brief turn with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, including a performance on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "He declined an invitation to become Petty's permanent drummer.", "Grohl was also rumored as a possible replacement for Pearl Jam drummer Dave Abbruzzese and performed with the band for a song or two at three shows during Pearl Jam's March 1995 Australian tour.", "However, by then, Pearl Jam had already settled on ex-Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons, and Grohl had other solo plans.====1994–1996====Grohl's demo received interest from major labels.", "Nirvana's A&R rep Gary Gersh was now president of Capitol Records and lured Grohl to sign with the label.", "Grohl did not want the effort to be considered the start of a solo career, so he recruited other band members: former Germs and touring Nirvana guitarist Pat Smear and two members of the recently disbanded Sunny Day Real Estate, William Goldsmith (drums) and Nate Mendel (bass).", "He and Novoselic decided against Novoselic joining; Grohl said it would have felt \"really natural\" for them to work together again, but would have been uncomfortable for the other band members and placed more pressure on Grohl.", "Rather than re-record the album, Grohl's demo was mixed by Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock and was released in July 1995 as Foo Fighters' self-titled debut album.", "During a break between tours, the band entered the studio and recorded a cover of Gary Numan's \"Down in the Park\".", "In February 1996, Grohl and his then-wife Jennifer Youngblood made a brief cameo appearance on ''The X-Files'' third-season episode \"Pusher\".After touring for the self-titled album for more than a year, Grohl returned home and began work on the soundtrack to the 1997 movie ''Touch''.", "Grohl performed all of the instruments and vocals himself, save for vocals from Veruca Salt singer Louise Post on the title track, keyboards by Barrett Jones (who also co-produced the record) on one track, and vocals and guitar by X's John Doe on \"This Loving Thing (Lynn's Song)\".", "Grohl completed the recording in two weeks, and immediately joined Foo Fighters to work on their follow-up.During the initial sessions for Foo Fighters' second album, tension emerged between Grohl and drummer William Goldsmith.", "According to Goldsmith, \"Dave had me do 96 takes of one song, and I had to do thirteen hours' worth of takes on another one ...", "It just seemed that everything I did wasn't good enough for him, or anyone else\".", "Goldsmith also believed that Capitol and producer Gil Norton wanted Grohl to drum on the album.", "With the album seemingly complete, Grohl headed home to Virginia with a copy of the rough mixes and found himself unhappy with the results.", "He wrote and recorded a few new songs, \"Walking After You\" and the hit single \"Everlong”, alone at a studio in Washington, D.C.", "Inspired by the session, Grohl opted to move the band, without Goldsmith's knowledge, to Los Angeles to re-record most of the album with Grohl on drums.", "After the sessions were complete, Goldsmith announced his departure from the band.", "Grohl later expressed regret, and said that \"there were a lot of reasons it didn't work out, but there was also a part of me that was like, you know, I don't know if I'm finished playing the drums yet\".The second Foo Fighters album, ''The Colour and the Shape'', was released in May 1997 and cemented Foo Fighters as a staple of rock radio.", "It produced several hit singles, including \"Everlong\", \"My Hero\", and \"Monkey Wrench\".", "Prior to the album's release, former Alanis Morissette drummer Taylor Hawkins joined on drums.", "The following September, Smear left the band, citing a need to settle down following a lifetime of touring.", "Smear was replaced by Grohl's former Scream bandmate Franz Stahl.", "Stahl departed prior to the recording of Foo Fighters' third album and was replaced by touring guitarist Chris Shiflett, who later became a full-fledged member during the recording of ''One by One''.====1999–2005====Grohl's life of non-stop touring and travel continued with Foo Fighters' popularity.", "During his infrequent pauses he lived in Seattle and Los Angeles before returning to Alexandria, Virginia.", "It was there that he turned his basement into a recording studio where the 1999 album ''There Is Nothing Left to Lose'' was recorded.", "It was recorded following the departure from Capitol and their former president Gary Gersh.", "Grohl described the recording experience as \"intoxicating at times\" because the band members were left completely to their own devices.", "He added, \"One of the advantages of finishing the record before we had a new label was that it was purely our creation.", "It was complete and not open to outside tampering.", "\"In 2000, the band recruited Queen guitarist Brian May to add some guitar flourish to a cover of Pink Floyd's \"Have a Cigar\", a song which Foo Fighters previously recorded as a B-side.", "The friendship between the two bands resulted in Grohl and Taylor Hawkins being asked to induct Queen into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001.Grohl and Hawkins joined May and Queen drummer Roger Taylor to perform \"Tie Your Mother Down\", with Grohl standing in on vocals for Freddie Mercury.", "May later contributed guitar work for the song \"Tired of You\" on the ensuing Foo Fighters album, as well as on an unreleased Foo Fighters song called \"Knucklehead\".Grohl performing in 2005Near the end of 2001, Foo Fighters returned to the studio to work on their fourth album.", "After four months in the studio, with the sessions finished, Grohl accepted an invitation to join Queens of the Stone Age and helped them to record their 2002 album ''Songs for the Deaf''.", "(Grohl can be seen drumming for the band in the video for the song \"No One Knows\".)", "After a brief tour through North America, Britain and Japan with the band and feeling rejuvenated by the effort, Grohl recalled the other band members to completely re-record their album at his studio in Virginia.", "The effort became their fourth album, ''One by One''.", "While initially pleased with the results, in another 2005 ''Rolling Stone'' interview, Grohl admitted to not liking the record: \"Four of the songs were good, and the other seven I never played again in my life.", "We rushed into it, and we rushed out of it.", "\"On November 23, 2002, Grohl achieved a historical milestone by replacing himself on the top of the ''Billboard'' modern rock chart, when \"You Know You're Right\" by Nirvana was replaced by \"All My Life\" by Foo Fighters.", "When \"All My Life\" ended its run, after a one-week respite, \"No One Knows\" by Queens of the Stone Age took the number one spot.", "Between October 26, 2002, and March 1, 2003, Grohl was in the number one spot on the Modern rock charts for 17 of 18 successive weeks, as a member of three different groups.====2005–2009====Grohl performing in 2006Grohl and Foo Fighters released their fifth album ''In Your Honor'' on June 14, 2005.Prior to starting work on the album, the band spent almost a year relocating Grohl's home-based Virginia studio to a brand new facility, dubbed Studio 606, located in a warehouse near Los Angeles.", "Featuring collaborations with John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin, Josh Homme of Queens of the Stone Age and Norah Jones, the album was a departure from previous efforts, and included one rock and one acoustic disc.Foo Fighters' sixth studio album ''Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace'' was released on September 25, 2007.It was recorded during a three-month period between March 2007 and June 2007, and its release was preceded by the first single \"The Pretender\" on September 17.The second single, \"Long Road to Ruin\", was released on December 3, 2007, followed by the third single, \"Let It Die\", on June 24, 2008.Foo Fighters in 2009; from left to right: Hawkins, Shiflett, Grohl, MendelOn November 3, 2009, Foo Fighters released their first ''Greatest Hits'' collection, consisting of 16 tracks including a previously unreleased acoustic version of \"Everlong\" and two new tracks \"Wheels\" and \"Word Forward\" which were produced by Nevermind's producer Butch Vig.", "Grohl said he felt the ''Greatest Hits'' was too early and \"can look like an obituary\".", "He did not feel they had written their best hits yet.====2010–2014====Foo Fighters' seventh studio album, ''Wasting Light'', was released on April 12, 2011.It became the band's first album to reach No.", "1 in the United States.", "Despite rumors of a hiatus, Grohl confirmed in January 2013 that the band had completed writing material for their follow-up to ''Wasting Light''.Grohl and members of Foo Fighters sometimes perform as a cover band \"Chevy Metal\", as they did in May 2015 at \"Conejo Valley Days\", a county fair in Thousand Oaks, California.On November 10, 2014, Foo Fighters released their eighth studio album, ''Sonic Highways'', which reached number two in the United States.", "The album features eight songs, each inspired by a different U.S. city's musical history and culture researched by Grohl himself.====2015–present====Grohl performing with a broken leg at Fenway Park in July 2015On June 12, 2015, while playing a show in Gothenburg, Sweden, Grohl fell off the stage, breaking his leg.", "He left temporarily and returned with a cast to finish the concert.", "Afterward, the band cancelled the remainder of its European tour.", "To avoid having to cancel the band's upcoming North American tour, Grohl designed a large \"elevated throne\" which would allow him to perform on stage with a broken leg.", "The throne was unveiled at a concert in Washington, D.C., on July 4, where Grohl used the stage's video screens to show the crowd video of him falling from the stage in Gothenburg as well as X-rays of his broken leg.", "Beginning with the show on July 4, Foo Fighters began selling new tour merchandise rebranding the band's North American tour as the ''Broken Leg Tour''.", "In 2016, Grohl lent his throne to Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses after Rose broke his foot.", "He lent it again in 2021 to Darin Wall, of the Seattle metal band Greyhawk, after Wall was shot in the leg.On July 31, 2015, Grohl posted a personal reply to Fabio Zaffagnini, Marco Sabiu, and the 1,000 participants of the \"Rockin' 1000\" project in Cesena, Italy, thanking them for their combined performance of the Foo Fighters' song \"Learn to Fly\" from their 1999 album ''There Is Nothing Left to Lose'', indicating (in broken Italian), ''\"...", "I promise Foo Fighters will see you soon\".''", "On November 3, Foo Fighters performed in Cesena, where Grohl invited some \"Rockin' 1000\" members onto the stage to perform with the band.On September 15, 2017, Foo Fighters released their ninth studio album ''Concrete and Gold'', which became the band's second album to debut at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200.After the Concrete and Gold Tour, Grohl announced that the band would be taking a break.", "The tenth Foo Fighters studio album, ''Medicine at Midnight'', was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "It was released on February 5, 2021, and debuted at number three on the ''Billboard'' 200.The ''Medicine at Midnight'' tour was cancelled following the death of Hawkins on March 25, 2022.The eleventh Foo Fighters studio album ''But Here We Are'' was released on June 2, 2023.The album is dedicated to Hawkins and Grohl's mother, Virginia, both of whom died in 2022." ], [ "Other work", "=== Musical projects and contributions ===Apart from his main bands, Grohl has been involved in other music projects.", "In 1992, he played drums on Buzz Osborne's Kiss-styled solo-EP ''King Buzzo'', where he was credited as ''Dale Nixon'', a pseudonym that Greg Ginn adopted to play bass on Black Flag's ''My War''.", "He also released the music cassette ''Pocketwatch'' under the pseudonym ''Late!''", "on the now-defunct indie label Simple Machines.In 1993, Grohl was recruited to help recreate the music of The Beatles' early years for the movie ''Backbeat''; he played drums in an alternative rock supergroup, the Backbeat Band, that included Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, indie producer Don Fleming, Mike Mills of R.E.M., Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth, and Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum in 1993–94.A music video was filmed for the song \"Money\" while Grohl was with Nirvana on their 1994 European tour, footage of Grohl was filmed later and included.Later in 1994, Grohl played drums on two tracks for Mike Watt's ''Ball-Hog or Tugboat?''.", "In early 1995, Grohl and Foo Fighters played their first US tour, the Ring Spiel Tour both opening for Watt and playing with Eddie Vedder as Watt's supporting band.In 1997, Grohl played a few songs with David Bowie for Bowie's 50th birthday concert, which was recorded and shown on pay-per-view later that year.During the early 2000s, Grohl spent time in his basement studio writing and recording a number of songs for a metal project.", "Over the span of several years, he recruited his favorite metal vocalists from the 1980s, including Lemmy of Motörhead, Conrad \"Cronos\" Lant from Venom, King Diamond, Scott Weinrich, Snake of Voivod and Max Cavalera of Sepultura, to perform the vocals for the songs.", "The project was released in 2004 under the nickname Probot.Also in 2003, Grohl stepped behind the kit to perform on Killing Joke's second self-titled album.", "The move surprised some Nirvana fans, given that Nirvana had been accused of plagiarizing the opening riff of \"Come as You Are\" from Killing Joke's 1984 song \"Eighties\".", "However, the controversy failed to create a lasting rift between the bands.", "Foo Fighters covered Killing Joke's \"Requiem\" during the late 1990s, and were even joined by Killing Joke singer Jaz Coleman for a performance of the song at a show in New Zealand in 2003.Also in 2003, at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards, Grohl performed in an ad hoc supergroup with Bruce Springsteen, Elvis Costello, and Steven Van Zandt for a performance in tribute of then-recently deceased singer/guitarist Joe Strummer.Grohl at the Roskilde Festival in 2005Grohl lent his drumming skills to other artists during the early 2000s.", "In 2000, he played drums and sang on a track, \"Goodbye Lament\", from Tony Iommi's album ''Iommi''.", "In 2001, Grohl performed on Tenacious D's debut album, and appeared in the video for lead single \"Tribute\" as a demon.", "He later appeared in the duo's 2006 movie ''Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny'' as the devil in the song \"Beelzeboss\", and performed on its soundtrack.", "He also performed drums for their 2012 album ''Rize of the Fenix''.", "In 2002, Grohl helped Chan Marshall of Cat Power on the album ''You Are Free'' and played with Queens of the Stone Age on their album ''Songs for the Deaf''.", "Grohl also toured with the band in support of the album, delaying work on the Foo Fighters' album ''One by One''.", "In 2004, Grohl drummed on six tracks for Nine Inch Nails' 2005 album ''With Teeth'' and played percussion on one more, later returning to play drums on 'The Idea of You' from their 2016 EP ''Not the Actual Events''.", "He also drummed on the song \"Bad Boyfriend\" on Garbage's 2005 album ''Bleed Like Me''.", "Most recently, he recorded all the drums on Juliette and the Licks's 2006 album ''Four on the Floor'' and the song \"For Us\" from Pete Yorn's 2006 album ''Nightcrawler''.", "Beyond drumming, Grohl contributed guitar to a cover of Neil Young's \"I've Been Waiting For You\" on David Bowie's 2002 album ''Heathen''.In June 2008, Grohl was Paul McCartney's special guest for a concert at the Anfield football stadium in Liverpool, in one of the central events of the English city's year as European Capital of Culture.", "Grohl joined McCartney's band singing backup vocals and playing guitar on \"Band on the Run\" and drums on \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" and \"I Saw Her Standing There\".", "Grohl also performed with McCartney at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, again playing drums on \"I Saw Her Standing There\".", "Grohl also helped pay tribute to McCartney at the 2010 Kennedy Center Honors along with No Doubt, Norah Jones, Steven Tyler, James Taylor, and Mavis Staples.", "He sang a duet version of \"Maybe I'm Amazed\" with Norah Jones on December 5, 2010.Grohl played drums on the tracks \"Run with the Wolves\" and \"Stand Up\" on The Prodigy's 2009 album ''Invaders Must Die''.Grohl drumming for Them Crooked VulturesIn July 2009, it was revealed that Grohl was recording with Josh Homme and John Paul Jones as Them Crooked Vultures.", "The trio performed their first show together on August 9, 2009, at Metro in Chicago.", "The band played their first UK gig on August 26, 2009, with a surprise appearance at Brixton Academy in London, supporting the Arctic Monkeys.", "The band released their debut album Them Crooked Vultures on November 16, 2009, in the UK and November 17, 2009, in the US.On October 23, 2010, Grohl performed with Tenacious D at BlizzCon.", "He appeared as the drummer for the entire concert, and a year later he returned with Foo Fighters and played another set there, this time as guitarist and vocalist.Also in 2010, Grohl helped write and performed on drums for \"Watch This\" with guitarist Slash and Duff McKagan on Slash's self-titled album that also included many other famous artists.In October 2011, Grohl temporarily joined Cage the Elephant as a replacement on tour after drummer Jared Champion's appendix burst.Grohl directed a documentary entitled Sound City which is about the Van Nuys studio of the same name where ''Nevermind'' was recorded that shut down its music operations in 2011.In 2012, following the departure of Joey Castillo from Queens of the Stone Age, Grohl performed on some tracks as drummer on their 2013 album ''...Like Clockwork''.At the 12-12-12 Sandy benefit concert, Paul McCartney joined Grohl and the surviving members of Nirvana (Krist Novoselic and touring guitarist Pat Smear) to perform \"Cut Me Some Slack\", a song later recorded for the Sound City soundtrack.", "In what was regarded as a Nirvana reunion with McCartney as a stand-in for Kurt Cobain, this was the first time in eighteen years that the three had played alongside each other.Grohl delivered a keynote speech at the 2013 South by Southwest conference in Austin Texas, U.S. on the morning of March 14.Lasting just under an hour, the speech covered Grohl's musical life from his youth through to his role with the Foo Fighters and emphasized the importance of each individual's voice, regardless of who the individual is: \"There is no right or wrong—there is only your voice ... What matters most is that it's your voice.", "Cherish it.", "Respect it.", "Nurture it.", "Challenge it.", "Respect it.\"", "Grohl said during the speech that Psy's \"Gangnam Style\" was one of his favorite songs of the past decade.", "He also referenced Edgar Winter's instrumental \"Frankenstein\" as the song that made him want to become a musician.On November 6, 2013, Grohl played drums at the 2013 CMA Awards replacing drummer Chris Fryar for Country Music band Zac Brown Band.", "The band debuted their new song \"Day for the Dead\".", "Grohl also produced Zac Brown Band's EP ''The Grohl Sessions, Vol.", "1''.Grohl also featured on drums for new indie hip-hop band RDGLDGRN.", "He worked with them closely on their EP.", "The group asked fellow Northern Virginia native Grohl, who was filming his Sound City documentary, to drum on \"I Love Lamp\".", "Grohl agreed and played drums for the entire record, with the exception of \"Million Fans\", which features a sampled breakbeat.Grohl, a fan of theatrical Swedish metal band Ghost, produced their EP ''If You Have Ghost''.", "He was also featured in a number of songs on the EP.", "Grohl played rhythm guitar for the song \"If You Have Ghosts\" (a cover of a Roky Erickson song), and drums on \"I'm a Marionette\" (an ABBA cover) as well as \"Waiting for the Night\" (a Depeche Mode cover).", "According to a member of Ghost, Grohl has appeared live in concert with the band wearing the same identity concealing outfit that the rest of the band usually wears.In September, the all-star covers album by the Alice Cooper-led Hollywood Vampires supergroup was released and features Grohl playing drums on the medley \"One/Jump Into the Fire\".On August 10, 2018, Grohl released \"Play\", a solo recording lasting over 22 minutes.", "A mini documentary accompanied it.Between August and November 2020, Grohl performed in an online drum battle with ten-year-old drummer and YouTube celebrity Nandi Bushell, who had challenged Grohl after previously covering songs from Nirvana and Foo Fighters.", "Grohl had previously been impressed by her talent and energy.", "After going back and forth with Bushell a few times, he jokingly conceded victory to her, and later wrote and performed a song in her honor.", "Later, after speaking to Bushell over a video chat, Grohl offered to have Bushell perform with the Foo Fighters on stage, an offer he made good on when she appeared with the band during their August 26, 2021 show at the L.A. Forum, where she performed drums on \"Everlong\" as the show's finale.", "The videos of the drum battle received tens of millions of views.", "This was not the first child Grohl have invited on stage: in 2018, he invited ten year Collier Cash Rule on stage at a Foo Fighters concert in Kansas City, Missouri and gifted his guitar to him.", "Rule played several Metallica songs and Grohl sung one verse and the chorus to Enter Sandman.", "During Hanukkah of 2020, Grohl collaborated with Greg Kurstin to release previously recorded covers of songs by Jewish artists, one per night.", "This continued in 2021 and 2022.On October 5, 2021, Grohl's memoir ''The Storyteller: Tales of Life and Music'' was published by Dey Street Books.", "Grohl developed a thrash metal record for a fictional band named Dream Widow (who self-destructed 25 years ago), as developed for a horror-comedy movie titled ''Studio 666''.", "Grohl worked to create the Dream Widow album and aimed to release it at the same time as the film, on February 25, 2022.On March 25, 2022, the self-titled ''Dream Widow'' EP was released to digital streaming services featuring eight tracks ranging from thrash, death and extreme metal.", "The EP also featured Rami Jaffee, Jim Rota and Oliver Roman.On 25 June 2022 Grohl duetted with Paul McCartney when he headlined the Glastonbury Festival.", "It was his first performance since the death of Taylor Hawkins earlier in the year.=== Television ===Grohl in July 2008Since his first appearance in 1992, Grohl has been a musical guest on ''Saturday Night Live'' 14 timesmore than any other musician.", "He has appeared with Nirvana, Foo Fighters, Them Crooked Vultures, Mick Jagger, and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers.Grohl has also appeared in several sketches on ''SNL''.", "On October 13, 2007, he performed in the ''SNL'' Digital Short \"People Getting Punched Just Before Eating\".", "On February 6, 2010, he appeared as a middle-aged punk rock drummer reuniting the group \"Crisis of Conformity\" (fronted by Fred Armisen) after 25 years in a skit later on in the episode.", "On March 9, 2011, he appeared in the ''SNL'' Digital Short \"Helen Mirren's Magical Bosom\" and the sketch \"Bongo's Clown Room\".In August 2000, Grohl voiced Daniel Dotson, an egotistical art instructor, in ''Is It Fall Yet?", "'', the first of two film-length installments for MTV's animated series ''Daria''.In mid-2010, Grohl added his name to the list of contributing rock star voice cameos for Cartoon Network's heavy metal parody/tribute show, ''Metalocalypse''.", "He voiced the controversial Syrian dictator, Abdule Malik in the season 3 finale, ''Doublebookedklok''.In February 2013, Grohl filled in as host of ''Chelsea Lately'' for a week.", "Guests included Elton John, who disclosed on the E!", "show that he would appear with Grohl on the next Queens of the Stone Age album.", "Grohl had previously hosted the show during the first week of December 2012 as part of \"Celebrity Guest Host Week\".On May 20, 2015, David Letterman selected Grohl and the Foo Fighters to play \"Everlong\" as the last musical guest on the final episode of ''Late Show with David Letterman''.", "Letterman stated that he considered \"Everlong\" to be his favorite song and that he and the band were \"joined at the hip\" ever since the band canceled tour dates to play his first show back from heart bypass surgery at his request.On December 1, 2015, Grohl appeared on an episode of ''The Muppets'' where he competed in a \"drum off\" with Animal.Grohl appeared in the 50th anniversary season of ''Sesame Street'' in February 2019.On January 28, 2021, it was announced that the first authorized Dave Grohl documentary will be released via The Coda Collection.", "The documentary was released April 30, 2021, as ''What Drives Us''.On October 8, 2021, Grohl was the guest storyteller on CBeebies ''Bedtime Story'', reading a story based on The Beatles song, Octopus's Garden.=== Filmmaking ===Grohl directed the Foo Fighters music videos for \"Monkey Wrench\" (1997), \"My Hero\" (1998), \"All My Life\" (2002), \"White Limo\" (2011), and \"Rope\" (2011), as well as all the music videos from the ''Sonic Highways'' and ''Concrete and Gold'' era.", "Outside of Foo Fighters, he also filmed the music video for Soundgarden's \"By Crooked Steps\" (2014).In 2013, Grohl produced and directed the documentary ''Sound City'', about the history of the famed Sound City Studios recording studios in Van Nuys.", "The film, Grohl's feature-length directorial debut, premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival.Accompanying the release of ''Sonic Highways'', Grohl directed an eight-part documentary miniseries of the same name that chronicles the album's development and recording across eight different American cities.", "It premiered on HBO on October 17, 2014.In 2021, Grohl directed ''What Drives Us'', a feature-length documentary on van touring.", "It was released on April 30, 2021, on the Coda Collection via Amazon Prime.===Cal Jam===Inspired by California Jam, to celebrate the release of Foo Fighters' ninth studio album ''Concrete and Gold'' and begin their North American tour, Cal Jam 17, a music festival curated by Grohl and Foo Fighters, was held from October 67, 2017 at Glen Helen Amphitheater, with 27,800 attendees, 3,100 campers, and nine arrests.Cal Jam 18 was held October 5–6, 2018 in San Bernardino, California which featured the Foo Fighters and a Nirvana reunion." ], [ "Musicianship and equipment", "Grohl with his signature Gibson DG-335 guitarGrohl is a self-taught musician and cannot read music, and instead plays only by ear.", "Grohl's two primary guitars are based on the Gibson ES-335.His primary recording guitar is an original cherry red Gibson Trini Lopez Standard that he bought in the early 1990s because he liked the look of the diamond-shaped sound holes.", "He also has an original Pelham blue Trini Lopez from 1965 which he bought from a doctor in the UK.Grohl's primary stage guitar is his signature model Pelham Blue Gibson DG-335, which was designed by Gibson based on the Trini Lopez Standard specs, but in a different color and with a stop tailpiece instead of the Trini Lopez's trapeze tailpiece.", "He also has another signature guitar called the \"Memphis Dave Grohl ES-335\" in silver finish that is otherwise similar to the DG-335.For the Foo Fighters' return in 2023, Grohl also began playing a DG-335 in a white finish, matching the aesthetics of But Here We Are.", "Grohl uses D'Addario 0.11-0.49 gauge strings, but his playing style is so aggressive that he uses a 0.42 gauge for the A string and a 0.60 gauge for the low E string.", "His primary acoustic guitar is a black Elvis Presley model Gibson Dove.", "Dave Grohl with his Gibson Dove acoustic guitar in 2008Grohl's drum kit, as designed by Drum Workshop, features five different sized toms ranging from 5x8 inches to 16x18 inches, a 19-inch crash cymbal, two 20-inch crash cymbals, an 18-inch China cymbal, a 24-inch ride cymbal, and a standard kick drum, snare drum, and hi-hat.", "Dave Grohl with his DW drum kit" ], [ "Advocacy, philanthropy and views", "In May 2006, Grohl sent a note of support to the two trapped miners in the Beaconsfield mine collapse in Tasmania, Australia, who had survived the initial rockfall.", "In the initial days following the collapse, one of the men requested an iPod with the Foo Fighters album ''In Your Honor'' to be sent to them.", "Grohl's note read, in part, \"Though I'm halfway around the world right now, my heart is with you both, and I want you to know that when you come home, there's two tickets to any Foos show, anywhere, and two cold beers waiting for .", "Deal?\"", "In October 2006, one of the miners took up his offer, joining Grohl for a drink after a Foo Fighters acoustic concert at the Sydney Opera House.", "Grohl wrote an instrumental piece for the meeting, which he pledged to include on the band's next album.", "The song, \"Ballad of the Beaconsfield Miners\", appears on Foo Fighters' 2007 release ''Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace'', and features Kaki King.He has worn a White Knot ribbon, a symbol of support for same-sex marriage, to various events; when questioned about the knot, he responded, \"I believe in love and I believe in equality and I believe in marriage equality.\"", "Grohl's gay rights activism dates back to the early 1990s, when Nirvana performed at a benefit to raise money to fight Oregon Ballot Measure 9, which forbade governments in Oregon from promoting or facilitating homosexuality.", "Grohl has also participated in two counter-protests against the Westboro Baptist Church for their anti-gay stance, once by performing \"Keep It Clean\" on the back of a flatbed truck and most recently by Rickrolling them.Grohl is an advocate for gun control.", "Shortly after the 2002 D.C. sniper attacks ended, he stated in an interview that the attacks were \"an indication of the direction the country's heading in if we don't get tougher with gun laws\".", "He further stated, \"People need to realize that our country has to get tougher on gun laws, it just does, and I grew up in suburban Virginia going hunting in season.", "I grew up with a firearm myself.", "But I'd be willing to give it up, if everyone else would.", "\"In a 2008 interview, Grohl said he had never taken cocaine, heroin, or speed, and that he had stopped smoking cannabis and taking LSD at the age of 20.He said, \"I've seen people die.", "It ain't easy being young, but that stuff doesn't make it any easier.\"", "He contributed to a 2009 anti-drug video for the BBC.", "He has described himself as a coffee addict who drinks an average of six cups of coffee every morning; in 2009, he was admitted to a hospital with chest pains caused by a caffeine overdose.Grohl supported Barack Obama's 2012 presidential campaign and performed \"My Hero\" at the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina.", "Foo Fighters supported Joe Biden's 2020 presidential campaign and played at the \"Celebrating America\" concert on the day of Biden's inauguration in 2021." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1994, Grohl married Jennifer Leigh Youngblood, a photographer from Grosse Pointe, Michigan.", "They separated in December 1996 and divorced in 1997.On August 2, 2003, he married Jordyn Blum.", "They reside in Los Angeles and have three daughters, born in 2006, 2009 and 2014.With a fortune of $260 million at the time, Grohl was estimated by a 2012 ''Stereogum'' article to be the third-wealthiest drummer in the world, behind Ringo Starr and Phil Collins.In a June 2011 interview, Grohl revealed that he was going deaf in his left ear due to decades of performing on stage.", "During his appearance on ''The Howard Stern Show'' in February 2022, he stated that he suffers from hearing loss and that this has an impact on both his daily life and life as a musician; his tinnitus has forced him to read lips for about 20 years, a situation that became more difficult when people began wearing face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "As for producing music, he refuses to use in-ear monitors despite their ability to protect his ears because it \"removes him from the natural atmosphere sound so he cannot hear his bandmates\".", "He said that his ears are \"still tuned in to certain frequencies, meaning he's still able to pick up on minute sonic details—even down to the slightest differences between cymbal crashes\"." ], [ "Honors", "Concert for ValorIn August 2009, Grohl was given the key to the city of Warren, Ohio, his birthplace, and performed the songs \"Everlong\", \"Times Like These\", and \"My Hero\".", "A roadway in downtown Warren named \"David Grohl Alley\" has been dedicated to him with murals by local artists.Grohl's hometown of Warren unveiled gigantic drumsticks in 2012 to honor him.", "According to ''The Hollywood Reporter'', the massive pair broke the Guinness World Record.", "The record-breaking drumsticks were shown to the public for the first time on July 7 during a concert at the Warren Amphitheater.Grohl's first solo ''Rolling Stone'' cover story was published on December 4, 2014." ], [ "Discography" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film ===YearFilmRoleNotes1992''1991: The Year Punk Broke''HimselfDocumentary2000''Is It Fall Yet?", "''Daniel DotsonVoice only2005''Classic Albums: Nirvana – Nevermind''HimselfDocumentary2006''Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny''SatanPerformed drums, vocals, guitar2010''Lemmy''HimselfRockumentary2011''The Muppets''AnimoolCameo2011''Foo Fighters: Back and Forth''HimselfRockumentary2012''See a Little Light: A Celebration of the Music and Legacy of Bob Mould''HimselfPerformed guitar, drums, vocals2012''Bad Brains: A Band in DC''HimselfDocumentary2013''Sound City''DirectorDocumentary2013''The Death and Resurrection Show''HimselfDocumentary2013''Filmage: The Story of Descendents/All''HimselfDocumentary2014''Salad Days''HimselfDocumentary2014''Rye Coalition: The Story of the Hard Luck 5''HimselfDocumentary2015''Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck''Himself (Archival Footage)Documentary2015''All Things Must Pass''HimselfDocumentary2016''Desert Age: A Rock and Roll Scene History''HimselfDocumentary2016''The Smart Studios Story''HimselfDocumentary2018''Industrial Accident: The Story of Wax Trax!", "Records''HimselfDocumentary2020''Bill & Ted Face the Music''HimselfCameo2021''I'm in the Band''HimselfDocumentary2021''What Drives Us''DirectorDocumentary2022''Studio 666''HimselfHorror film, also story === Television ===YearSeriesRoleNotes1996''The X-Files'': \"Pusher\"Man walking down hallwayUncredited cameo1996''Space Ghost Coast to Coast''Himself2006''The West Wing''HimselfPerformed vocals and guitar2010''Metalocalypse''Abdule MalikVoice2013''Drunk History''Memphis Mafia2013''The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange''Himself2013''Chelsea Lately''HimselfGuest host2014''Sonic Highways''Himself2014''Off Camera''Himself2015''The Muppets''Himself2016''Drunk History''American CongressmanEpisode: \"Hamilton\"2017''Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "''HimselfGuest host2019''Sesame Street''HimselfPerformed vocals and guitar2021''CBeebies Bedtime Story''HimselfPerformed vocals and guitar2021''From Cradle to Stage''Host2022''Hot Ones''Himself" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " (Foo Fighters)* * Dave Grohl's Gearboard* Dave Grohl Band Discography* Live Review at ArtistDirect.com*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dollar" ], [ "Introduction", "The Joachimsthaler of the Kingdom of Bohemia was the first thaler (dollar).", "'''Dollar''' is the name of more than 25 currencies.", "The United States dollar, named after the international currency known as the Spanish dollar, was established in 1792 and is the first so named that still survives.", "Others include the Australian dollar, Brunei dollar, Canadian dollar, Eastern Caribbean dollar, Hong Kong dollar, Jamaican dollar, Liberian dollar, Namibian dollar, New Taiwan dollar, New Zealand dollar, Singapore dollar, Trinidad and Tobago Dollar and several others.", "The symbol for most of those currencies is the dollar sign '''$''' in the same way as many countries using peso currencies.", "The name \"dollar\" originates from Bohemia and a 29 g silver-coin called the Joachimsthaler." ], [ "Economies that use a \"dollar\"", " Currency ISO 4217 code Country or territory Established Preceding currency Eastern Caribbean dollar XCD 1965 British West Indies dollar Australian dollar AUD and its territories 1966 Australian pound 1910-1966 Pound sterling 1825-1910 Bahamian dollar BSD 1966 Bahamian pound Barbadian dollar BBD 1972 Eastern Caribbean dollar Belize dollar BZD 1973 British Honduran dollar Bermudian dollar BMD 1970 Pound sterling Brunei dollar(Alongside the Singapore dollar) BND(SGD) 1967 Malaya and British Borneo dollar Canadian dollar CAD 1858 Spanish dollar pre-1841 Canadian pound 1841–1858 Newfoundland dollar 1865–1949 in the Dominion of Newfoundland Cayman Islands dollar KYD 1972 Jamaican dollar Eastern Caribbean dollar XCD 1965 British West Indies dollar Fijian dollar FJD 1969 Fijian pound Eastern Caribbean dollar XCD 1965 British West Indies dollar Guyanese dollar GYD 1839 Eastern Caribbean dollar Hong Kong dollar HKD 1863 Rupee, Real (Spanish/Colonial Spain: Mexican), Chinese cash Jamaican dollar JMD 1969 Jamaican pound Kiribati dollar along with the Australian dollar KID / AUD 1979 Australian dollar Liberian dollar LRD 1937 United States dollar Namibian dollar along with the South African rand NAD/ZAR 1993 South African rand Australian dollar AUD 1966 New Zealand dollar NZD and its territories and dependencies 1967 New Zealand pound Eastern Caribbean dollar XCD 1965 Eastern Caribbean dollar XCD Eastern Caribbean dollar XCD Singapore dollar(Alongside the Brunei dollar) SGD(BND) 1967 Malaya and British Borneo dollar Solomon Islands dollar SBD 1977 Australian pound Surinamese dollar SRD 2004 Surinamese guilder New Taiwan dollar TWD 1949 Old Taiwan dollar Trinidad and Tobago dollar TTD 1964 British West Indies dollar Tuvaluan dollar along with the Australian dollar TVD / AUD 1976 United States dollar USD and its territories 1792 Spanish dollarColonial scrip Dolar West Papua IDX Indonesia 1949 Gulden Netherlands Indonesian rupiah (1969-present now)===Other countries that use \"United States dollar\"=== Country or territory Established Preceding currency 2002 Indonesian rupiah 2001 Ecuadorian sucre 2001 Salvadoran colón ===Other territories that use a \"dollar\"=== Territory Currency Eastern Caribbean dollar (Netherlands) US dollar US dollar (alongside the pound sterling) US dollar Eastern Caribbean dollar (Netherlands) US dollar (France) Canadian dollar (alongside the euro) (Netherlands) US dollar US dollar===Countries unofficially accepting \"dollars\"=== CountryCurrency US dollar Hong Kong dollar US dollar" ], [ "Countries and regions that have previously used a \"dollar\" currency", "One Sarawak dollar from 1935, featuring Charles Vyner Brooke, the 3rd and last White Rajah of SarawakConfederate States of America: The Confederate States dollar issued from March 1861 to 1865Ethiopia: The name \"Ethiopian dollar\" was used in the English text on the birr banknotes before the Derg takeover in 1974.", "Malaysia: the Malaysian ringgit used to be called the \"Malaysian Dollar\".", "The surrounding territories (that is, Malaya, British North Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore) used several varieties of dollars (for example, Straits dollar, Malayan dollar, Sarawak dollar, British North Borneo dollar; Malaya and British Borneo dollar) before Malaya, British North Borneo, Sarawak, Singapore and Brunei gained their independence from the United Kingdom.", "See also for complete list of currencies.", "Sierra Leone: The Sierra Leonean dollar was used from 1791 to 1805.It was subdivided into 100 cents and was issued by the Sierra Leone Company.", "The dollar was pegged to sterling at a rate of 1 dollar = 4 shillings 2 pence.", "Spain: the Spanish dollar was used from 1497 to 1868.It is closely related to the dollars (Spanish dollar was used in the US until 1857) and euros used today.", "Sri Lanka; the Ceylonese rixdollar was a currency used in British Ceylon in the early 19th Century.", "Rhodesia: the Rhodesian dollar replaced the Rhodesian pound in 1970 and it was used until Zimbabwe came into being in 1980.", "Republic of Texas: the Texas dollar was issued between January 1839 and September 1840.", "Zimbabwe: uses the Zimbabwe dollar, and also accepts the South African rand, the US dollar, the Euro, the Pound sterling, the Botswana pula, the Chinese yuan, the Indian rupee and the Japanese yen." ], [ "History", "===Etymology===On 15 January 1520, the Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins from silver mined locally in Joachimsthal and marked on reverse with the Bohemian lion.", "The coins would be named ''Joachimsthaler'' after the town, becoming shortened in common usage to ''thaler'' or ''taler''.", "The town itself derived its name from Saint Joachim, coupled with the German word ''Thal'' (''Tal'' in modern spelling) means 'valley' (cf.", "the English term ''dale'').This name found its way into other languages, for example: German — ''Thaler'' (or ''Taler'')* Czech, Slovak and Slovenian — ''tolar''* Slovak — ''toliar''* Croatian — ''talir''* Polish — ''talar''* Low German — ''daler''* Dutch — ''rijksdaalder'' (or ''daler'', pronounced \"dollar\")* Danish and Norwegian — ''rigsdaler''* Latvian — ''dālderis''* Swedish — ''riksdaler''* Spanish — ''dólar'' (or ''real de a ocho'' or ''peso duro'')* Hungarian — ''tallér''* Ethiopian — ''talari'' (ታላሪ)* English — ''dollar''In contrast to other languages which adopted the second part of word ''joachimsthaler'', the first part found its way into Russian language and became , yefimok (ефимок).The predecessor of the Joachimsthaler was the '''''Guldengroschen''''' or '''''Guldiner''''' which was a large silver coin originally minted in Tirol in 1486, but which was introduced into the Duchy of Saxony in 1500.The King of Bohemia wanted a similar silver coin which then became the Joachimsthaler.===Europe and colonial North America===The Spanish dollar, natively called Peso, was the main coin of the Spanish Empire, this coin is from 1739.The Joachimsthaler of the 16th century was succeeded by the longer-lived Reichsthaler of the Holy Roman Empire, used from the 16th to 19th centuries.", "The Netherlands also introduced its own dollars in the 16th century: the Burgundian Cross Thaler (''Bourgondrische Kruisdaalder''), the German-inspired ''Rijksdaalder'', and the Dutch liondollar (''leeuwendaalder'').", "The latter coin was used for Dutch trade in the Middle East, in the Dutch East Indies and West Indies, and in the Thirteen Colonies of North America.For the English North American colonists, however, the Spanish peso or \"piece of eight\" has always held first place, and this coin was also called the \"dollar\" as early as 1581.Spanish dollars or \"pieces of eight\" were distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines.===Origins of the dollar sign===The sign is first attested in business correspondence in the 1770s as a scribal abbreviation \"ps\", referring to the Spanish American peso, that is, the \"Spanish dollar\" as it was known in British North America.", "These late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts show that the ''s'' gradually came to be written over the ''p'' developing a close equivalent to the \"$\" mark, and this new symbol was retained to refer to the American dollar as well, once this currency was adopted in 1785 by the United States.===Adoption by the United States===By the time of the American Revolution, the Spanish dólar gained significance because they backed paper money authorized by the individual colonies and the Continental Congress.", "Because Britain deliberately withheld hard currency from the American colonies, virtually all the non-token coinage in circulation was Spanish (and to a much lesser extent French and Dutch) silver, obtained via illegal but widespread commerce with the West Indies.", "Common in the Thirteen Colonies, Spanish dólar were even legal tender in one colony, Virginia.On 2 April 1792, U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton reported to Congress the precise amount of silver found in Spanish dollar coins in common use in the states.", "As a result, the United States dollar was defined as a unit of pure silver weighing 371 4/16th grains (24.057 grams), or 416 grains of standard silver (standard silver being defined as 371.25/416 in silver, and balance in alloy).", "It was specified that the \"money of account\" of the United States should be expressed in those same \"dollars\" or parts thereof.", "Additionally, all lesser-denomination coins were defined as percentages of the dollar coin, such that a half-dollar was to contain half as much silver as a dollar, quarter-dollars would contain one-fourth as much, and so on.In an act passed in January 1837, the dollar's weight was reduced to 412.5 grains and alloy at 90% silver, resulting in the same fine silver content of 371.25 grains.", "On 21 February 1853, the quantity of silver in the lesser coins was reduced, with the effect that their denominations no longer represented their silver content relative to dollar coins.Various acts have subsequently been passed affecting the amount and type of metal in U.S. coins, so that today there is no legal definition of the term \"dollar\" to be found in U.S. statute.", "Currently the closest thing to a definition is found in United States Code Title 31, Section 5116, paragraph b, subsection 2: \"The Secretary of the Treasury shall sell silver under conditions the Secretary considers appropriate for at least $1.292929292 a fine troy ounce.", "\"Silver was mostly removed from U.S. coinage by 1965 and the dollar became a free-floating fiat money without a commodity backing defined in terms of real gold or silver.", "The US Mint continues to make silver $1-denomination coins, but these are not intended for general circulation." ], [ "Relationship to the troy pound", "The quantity of silver chosen in 1792 to correspond to one dollar, namely, 371.25 grains of pure silver, is very close to the geometric mean of one troy pound and one pennyweight.", "In what follows, \"dollar\" will be used as a unit of mass.", "A troy pound being 5760 grains and a pennyweight being 240 times smaller, or 24 grains, the geometric mean is, to the nearest hundredth, 371.81 grains.", "This means that the ratio of a pound to a dollar (15.52) roughly equals the ratio of a dollar to a pennyweight (15.47).", "These ratios are also very close to the ratio of a gram to a grain: 15.43.Finally, in the United States, the ratio of the value of gold to the value of silver in the period from 1792 to 1873 averaged to about 15.5, being 15 from 1792 to 1834 and around 16 from 1834 to 1873.This is also nearly the value of the gold to silver ratio determined by Isaac Newton in 1717.That these three ratios are all approximately equal has some interesting consequences.", "Let the gold to silver ratio be exactly 15.5.Then a pennyweight of gold, that is 24 grains of gold, is nearly equal in value to a dollar of silver (1 dwt of gold = $1.002 of silver).", "Second, a dollar of gold is nearly equal in value to a pound of silver ($1 of gold = 5754 3/8 grains of silver = 0.999 Lb of silver).", "Third, the number of grains in a dollar (371.25) roughly equals the number of grams in a troy pound (373.24)." ], [ "Usage in the United Kingdom", "There are two quotes in the plays of William Shakespeare referring to dollars as money.", "Coins known as \"thistle dollars\" were in use in Scotland during the 16th and 17th centuries, and use of the English word, and perhaps even the use of the coin, may have begun at the University of St Andrews This might be supported by a reference to the sum of \"ten thousand dollars\" in ''Macbeth'' (act I, scene II) (an anachronism because the real Macbeth, upon whom the play was based, lived in the 11th century).", "In the Sherlock Holmes story \"The Man with the Twisted Lip\" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, published in 1891, an Englishman posing as a London beggar describes the shillings and pounds he collected as dollars.In 1804, a British five-shilling piece, or crown, was sometimes called \"dollar\".", "It was an overstruck Spanish eight real coin (the famous \"piece of eight\"), the original of which was known as a Spanish dollar.", "Large numbers of these eight-real coins were captured during the Napoleonic Wars, hence their re-use by the Bank of England.", "They remained in use until 1811.During World War II, when the U.S. dollar was (approximately) valued at five shillings, the half crown (2s 6d) acquired the nickname \"half dollar\" or \"half a dollar\" in the UK." ], [ "Usage elsewhere", "Chinese demand for silver in the 19th and early 20th centuries led several countries, notably the United Kingdom, United States and Japan, to mint trade dollars, which were often of slightly different weights from comparable domestic coinage.", "Silver dollars reaching China (whether Spanish, trade, or other) were often stamped with Chinese characters known as \"chop marks\", which indicated that that particular coin had been assayed by a well-known merchant and deemed genuine.===Other national currencies called \"dollar\"===A New Zealand one-dollar coinA special agro-cheque for 100 billion dollars, during the hyperinflation in ZimbabwePrior to 1873, the silver dollar circulated in many parts of the world, with a value in relation to the British gold sovereign of roughly $1 = 4s 2d (21p approx).", "As a result of the decision of the German Empire to stop minting silver ''thaler'' coins in 1871, in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War, the worldwide price of silver began to fall.", "This resulted in the U.S. Coinage Act (1873) which put the United States onto a 'de facto' gold standard.", "Canada and Newfoundland were already on the gold standard, and the result was that the value of the dollar in North America increased in relation to silver dollars being used elsewhere, particularly Latin America and the Far East.", "By 1900, value of silver dollars had fallen to 50 percent of gold dollars.", "Following the abandonment of the gold standard by Canada in 1931, the Canadian dollar began to drift away from parity with the U.S. dollar.", "It returned to parity a few times, but since the end of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates that was agreed to in 1944, the Canadian dollar has been floating against the U.S. dollar.", "The silver dollars of Latin America and South East Asia began to diverge from each other as well during the course of the 20th century.", "The Straits dollar adopted a gold exchange standard in 1906 after it had been forced to rise in value against other silver dollars in the region.", "Hence, by 1935, when China and Hong Kong came off the silver standard, the Straits dollar was worth 2s 4d (11.5p approx) sterling, whereas the Hong Kong dollar was worth only 1s 3d sterling (6p approx).The term \"dollar\" has also been adopted by other countries for currencies which do not share a common history with other dollars.", "Many of these currencies adopted the name after moving from a £sd-based to a decimalized monetary system.", "Examples include the Australian dollar, the New Zealand dollar, the Jamaican dollar, the Cayman Islands dollar, the Fiji dollar, the Namibian dollar, the Rhodesian dollar, the Zimbabwe dollar, and the Solomon Islands dollar.", "* The ''tala'' is based on the Samoan pronunciation of the word \"dollar\".", "* The Slovenian tolar had the same etymological origin as dollar (that is, ''thaler'').", "* The Swedish Daler used to be the name for the currency and have the same etymological origin as the German ''thaler'')." ], [ "See also", "* Eurodollar* List of circulating currencies* North American currency union Amero* Petrodollar" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Etymonline (word history).", "for ''buck''; Etymonline (word history) for ''dollar''* Currency converter.", "CNNMoney.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dutch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dutch''' commonly refers to:* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands Dutch people as an ethnic group () Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship ()** Dutch language ()* In specific terms, it reflects the Kingdom of the Netherlands Dutch Caribbean Dutch Antilles'''Dutch''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States* Pennsylvania Dutch Country" ], [ "People", "===Ethnic groups===* Pennsylvania Dutch, a group of early German immigrants to Pennsylvania===Specific people===* Dutch (nickname), a list of people* Johnny Dutch (born 1989), American hurdler and field athlete* Dutch Schultz (1902–1935), American mobster born Arthur Simon Flegenheimer* Dutch Mantel, ring name of American retired professional wrestler Wayne Maurice Keown (born 1949)* Dutch Savage, ring name of professional wrestler and promoter Frank Stewart (1935–2013)" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional characters===* Dutch (''Black Lagoon''), an African-American character from the Japanese manga and anime ''Black Lagoon''* Alan \"Dutch\" Schaefer, the protagonist of the 1987 film ''Predator'' played by Arnold Schwarzenegger* Dutch van der Linde, a central character from the ''Red Dead'' video games* Dutch Wagenbach, on the TV series ''The Shield''===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Dutch'' (1991 film), an American comedy film starring Ed O'Neill* Dutch (2021 film), an American crime drama film* ''Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan'', a 1999 biography with fictional elements by Edmund Morris* ''Dutch, the magazine'', an English-language magazine about the Netherlands and the Dutch* Dutching, a gambling term that signifies betting on more than one outcome* Dutch, an American trip-hop duo that released the 2010 album ''A Bright Cold Day''===Chess===* Bird's Opening, a chess opening also known as the \"Dutch attack\"* Dutch Defence, a chess opening" ], [ "Sports and mascots", "* Dutch Grand Prix, a Formula One car race* Dutch Open (disambiguation)* Dutch TT, a motorcycle race, part of the MotoGP World Championship* Dutch, nickname of college athletic teams of Central College in Pella, Iowa* Dutch, the mascot of the Union Dutchmen, the athletic teams of Union College" ], [ "See also", "* Deutsch (disambiguation)* Double Dutch (disambiguation)* Dutch Boy (disambiguation)* Dutch Hill (disambiguation)* Dutch oven (disambiguation)* Dutchy (disambiguation)* Going Dutch or Dutch treat, an arrangement whereby each person in a group pays for him/herself* Netherlands (disambiguation)* Terminology of the Low Countries*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dysprosium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dysprosium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Dy''' and atomic number 66.It is a rare-earth element in the lanthanide series with a metallic silver luster.", "Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though, like other lanthanides, it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime.", "Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes, the most abundant of which is 164Dy.Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but it was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion-exchange techniques in the 1950s.", "Dysprosium has relatively few applications where it cannot be replaced by other chemical elements.", "It is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility () in data-storage applications, and as a component of Terfenol-D (a magnetostrictive material).", "Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical properties===Dysprosium sampleDysprosium is a rare-earth element and has a metallic, bright silver luster.", "It is quite soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided.", "Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities.Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements, especially at low temperatures.", "Dysprosium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below .", "Above , it turns into a helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a particular basal plane layer are parallel and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers.", "This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered (paramagnetic) state at .===Chemical properties===Dysprosium metal retains its luster in dry air, however it will tarnish slowly in moist air and burns readily to form dysprosium(III) oxide::4 Dy + 3 O2 → 2 Dy2O3Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water (and quite quickly with hot water) to form dysprosium hydroxide::2 Dy (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Dy(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)Dysprosium hydroxide decomposes to form DyO(OH) at elevated temperatures, which then decomposes again to dysprosium(III) oxide.Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C::2 Dy (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 DyF3 (s) green:2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 DyCl3 (s) white:2 Dy (s) + 3 Br2 (l) → 2 DyBr3 (s) white:2 Dy (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 DyI3 (s) greenDysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a Dy(OH2)93+ complex::2 Dy (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Dy3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic.===Compounds===Dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3Dysprosium halides, such as DyF3 and DyBr3, tend to take on a yellow color.", "Dysprosium oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron oxide.Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2, such as DyN, DyP, DyH2 and DyH3; DyS, DyS2, Dy2S3 and Dy5S7; DyB2, DyB4, DyB6 and DyB12, as well as Dy3C and Dy2C3.Dysprosium carbonate, Dy2(CO3)3, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3, result from similar reactions.", "Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate (Dy2(C2O4)3·10H2O) are both insoluble in water.", "Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy2(CO3)3·2–3H2O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO3(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O.", "This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10–20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures.===Isotopes===Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes: 156Dy, 158Dy, 160Dy, 161Dy, 162Dy, 163Dy, and 164Dy.", "These are all considered stable, although only the last two are theoretically stable: the others can theoretically undergo alpha decay.", "Of the naturally occurring isotopes, 164Dy is the most abundant at 28%, followed by 162Dy at 26%.", "The least abundant is 156Dy at 0.06%.", "Dysprosium is the heaviest element to have isotopes that are predicted to be stable rather than observationally stable isotopes that are predicted to be radioactive.Twenty-nine radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173.The most stable of these is 154Dy, with a half-life of approximately 3 years, followed by 159Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days.", "The least stable is 138Dy, with a half-life of 200 ms. As a general rule, isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β+ decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay.", "However, 154Dy decays primarily by alpha decay, and 152Dy and 159Dy decay primarily by electron capture.", "Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165.The most stable of these is 165mDy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes.", "149Dy has two metastable isomers, the second of which, 149m2Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns." ], [ "History", "In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of holmium and thulium.", "French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886.His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide.", "He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure.", "On succeeding, he named the element ''dysprosium'' from the Greek ''dysprositos'' (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning \"hard to get\".", "The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s.Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy.", "But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional supersolid quantum gas." ], [ "Occurrence", "XenotimeWhile dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements.", "No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found.In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium).", "The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea water 0.9 ng/L." ], [ "Production", "Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates.", "The metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium.", "In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process.", "Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process.", "The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF3, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl3.These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions::3 Ca + 2 DyF3 → 2 Dy + 3 CaF2:3 Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3 LiClThe components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere.", "As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density.", "When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities.About 100 tonnes of dysprosium are produced worldwide each year, with 99% of that total produced in China.", "Dysprosium prices have climbed nearly twentyfold, from $7 per pound in 2003, to $130 a pound in late 2010.The price increased to $1,400/kg in 2011 but fell to $240 in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions.Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China.", "the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160 km south east of Halls Creek, Western Australia, is producing per annum.According to the United States Department of Energy, the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015.As of late 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia." ], [ "Applications", "Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser materials and commercial lighting.", "Because of dysprosium's high thermal-neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors.", "Dysprosium–cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions.", "Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data-storage applications, such as in hard disks.", "Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators.Neodymium–iron–boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines.", "This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced.", "Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply.", "The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium.", "Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetostriction of any known material, which is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators, and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors.Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation.", "Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium.", "When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent.", "The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected.Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high strength and a large surface area.", "Therefore, they can be used to reinforce other materials and act as a catalyst.", "Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous solution of DyBr3 and NaF to 450 °C at 450 bars for 17 hours.", "This material is remarkably robust, surviving over 100 hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures exceeding 400 °C without redissolving or aggregating.", "Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two dimensional supersolid in a laboratory environment.", "Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity.Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity metal-halide lamps.", "These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms.", "The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light.Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators.The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy3+) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties.", "Dy-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:YAG) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region.", "This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes.The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been laser cooled and confined in magneto-optical traps for quantum physics experiments.", "The first Bose and Fermi quantum degenerate gases of an open shell lanthanide were created with dysprosium.", "Because dysprosium is highly magnetic—indeed it is the most magnetic fermionic element and nearly tied with terbium for most magnetic bosonic atom—such gases serve as the basis for quantum simulation with strongly dipolar atoms." ], [ "Precautions", "Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present.", "Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity.", "Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water.", "It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas.", "Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water.", "Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable.", "Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO3)3, is a strong oxidizing agent and readily ignites on contact with organic substances.Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested.", "Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human (c.f.", "lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt for a 100 kilogram human).", "The insoluble salts are non-toxic." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* It's Elemental – Dysprosium" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deforestation" ], [ "Introduction", "Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil's Maranhão state, 2016Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, Indonesia to make way for an oil palm plantation in 2007.Deforestation in the city of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil's Rio de Janeiro state, 2009'''Deforestation''' or '''forest clearance''' is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use.", "Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use.", "The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests.", "About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present.", "This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century.", "Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year.", "On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture.", "More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018.Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, palm oil, rice, rubber, and various other popular products.", "Livestock ranching is another agricultural activity that drives deforestation.", "Further drivers are the wood industry (logging), economic development in general (for example urbanization), mining.", "The effects of climate change are another cause via the increased risk of wildfires.Deforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity loss, and aridity.", "Deforestation also causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations, as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record.", "Deforestation also reduces biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, increasing negative feedback cycles contributing to global warming.", "Global warming also puts increased pressure on communities who seek food security by clearing forests for agricultural use and reducing arable land more generally.", "Deforested regions typically incur significant other environmental effects such as adverse soil erosion and degradation into wasteland.The resilience of human food systems and their capacity to adapt to future change is linked to biodiversity – including dryland-adapted shrub and tree species that help combat desertification, forest-dwelling insects, bats and bird species that pollinate crops, trees with extensive root systems in mountain ecosystems that prevent soil erosion, and mangrove species that provide resilience against flooding in coastal areas.", "With climate change exacerbating the risks to food systems, the role of forests in capturing and storing carbon and mitigating climate change is important for the agricultural sector." ], [ "Definition", "Forest area net change rate per country in 2020Deforestation is defined as the conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced).", "''Deforestation'' and ''forest area net change'' are not the same: the latter is the sum of all forest losses (deforestation) and all forest gains (forest expansion) in a given period.", "Net change, therefore, can be positive or negative, depending on whether gains exceed losses, or vice versa." ], [ "Current status", "Annual deforestationAnnual change in forest areaThe FAO estimates that the global forest carbon stock has decreased 0.9%, and tree cover 4.2% between 1990 and 2020.+Changes in forest carbon stock by regionFigures in gigatonsRegion19902020Europe (including Russia) 158.7 172.4North America136.6140.0Africa94.380.9South and Southeast Asia combined45.841.5Oceania33.433.1Central America5.04.1South America161.8144.8As of 2019 there is still disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not: \"While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forest.Deforestation in many countries—both naturally occurring and human-induced—is an ongoing issue.", "Between 2000 and 2012, of forests around the world were cut down.", "Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity.vegan diet.Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies.", "More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests.", "As a result of deforestation, only remain of the original of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the Earth.", "An area the size of a football pitch is cleared from the Amazon rainforest every minute, with of rainforest cleared for animal agriculture overall.", "More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018.The global annual net loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 10 billion.", "According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 the global average annual deforested land in the 2015–2020 demi-decade was 10 million hectares and the average annual forest area net loss in the 2000–2010 decade was 4.7 million hectares.", "The world has lost 178 million ha of forest since 1990, which is an area about the size of Libya.An analysis of global deforestation patterns in 2021 showed that patterns of trade, production, and consumption drive deforestation rates in complex ways.", "While the location of deforestation can be mapped, it does not always match where the commodity is consumed.", "For example, consumption patterns in G7 countries are estimated to cause an average loss of 3.9 trees per person per year.", "In other words, deforestation can be directly related to imports—for example, coffee.===Rates of deforestation===Global deforestation sharply accelerated around 1852.As of 1947, the planet had 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature tropical forests, but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed.", "Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14% to 6%.", "Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed.", "At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century.In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10% remaining, with another 10% in a degraded condition.", "80% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species.Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics.", "In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover.", "Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.", "This is equivalent to losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds.==== Rates of change ====In decades since 1990, South America and Africa have shown the greatest loss of forest area, with global net loss in the 2010s still about 60% of the 1990s value.A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates.", "A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing.", "On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO.", "During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa.", "Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially.", "In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015.Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha.", "The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990.It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010.Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe.", "Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010.Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010.Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.", "The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that \"the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests\".", "Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types, and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.", "Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem.The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the decade 1990–2000 to 5.2 million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020.The rate of decline of net forest loss slowed in the most recent decade due to a reduction in the rate of forest expansion.==== Reforestation and afforestation ====In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation are increasing the area of forested lands.", "The amount of forest has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations.", "Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005.Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001.Based on these trends, one study projects that global forestation will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.36% of globally planted forest area is in East Asia - around 950,000 square kilometers.", "From those 87% are in China.=== Status by region ===Rates of deforestation vary around the world.", "Up to 90% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900.Madagascar has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests.", "In South Asia, about 88% of the rainforests have been lost.Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.Satellite imagery of locations of the 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires as detected by MODIS from August 15 to August 22, 2019Deforestation in Ecuador.Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.", "Some 80% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world.", "The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world.", "The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia.", "In Central America, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years.", "Brazil has lost 90–95% of its Mata Atlântica forest.", "Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year.", "However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019.Brazil is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency.", "Paraguay was losing its natural semi-humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15,000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010.In 2009, Paraguay's parliament refused to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether.As of 2007, less than 50% of Haiti's forests remained.From 2015 to 2019, the rate of deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo doubled.", "In 2021, deforestation of the Congolese rainforest increased by 5%.The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered.In 2011, Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world)., it is estimated that 70% of the world's forests are within one kilometer of a forest edge, where they are most prone to human interference and destruction.", ":+Top 10 Most Endangered Forests in 2011 Endangered forest Region Remaining habitat Predominate vegetation type Notes Indo-Burma Asia-Pacific 5% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests.", "Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, India.", "New Caledonia Asia-Pacific 5% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests See note for region covered.", "Sundaland Asia-Pacific 7% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern Borneo and Sumatra.", "Philippines Asia-Pacific 7% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.", "Atlantic Forest South America 8% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.", "Mountains of Southwest China Asia-Pacific 8% Temperate coniferous forest See note for region covered.", "California Floristic Province North America 10% Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests See note for region covered.", "Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Africa 10% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.", "Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands Africa 10% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros.", "Eastern Afromontane Africa 11% Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forestsMontane grasslands and shrublands Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.===By country===Deforestation in particular countries:" ], [ "Causes", "Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation by region, 2000–2010Drivers of tropical deforestrationpeat forest in Indragiri Hulu, Sumatra, Indonesia.", "Deforestation for oil palm plantation.Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest fragmentation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity.", "Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40 percent of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33 percent.", "Trees are cut down for use as building material, timber or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and agricultural crops.The vast majority of agricultural activity resulting in deforestation is subsidized by government tax revenue.", "Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management, and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation.The types of drivers vary greatly depending on the region in which they take place.", "The regions with the greatest amount of deforestation for livestock and row crop agriculture are Central and South America, while commodity crop deforestation was found mainly in Southeast Asia.", "The region with the greatest forest loss due to shifting agriculture was sub-Saharan Africa.=== Agriculture ===The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture.", "Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for 14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018.Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, palm oil, rice, rubber, and various other popular products.", "The rising demand for certain products and global trade arrangements causes forest conversions, which ultimately leads to soil erosion.", "The top soil oftentimes erodes after forests are cleared which leads to sediment increase in rivers and streams.Anthropogenic biomes of the worldMost deforestation also occurs in tropical regions.", "The estimated amount of total land mass used by agriculture is around 38%.Since 1960, roughly 15% of the Amazon has been removed with the intention of replacing the land with agricultural practices.", "It is no coincidence that Brazil has recently become the world's largest beef exporter at the same time that the Amazon rainforest is being clear cut.Another prevalent method of agricultural deforestation is slash-and-burn agriculture, which was primarily used by subsistence farmers in tropical regions but has now become increasingly less sustainable.", "The method does not leave land for continuous agricultural production but instead cuts and burns small plots of forest land which are then converted into agricultural zones.", "The farmers then exploit the nutrients in the ashes of the burned plants.", "As well as, intentionally set fires can possibly lead to devastating measures when unintentionally spreading fire to more land, which can result in the destruction of the protective canopy.The repeated cycle of low yields and shortened fallow periods eventually results in less vegetation being able to grow on once burned lands and a decrease in average soil biomass.", "In small local plots sustainability is not an issue because of longer fallow periods and lesser overall deforestation.", "The relatively small size of the plots allowed for no net input of to be released.==== Livestock ranching ====Consumption and production of beef is the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle.", "91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching.Livestock ranching requires large portions of land to raise herds of animals and livestock crops for consumer needs.", "According to the World Wildlife Fund, \"Extensive cattle ranching is the number one culprit of deforestation in virtually every Amazon country, and it accounts for 80% of current deforestation.", "\"The cattle industry is responsible for a significant amount of methane emissions since 60% of all mammals on earth are livestock cows.", "Replacing forest land with pastures creates a loss of forest stock, which leads to the implication of increased greenhouse gas emissions by burning agriculture methodologies and land-use change.=== Wood industry ===A large contributing factor to deforestation is the lumber industry.", "A total of almost of timber, or about 1.3% of all forest land, is harvested each year.", "In addition, the increasing demand for low-cost timber products only supports the lumber company to continue logging.Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.", "Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.=== Economic development ===Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization.", "The impact of population growth on deforestation has been contested.", "One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.", "In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that \"the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible\", and that deforestation can result from \"a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions\".Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.Illegal gold mining in Madre de Dios, Peru.The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.", "Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being.", "From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services.", "Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited economically from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities, i.e.", "that the poor should not have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem.Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.", "Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.", "Since 2001, commodity-driven deforestation, which is more likely to be permanent, has accounted for about a quarter of all forest disturbance, and this loss has been concentrated in South America and Southeast Asia.As the human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur, leading to an increase in roads to connect these communities.", "Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation.", "About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon.The European Union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation.Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a Kuznets curve, which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).=== Mining ===The importance of mining as a cause of deforestation increased quickly in the beginning the 21st century, among other because of increased demand for minerals.", "The direct impact of mining is relatively small, but the indirect impacts are much more significant.", "More than a third of the earth's forests are possibly impacted, at some level and in the years 2001–2021, \"755,861 km2... ...had been deforested by causes indirectly related to mining activities alongside other deforestation drivers (based on data from WWF)\"=== Climate change ===Emerging signals of declining forest resilience under climate changeTemporal variations of forest resilience and its key driversAnother cause of deforestation is due to the effects of climate change: More wildfires, insect outbreaks, invasive species, and more frequent extreme weather events (such as storms) are factors that increase deforestation.A study suggests that \"tropical, arid and temperate forests are experiencing a significant decline in resilience, probably related to increased water limitations and climate variability\" which may shift ecosystems towards critical transitions and ecosystem collapses.", "By contrast, \"boreal forests show divergent local patterns with an average increasing trend in resilience, probably benefiting from warming and fertilization, which may outweigh the adverse effects of climate change\".", "It has been proposed that a loss of resilience in forests \"can be detected from the increased temporal autocorrelation (TAC) in the state of the system, reflecting a decline in recovery rates due to the critical slowing down (CSD) of system processes that occur at thresholds\".23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power.", "The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests.", "One possible effect is the change of the forest composition.", "Deforestation can also cause forests to become more fire prone through mechanisms such as logging.=== Military causes ===U.S.", "Army Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange during the Vietnam WarOperations in war can also cause deforestation.", "For example, in the 1945 Battle of Okinawa, bombardment and other combat operations reduced a lush tropical landscape into \"a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots\".Deforestation can also result from the intentional tactics of military forces.", "Clearing forests became an element in the Russian Empire's successful conquest of the Caucasus in the mid-19th century.The British (during the Malayan Emergency) and the United States (in the Korean War and in the Vietnam War) used defoliants (like Agent Orange or others).", "The destruction of forests in Vietnam War is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide, including by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics." ], [ "Impacts", "=== On atmosphere and climate ===Biophysical mechanisms by which forests influence climate.Per capita emissions from deforestation for food productionIllegal \"slash-and-burn\" practice in Madagascar, 2010Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation.Deforestation is a major contributor to climate change.", "It is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect.", "Recent calculations suggest that CO2 emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions, with a range from 6% to 17%.", "A 2022 study shows annual carbon emissions from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase: by 0.97 ± 0.16 PgC (petagrams of carbon, i.e.", "billions of tons) per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ± 0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019.According to a review, north of 50°N, large scale deforestation leads to an overall net global cooling; but deforestation in the tropics leads to substantial warming: not just due to impacts, but also due to other biophysical mechanisms (making carbon-centric metrics inadequate).", "Moreover, it suggests that standing tropical forests help cool the average global temperature by more than 1 °C.The incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming.", "Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.==== Carbon sink or source ====A study suggests logged and structurally degraded tropical forests are carbon sources for at least a decade – even when recovering – due to larger carbon losses from soil organic matter and deadwood, indicating that the tropical forest carbon sink (at least in South Asia) \"may be much smaller than previously estimated\", contradicting that \"recovering logged and degraded tropical forests are net carbon sinks\".Fires on Borneo and Sumatra, 2006.People use slash-and-burn deforestation to clear land for agriculture.=== On the environment ===According to a 2020 study, if deforestation continues at current rates it can trigger a total or almost total extinction of humanity in the next 20 to 40 years.", "They conclude that \"from a statistical point of view .", ".", ".", "the probability that our civilisation survives itself is less than 10% in the most optimistic scenario.\"", "To avoid this collapse, humanity should pass from a civilization dominated by the economy to \"cultural society\" that \"privileges the interest of the ecosystem above the individual interest of its components, but eventually in accordance with the overall communal interest.", "\"==== Changes to the water cycle ====The water cycle is also affected by deforestation.", "Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere.", "When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate.", "Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture.", "The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.", "Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation.", "Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows.", "Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration.", "In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off.", "That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover.", "Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans.", "According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.Highland Plateau in Madagascar has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers.Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly:* their canopies intercept a proportion of precipitation, which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere (canopy interception);* their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff;* their roots create macropores – large conduits – in the soil that increase infiltration of water;* they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture via transpiration;* their litter and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.", "* their leaves control the humidity of the atmosphere by transpiring.", "99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired.As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere.", "This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services.", "Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations.The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation.Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of Earth's fresh water.Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought, desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation regimes.==== Soil erosion ====Deforestation in France.Due to surface plant litter, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of erosion.", "The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from surface runoff.", "The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre.", "This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils.", "Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of (forest) roads and the use of mechanized equipment.Deforestation in China's Loess Plateau many years ago has led to soil erosion; this erosion has led to valleys opening up.", "The increase of soil in the runoff causes the Yellow River to flood and makes it yellow-colored.Greater erosion is not always a consequence of deforestation, as observed in the southwestern regions of the US.", "In these areas, the loss of grass due to the presence of trees and other shrubbery leads to more erosion than when trees are removed.Soils are reinforced by the presence of trees, which secure the soil by binding their roots to soil bedrock.", "Due to deforestation, the removal of trees causes sloped lands to be more susceptible to landslides.==== Other changes to the soil ====Clearing forests changes the environment of the microbial communities within the soil, and causes a loss of biodiversity in regards to the microbes since biodiversity is actually highly dependent on soil texture.", "Although the effect of deforestation has much more profound consequences on sandier soils compared to clay-like soils, the disruptions caused by deforestation ultimately reduces properties of soil such as hydraulic conductivity and water storage, thus reducing the efficiency of water and heat absorption.", "In a simulation of the deforestation process in the Amazon, researchers found that surface and soil temperatures increased by 1 to 3 degrees Celsius demonstrating the loss of the soil's ability to absorb radiation and moisture.", "Furthermore, soils that are rich in organic decay matter are more susceptible to fire, especially during long droughts.Changes in soil properties could turn the soil itself into a carbon source rather than a carbon sink.==== Biodiversity loss ====Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in biodiversity, and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species.", "The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity.", "Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife; moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation.", "With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.Illegal logging in Madagascar.", "In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained rosewood was exported to China.Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth and about 80% of the world's known biodiversity can be found in tropical rainforests, removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity.", "Road construction and development of adjacent land, which greatly reduces the area of intact wilderness and causes soil erosion, is a major contributing factor to the loss of biodiversity in tropical regions.", "A study in Rondônia, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants.It has been estimated that 137 plant, animal and insect species go extinct every day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.", "Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction.", "The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately one species per year from mammals and birds, which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species.", "Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.", "Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.tropical (dark green) and temperate/subtropical (light green) rainforests in the worldScientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.", "Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.", "However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.", "Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.In 2012, a study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years.==== Oxygen-supply misconception ====Rainforests are widely believed by lay persons to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.", "In fact about 50 percent of oxygen on Earth is produced by algae.=== On human health ======= Infectious diseases ====The degradation and loss of forests disrupts nature's balance.", "Indeed, deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in an increase in disease, and exposure of people to zoonotic diseases.", "Deforestation can also create a path for non-native species to flourish such as certain types of snails, which have been correlated with an increase in schistosomiasis cases.Forest-associated diseases include malaria, Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis), African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, HIV and Ebola.", "The majority of new infectious diseases affecting humans, including the SARS-CoV-2 virus that caused the COVID-19 pandemic, are zoonotic and their emergence may be linked to habitat loss due to forest area change and the expansion of human populations into forest areas, which both increase human exposure to wildlife.Deforestation is occurring all over the world and has been coupled with an increase in the occurrence of disease outbreaks.", "In Malaysia, thousands of acres of forest have been cleared for pig farms.", "This has resulted in an increase in the spread of the Nipah virus.", "In Kenya, deforestation has led to an increase in malaria cases which is now the leading cause of morbidity and mortality the country.", "A 2017 study in the ''American Economic Review'' found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria.Another pathway through which deforestation affects disease is the relocation and dispersion of disease-carrying hosts.", "This disease emergence pathway can be called \"range expansion\", whereby the host's range (and thereby the range of pathogens) expands to new geographic areas.", "Through deforestation, hosts and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats.", "Accompanying the reservoir species are pathogens that have the ability to find new hosts in previously unexposed regions.", "As these pathogens and species come into closer contact with humans, they are infected both directly and indirectly.", "Another example of range expansion due to deforestation and other anthropogenic habitat impacts includes the Capybara rodent in Paraguay.Deforestation reduces safe working hours for millions of people in the tropics, especially for those performing heavy labour outdoors.", "Continued global heating and forest loss is expected to amplify these impacts, reducing work hours for vulnerable groups even more.", "A study conducted from 2002 to 2018 also determined that the increase in temperature as a result of climate change, and the lack of shade due to deforestation, has increased the mortality rate of workers in Indonesia.A link between deforestation and infant mortality was found in Indonesia as well.", "The study shows documentation of deforestation and pregnancy order, as children born from first pregnancies face higher mortality risks due to in-utero exposure.", "The study's results suggest that women during their first pregnancy could have been affected by deforestation-induced malaria.", "It has been affirmed that in preserved regions, likely reasons including commercial activity, perinatal health care, alongside air pollution are not identifiable triggers of the weighty impression left by deforestation on newborn fatality.According to the World Economic Forum, 31% of emerging diseases are linked to deforestation.", "A publication by the United Nations Environment Programme in 2016 found that deforestation, climate change, and livestock agriculture are among the main causes that increase the risk of zoonotic diseases, that is diseases that pass from animals to humans.===== COVID-19 pandemic =====Scientists have linked the Coronavirus pandemic to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, habitat loss in general and wildlife trade.", "According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) the Coronavirus disease 2019 is zoonotic, e.g., the virus passed from animals to humans.", "UNEP concludes that: \"The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature.", "Where ecosystems are healthy and biodiverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases.=== On the economy ===deforestation for a palm oil plantation in MalaysiaEconomic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation.The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries.", "Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity.", "West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests.", "Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.Satellite image of Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian sideDeforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India" ], [ "Monitoring", "Agents from IBAMA, Brazil's environmental police, searching for illegal logging activity in Indigenous territory in the Amazon rainforest, 2018There are multiple methods that are appropriate and reliable for reducing and monitoring deforestation.", "One method is the \"visual interpretation of aerial photos or satellite imagery that is labor-intensive but does not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computational resources\".", "Another method includes hot-spot analysis (that is, locations of rapid change) using expert opinion or coarse resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images.", "Deforestation is typically assessed by quantifying the amount of area deforested, measured at the present time.From an environmental point of view, quantifying the damage and its possible consequences is a more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forested land protection and development of land-use alternatives to avoid continued deforestation.", "Deforestation rate and total area deforested have been widely used for monitoring deforestation in many regions, including the Brazilian Amazon deforestation monitoring by INPE.", "A global satellite view is available, an example of land change science monitoring of land cover over time.Satellite imaging has become crucial in obtaining data on levels of deforestation and reforestation.", "Landsat satellite data, for example, has been used to map tropical deforestation as part of NASA's Landsat ''Pathfinder Humid Tropical Deforestation Project''.", "The project yielded deforestation maps for the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia for three periods in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.Greenpeace has mapped out the forests that are still intact and published this information on the internet.", "World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematic map showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest." ], [ "Control", "===International, national and subnational policies===An incomplete concept of a framework of policy mix sequencing for zero-deforestation governance.", "Non-intervention in processes related to beef production via policies may be a main driver of tropical deforestation.Policies for forest protection include information and education programs, economic measures to increase revenue returns from authorized activities and measures to increase effectiveness of \"forest technicians and forest managers\".", "Poverty and agricultural rent were found to be principal factors leading to deforestation.", "Contemporary domestic and foreign political decision-makers could possibly create and implement policies whose outcomes ensure that economic activities in critical forests are consistent with their scientifically ascribed value for ecosystem services, climate change mitigation and other purposes.Such policies may use and organize the development of complementary technical and economic means – including for lower levels of beef production, sales and consumption (which would also have major benefits for climate change mitigation), higher levels of specified other economic activities in such areas (such as reforestation, forest protection, sustainable agriculture for specific classes of food products and quaternary work in general), product information requirements, practice- and product-certifications and eco-tariffs, along with the required monitoring and traceability.", "Inducing the creation and enforcement of such policies could, for instance, achieve a global phase-out of deforestation-associated beef.", "With complex polycentric governance measures, goals like sufficient climate change mitigation as decided with e.g.", "the Paris Agreement and a stoppage of deforestation by 2030 as decided at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference could be achieved.", "A study has suggested higher income nations need to reduce imports of tropical forest-related products and help with theoretically forest-related socioeconomic development.", "Proactive government policies and international forest policies \"revisiting and redesigning global forest trade\" are needed as well.In 2022 the European parliament approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation.", "The bill may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to \"increase productivity on existing agricultural land\".", "The legislation was adopted with some changes by the European Council in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after.", "The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020.It prohibits also import of products linked with Human rights abuse.", "The list of products includes: palm oil, cattle, wood, coffee, cocoa, rubber and soy.", "Some derivatives of those products are also included: chocolate, furniture, printed paper and several palm oil based derivates.=== International pledges ===In 2014, about 40 countries signed the New York Declaration on Forests, a voluntary pledge to halve deforestation by 2020 and end it by 2030.The agreement was not legally binding, however, and some key countries, such as Brazil, China, and Russia, did not sign onto it.", "As a result, the effort failed, and deforestation increased from 2014 to 2020.In November 2021, 141 countries (with around 85% of the world's primary tropical forests and 90% of global tree cover) agreed at the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow to the ''Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use'', a pledge to end and reverse deforestation by 2030.The agreement was accompanied by about $19.2 billion in associated funding commitments.The 2021 Glasgow agreement improved on the New York Declaration by now including Brazil and many other countries that did not sign the 2014 agreement.", "Some key nations with high rates of deforestation (including Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Paraguay, and Myanmar) have not signed the Glasgow Declaration.", "Like the earlier agreement, the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration was entered into outside the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and is thus not legally binding.In November 2021, the EU executive outlined a draft law requiring companies to prove that the agricultural commodities beef, wood, palm oil, soy, coffee and cocoa destined for the EU's 450 million consumers were not linked to deforestation.", "In September 2022, the EU Parliament supported and strengthened the plan from the EU’s executive with 453 votes to 57.In 2018 the biggest palm oil trader, Wilmar, decided to control its suppliers to avoid deforestationIn 2021, over 100 world leaders, representing countries containing more than 85% of the world's forests, committed to halt and reverse deforestation and land degradation by 2030.=== Land rights ===Transferring land rights to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.Indigenous communities have long been the frontline of resistance against deforestation.", "Transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants is argued to be a cost-effective strategy to conserve forests.", "This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as India's Forest Rights Act.", "The transferring of such rights in China, perhaps the largest land reform in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.", "In Brazil, forested areas given tenure to indigenous groups have even lower rates of clearing than national parks.Community concessions in the Congolian rainforests have significantly less deforestation as communities are incentivized to manage the land sustainably, even reducing poverty.===Forest management===Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse.", "In Tonga, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause, while during the 17th and 18th centuries in Tokugawa, Japan, the shōguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries.", "In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation.", "However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with ''good rainfall'', ''no dry season'' and ''very young soils'' (through volcanism or glaciation).", "This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures.In the areas where \"slash-and-burn\" is practiced, switching to \"slash-and-char\" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils.", "The biochar thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil.", "Mixed with biomass it brings the creation of terra preta, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself.====Sustainable forest management====Bamboo is advocated as a more sustainable alternative for cutting down wood for fuel.Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification and Forest Stewardship Council, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests.", "According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), \"A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed.", "... By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation.", "\"=== Financial compensations for reducing emissions from deforestation ===Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies.", "The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation\".", "REDD can be seen as an alternative to the emissions trading system as in the latter, polluters must pay for permits for the right to emit certain pollutants (i.e.", ").Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation.", "The blanket term ''Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation'' (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation.", "Funding has been an issue, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach US$30 billion for the period 2010–2012.Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing countries' adherence to their agreed REDD targets.", "These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.", "Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15.The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse was an event that occurred 300 million years ago.", "Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species.", "The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favorable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them.", "Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart.", "Populations such as the sub class Lissamphibia were devastated, whereas Reptilia survived the collapse.", "The surviving organisms were better adapted to the drier environment left behind and served as legacies in succession after the collapse.An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels, and polishing tools.Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years.Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization.", "The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period.", "It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals.", "With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops.", "In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC.", "Mesolithic foragers used fire to create openings for red deer and wild boar.", "In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels, brambles, grasses and nettles.", "Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration, resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs.", "Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between 8400 and 8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture.The Neolithic period saw extensive deforestation for farming land.", "Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well.", "They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations.", "Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish.", "This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier.", "Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe.Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.===Pre-industrial history===Easter Island, deforested.", "Just as archaeologists have shown that prehistoric farming societies had to cut or burn forests before planting, documents and artifacts from early civilizations often reveal histories of deforestation.", "Some of the most dramatic are eighth century BCE Assyrian reliefs depicting logs being floated downstream from conquered areas to the less forested capital region as spoils of war.", "Ancient Chinese texts make clear that some areas of the Yellow River valley had already destroyed many of their forests over 2000 years ago and had to plant trees as crops or import them from long distances.", "In South China much of the land came to be privately owned and used for the commercial growing of timber.Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age.", "The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places.", "The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (''e.g.''", "Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC.Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation.", "The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century.", "Scholars have attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins.", "In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery).", "When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor.", "Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment.Deforestation of Brazil's Atlantic Forest With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming.", "Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable.", "The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland.Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions.", "Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls.", "When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned.", "The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity.", "The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time.Deforestation in Suriname From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population.", "The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century.", "Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain.", "This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.", ")The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests.", "Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction.", "In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future.", "When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed.=== 19th and 20th centuries ===Deforestation in Burma (now Myanmar) ''circa'' 1920, during the British colonial era==== Steamboats ====In the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results.", "The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines.", "Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally.", "Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks.", "Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology." ], [ "Society and culture", "Different cultures of different places in the world have different interpretations of the actions of the cutting down of trees.", "For example, in Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore of Manipur (India), deforestation is mentioned as one of the reasons to make mother nature weep and mourn for the death of her precious children." ], [ "See also", "* Clearcutting* Clearing (geography) * Defaunation* Deforestation by region ** * Desertification* Forestry* Forest transition* Illegal logging* Intact forest landscape* International Year of Forests* Land degradation* Land use, land-use change and forestry* Mountaintop removal* Proforestation* Slash-and-burn* Slash-and-char* Stranded assets in the agriculture and forestry sector<!--" ], [ "Notes", "-->" ], [ "References", ";" ], [ "Further reading", "* Balboni, Clare, et al.", "\"The economics of tropical deforestation.\"", "''Annual Review of Economics'' 15 (2023): 723-754.online* Myers, Norman.", "\"Tropical deforestation: rates and patterns.\"", "in ''The causes of tropical deforestation'' (2023): 27-40.", "* Pendrill, Florence, et al.", "\"Disentangling the numbers behind agriculture-driven tropical deforestation.\"", "''Science'' 377.6611 (2022): eabm9267.online* Ritchie, Hannah, and Max Roser.", "\"Deforestation and forest loss.\"", "''Our world in data'' (2023).", "online* Schleifer, Philip.", "''Global Shifts: Business, Politics, and Deforestation in a Changing World Economy'' (MIT Press, 2023) ISBN 978-0-262-54553-2.online book review=== Sources ===" ], [ "External links", "* Global map of deforestation based on Landsat data* Old-growth forest zones within the remaining world forests* OneWorld Tropical Forests Guide * General info on deforestation effects * Deforestation and Climate Change*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Desertification" ], [ "Introduction", "World map from 1998 showing global desertification vulnerability'''Desertification''' is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become arid.", "It is the spread of arid areas caused by a variety of factors, such as overexploitation of soil as a result of human activity and the effects of climate change.", "Geographic areas most affected include the Sahel region in Africa, the Gobi Desert and Mongolia in Asia as well as parts of South America.", "Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.Effects of desertification include sand and dust storms, food insecurity, vegetation patterning and increasing poverty.", "There are many possible countermeasures such as reforestation, soil restoration, desert reclamation and managed grazing.Throughout geological history, the development of deserts has occurred naturally.", "In recent times, the influences of human activity, improper land management, deforestation and climate change on desertification is the subject of many scientific investigations." ], [ "Definitions", "As recently as 2005, considerable controversy existed over the properdefinition of the term \"desertification.\"", "Helmut Geist (2005) identified more than 100 formal definitions.", "The most widely accepted of these was that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defined it as \"the process of fertile land ''transforming into desert'' typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture\".", "This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices.", "It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification.However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then.", "Desertification has been defined in the text of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as \"land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities according to Hulme and Kelly, (1993).", "\"There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as \"man-made desert\" and \"non-pattern desert\"." ], [ "Geographic areas affected", "Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.", "It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometers, that about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification.===Sahel===The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the Sahel region of Africa.", "The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year).", "So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region.", "The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km2 of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years; the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable.Sahel region of MaliThe climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years, oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in the North African climate cycle that alters the path of the North African Monsoon, caused by an approximately 40000-year cycle in which the axial tilt of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°).", "Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long.", "Lake Chad, located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall.", "The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants.", "Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely.To limit desertification the Great Green Wall (Africa) initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 kms, 15 kms wide, involving 22 countries to 2030.The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture.", "Senegal has already contributed to the project by planting 50,000 acres of trees.", "It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region.===Gobi Desert and Mongolia===Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia.", "The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over of grassland into wasteland annually.", "Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing, reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city.In Mongolia, around 90% of grassland is considered vulnerable to desertification by the UN.", "An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas.", "During the period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C.", "The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021.Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia.", "The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia’s land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change.", "In addition, the Mongolia government has listed forest fires, blights, unsustainable forestry and mining activities as leading causes of desertification in the country.", "The transition from sheep to goat farming in order to meet export demands for cashmere wool has caused degradation of grazing lands.", "Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers.===South America===South America is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing.", "27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification.", "In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture.", "In Central America drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people.", "Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1000 square kms of land have been lost yearly due to desertification.", "In Argentina desertification has the potential to disrupt the nation's food supply." ], [ "Causes", "=== Immediate causes ===The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation.", "This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials.", "Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil, studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover.", "Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan.=== Influence of human activities ===Early studies argued one of the most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock.", "However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial.", "Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale sea surface temperature variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective sulphate particles) and greenhouse gases.", "As a result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in sulfate emissions have caused a re-greening of the region.", "This has led some scholars to argue that agriculture-induced vegetation loss is a minor factor in desertification.A shepherd guiding his sheep through the high desert outside Marrakech, MoroccoHuman population dynamics have a considerable impact on overgrazing, over-farming and deforestation, as previously acceptable techniques have become unsustainable.There are multiple reasons farmers use intensive farming as opposed to extensive farming but the main reason is to maximize yields.", "By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery.", "This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread.=== Natural variations ===Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in solar insolation due to orbital precession of the Earth.", "Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate.", "There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid-Holocene was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population." ], [ "Effects", "=== Sand and dust storms ===View of Sydney Harbour Bridge covered in dustThere has been a 25% increase in global annual dust emissions between the late nineteenth century to present day.", "The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm.", "For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall cause lower soil moisture and vegetative cover”.Dust storms can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more.", "They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation.Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse.", "Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012).", "The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase.", "This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall.=== Food insecurity ===Global food security is being threatened by desertification.", "The more that population grows, the more food that has to be grown.", "The agricultural business is being displaced from one country to another.", "For example, Europe on average imports over 50% of its food.", "Meanwhile, 44% of agricultural land is located in dry lands and it supplies 60% of the world's food production.", "Desertification is decreasing the amount of sustainable land for agricultural uses but demands are continuously growing.", "In the near future, the demands will overcome the supply.", "The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, Sudan, Mali and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, land degradation and population growth.=== Vegetation patterning ===As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance.", "On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as \"brousse tigrée\".", "A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant-water interaction.", "One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments.=== Increasing poverty ===Wind erosion outside LeucharsAt least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions.", "This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming.", "Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential.", "This absence of investment contributes to the marginalization of these zones.", "When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there.", "This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and slums.", "The number of these environmental refugees grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050.This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees.In Mongolia the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work.", "With very limited resources the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land.", "With the increasing population of Mongolia it is very difficult to stay a herder for long.Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities.", "The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit.", "This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g.", "the UN SDG 15 to combat desertification and restore affected lands." ], [ "Countermeasures{{anchor\|Countermeasures_and_prevention}}", "Anti-sand shields in north Sahara, TunisiaJojoba plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the Thar Desert, India.Saxaul planted along roads in Xinjiang near Cherchen to slow desertificationTechniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty.", "For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation.", "Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason.One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial.", "Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs.Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity.", "Some countries have developed biodiversity action plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna.=== Reforestation ===Reforestation gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms.", "Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme poverty.", "There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season.", "The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration.", "In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.The \"Green Wall of China\" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification.", "This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl.", "This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055.According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall.", "The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km.", "The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall.", "Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a \"wall\" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust.Great Green Wall, participating countries and Sahel.", "In September 2020, it was reported that the GGW had covered only 4% of the planned area.In 2007 the African Union started the Great Green Wall of Africa project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries.", "The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project.", "The project has restored 36millionhectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100millionhectares.", "The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone.=== Soil restoration ===Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil.", "Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks.", "Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration.", "They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa.Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils).", "Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops.", "Another technique that is useful is contour trenching.", "This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil.", "The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion.", "Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again.", "This method was invented by Peter Westerveld.Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants.", "Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, succulents (such as Opuntia), and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important.", "Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer.", "Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many smallholder farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where subsistence farming is common.", "Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing subsidies to help encourage adoption of this technique.Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones.", "The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants.", "They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil).The bioengineering of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as a method to protect drylands.", "The aim would be to enhance the existing cooperative loops between soil microbes and vegetation.=== Desert reclamation ===As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies.", "An example for this is the salt flats in the Rub' al Khali desert in Saudi Arabia.", "These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation.", "Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger.", "This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger.", "The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots.", "The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation.", "Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields.", "The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.===Managed grazing===Restored grasslands store CO2 from the atmosphere as organic plant material.", "Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth.", "A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally.", "Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO2 emissions." ], [ "History", "The world's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time.", "During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independently of human activities.", "Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert.Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense.The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on ''desséchement progressif'' to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.", "The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the 1980s drought in the Sahel." ], [ "See also", "* Aridification* Desert greening* Detention basin* Ecological engineering* Oasification* Soil retrogression and degradation* Water scarcity* World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought'''Other related portals:'''" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===" ], [ "External links", " Official website of the Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)** Procedural history and related documents on the UNCCD, from the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Official website of Action Against Desertification, a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization initiative of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States* ''Global Deserts Outlook'' (2006), thematic assessment report in the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) series of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dumbarton Bridge (California)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dumbarton Bridge''' is the southernmost of the highway bridges across San Francisco Bay in California.", "Carrying over 70,000 vehicles and about 118 pedestrian and bicycle crossings daily (384 on weekends), it is the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at .", "Its eastern end is in Fremont, near Newark in the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and its western end is in Menlo Park.", "Bridging State Route 84 across the bay, it has three lanes each way and a separated bike/pedestrian lane along its south side.", "Like the San Mateo Bridge to the north, power lines parallel the bridge." ], [ "History and engineering features", "The original vertical-lift span of the Dumbarton Bridge, shown in 1984 shortly before it was demolishedThe bridge has never been officially named, but its commonly used name comes from Dumbarton Point near the east end of the bridge, named in 1876 after Dumbarton, Scotland.", "Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides.", "The earlier bridge opened on January 17, 1927, and was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay.", "A portion of this old drawbridge remains as a fishing pier on the east side of the Bay.", "The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the state for $2.5 million in 1951.Its age, and the two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span, led to a replacement bridge being built to the north.", "This bridge opened in October 1982 as a four-lane, high-level structure.", "The structure was re-striped to accommodate six lanes on October 18, 1989, in response to the temporary closing of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge due to the Loma Prieta earthquake, and the permanent widening of the approaches was completed by July 2003.The cost of the complete replacement project was $200 million.", "The current bridge includes a two-way bicycle and separate pedestrian path on the south-facing side.", "A center span provides of vertical clearance for shipping.", "The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of pre-stressed lightweight concrete girders supporting a lightweight concrete deck.", "The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck.The center span of the original bridge was demolished in a controlled explosion in September 1984.A view from the air, above Palo Alto, looking towards Fremont" ], [ "Roadway connections", " The bridge is part of State Route 84, and is directly connected to Interstate 880 by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end.There is no freeway connection between U.S. 101 and the southwest end of the Dumbarton Bridge.", "Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge.", "These are (from northwest to southeast):# the Bayfront Expressway, a limited-access road linking to U.S. 101 at Marsh Road, Atherton (the official routing of SR 84)# Willow Road (SR 114), an approximately one-mile expressway through east Menlo Park to U.S. 101# University Avenue (SR 109), an arterial road and the main commercial street of East Palo Alto.The Willow Road and University Avenue junctions with Bayfront Expressway are at-grade intersections controlled by traffic lights; there are two additional controlled intersections at Chilco Road and Marsh Road, and the Marsh Road interchange on U.S. 101 is a parclo.", "The result is that Bayfront Expressway is frequently congested, and when not congested is often the site of high-speed car crashes.", "In 2007, prominent author David Halberstam was killed in one such crash at the Willow Road intersection.Access to I-280 is available via State Route 84 to Woodside Road (as signed) or other arterial routes.", "There are no cross-Peninsula freeway connections between State Routes 92 and 84.In addition, there are no direct cross-Peninsula arterial routes between State Route 84 and Page Mill Road, a five-mile gap.Although the present situation has resulted in severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and East Palo Alto, Caltrans has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to freeway standards for several decades, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, Atherton and Palo Alto.", "Freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in southern Alameda County (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area (where businesses wish to be located in order to be close to Silicon Valley), thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south and west of U.S. 101 and even along State Routes 85 and 237.Bus service across the bridge is provided by the Dumbarton Express, run by a consortium of local transit agencies (SamTrans, AC Transit, VTA and others) which connects to BART at Union City and Caltrain at Palo Alto and California Avenue.", "AC Transit also runs Transbay buses U (Fremont BART and Amtrak to Stanford) and DA (Ardenwood to Oracle and Facebook headquarters) across the bridge.", "The free Stanford Marguerite Shuttle also runs buses AE-F and EB across the bridge." ], [ "Environmental factors", "When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, Caltrans conducted extensive environmental research on the aquatic and terrestrial environment.", "Principal concerns of the public were air pollution and noise pollution impacts, particularly in some residential areas of Menlo Park and East Palo Alto.", "Studies were conducted to produce contour maps of projected sound levels and carbon monoxide concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme.The area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals.", "The endangered species California clapper rail is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area.Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park's Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto's Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and the Palo Alto Baylands Nature Preserve.", "An accessible portion of the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs.On both sides of the east end of the bridge are large salt ponds and levee trails belonging to the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge.", "The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach.", "North of the east end of the bridge is Coyote Hills Regional Park, with its network of trails running over tall hills.", "North of that is the Alameda Creek Regional Trail from the Bay to Niles Canyon.", "East of Coyote Hills is Ardenwood Historic Farm, a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods" ], [ "Tolls", "Tolls are only collected from westbound traffic at the toll plaza on the east side of the bay.", "All-electronic tolling has been in effect since 2020, and drivers may either pay using the FasTrak electronic toll collection device, using the license plate tolling program, or via a one time payment online.", "Effective , the toll rate for passenger cars is $7.During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying three or more people, clean air vehicles, or motorcycles may pay a discounted toll of $3.50 if they have FasTrak and use the designated carpool lane.", "Drivers must pay within 48 hours after crossing the bridge or they will be sent a toll violation invoice.", "No additional fees will be added to the toll violation if it is paid within 21 days.===Historical toll rates===Prior to 1969, tolls on the Dumbarton Bridge were collected in both directions.", "When it opened, the original 1927 span had a toll of $0.40 per car plus $0.05 per passenger.", "In 1959, tolls were set to $0.35 per car.", "It was raised to $0.70 in 1969, then $0.75 in 1976.The toll per car remained at $0.75 when the replacement bridge opened in the 1980s.The basic toll (for automobiles) on the seven state-owned bridges, including the Dumbarton Bridge, was raised to $1 by Regional Measure 1, approved by Bay Area voters in 1988.A $1 seismic retrofit surcharge was added in 1998 by the state legislature, originally for eight years, but since then extended to December 2037 (AB1171, October 2001).", "On March 2, 2004, voters approved Regional Measure 2, raising the toll by another dollar to a total of $3.An additional dollar was added to the toll starting January 1, 2007, to cover cost overruns concerning the replacement of the eastern span.The Metropolitan Transportation Commission, a regional transportation agency, in its capacity as the Bay Area Toll Authority, administers RM1 and RM2 funds, a significant portion of which are allocated to public transit capital improvements and operating subsidies in the transportation corridors served by the bridges.", "Caltrans administers the \"second dollar\" seismic surcharge, and receives some of the MTC-administered funds to perform other maintenance work on the bridges.", "The Bay Area Toll Authority is made up of appointed officials put in place by various city and county governments, and is not subject to direct voter oversight.Due to further funding shortages for seismic retrofit projects, the Bay Area Toll Authority again raised tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges in July 2010.The toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was thus increased to $5.In June 2018, Bay Area voters approved Regional Measure 3 to further raise the tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges to fund $4.5 billion worth of transportation improvements in the area.", "Under the passed measure, the toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was increased to $6 on January 1, 2019 and to $7 on January 1, 2022, and the toll rate will increase again to $8 on January 1, 2025.In September 2019, the MTC approved a $4 million plan to eliminate toll takers and convert all seven of the state-owned bridges to all-electronic tolling, citing that 80 percent of drivers are now using Fastrak and the change would improve traffic flow.", "On March 20, 2020, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, all-electronic tolling was placed in effect for all seven state-owned toll bridges.", "The MTC then installed new systems at all seven bridges to make them permanently cashless by the start of 2021.In April 2022, the Bay Area Toll Authority announced plans to remove all remaining unused toll booths and create an open-road tolling system which functions at highway speeds." ], [ "Dumbarton Rail Bridge", "Dumbarton Rail Bridge in 2007, as seen from a kayakJust to the south of the car bridge lies the '''Dumbarton Rail Bridge'''.", "Built in 1910, the rail bridge has been unused since 1982 and its western approach collapsed in a fire in 1998.When the bridge was in use, boaters would signal the operator, who would start a diesel engine and rotate the bridge to the open position on a large gear.", "The bridge is now left in the open position as shown.", "There are plans for a new rail bridge and rehabilitation of the rail line to serve a commuter rail service to connect Union City, Fremont, and Newark to various Peninsula destinations.", "A successful March 2004 regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for the commuter rail service, but in October 2008 the Metropolitan Transportation Commission transferred $91 million from this project to the BART Warm Springs extension in Fremont." ], [ "Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct", "Between the Dumbarton Bridge and the Dumbarton Rail Bridge is the Bay crossing of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct.", "The aqueduct rises above ground in Newark at the east side of the Bay, falls below the water's surface at a pump station in Fremont, re-emerges in the middle of the Bay and then continues above water until it reaches the west side of the Bay at Menlo Park." ], [ "In popular culture", "A scene of the 1971 movie ''Harold and Maude'' was filmed at the original toll plaza and showed Maude speeding and disobeying a police officer." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Bay Area FasTrak – includes toll information on this and the other Bay Area toll facilities* California Dept.", "of Transportation: Dumbarton Bridge* Bay Trail: Dumbarton Bridge*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dock (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''dock''' is infrastructure used for berthing watercraft.", "'''Dock''' or '''DOCK''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Transportation", "* Dry dock, a construction and repair facility for ships* Floating dock (disambiguation), several different types of structures* Loading dock, an area for trucks to deliver or receive cargo* Pier, a type of maritime structure* Space dock, a structure used for the docking and berthing of spacecraft" ], [ "Computing", "* Dock (computing), or taskbar, a graphical user interface feature* Dock (macOS), the taskbar in the macOS operating system* Docking station, used for connecting laptops or other mobile devices* DOCK, molecular analysis software" ], [ "Plants and animals", "Dock, or dockweed, a name for plants in the genus ''Rumex'', especially broad-leaved dockDock, more rarely used in the names of certain similar broad-leaved plants, like velvet dockTailhead, or dock, the beginning of an animal's tail" ], [ "Biochemistry", "DOCK, software for use in molecular dockingDOCK (protein), a family of proteins involved in cell signalling" ], [ "Places", "The Dock, Newfoundland and Labrador, CanadaThe Dock, Washington, D.C., United StatesThe Dock Gymnasium, Louisiana State University Shreveport, United States Docks (nightclub) in Hamburg, GermanyThe Docks Waterfront Entertainment Complex in Toronto, Ontario, CanadaThe former name of Devonport, Devon, now a part of the city of PlymouthExecution Dock in London" ], [ "Other uses", "The area of a courtroom where an accused party sits during proceedingsTo pierce dough during its handling to prevent the formation of large air pockets, such as with a roller dockerDock or Hayden Scott-Baron (born 1980), English manga illustratorDock (given name), include a list of people with the name" ], [ "See also", "Docking (disambiguation)Docker (disambiguation)Docklands (disambiguation)Dox (disambiguation)DOC (disambiguation)Docs (disambiguation)Dockx Hohe Dock, one of the highest peaks in the Glockner Group of the Austrian Alps" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dallas Cowboys" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dallas Cowboys''' are a professional American football team based in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex.", "The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's National Football Conference (NFC) East division.", "The team is headquartered in Frisco, Texas, and has played its home games at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, since its opening in 2009.The stadium took its current name prior to the 2013 season, following the team's decision to sell the stadium's naming rights to telecommunications company AT&T.", "In January 2020, Mike McCarthy was hired as head coach of the Cowboys.", "He is the ninth in the team's history.", "McCarthy follows Jason Garrett, who coached the team from 2010 to 2019.The Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in .", "The team's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell-outs.", "The Cowboys' streak of 190 consecutive sold-out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in 2002.The franchise has made it to the Super Bowl eight times, tying it with the Pittsburgh Steelers and Denver Broncos for second-most Super Bowl appearances in history behind the New England Patriots' record 11 appearances.", "The Cowboys have won eight NFC championships, tied for most in the conference's history.", "The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (from 1966 to 1985) during which they missed the playoffs only twice (1974 and 1984).In 2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it the most valuable sports team in the world, according to ''Forbes''.", "The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team.", "In 2018, they also became the first NFL franchise to be valued at $5 billion and making Forbes' list as the most valued NFL team for the 12th straight year." ], [ "Franchise history", "===Clint Murchison/Harvey Bright era (1960–1988)===Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since the Dallas Texans folded in 1952 after only one season.", "Two businessmen had tried and failed to get Dallas a team in the NFL: Lamar Hunt responded by forming the American Football League with a group of owners, which would spur the NFL to expand beyond twelve teams.", "Oilman Clint Murchison Jr. persisted with his intent to bring a team to Dallas, but George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, had a monopoly in the South (after the addition of Dallas, the South would see three further teams - NFL teams in Atlanta and New Orleans, and an AFL team in Miami - added in the next six years).Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins (now Commanders) from Marshall in 1958 with the intent of moving them to Dallas.", "An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms, which infuriated Murchison, and he called off the deal.", "Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas.", "Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league.Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin, who had written the music to the Redskins fight song \"Hail to the Redskins\", and Marshall's wife had penned the lyrics.", "Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison's plight to get an NFL franchise.", "Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959: Murchison subsequently purchased \"Hail to the Redskins\" for $2,500.Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he now owned the song, and barred Marshall from playing it during games.", "After Marshall launched an expletive-laced tirade, Murchison sold the rights to \"Hail to the Redskins\" back to Marshall in exchange for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and a rivalry was born.", "Murchison hired CBS Sports executive and former Los Angeles Rams general manager Tex Schramm as team president and general manager, San Francisco 49ers scout Gil Brandt as head of player personnel, and New York Giants defensive coordinator Tom Landry as head coach, thus forming a triumvirate that would lead the Cowboys' football operations for three decades.===Tom Landry years (1960–1988)===A statue of Tom Landry, who coached the team from 1960 to 1988 and led the Cowboys to five Super Bowl appearances and two Super Bowl victories in 1971 and 1977\|leftDon Meredith was the first franchise quarterback of the Cowboys.", "NFL Films cited Meredith as the first \"star\" of the franchise, leading them to back-to-back NFL Championship Game appearances during the 1966 and 1967 seasons, both times falling one game shy of the Super BowlLike most expansion teams, the Cowboys struggled at first.", "They failed to win a game in their inaugural season.", "However, Landry slowly brought the team to respectability.", "In 1965, they finally got to .500.They broke all the way through a year later, winning consecutive Eastern Conference titles in 1966 and 1967.However, they lost the NFL Championship Game each time to the Green Bay Packers with the second loss coming in the 1967 Ice Bowl.", "They would win consecutive division titles in 1968 and 1969 when the NFL adopted a divisional format, but were defeated in the playoffs both years by the Cleveland Browns.From 1970 through 1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that time span.", "In addition, they appeared in five Super Bowls, winning two (1971 and 1977).Led by quarterback Craig Morton, the Cowboys had a 10–4 season in 1970.They defeated Detroit 5–0 in the lowest-scoring playoff game in NFL history and then defeated San Francisco 17–10 in the first-ever NFC Championship Game to qualify for their first Super Bowl appearance in franchise history, a mistake-filled Super Bowl V, where they lost 16–13 to the Baltimore Colts courtesy of a field goal by Colts' kicker Jim O'Brien with five seconds remaining in the contest.", "Despite the loss, linebacker Chuck Howley was named the Super Bowl MVP, the first and only time in Super Bowl history that the game's MVP did not come from the winning team.==== Super Bowl VI champions (1971) ====The Cowboys playing the Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl VI in 1971\|leftThe Cowboys moved from the Cotton Bowl to Texas Stadium in week six of the 1971 season.", "Landry named Staubach as the permanent starting quarterback to start the second half of the season, and Dallas was off and running.", "The Cowboys won their last seven regular season games (finishing 11–3) before dispatching the Minnesota Vikings and San Francisco 49ers in the playoffs to return to the Super Bowl.", "In Super Bowl VI, behind an MVP performance from Staubach and a then Super Bowl record 252 yards rushing, the Cowboys crushed the upstart Miami Dolphins, 24–3, to finally bury the \"Next Year's Champions\" stigma.After missing the playoffs in 1974, the team drafted well the following year, adding defensive lineman Randy White (a future Hall of Fame member) and linebacker Thomas \"Hollywood\" Henderson.", "The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys back to the playoffs in 1975 as a wild card, losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 21–17, in Super Bowl X.==== Super Bowl XII champions (1977) ====The Cowboys playing against the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XII in 1977Dallas began the 1977 season 8–0, finishing 12–2.In the postseason, the Cowboys routed the Chicago Bears 37–7 and Minnesota Vikings 23–6 before defeating the Denver Broncos 27–10 in Super Bowl XII in New Orleans.", "As a testament to Doomsday's dominance in the hard-hitting game, defensive linemen Randy White and Harvey Martin were named co-Super Bowl MVPs, the first and only time multiple players have received the award.", "Dallas returned to the Super Bowl, following the 1978 season, losing to Pittsburgh 35–31.Bob Ryan, an NFL Films editor, dubbed the Cowboys \"America's Team\" following the Super Bowl loss, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad.", "Danny White became the Cowboys' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired.", "Despite going 12–4 in 1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team.", "In the opening round of the 1980–81 NFL playoffs they avenged their elimination from the prior year's playoffs by defeating the Rams.", "In the Divisional Round they squeaked by the Atlanta Falcons 30–27.For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rival Philadelphia Eagles, the team that won the division during the regular season.", "The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20–7.1981 brought another division championship for the Cowboys.", "They entered the 1981–82 NFL playoffs as the number 2 seed.", "Their first postseason saw them blow out Tampa Bay in a 38–0 shutout.", "The Cowboys then advanced to the NFC Championship Game against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed.", "Despite having a late 4th quarter 27–21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28–27.49ers quarterback Joe Montana led his team on an 89-yard game-winning touchdown drive, connecting with Dwight Clark in a play known as The Catch.The 1982 season was shortened after a player strike.", "With a 6–3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season.", "As the number 2 seed for the 1982–83 NFL playoffs they eliminated the Buccaneers 30–17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37–26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game.", "However, the third time was not the charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31–17 to their division rival and eventual Super Bowl XVII champions, the Washington Redskins.Although it was not apparent at the time, the loss in the 1982 NFC title game marked the end of an era.", "For the 1983 season the Cowboys went 12–4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were upset at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24–17.However, 1983 was a missed opportunity as prior to their playoff defeat, the Cowboys had a chance to clinch the NFC East and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs against Washington in the penultimate week of the regular season, but were defeated soundly 31–10 at home, and conceded control of the division to the Redskins in which they would not relinquish a week later.", "Prior to the 1984 season, Murchison sold the Cowboys to another Texas oil magnate, H.R.", "\"Bum\" Bright and his ten partners.", "Dallas posted a 9–7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons and only the second time in 18 years.", "After going 10–6 in 1985 and winning a division title, the Cowboys were shut out 20–0 by the Rams in the Divisional round in Los Angeles.Hard times came for the organization as they went 7–9 in 1986, 7–8 in 1987, and 3–13 in 1988.During this time period, Bright became disenchanted with the team.", "During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was \"horrified\" at Landry's play calling.", "During the savings and loan crisis, Bright's savings and loan was taken over by the FSLIC.", "With most of the rest of his money tied up in the Cowboys, Bright was forced to sell the team to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989, for $150 million.=== Jerry Jones era (1989–present) ======= Jimmy Johnson years (1989–1993) ====The five-time world champions muralJones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson, who was also Jones' teammate at the University of Arkansas as a fellow defensive lineman.", "The hiring of Johnson also reunited Johnson with second-year wide receiver Michael Irvin, who had played collegiately at Miami.", "With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman.", "Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices.", "Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1–15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, \"The Trade\" later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team.Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL's elite.", "Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992.The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr., and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, defensive lineman Jim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley.Things started to look up for the franchise in 1990.On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated the San Diego Chargers 17–14.They went 2–7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7–9 record.Coming into 1991 the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinator Dave Shula with Norv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6–5 start, then defeated the previously unbeaten Redskins despite injury to Troy Aikman.", "Backup Steve Beuerlein took over and the Cowboys finished 11–5.In the Wild Card round they defeated the Bears 17–13 for the Cowboys' first playoff win since 1982.In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38–6 playoff rout by the Lions.==== Super Bowl XXVII champions (1992) ====In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular-season wins with a 13–3 mark.", "They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23–10.Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first-round bye before facing division rival the Philadelphia Eagles.", "The Cowboys won that game 34–10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years.", "They were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the top seed.", "On January 17, 1993, the Cowboys went to Candlestick Park and defeated the 49ers 30–20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978.Dallas defeated the Buffalo Bills 52–17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers.", "Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football.==== Super Bowl XXVIII champions (1993) ====Despite starting the 1993 season 0–2, they again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30–13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0–2).", "Dallas finished the regular season 12–4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC.", "They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27–17 in the divisional round.", "In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38–21.Dallas sent a then-NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski, and Williams.==== Barry Switzer years (1994–1997) ====Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation.", "Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson.", "The Cowboys finished 12–4 in 1994.They once again clinched a first-round bye and defeated Green Bay 35–9 in the Divisional Round.", "They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38–28.==== Super Bowl XXX champions (1995) ====Dallas Cowboys championship banners inside AT&T StadiumPrior to the start of 1995 season Jerry Jones lured All-Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco.", "Dallas started the season 4–0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35–0 at Giants Stadium to open their season.", "Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season.", "They ended the season 12–4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed.", "In the Divisional round, they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30–11 to advance to their 4th consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38–27.In Super Bowl XXX the Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27–17 at Sun Devil Stadium for their fifth Super Bowl championship.", "Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl.The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll.", "Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of 1996 following a drug-related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2–3.They finished the regular season with a 10–6 record, won the NFC East title, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC.", "They defeated Minnesota 40–15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional Round of the playoffs 26–17 by the Carolina Panthers.The Cowboys went 6–10 in 1997, losing the last six consecutive games of the season, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions.", "As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place.==== Gailey and Campo years (1998–2002) ====Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10–6 record in 1998 and an NFC East championship, the Cowboys' sixth in seven years, but the Cowboys were upset at home in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs by the Arizona Cardinals 20–7.In 1999 Dallas went 8–8 in a season that featured Irvin suffering a career-ending cervical spine injury in a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles at Veterans Stadium.", "The season ended in a 27-10 Wild Card playoff loss to the Minnesota Vikings.", "Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to a Super Bowl.Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach for the 2000 season.", "Prior to the season starting cornerback Deion Sanders was released after 5 seasons with the team.", "He later signed with division rival Washington.", "In Week 1, they were blown out 41–14 by Philadelphia.", "That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career.", "Longtime NFL QB Randall Cunningham filled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at QB.", "The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5–11 record.", "The only highlights of 2000 were Emmitt Smith having his 10th consecutive 1,000-yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins.2001 was another hard year in Dallas.", "Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received.", "Jerry Jones signed Tony Banks as a QB.", "Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for the Super Bowl Champion Baltimore Ravens before being benched.", "Jones also drafted QB Quincy Carter in the second round of that year's draft, and Banks was released during the preseason.", "Ryan Leaf, Anthony Wright, and Clint Stoerner all competed for the quarterback position that season.", "Dallas again finished at 5–11, last place in the NFC East, but they swept the Redskins for the 4th consecutive season.Prior to the 2002 season Dallas drafted safety Roy Williams with the 8th overall pick.", "The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to the expansion Houston Texans 19–10 in Week 1.By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all-time NFL rushing record previously held by Walter Payton.", "Their Thanksgiving Day win over the Redskins was their 10th consecutive win against the Washington Redskins.", "However, that was their final 2002 win as the team lost their next four games to finish with another last-place 5–11 record.", "The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20–14 loss against the Redskins.", "That game was Smith's last game as a Cowboys player; he was released during the offseason.", "Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season.==== Bill Parcells years (2003–2006) ====Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys.", "The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season getting off to a hot 7–2 start, but went 3–4 for the rest of the season.", "They were able to grab the second NFC wild-card spot with a 10–6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference champion Carolina Panthers, 29–10.In 2004 Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success and ended 6–10.Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at QB by Vinny Testaverde.Dallas got off to a great 7–3 start for the 2005 season but ended up only in 3rd place with a 9–7 record.", "Prior to the beginning of that season, they signed veteran Drew Bledsoe as starting quarterback.2006 was an interesting year for the Cowboys.", "Prior to the season, they signed free agent wide receiver Terrell Owens who was talented yet controversial.", "The Cowboys started the season 3–2.During a week 7 matchup against the Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backup Tony Romo Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 38–22.However, Romo was named the starter for the team and went 5–1 in his first 6 games.", "Dallas ended the season with a 9–7 2nd-place finish.", "They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed.", "They traveled to play Seattle where the Seahawks won 21–20.After the season Parcells retired and was replaced by Wade Phillips.==== Phillips and Garrett years (2007–2019) ====Dallas started the 2007 season with a bang, winning their first five games.", "They won 12 of their first 13 games, with their only loss during that span being to New England, who went undefeated that season.", "Despite dropping two of their last three regular-season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first-round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs.", "They lost in the divisional round 21–17 to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.In the tumultuous 2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3–0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4–1 start.", "However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to the Arizona Cardinals.", "With Brad Johnson and Brooks Bollinger playing as backups, Dallas went 1–2 during a three-game stretch.", "Romo's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3–0.However, injuries mounted during the season, with the team losing several starters for the year, such as Kyle Kosier, Felix Jones, safety Roy Williams, punter Mat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries.", "Entering December, the 8–4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1–3.They failed to make the playoffs after losing at Philadelphia in the final regular-season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead.On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm.", "The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured.", "The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team's 33-year-old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed.The 2009 season started positively with a road win against Tampa Bay, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2–2 start.", "In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiver Miles Austin got his first start of the season and had a record-setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 touchdowns) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over Kansas City.", "Following their bye week, they went on a three-game winning streak including wins over Atlanta and NFC East division rival Philadelphia.", "Despite entering December with a record of 8–3, they lost their slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to the New York Giants and San Diego.", "Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated.", "However, the team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24–17 victory at the Superdome, ending New Orleans' previously unbeaten season in week 15.For the first time in franchise history, they posted back-to-back shutouts when they beat division rivals Washington (17–0) and Philadelphia (24–0) to end the season.", "In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs.", "Six days later, in the wild-card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17.The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses.", "However, their playoff run ended after being routed 34–3 in the Divisional Round against the Minnesota Vikings.After beginning the 2010 season at 1–7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinator Jason Garrett as the interim head coach.", "The Cowboys finished the season 6–10.To start the 2011 season the Cowboys played the Jets on a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11.The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game.", "In week 2 the Cowboys traveled to San Francisco to play the 49ers.", "In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10–7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced by Jon Kitna.", "Kitna threw 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17–7.Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes to Miles Austin as the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime.", "On their opening possession after a 49ers punt, Romo found wide receiver Jesse Holley on a 78-yard pass, which set up the game-winning field goal by rookie kicker Dan Bailey.The Cowboys ended the season 8–8.They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to the Giants in a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game on NBC which allowed the Giants to win the division.", "The Giants would go on to win Super Bowl XLVI.", "The Cowboys started off the 2012 season on a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants 24–17 on the opening night of the season.", "They would hover around the .500 mark for the majority of the season.", "They lost a close Week 6 game to eventual Super Bowl XLVII champion Baltimore Ravens 31–29 at M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore.", "Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division.", "Standing in their way were the Washington Redskins, who had beaten them on Thanksgiving at AT&T Stadium and who were one win away from their first division title since 1999.Led by Robert Griffin III the Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28–18.Dallas once again finished the season 8–8.In the 2013 season the Cowboys started off by defeating the New York Giants for the second straight year; this time 36–31.It was the first time since AT&T Stadium had opened back in 2009 that the Cowboys were able to defeat the Giants at home.", "The win was punctuated by Brandon Carr intercepting an Eli Manning pass for a touchdown late in the 4th quarter.", "For the third straight year, Dallas once again found itself stuck in the .500 area.", "In Week 5, they lost a shootout to the eventual AFC Champion Denver Broncos 51–48.They battled it out with the Philadelphia Eagles for control of the division throughout the season.", "In December however they lost 2 crucial back-to-back games to Chicago and Green Bay.", "They were very successful in division games having a 5–0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles.", "That included beating Washington 24–23 on Week 16 thanks to the late-game heroics of Tony Romo.", "However, Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season.", "The Cowboys called upon backup quarterback Kyle Orton to lead them into battle on the final week of the season.", "Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game-ending interception to the Eagles which allowed the Eagles to win 24–22.Dallas ended the year at 8–8 for the third year in a row.", "The two differences from this 8–8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd-place finishes, along with their season-ending defeat taking place at home instead of on the road.To start off the 2014 season Dallas began by losing to San Francisco 28–17.After that, they went on a 6-game winning streak.", "The highlight of this streak was defeating the Seahawks at CenturyLink Field 30–23.In Week 8, the Redskins won in overtime 20–17, and Romo injured his back again.", "He missed next week, a home loss to the Arizona Cardinals 28–17 with backup QB Brandon Weeden.", "Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31–17 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, which was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the NFL International Series.Dallas played their traditional Thanksgiving home game against division rival Philadelphia.", "Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8–3 records.", "The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33–10.They would rebound the next week when they defeated Chicago 41–28.Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia.", "This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21–0.Then the Eagles put up 24 points but Dallas came back to win 38–27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10–4.Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against Indianapolis, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts 42-7 and the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins.", "They became the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs.", "Dallas ended the regular season with a 12–4 record and an 8–0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44–17.On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seed Detroit Lions in the wild-card round of the NFL playoffs.", "In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14–0 in the first quarter.", "Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball.", "However, towards the end of the second quarter, Romo threw a 76-yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams.", "Matt Prater of the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17–7.Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterback Matthew Stafford on the first play of the third quarter.", "However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas's ensuing drive.", "Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20–7.A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20–14.A 51-yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys' deficit to 3.The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field.", "On 3rd down-and-1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17-yard pass intended for Lions tight end Brandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebacker Anthony Hitchens in the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew.", "The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens.", "However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew.", "The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41-yard line and had a successful 59-yard drive which was capped off by an 8-yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24–20.The Lions got the ball back with less than 2:30 to play in regulation.", "Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2-minute mark.", "The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive end DeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions.", "Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down-and-3 play.", "The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24–20.This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game.The following week, the Cowboys traveled to Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin to play the Packers in the divisional round.", "Despite having a 14–7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26–21, thus ending their season.", "The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant.", "The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the \"Calvin Johnson rule.", "\"During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running back DeMarco Murray to become a free agent.", "Murray signed with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles.", "On July 15 wide receiver Dez Bryant signed a 5-year, $70 million contract.At home against the New York Giants, Dallas won 27–26.Dez Bryant left the game early with a fractured bone in his foot.", "On the road against the Philadelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, and Brandon Weeden replaced him.", "Dallas won 20–10 to begin the season 2–0, but then went on a seven-game losing streak.", "They finished the season 4–12 and last in their division.After a preseason injury to Tony Romo, rookie quarterback Dak Prescott was slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6–8 weeks.", "In game 1 against the New York Giants, Dallas lost 20–19.After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven-game winning streak.", "After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott had earned the right to take over as the Cowboys starting quarterback.In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time in the season and was the backup quarterback.", "Dallas defeated the Baltimore Ravens to win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977.It also marked rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott breaking Tony Dorsett's single-season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie.", "Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held by Russell Wilson and Dan Marino by throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games.", "Dallas finished 13–3, tying their best 16-game regular-season record.", "While Dallas defeated Green Bay at Lambeau Field in week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of the NFL playoffs on a last-second field goal, ending the Cowboys’ season.Dak Prescott was named NFL Rookie of the Year in the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards.", "Both Prescott and Elliott made the 2017 Pro Bowl.", "This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl.2017 was the first season since 2002 without quarterback Tony Romo, who retired on April 4 after 14 seasons with the Cowboys.", "The season also featured second-year running back Ezekiel Elliott being suspended for 6 games after violating the league's conduct policy.", "The suspension was to begin at the start of the year but was pushed back to November.", "The Cowboys finished the year at 9-7 without making the playoffs.", "Following the season, Dez Bryant was released after eight seasons in Dallas and tight end Jason Witten, who holds several franchise receiving records, retired after 15 seasons, ending an era.The Dallas Cowboys' 2017 season was the subject of the third season of Amazon's sports documentary series ''All or Nothing''.", "The series is produced by NFL Films.==== Mike McCarthy years (2020–present) ====Following the end of the 2019 season, where the Cowboys missed the playoffs for the 7th time in the last 10 seasons, it was announced that the team had parted ways with longtime head coach Jason Garrett.", "Both Marvin Lewis (former Bengals coach) and Mike McCarthy (former Packers coach who led Green Bay to a Super Bowl win) were interviewed for the head coaching position.McCarthy and the Cowboys picked up the first win against the Atlanta Falcons in Week 2.On October 11, the Cowboys’ 2020 season was all but lost when quarterback Dak Prescott suffered a grievous ankle injury that ended his season.", "Despite the loss of Prescott, McCarthy's first year Cowboys still remained in the running for a playoff appearance throughout most of the regular season.", "They would go on to finish the season with a 6–10 record, which ranked the team third in the NFC East Division.", "Throughout the 2020 season, the Cowboys’ defense struggled massively.", "Following the season, defensive coordinator Mike Nolan and defensive line coach Jim Tomsula were dismissed.On February 16, 2022, a settlement of $2.4 million was paid after four cheerleaders accused Rich Dalrymple, the now-retired senior vice president of public relations and communications, of voyeurism in their locker room as they undressed during a 2015 event at AT&T Stadium.After the NFL allowed teams to seek blockchain sponsorships, the Cowboys became the first team to do so, signing a multi-year contract with the platform Blockchain.com on April 13, 2022." ], [ "Thanksgiving Day games", "In their seventh season in 1966, the Cowboys agreed to host a second NFL Thanksgiving game; the tradition of a team hosting on Thanksgiving had been popularized by the Detroit Lions (who had hosted a game on the day mostly un-interrupted since moving to Detroit in 1934).", "General manager Tex Schramm wanted to find a way to boost publicity on a national level for his team, which had struggled for most of the 1960s.", "In fact, the NFL guaranteed a cut of the gate revenue in the belief that the game would not be a hit because of said struggle.", "With a kickoff just after 5 p.m. CST, over eighty thousand fans (and millions viewing on CBS) saw the Cowboys beat the Cleveland Browns 26–14 at the Cotton Bowl.In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team.", "Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976 in an effort by the NFL to give St. Louis national exposure.", "Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the \"Cardiac Cards\" due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, the games did not prove as successful.", "Owing to factors that ranged from ugly contests to opposition from the Kirkwood–Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978.It was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day for good; as such, the Cowboys play in the late afternoon." ], [ "Logos and uniforms", "===Logo===The throwback double-star uniforms introduced in 1994 for the NFL's 75th AnniversaryThe Dallas Cowboys' blue star logo, which represents Texas as \"The Lone Star State,\" is one of the most well-known team logos in professional sports.", "The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border were added in 1964.The logo has remained the same since.", "Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones' AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that have a similar logo based on that of the Cowboys.", "The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility.===Uniforms===The Dallas Cowboys' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black.", "The home pants are a common metallic silver-green color (PMS 8280 C) that helps bring out the blue in the uniform.", "The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the \"Stars and Stripes\" jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes.", "A white/gray/white stripe is on each sleeve as well as the collared V-neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes.", "A \"Cowboys\" chest crest is directly under the NFL shield.", "The away pants are a pearlish metallic-silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms.", "The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates.The team's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as \"Metallic Silver Blue\" (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue/white/blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown.", "The Cowboys also include a unique, if subtle, feature on the back of the helmet: a blue strip of Dymo tape with the player's name embossed, placed on the white portion of the stripe at the back of the helmet.====Uniform history====When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue-white-blue stripe down the center crown.", "The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games.", "Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue.In 1964, the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (adopting essentially the team's current uniform) by changing their jersey/socks to one solid color with three horizontal stripes on the sleeves; the white jersey featured royal blue stripes with a narrow black border, the royal blue jersey white stripes with the same black outline.", "The star-shouldered jerseys were eliminated; \"TV\" numbers appeared just above the jersey stripes.", "The new helmet was silver-blue, with a blue-white-blue tri-stripe down the center (the middle white stripe was thicker).", "The blue \"lone star\" logo was retained, but with a white border setting it off from the silver/blue.", "The new pants were silver/blue, with a blue-white-blue tri-stripe.", "In 1964, the NFL allowed teams to wear white jerseys at home; several teams did so, and the Cowboys have worn white at home ever since, except on certain and special \"throwback\" days.In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern.", "In 1967 the \"lone star\" helmet decal added a blue outline to the white-bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look.", "The logo and this version of the uniform have seen little change to the present day.The only notable changes from 1970 to the present were:* 1970 to 1973: The \"TV\" numbers were moved from the shoulders to the sleeves above the stripes (the TV numbers returned to the shoulders on the white jerseys in 1974, but remained on the sleeves of the blue jerseys through 1978).", "* 1982 to 1988: The pants featured a white uniform number in an elliptical blue circle worn near the hip.", "* the removal of the indented serifs on the front and back jersey numbers in the early 1980s (seen currently on the throwback jersey)* 1980: The blue jersey was rendered in a slightly darker shade than the 1964–79 version; from 1981 to 1994 the dark jerseys sported numbers that were gray with white borders and a blue pinstripe.", "The stripes on the sleeves and socks also used the same gray with white border scheme (sans navy pinstripe).", "* 1982 to present: Player names on jersey backs, which were originally in block-letter style, were slightly smaller and in a footed \"serif\" style.", "* 1996 to present: The blue jersey features white/gray/white stripes on each sleeve and the collared V-neck, the Cowboys star logo placed upon the sleeve stripes, white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes, and the \"Cowboys\" wordmark in the center of the neckline.", "The \"Cowboys\" wordmark was also placed at that same spot on the white jersey from 1996 to 1998.During the 1976 season, the blue-white-blue stripe on the crown of the helmets was temporarily changed to red-white-blue to commemorate the United States' bicentennial anniversary.In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back-to-back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white \"Double-Star\" jersey on Thanksgiving Day.", "This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994–95 playoffs.", "During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960–63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league-wide \"throwback\" policy.During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy \"Double-Star\" jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform).", "The navy \"Double-Star\" jersey was not seen again until the NFL's ''Classic Throwback Weekend'' on Thanksgiving Day 2001–2003.In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960–1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day.", "This uniform became the team's alternate or \"third jersey\" and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day.", "Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008.While the team didn't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years.", "In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007, against the Green Bay Packers.", "In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008, against the San Francisco 49ers.", "The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks.", "Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009, as part of one of the NFL's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans' uniforms.", "This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team.", "The 1960–1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasions.", "Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles.In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players would no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league's enhanced concussion awareness.", "This caused the Cowboys' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant.", "However, this rule became moot in 2022 when the NFL once again allowed teams to use an alternate helmet again, and the Cowboys reintroduced the 1960s white helmet.During the \"one-shell era\", in 2013, 2014, 2016, and 2017, the team wore their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving; the only exceptions were in 2015 and 2020 when the Cowboys wore the \"Color Rush\" uniforms (''see below''), and in 2018, 2019 and 2021 when they wore their regular white uniforms.", "In 2017, the team initially announced that they will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis, only to rescind soon after.In 2015, the Cowboys released their Color Rush uniform, featuring a variation of the 1990s \"Double Star\" alternates with white pants and socks.", "The uniform was first used in a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers and in subsequent ''Thursday Night Football'' games since 2016.In 2022, the \"Color Rush\" uniforms would be worn with a white helmet; this design would emulate their current silver helmets but without any silver elements.The Cowboys also unveiled a navy uniform-white pants combination which was first used on December 10, 2017, against the Giants.====Home and road jersey history====Roger Staubach and Bob Lilly jerseys shown at the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, OhioQuarterback Dak Prescott handing the ball off to running back Ezekiel Elliott, both in the blue jerseys during a 2018 gameIn 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home.", "Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents' colors at home games.According to current Cowboys' Equipment Director, Mike McCord, another reason why the team chose to wear white uniforms at home was because of the intense Texas heat during the early part of the season at Texas Stadium.Throughout the years, the Cowboys' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be \"jinxed\" because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them.", "This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys.", "However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue-shirted Cowboys were upset by the Cleveland Browns in what turned out to be Don Meredith's final game with the Cowboys.", "Another example was a 1976 regular season road game against the St. Louis Cardinals, in which the Cardinals elected to wear white as the home team and promptly defeated the then-undefeated Cowboys 21–17 for their first loss in six games.Since the white home uniform tradition began in 1964, the only season Dallas never wore blue uniforms in a regular season game was in the 1972 season, even though they wore them thrice in the preseason.", "The only other times Dallas wore blue in one regular season game came in 1968, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1998, 2010, and 2020.Conversely, the 2019 season saw Dallas wear their blue uniforms eight times, the most of any season.Since the 1970 NFL-AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey.", "Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means.", "Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, such as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game, as well as their November 4, 2007 meeting.", "Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s.Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse.", "Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates.", "With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white-jersey-at-home tradition.As of the season, the Cowboys have a cumulative 97–100–3 regular season record in their blue uniforms.", "They are also 15–11 at home while wearing the blue uniforms since 2001.The Cowboys also sport a 8–2 record when wearing the primary blue uniform/white pants combination since its 2017 debut.The Cowboys are 2–6 in playoff games while wearing the blue uniforms.", "The only victories with the blue uniforms came in the 1978 NFC Championship Game against the Los Angeles Rams, and the 2022 NFC Wild Card Round against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.====Thanksgiving Day uniforms====With the Dallas Cowboys traditionally hosting Thanksgiving Day games, the team donned new uniforms when they unveiled their white \"Double-Star\" jersey for the first time on November 24, 1994.This game later became synonymous with future Cowboys Head Coach (2010–2019); then 3rd string Quarterback Jason Garrett as he led a come-from-behind victory against the Green Bay Packers.In the 2004 season, the team went further into Cowboys history by choosing to don blue jerseys worn in their first 4 years of existence, which included white helmets and pants.", "However, keeping consistent with modern marketing, navy blue was used for this version as opposed to the original 1960-1963 royal color jersey.", "Aside from the 2007 and 2008 seasons, the Cowboys continued to use this \"throwback\" uniform through Thanksgiving Day 2012.Before the start of the 2013 season, the NFL announced a \"One-helmet\" rule to help prevent potential player concussions.", "This regulation also prevented the Cowboys from pairing the white helmets with the throwback uniforms, as the team will often use the traditional silver-blue as their primary helmets throughout the season.In the 2015 season, the Cowboys chose to wear a variation of the 1994 \"Double-Star\" jersey as their Color Rush on Thanksgiving Day against the Carolina Panthers on November 26, 2015.Since then, the Color Rush was only used again on Thanksgiving against the Washington Football Team on November 26, 2020.In all other seasons, the team opted to wear their standard white or blue uniforms.In 2022, the NFL restored the use of alternate helmets and the Cowboys reinstated the white helmet and navy 'throwback\" uniforms on November 24, 2022, against the New York Giants." ], [ "Stadiums", "===Cotton Bowl===Cotton Bowl in DallasThe Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as \"The House That Doak Built\" due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s.", "Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas.", "Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators.", "The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annual Cotton Bowl Classic college football bowl game, for which the stadium is named.", "(Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played at AT&T Stadium in Arlington.)", "The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium.", "It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallas city limits.", "The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the 1966 NFL Championship at the Cotton Bowl.===Texas Stadium===The outside of Texas Stadium in IrvingFor the majority of the franchise's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium.", "Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located in Irving.", "The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with a seating capacity of 65,675.The stadium was famous for its hole-in-the-roof dome.", "The roof's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving.", "It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened.", "The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered.", "The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to the Baltimore Ravens, 33–24, on December 20, 2008.After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving.In 2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys by Cowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009, in Arlington.", "Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010.===AT&T Stadium===AT&T Stadium during a gameAT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington.", "After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones, along with the city of Arlington, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion.", "The stadium is located in Tarrant County, the first time the Cowboys has called a stadium home outside of Dallas County.", "It was completed on May 29, 2009, and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000.AT&T Stadium is among the largest domed stadiums in the world.A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center-hung high-definition television screen, at one point the largest in the world.", "The , scoreboard surpassed the screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City as the world's largest.", "In 2011, Charlotte Motor Speedway unveiled its plans for a new HDTV screen larger than the one in AT&T Stadium; that larger screen has since been completed.At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker, A. J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in.", "screen above the field.", "The punt deflected and was ruled in-play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard.", "(Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.)", "The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines – hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height.", "No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game.", "Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen.", "According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen.", "Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet.The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants.", "A league record-setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional \"blue star\" at the 50-yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33–31.The Cowboys got their first regular-season home win on September 28, 2009.They beat the Carolina Panthers 21–7 with 90,588 in attendance.", "The game was televised on ESPN's ''Monday Night Football'' and marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys on ''Monday Night Football''.On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced that AT&T would be taking over the rights to the name of the stadium." ], [ "Training camp sites", "Ford Center at the Star in Frisco, home of Cowboys training camp since 2016Dallas Cowboys training camp locations:* 1960: Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon* 1961: St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota* 1962: Northern Michigan College, Marquette, Michigan* 1963–1989: California Lutheran College, Thousand Oaks, California* 1990–1997: St. Edward's University, Austin, Texas* 1998–2002: Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, Texas* 2001, 2004–2006, 2008, 2012–2015: River Ridge Sports Complex, Oxnard, California* 2002–2003, 2007, 2009: The Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas* 2010–2011: The Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas and River Ridge Sports Complex, Oxnard, California* 2016–present: The Ford Center at The Star, Frisco, Texas" ], [ "Nationwide fanbase", "===Fan support===Ever since the team joined the NFL in 1960, the franchise have garnered strong fan support in both the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex and the state of Texas, the Cowboys are often referred to as \"America's Team\".===Criticism===Despite the success of the franchise and a large Cowboys' fanbase, many fans of other NFL teams have come to dislike the Cowboys.", "Over the past couple of years, the Cowboys' fanbase had been labeled as the most annoying in all of sports.", "ESPN host and commentator Stephen A. Smith has validated this claim." ], [ "Rivalries", "The NFC East, composed of the Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, the Washington Commanders and New York Giants, is one of the least-changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of the NFL-AFL merger (its only major changes being the relocation of the Cardinals franchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to the NFC West in the league's 2002 realignment).", "Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys' entry into the NFL.", "As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport.===Washington Commanders===The Washington Commanders and the Dallas Cowboys enjoy what has been called by ''Sports Illustrated'' the top NFL rivalry of all time and \"one of the greatest in sports.\"", "Some sources trace the enmity to before the Cowboys were even formed, due to a longstanding disagreement between Washington owner George Preston Marshall and Cowboys founder Clint Murchison, Jr. over the creation of a new football team in the South, due to Marshall's TV monopoly in that region.", "The two teams' storied on-field rivalry goes back to 1960 when the two clubs first played each other, resulting in a 26–14 Washington victory.", "Since that time, the two teams have met in 126 regular-season contests and two NFC Championships.", "Dallas leads the regular season all-time series 78–46–2, and Washington leads the all-time playoff series 2–0.The Cowboys currently have a 14–7 advantage over Washington at FedEx Field.", "Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter's 1989 win over Washington for their only victory that season.", "The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988.In the 2010s, Washington has struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings.", "The 2010s also included an important game in week 17 of 2012 which saw Washington defeat Dallas 28–18 to win the NFC East.===Philadelphia Eagles===Game between the Dallas Cowboys and the Philadelphia Eagles in December 2007The competition between the Cowboys and the Philadelphia Eagles has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long-moribund Eagles returned to contention.", "In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20–7.A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan.", "Among these were the 1989 Bounty Bowls in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris.A 1999 game in Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless on the field at Veterans Stadium.", "In 2008, the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44–6.The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild-card playoff game by a combined score of 78–30, including a 24–0 shutout in week 17.That three-game sweep was Dallas' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992–1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia.During the 2013 season, Dallas won the first meeting 17–3 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia.", "The two teams met again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title.", "The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterback Tony Romo out with a season-ending back injury, which put backup Kyle Orton as the starter.", "It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24–22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation.", "Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season.", "In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33–10 win on Thanksgiving Day in Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38–27 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia.", "The second game between these rivals clinched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first-place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season.", "Dallas leads the all-time series 73–56.===New York Giants===The first game ever played between the New York Giants and Cowboys was a 31–31 tie on December 4, 1960.Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961, and New York's first was on November 11, 1962.Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory in Super Bowl XLII and winning the first regular-season game played at Cowboys Stadium in 2009.Dallas currently leads the all-time series 75–47–2.===Pittsburgh Steelers===The two teams met in the first regular-season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35–28 loss to the Steelers), the first-ever regular-season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events.", "The Steelers-Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests.", "The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last-second throw by Roger Staubach, then as a fourth-quarter rally by Dallas fell short on an onside kick.", "The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in January 1996.It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a \"flashy\" team with Roger Staubach's aerial attack and the \"flex\" Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a \"blue-collar\" team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today.", "In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels.", "Dallas leads the all-time series 17–16 including the playoffs.===San Francisco 49ers===The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers has been going on since the 1970s.", "The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL.", "San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games.", "The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game.", "The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers' Joe Montana complete a game-winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history.", "The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992–1994 seasons.", "San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times.", "Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third.", "In each of these pivotal match-ups, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl.", "Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are tied for third all-time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers and New England Patriots, with five each.", "The 49ers-Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas.", "The 49ers lead the all-time series with a record of 20–19–1.===Minnesota Vikings===Between the Dallas Cowboys and Minnesota Vikings., the Cowboys lead the all-time series 18–15.The teams have met seven times in the post-season, the Cowboys third most played playoff opponent.", "The rivalry is home to many key memories, including the famous 1975 Hail Mary pass against the Vikings, the Herschel Walker trade, the Randy Moss Thanksgiving game, and Brett Favre torching the Cowboys in what would be his last playoff win of his career in 2009.===Green Bay Packers===The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and the Green Bay Packers is one of the best known intra-conference rivalries in the NFL.", "The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season.", "The rivalry has also resulted in notable playoff games.The all-time regular seasons series record is 20–17 in favor of the Packers, and the postseason series is also in favor of the Packers at 5–4.===Los Angeles Rams===The Cowboys also had a fierce rivalry with the Los Angeles Rams, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s.", "The two teams played eight postseason games during this period, including two NFC championship games.", "Between 1975 and 1980, the Cowboys faced the Rams in the playoffs five times in a six-year period.", "In both 1975 and 1978, the Cowboys won the NFC championship on the road in blowout fashion, only to be followed by close defeats at home in next year's divisional round.", "The 1980 Wild Card Round saw Dallas follow up last year's playoff defeat with another blowout victory.", "As of 2022, the Cowboys and Rams tied the all-time regular season series 18–18, but the Rams lead the all-time playoff series 5–4, having recently defeated the Cowboys in the 2018 Divisional Round.===Houston Texans===The Cowboys have an intrastate interconference rivalry with the Houston Texans for which they compete in either a preseason or regular season game for bragging rights in Texas, a tradition started between the teams prior to the Oilers relocating to Nashville, Tennessee to become the Tennessee Titans.", "The Texans defeated the Cowboys in the team's inaugural season in 2002.The Cowboys lead the all-time series 4–2." ], [ "Season-by-season records" ], [ "Players of note", "===Current roster======Pro Football Hall of Famers===Hall of Fame QB Troy AikmanHall of Fame RB Tony DorsettHall of Fame S Cliff HarrisHall of Fame WR Bob HayesHall of Fame WR Michael IrvinHall of Fame DT Bob LillyHall of Fame RB Emmitt SmithHall of Fame QB Roger StaubachRandy WhiteDallas Cowboys Hall of FamersPlayers No.", "Name Position Seasons Inducted 26 CB 1970–1972 1981 8 '''''' QB 1989–2000 2006 73 '''''' G 1994–2005 2013 19 WR 1971–1972 1978 17 WR 1984 2020 89 TE 1969–1972 1988 33 '''''' RB 1977–1987 1994 79 OT 1971 1977 94 '''''' DE 1992–1996 2015 43 '''''' S 1970–1979 2020 22 '''''' WR 1965–1974 2009 54 '''''' LB 1961–1973 2023 88 '''''' WR 1988–1999 2007 74 '''''' DT 1961–1974 1980 25 WR 1964 1998 81 WR 2006–2008 2018 88 '''''' WR 1973–1983 2021 20 '''''' CB 1964–1977 1996 21 '''''' CB, KR 1995–1999 2011 22 '''''' RB 1990–2002 2010 81 TE 1978 1994 12 '''''' QB 1969–1979 1985 55 LB 2008 2023 94 '''''' LB 2005–2013 2023 54 '''''' DT, LB 1975–1988 1994 70 '''''' OT 1967–1979 2006Coaches and ContributorsName Position Seasons Inducted'''''' Executive 1960–1988 2019'''''' Coach 1989–1993 2020'''''' Owner/Executive 1989–present 2017'''''' Coach 1960–1988 1990 Coach 2003–2006 2013'''''' President/GM 1960–1989 1991===Super Bowl MVPs===Super Bowl MVP WinnersSuper BowlPlayerPosition V Chuck Howley LB VI Roger Staubach QBXII Randy White DT Harvey Martin DE XXVII Troy Aikman QB XXVIII Emmitt Smith RB XXX Larry Brown CB===Ring of Honor===Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy.", "Instead, the team has a \"Ring of Honor\", which is on permanent display encircling the field.", "Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display at AT&T Stadium in Arlington.", "The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president.The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years.", "Tex Schramm was believed to be a \"one-man committee\" in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan's playing days.", "When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm's Ring of Honor \"power\" and immediately inducted Jordan.Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the \"Ring of Honor\".", "For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction.", "Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame).", "In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year's Cowboys-Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants).", "In 2003, Jones chose to induct Tex Schramm.", "Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction.", "Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys-Eagles game that fall.Troy Aikman, all-time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as \"The Triplets,\" were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the archrival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005.Defensive end Charles Haley, offensive lineman Larry Allen, and wide receiver Drew Pearson were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys' game vs. the Seattle Seahawks on November 6, 2011.Safety Darren Woodson was inducted on November 1, 2015.Executive Gil Brandt was inducted on November 29, 2018.The most recent inductees were DeMarcus Ware, who was inducted on October 29, 2023, and Jimmy Johnson, who was inducted on December 30, 2023.Pro Football Hall of Fame finalistInducted or Enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame'''No.'''", "'''Name''' '''Position ''' '''Years With Club''' '''Inducted''' 74 Bob Lilly DT 1961–1974 November 23, 1975 17 Don Meredith QB 1960–1968 November 7, 1976 43 Don Perkins FB 1961–1968 November 7, 1976 54 Chuck Howley LB 1961–1973 October 30, 1977 20 Mel Renfro CB 1964–1977 October 25, 1981 12 Roger Staubach QB 1969–1979 October 9, 1983 55 Lee Roy Jordan LB, C 1963–1976 October 29, 1989 — Tom Landry Head Coach 1960–1988 November 7, 1993 33 Tony Dorsett RB 1977–1987 October 9, 1994 54 Randy White DT, LB, DE 1975–1988 October 9, 1994 22 Bob Hayes WR 1965–1974 September 23, 2001 — Tex Schramm General Manager 1960–1989 October 12, 2003 43 Cliff Harris S 1970–1979 October 10, 2004 70 Rayfield Wright OT 1967–1979 October 10, 2004 8 Troy Aikman QB 1989–2000 September 19, 2005 88 Michael Irvin WR 1988–1999 September 19, 2005 22 Emmitt Smith RB 1990–2002 September 19, 2005 88 Drew Pearson WR 1973–1983 November 6, 2011 94 Charles Haley DE 1992–1996 November 6, 2011 73 Larry Allen OG, OT 1994–2005 November 6, 2011 28 Darren Woodson S 1992–2004 November 1, 2015 — Gil Brandt VP Player Personnel 1960–1988 November 29, 2018 94 DeMarcus Ware LB 2005–2013 October 29, 2023 — Jimmy Johnson Head Coach 1989–1993 December 30, 2023===Retired numbers===The Dallas Cowboys do not officially retire jersey numbers; however, some are kept \"unofficially inactive\".", "As of 2022, six numbers have been kept out of circulation: Troy Aikman's No.", "8, Roger Staubach's No.", "12, Bob Hayes' and Emmitt Smith's No.", "22, Bob Lilly's No.", "74, and Jason Witten's No.", "82.The Cowboys are one of three NFL teams that do not officially retire numbers, with the other two being the Atlanta Falcons and Las Vegas Raiders.===Career leaders==='''Passing yards''': 34,183 Tony Romo (2004–2016) '''Pass completions''': 2,898 Troy Aikman (1989–2000)'''Passing touchdowns''': 248 Tony Romo (2004–2016)'''Rushing yards''': 17,162 Emmitt Smith (1990–2002)'''Rushing touchdowns''': 153 Emmitt Smith (1990–2002)'''Receptions''': 1,215 Jason Witten (2003–2017, 2019)'''Receiving yards''': 12,977 Jason Witten (2003–2017, 2019)'''Receiving touchdowns''': 73 Dez Bryant (2010–2017)'''Points scored''': 986 Emmitt Smith (1990–2002)'''Field goals made''': 186 Dan Bailey (2011–2017)'''Total punt yardage''': 24,542 Mike Saxon (1985–1992)'''Punting average''': 45.3 Mat McBriar (2003–2011)'''Kickoff return yards''': 3,416 Kevin Williams (1993–1996)'''Punt Return yards''': 1,803 Kelvin Martin (1987–1992, 1996)'''Pass interceptions''': 52 Mel Renfro (1964–1977)'''Sacks''': 117.0 DeMarcus Ware (2005–2013)'''Forced fumbles''': 32 DeMarcus Ware (2005–2013)===Single-season leaders==='''Passing yards''': 4,903 Tony Romo (2012)'''Passing touchdowns''': 37 Dak Prescott (2021)'''Rushing yards''': 1,845 DeMarco Murray (2014)'''Rushing touchdowns''': 25 Emmitt Smith (1995)'''Receptions''': 111 Michael Irvin (1995)'''Receiving yards''': 1,603 Michael Irvin (1995)'''Receiving touchdowns''': 16 Dez Bryant (2014)'''Points''': 150 Emmitt Smith (1995)'''Field goals made''': 34 Richie Cunningham (1997)'''Total punt yardage''': 3,665 Toby Gowin (2003)'''Punting average''': 49.0 Mat McBriar (2008)'''Kickoff return yards''': 1,399 Tyson Thompson (2005)'''Punt return yards''': 548 James Jones, Jr. (1980)'''Pass interceptions''': 11 Everson Walls (1981) & Trevon Diggs (2021)'''Sacks''': 20.0 DeMarcus Ware (2008)===All-time first-round draft picks===" ], [ "Head coaches and staff", "===Head coaches======Current staff===" ], [ "Radio and television", ", the Cowboys' flagship radio station is KRLD-FM.", "Brad Sham is the team's longtime play-by-play voice.", "Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one-year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters.", "The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters.", "However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the \"Blue Star Network\", which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks.", "The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas.", "Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL-FM, KRLD, and KLUV-FM.", "Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts.During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham.", "Landry's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for him and his co-host making their NFL \"predictions\" at the end of each show.", "Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the ''Ice Bowl'' of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI.", "Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of WCCW in the 1980s.", "Upon Mercer's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play-by-play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill-in for Lundquist.Longtime WFAA-TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play-by-play announcer from 1985 to 1996.Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys' play-by-play announcer from 1995 to 1997, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One.Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five-year partnership with Compass Media Networks on February 2, 2011.The result was the America's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise's regional one.", "Beginning with the 2011 season, Kevin Burkhardt and Danny White handled the broadcasts, with Jerry Recco as the studio host." ], [ "Fight song", "The Dallas Cowboys fight song, \"Cowboys Stampede March\" by Tom Merriman Big Band was the official fight song of the Dallas Cowboys.", "The Cowboys used at Texas Stadium 1961 until about the early-mid '90s.", "\"This little platter came from the personal collection of Tex Schramm, and it seems to be from the dawn of the Dallas Cowboys when he was casting about for a song to associate with the team.", "Eventually, the song \"Cowboy Stampede March\" would become THE song associated with the team thru their broadcasts in the '60s thru the '80s.\"", "George GimarcThe Cowboys now play We Dem Boyz by Wiz Khalifa for starting defensive line, because of the saying \"How Bout Dem Cowboys.\"", "For every touchdown scored by the Cowboys at a home game the song \"Cowboys and Cut Cigars\" by The Burning of Rome is played after a train horn." ], [ "See also", "* Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders* List of Dallas Cowboys seasons* List of Dallas Cowboys players* America's Team* Doomsday Defense" ], [ "References", "* NFL 2002 Record & Fact Book" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Dallas Cowboys at the National Football League official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Denver Broncos" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Denver Broncos''' are a professional American football franchise based in Denver.", "The Broncos compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) West division.", "The team is headquartered in Dove Valley, Colorado.The team began play in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL) and joined the NFL as part of the merger in 1970.The Broncos are currently owned by the Walton-Penner group, and play their home games at Empower Field at Mile High; Denver previously played its home games at Mile High Stadium from its inception in 1960 through the 2000 season.The Broncos were barely competitive during their 10-year run in the AFL and their first seven years in the NFL.", "They did not have a winning season until 1973 and qualified for their first playoffs in 1977, eventually advancing to Super Bowl XII that season.", "Since 1975, the Broncos have become one of the NFL's most successful teams, having suffered only eleven losing seasons.", "They have won eight AFC Championships (, , , , , , , ), and three Super Bowl championships ( (XXXII), (XXXIII), (50), and share the NFL record for most Super Bowl losses (5 – tied with the New England Patriots).", "The Broncos have eight primary members enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame: John Elway, Floyd Little, Shannon Sharpe, Gary Zimmerman, Terrell Davis, Champ Bailey, and Steve Atwater, along with late club owner Pat Bowlen.According to ''Forbes'', the Broncos are valued at $4.65 billion in July 2022 making them the twelfth most-valuable team in the NFL." ], [ "Franchise history", "===Bob Howsam/Gerald Phipps era (1960–1980)===The '''Denver Broncos''' were founded on August 14, 1959, when minor league baseball owner Bob Howsam was awarded an American Football League (AFL) charter franchise.", "The Broncos won the first-ever AFL game over the Boston Patriots 13–10, on September 9, 1960.Seven years later on August 5, 1967, they became the first-ever AFL team to defeat an NFL team, with a 13–7 win over the Detroit Lions in a preseason game.", "However, the Broncos were not successful in the 1960s, winning more than five games only once (7–7, 1962), compiling a record during the ten seasons of the AFL.Denver came close to losing its franchise in 1965, until a local ownership group took control, and rebuilt the team.", "The team's first superstar, \"Franchise\" Floyd Little, was instrumental in keeping the team in Denver, due to his signing in 1967 as well as his Pro Bowl efforts on and off the field.", "The Broncos were the only original AFL team that never played in the title game, as well as the only original AFL team never to have a winning season while a member of the AFL during the upstart league's 10-year history.In 1972, the Broncos hired former Stanford University coach John Ralston as their head coach.", "In 1973, he was the UPI's AFC Coach of the Year, after Denver achieved its first winning season at 7–5–2.In five seasons with the Broncos, Ralston guided the team to three winning seasons.", "Though Ralston finished the 1976 season with a 9–5 record, the team, as was the case in Ralston's previous winning seasons, still missed the playoffs.", "Following the season, several prominent players publicly voiced their discontent with Ralston, which soon led to his resignation.1977–78 AFC Championship Game to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl.Red Miller, a long-time assistant coach, was hired and along with the Orange Crush Defense (a nickname originated in 1977, also the brand of the popular orange-flavored soft drink) and aging quarterback Craig Morton, took the Broncos to what was then a record-setting 12–2 regular-season record and their first playoff appearance in 1977, and ultimately made their first Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XII, in which they were defeated by the Dallas Cowboys (Morton's former team), 27–10.===Edgar Kaiser/Pat Bowlen era (1981–2018)===In 1981, Broncos' owner Gerald Phipps, who had purchased the team in May 1961 from the original owner Bob Howsam, sold the team to Canadian financier Edgar Kaiser Jr., grandson of shipbuilding industrialist Henry J. Kaiser.", "In 1984, the team was purchased by another Canadian, Pat Bowlen, who placed team ownership into a family trust sometime before 2004 and remained in day-to-day control until his battle with Alzheimer's disease forced him to cede the team to Joe Ellis in 2014.====Dan Reeves years (1981–1992)====Dan Reeves became the youngest head coach (37) in the NFL when he joined the Broncos in 1981 as vice president and head coach.", "Quarterback John Elway, who played college football at Stanford, arrived in 1983 via a trade.", "Originally drafted by the Baltimore Colts as the first pick of the draft, Elway proclaimed that he would shun football in favor of baseball (he was drafted by the New York Yankees to play center field and was also a pitching prospect), unless he was traded to a selected list of other teams, which included the Broncos.", "Prior to Elway, the Broncos had over 24 different starting quarterbacks in its 23 seasons to that point.1987–88 AFC Championship Game between the Browns and the Broncos.John Elway (''right'') hands the ball for a rushing play against the Packers in 1984.Reeves and Elway guided the Broncos to six post-season appearances, five AFC West divisional titles, three AFC championships and three Super Bowl appearances (Super Bowl XXI, XXII and XXIV) during their 12-year span together.", "The Broncos lost Super Bowl XXI to the New York Giants, 39–20; Super Bowl XXII to the Washington Redskins, 42–10; and Super Bowl XXIV to the San Francisco 49ers, 55–10; the latter score remains the most lopsided scoring differential in Super Bowl history.", "The last year of the Reeves-Elway era were marked by feuding, due to Reeves taking on play-calling duties after ousting Elway's favorite offensive coordinator Mike Shanahan after the 1991 season, as well as Reeves drafting quarterback Tommy Maddox out of UCLA instead of going with a wide receiver to help Elway.", "Reeves was fired after the 1992 season and replaced by his protégé and friend Wade Phillips, who had been serving as the Broncos' defensive coordinator.", "Phillips was fired after a mediocre 1994 season, in which management felt he lost control of the team.====Mike Shanahan years (1995–2008)====In 1995, Mike Shanahan, who had formerly served under Reeves as the Broncos' offensive coordinator, returned as head coach.", "Shanahan drafted rookie running back Terrell Davis.", "In 1996, the Broncos were the top seed in the AFC with a 13–3 record, dominating most of the teams that year.", "The fifth-seeded Jacksonville Jaguars, however, upset the Broncos 30–27 in the divisional round of the playoffs, ending the Broncos' 1996 run.=====Super Bowl XXXII champions (1997)=====During the 1997 season, Elway and Davis helped guide the Broncos to their first Super Bowl victory, a 31–24 win over the defending champion Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII.", "Though Elway completed only 13 of 22 passes, throwing one interception and no touchdowns (he did, however, have a rushing touchdown), Davis rushed for 157 yards and a Super Bowl-record three touchdowns to earn the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award—this while overcoming a severe migraine headache that caused him blurred vision.=====Super Bowl XXXIII champions (1998)=====The Broncos repeated as Super Bowl champions the following season, defeating the Atlanta Falcons (led by Elway's longtime head coach Dan Reeves) in Super Bowl XXXIII, 34–19.Elway was named Super Bowl MVP, completing 18 of 29 passes for 336 yards, with an 80-yard touchdown to wide receiver Rod Smith and one interception.Broncos' quarterback Jay Cutler in 2007.John Elway retired following the 1998 season, and Brian Griese started at quarterback for the next four seasons.", "After a 6–10 record in 1999, mostly due to a season-ending injury to Terrell Davis, the Broncos recovered in 2000, earning a Wild Card playoff berth, but losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens.", "After missing the playoffs the following two seasons, former Arizona Cardinals' quarterback Jake Plummer replaced Griese in 2003, and led the Broncos to two straight 10–6 seasons, earning Wild Card playoff berths both years.", "However, the Broncos went on the road to face the Indianapolis Colts in back-to-back seasons and were blown out by more than 20 points in each game, allowing a combined 90 points.In the years following the back-to-back championships, a league investigation revealed that the team had cheated the salary cap in both seasons and the 1996 season by deferring additional money to Elway and Davis outside of the salary cap.", "In addition, they purposefully avoided waiving certain players before a certain date.", "Denver claimed the moves did not give them additional competitive advantage.", "Between two separate punishments, they were stripped of their third-round picks in both the 2002 and 2005 drafts and fined nearly $2 million combined.Plummer led the Broncos to a 13–3 record in 2005 and their first AFC West division title since 1998.After a first-round bye, the Broncos defeated the defending Super Bowl champion New England Patriots, 27–13, denying New England from becoming the first NFL team ever to win three consecutive Super Bowl championships.", "They were the first team to beat the Patriots in the playoffs during the Tom Brady era.", "The Broncos' playoff run came to an end the next week, after losing at home to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship game, 34–17.The Steelers went on to win Super Bowl XL.The Broncos' defense began the first five games of the 2006 season allowing only one touchdown — an NFL record that still stands.", "ESPN commentator and Super Bowl-winning quarterback Joe Theismann gave the 2006 defense the name \"Bad Blue\" on ''Monday Night Football'' as they played the Ravens.", "However, the team struggled down the season stretch.", "Plummer led the team to a 7–2 record, but struggled individually with inconsistent performance and more interceptions than touchdown passes.", "As a result, he would be replaced by rookie quarterback Jay Cutler.", "Cutler went 2–3 as a starter, and the Broncos finished with a 9–7 record, losing the tiebreaker to the Kansas City Chiefs for the final playoff spot.", "Cutler's first full season as a starter in 2007 became the Broncos' first losing season since 1999, with a 7–9 record.The 2008 season ended in a 52–21 loss at the San Diego Chargers, giving the Broncos an 8–8 record and their third straight season out of the playoffs.", "Mike Shanahan, the longest-tenured and most successful head coach in Broncos' franchise history, was fired after 14 seasons.====Josh McDaniels years (2009–2010)====On January 11, 2009, two weeks after Shanahan was fired, the Broncos hired former New England Patriots' offensive coordinator Josh McDaniels as the team's new head coach.", "Three months later, the team acquired quarterback Kyle Orton as part of a trade that sent Jay Cutler to the Chicago Bears.Under McDaniels and Orton, the Broncos jumped out to a surprising 6–0 start in 2009.However, the team lost eight of their next ten games, finishing 8–8 for a second consecutive season and missing the playoffs.", "The next season (2010), the Broncos set a new franchise record for losses in a single season, with a 4–12 record.", "McDaniels was fired before the end of the 2010 season following a combination of the team's poor record and the fallout from a highly publicized videotaping scandal.", "Running backs coach Eric Studesville was named interim coach for the final four games of the 2010 season.", "He chose to start rookie first-round draft choice Tim Tebow at quarterback for the final three games.====John Fox years (2011–2014)====Following the 2010 season, Joe Ellis was promoted from chief operating officer to team president, while John Elway returned to the organization as the team's executive vice president of football operations.", "In addition, the Broncos hired John Fox as the team's 14th head coach.", "Fox previously served as the Carolina Panthers' head coach from 2002 to 2010.Following a 1–4 start to the 2011 season, Tim Tebow replaced Kyle Orton as the Broncos' starting quarterback, and \"Tebow Time\" was born.", "Tebow led the Broncos with toughness, determination and miraculous come-from-behind victories which gave the Broncos hope and were the catalyst for better things to come.", "Tebow led the Broncos to an 8–8 record and garnered the team's first playoff berth and division title since 2005.The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Wild Card round on a memorable 80-yard touchdown pass from Tebow to wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on the first play of overtime, setting a record for the fastest overtime in NFL history.", "However, the Broncos lost to the New England Patriots in the Divisional round.In March 2012, the Broncos reached an agreement on a five-year, $96 million contract with former longtime Indianapolis Colts' quarterback Peyton Manning, who had recently missed the entire season following multiple neck surgeries.", "This resulted in the Broncos subsequently trading incumbent quarterback Tim Tebow to the New York Jets.", "The Broncos finished with a 13–3 record and the AFC's No.", "1 seed in the 2012 playoffs, but were defeated by the Baltimore Ravens in the Divisional round.Like in 2012, the 2013 Broncos finished with a 13–3 record and the AFC's No.", "1 seed.", "The Broncos broke all offensive records and QB Peyton Manning shattered many quarterback records that season as well.", "In the 2013 playoffs, they defeated the San Diego Chargers in the Divisional round and the New England Patriots in the AFC Championship.", "However, the Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLVIII by a score of 43–8, the Broncos' first Super Bowl berth since winning back-to-back Super Bowls in 1997 and 1998.Prior to the start of the 2014 season, the Broncos announced that Pat Bowlen, the team's owner since 1984, relinquished control of the team due to his battle with Alzheimer's disease, resulting in team president Joe Ellis and general manager John Elway assuming control of the team.", "The Broncos finished the 2014 season with a 12–4 record and the AFC's No.", "2 seed.", "However, the Broncos were defeated by the Indianapolis Colts in the Divisional round of the 2014 playoffs, marking the third time in four seasons that the Broncos lost in the Divisional round of the playoffs.", "Quarterback Peyton Manning had been playing with strained quadriceps for the final month of the 2014 season.Gary Kubiak won Super Bowl 50 in his first season as the Broncos head coach.====Gary Kubiak years (2015–2016)====On January 12, 2015, one day after the divisional playoff loss to the Colts, the Broncos and head coach John Fox mutually agreed to part ways.", "Fox left the Broncos with a .719 winning percentage in his four seasons as the Broncos' head coach—the highest in franchise history.", "One week later, the Broncos hired Gary Kubiak as the team's 15th head coach.", "Kubiak served as a backup quarterback to executive vice president/general manager John Elway from 1983 to 1991, as well as the Broncos' offensive coordinator from 1995 to 2005.Shortly after Kubiak became head coach, the Broncos underwent numerous changes to their coaching staff and players, including the hiring of defensive coordinator, defensive mastermind Wade Phillips, under whom the Broncos' defense went from middle of the road to being ranked No.", "1 in the NFL.", "By the 2015 season, it would go on to be considered one of the greatest NFL defenses of all time — along with the 1985 Bears, 2000 Ravens and 2002 Buccaneers.", "The Broncos finished with a 12–4 record and the AFC's No.", "1 seed, despite Peyton Manning having his worst statistical season since his rookie year with the Indianapolis Colts in .", "Backup quarterback Brock Osweiler started the last six games of the regular season due to Manning suffering from a foot injury.", "Manning led the Broncos throughout the playoffs.", "The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 23–16 in the Divisional Round and the New England Patriots 20–18 in the AFC Championship.", "They were victorious against the Carolina Panthers 24–10 in Super Bowl 50 for their third Super Bowl title.On March 7, 2016, quarterback Peyton Manning retired after 18 NFL seasons during a press conference at the team's Dove Valley headquarters.Following Manning's retirement, the Broncos scrambled to find the team's next starting quarterback after backup quarterback Brock Osweiler departed on a four-year contract to the Houston Texans.", "The Broncos acquired Mark Sanchez from the Philadelphia Eagles and selected Paxton Lynch during the 2016 draft.", "Sanchez, Lynch and second-year quarterback Trevor Siemian competed for the starting quarterback spot during the off-season and preseason.", "Prior to the regular season, Sanchez was released and Siemian was named the starter.", "The Broncos finished the season 9–7 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2010.On January 2, 2017, coach Gary Kubiak announced his retirement, citing health as the main reason for retiring.", "===== Vance Joseph years (2017-2018)=====The Broncos hired Miami Dolphins defensive coordinator Vance Joseph as head coach on January 11, 2017.The Broncos finished 5–11 in 2017 as a result of an unimpressive offense led by a quarterback committee of Trevor Siemian, Brock Osweiler, and Paxton Lynch.In an effort to address poor production from the offense, the Broncos signed quarterback Case Keenum on March 14, 2018, and traded away Trevor Siemian to the Minnesota Vikings on March 19, 2018.On May 1, 2018, the Broncos signed local undrafted free agent running back Phillip Lindsay, who became a fan favorite due to his underdog mentality, explosive play style and local roots.", "Lindsay became the first undrafted player in NFL history with 100+ scrimmage yards in each of their first two games and on December 18, 2018, Lindsay was voted to the 2019 Pro Bowl, making him the first undrafted offensive rookie in NFL history to be voted to a Pro Bowl.After getting off to a strong start, their 2018 season was up and down, eventually finishing with a 6–10 record and placing third in the AFC West.", "Coupled with the 5–11 season in 2017, the Broncos had back-to-back losing seasons for the first time since 1971–1972.Shortly after the conclusion of the regular season, head coach Vance Joseph was fired after recording a poor 11–21 record in two seasons.====Vic Fangio years (2019–2021)====On January 10, 2019, the Broncos hired Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Vic Fangio to become the 17th head coach in franchise history.", "Fangio was chosen over Mike Munchak, the Broncos' offensive line coach.", "Fangio received a four-year contract with a team option for an additional season.On February 13, 2019, Joe Flacco was announced as the new starting quarterback.", "On October 6, 2019, the Broncos defeated the Los Angeles Chargers for their 500th win, bringing their win–loss record to 500–432.On December 1, 2019, the Broncos started Mizzou rookie quarterback Drew Lock for the first time.", "He led the Broncos to a 4–1 record to end the 2019 season.", "The Broncos finished 2nd place in the AFC West Division at 7–9, missing the playoffs for a fourth consecutive year.", "In five games, Lock finished with 1,020 passing yards, seven touchdowns, and three interceptions.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 NFL season did not have a preseason or full training camps, which likely contributed to an abnormally large amount of injuries that plagued the Broncos and other NFL teams.", "Star linebacker Von Miller suffered a season-ending ankle tendon injury before the regular season started, and starting wide receiver Courtland Sutton suffered a season-ending torn ACL during a week two game.On November 29, 2020, after all three of the Broncos' quarterbacks were placed in COVID-19 protocol, the Broncos were forced to turn to undrafted wide receiver and former college quarterback Kendall Hinton as the emergency quarterback.", "Hinton completed only one pass for 13 yards in 9 attempts—the fewest pass completions in a single game in franchise history—and was intercepted twice.", "The Broncos' only scoring play was a 58-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus in a 31–3 loss to the New Orleans Saints.", "In July 2021, the Pro Football Hall of Fame announced that Hinton's quarterback wristband would be added to the Hall of Fame as part of a display.The Broncos finished the 2020 season with a record of 5–11, last in the AFC West, and missed the playoffs for the fifth consecutive year.Following another season of uninspiring quarterback performances, the Broncos were the subject of multiple quarterback trade rumors during the 2021 offseason.", "Aaron Rodgers and Deshaun Watson were two names rumored to be of interest for the Broncos, but ultimately the Broncos traded for quarterback Teddy Bridgewater on April 28, 2021.Bridgewater won the subsequent quarterback competition between himself and Drew Lock during the preseason, and he was named the Broncos' starting quarterback on August 25, 2021.The Broncos also made notable improvements in the defensive secondary, signing former All-Pro cornerback Kyle Fuller and cornerback Ronald Darby, as well as drafting Alabama cornerback Patrick Surtain II with the ninth overall pick in the 2021 NFL Draft.", "Running back Phillip Lindsay was replaced by UNC rookie running back Javonte Williams, who was drafted in the second round of the 2021 NFL Draft by the Broncos.On October 31, 2021, Peyton Manning (who won two AFC Championships, Super Bowl 50, and an NFL MVP during his four seasons as a Bronco) was inducted to the Broncos' Ring of Fame during a game against Washington.On November 1, 2021, the Broncos traded franchise legend Von Miller to the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for a 2nd and 3rd round pick in the 2022 NFL Draft.", "At the time of the trade, Miller was the longest-tenured Bronco on the team, and the only remaining non-special teams player from Denver's Super Bowl 50 roster.After another mediocre performance in the 2021 season with the Broncos going 7–10, head coach Vic Fangio was dismissed on January 8, 2022, after losing to the Kansas City Chiefs.", "=== Walton / Penner era (2022 - Current)=======Nathaniel Hackett Season (2022)====The Broncos announced the hiring of Green Bay Packers offensive coordinator Nathaniel Hackett as head coach on January 27, 2022.The Broncos then announced on February 1, 2022, that they were now up for sale and that they would be parting ways with the Bowlen family, the former owners of the franchise.Hackett's first hire as head coach was Justin Outten as offensive coordinator.", "He was hired on February 2, 2022.On March 16, 2022, the Broncos traded Drew Lock, Noah Fant, Shelby Harris, Denver's 2022 first-round pick (No.", "9), its 2022 second-round pick (No.", "40), its 2023 first- and second-round picks, and its 2022 fifth-round round pick for Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks' 2022 fourth-round pick.On June 7, 2022, the Broncos announced that the Walton-Penner family, led by Rob Walton, had entered in an agreement to acquire the Denver Broncos for $4.65 billion.", "The NFL approved the bid on August 10, 2022, with the Broncos introducing Carrie Walton Penner, Greg Penner, Mellody Hobson, Condoleezza Rice, and Lewis Hamilton to the ownership group.On December 26, with the Broncos sitting at 4–11 following a 51–14 Christmas Day loss to the Los Angeles Rams, Hackett was fired and replaced by interim head coach Jerry Rosburg.", "Hackett became the fifth head coach to not finish his first season after Lou Holtz in 1976, Pete McCulley in 1978, Bobby Petrino in 2007, and Urban Meyer in 2021.==== Sean Payton years (2023–present)====On January 31, 2023, Sean Payton reported that he had accepted the head coaching job for the Denver Broncos, and he was officially hired as head coach for the 2023 season three days later.", "The season started 1-5, including a loss to the Miami Dolphins 70-20 in week three.", "However after a loss to the New York Jets, The team rallied back to .500 with wins against the Buffalo Bills And the Broncos First win against the Chiefs since 2015.However after a loss to the Houston Texans, The Broncos would fall to 7-7 Going into Christmas.", "The Broncos would lose to The New England Patriots to go 7-8.After the lost to the New England Patriots, reports came out about contract disputes over an injury clause, Russell Wilson was benched for the final two games of the season.", "The Broncos finished the 2023 season with a record of 8-9, third in the AFC West, and missed the playoffs for the eighth consecutive year." ], [ "Rivalries", "===Divisional===The Denver Broncos have three AFC West rivals—the Kansas City Chiefs, Las Vegas Raiders and Los Angeles Chargers.", "All teams, along with the Broncos, were charter members of the American Football League (AFL), with each team placed in the AFL Western Division.", "The Broncos were barely competitive during the AFL years (1960–69), going a combined 10–49–1 against the Chiefs, Chargers and Raiders.====Kansas City Chiefs====The Broncos have had several memorable matchups with the Chiefs, particularly during the years in which John Elway was the Broncos' starting quarterback (1983–98).", "The Broncos defeated the Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium in the divisional round of the 1997 NFL playoffs, en route to their first Super Bowl victory.", "The Chiefs currently hold a '''69–55''' series lead over the Broncos, including the aforementioned 1997 divisional playoff game.====Las Vegas Raiders====The rivalry with the Raiders was ignited in , when the Broncos advanced to their first Super Bowl by defeating the defending champion Raiders in the 1977 AFC Championship.", "The rivalry intensified in the mid-1990s, when Mike Shanahan was hired as the Broncos' head coach in 1995.Shanahan coached the Raiders in before being fired four games into the season.", "The Raiders currently hold a '''70–54–2''' series lead over the Broncos, including 1–1 in the playoffs.====Los Angeles Chargers====Unlike their records against the Chiefs and Raiders, the Broncos currently have a winning record against the Chargers, with a '''70–54–1''' series lead, including 1–0 in the playoffs.", "The Broncos pulled off one of the largest comebacks in Monday Night Football history, when Peyton Manning led the Broncos from a 24–0 halftime deficit to a 35–24 win at San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium during the season.", "The two teams met in the playoffs for the first time on January 12, 2014, at Denver's Sports Authority Field at Mile High, with the Broncos winning 24–17.===Historical===Aside from the aforementioned AFC West teams, the Broncos have had intra-conference rivalries over the years with the Cleveland Browns, Pittsburgh Steelers and New England Patriots.", "The Broncos and Seattle Seahawks were also former AFC West rivals from 1977 to 2001, after which Seattle was realigned to the NFC West.====Cleveland Browns====The Broncos had a brief rivalry with the Browns that arose from three AFC championship matches in 1986, 1987 and 1989.In the 1986 AFC Championship, quarterback John Elway led ''The Drive'' to secure a tie in the waning moments at Cleveland Municipal Stadium; the Broncos went on to win in 23–20 in overtime.", "One year later, the two teams met again in the 1987 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium.", "Denver took a 21–3 lead, but Browns' quarterback Bernie Kosar threw four touchdown passes to tie the game at 31–31 halfway through the 4th quarter.", "After a long drive, John Elway threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to running back Sammy Winder to give Denver a 38–31 lead.", "Cleveland advanced to Denver's 8-yard line with 1:12 left, but Broncos' safety Jeremiah Castille stripped Browns' running back Earnest Byner of the football at the 2-yard line—a play that has been called ''The Fumble'' by Browns' fans.", "The Broncos recovered it, gave Cleveland an intentional safety, and went on to win 38–33.The two teams met yet again in the 1989 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium, which the Broncos easily won by a score of 37–21.The Broncos did not win the Super Bowl after any of the championship games where they defeated the Browns, losing by an aggregate of 136–40.====Pittsburgh Steelers====As of the end of the season, the Broncos and Steelers have met in postseason play eight times, tied with five other pairings for the second–most frequent playoff matchups in NFL playoff history.", "The Broncos currently own a 5–3 playoff record vs. the Steelers.", "Perhaps the most memorable postseason matchup occurred in the 1997 AFC Championship, in which the Broncos defeated the Steelers 24–21 at Three Rivers Stadium, en route to their first Super Bowl victory.", "Eight years later, the Steelers returned the favor at INVESCO Field at Mile High, defeating the Broncos 34–17 in the 2005 AFC Championship, and subsequently won Super Bowl XL.", "In the Wild Card round of the 2011 playoffs, in a game dubbed ''The 3:16 game'', the Broncos stunned the Steelers 29–23 on the first play of overtime, when quarterback Tim Tebow connected with wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on an 80-yard game-winning touchdown pass.", "The teams met again in the Divisional round of the 2015 playoffs at Denver, where the Broncos defeated the Steelers 23–16 on their way to a victory in Super Bowl 50.====New England Patriots====The Broncos and Patriots met twice annually during the American Football League (AFL) years from 1960 to 1969, and played in the first-ever AFL game on September 9, 1960.Since , the two teams have met frequently during the regular season, including nine consecutive seasons from 1995 to 2003.As of the end of the season, the two teams have met in the playoffs five times, with the Broncos owning a 4–1 record.", "The teams' first playoff match on January 4, 1987, was John Elway's first career playoff win, while the teams' second playoff match on January 14, 2006, game was the Broncos' first playoff win since Elway's retirement after the 1998 season.", "The game was also notable for Champ Bailey's 100-yard interception that resulted in a touchdown-saving tackle by Benjamin Watson at the 1-yard line.", "On October 11, 2009, the two teams met with former Patriots' offensive coordinator, Josh McDaniels as the Broncos' head coach.", "Both teams wore their AFL 50th anniversary jerseys.", "The game featured a 98-yard drive in the fourth quarter, with a game-tying touchdown pass from Kyle Orton to Brandon Marshall, followed by an overtime drive led by Orton that resulted in a 41-yard game-winning field goal by Matt Prater.", "The two teams met in the Divisional round of the 2011 playoffs, with the Patriots blowing out Tim Tebow and the Broncos by a score of 45–10.The Broncos' rivalry with the Patriots later intensified when longtime Indianapolis Colts' quarterback Peyton Manning became the Broncos' starting quarterback from 2012 to 2015.Manning and Patriots' quarterback Tom Brady maintained a legendary rivalry from until Manning's retirement after the season.", "Though Brady dominated Manning in regular season play, winning nine of twelve meetings, Manning won three of five playoff meetings, including the Broncos' 26–16 win in the 2013 AFC Championship and the Broncos' 20–18 win in the 2015 AFC Championship.====Seattle Seahawks====The Broncos had an old rivalry with the Seattle Seahawks, who were members of the AFC West from 1977 to 2001, prior to the Seahawks' move to the NFC West as part of the NFL's re-alignment.", "During the 25 years in which the Seahawks resided in the AFC West, the Broncos went 32–18 against the Seahawks, including a loss at Seattle in the 1983 NFL playoffs.", "Since 2002, the Broncos have won three of five interconference meetings, and the two teams met in Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014, with the Seahawks winning by a score of 43–8." ], [ "Facilities", "Mile High Stadium was the home of the Broncos from 1960 to 2000For most of their history, the Denver Broncos played in Mile High Stadium.", "The AFL Broncos played at the University of Denver's Hilltop Stadium from time to time, including the first victory of an AFL team over an NFL team: The Broncos beat the Detroit Lions on August 5, 1967, in a preseason game.", "The team has sold out every home game (including post-season games) since the AFL–NFL merger in , with the exception of two replacement games during the strike (but both were sold out before the strike).During home games, the attendance is announced to the crowd, along with the number of no-shows (the fans subsequently boo the no-shows).", "The fans are also known to chant \"IN-COM-PLETE!\"", "every time the visiting team throws an incomplete pass.", "The stadium's legendary home-field advantage is regarded as one of the best in the NFL, especially during the playoffs.", "The Broncos had the best home record in pro football over a 32-year span from 1974 to 2006 (191–65–1).", "Mile High Stadium was one of the NFL's loudest stadiums, with steel flooring instead of concrete, which may have given the Broncos an advantage over opponents, plus the advantage of altitude conditioning for the Broncos.", "In , the team moved into then-named Invesco Field at Mile High, built next to the former site of the since-demolished Mile High Stadium.", "Sportswriter Woody Paige, along with many of Denver's fans, however, often refused to call the stadium by its full name, preferring to use \"Mile High Stadium\" because of its storied history and sentimental import.", "Additionally, ''The Denver Post'' had an official policy of referring to the stadium as simply \"Mile High Stadium\" in protest, but dropped this policy in 2004.Empower Field at Mile High has been the Broncos' home since 2001Prior to the 2011 season, Englewood-based sporting goods retailer Sports Authority claimed the naming rights of Invesco Field, which became known as '''Sports Authority Field at Mile High'''.", "However, in the summer of 2016, Sports Authority went bankrupt, the stadium was renamed Broncos Stadium at Mile High, and the Broncos sought out a naming rights sponsor until September 2019 when they agreed to rename the stadium '''Empower Field at Mile High'''.The altitude has also been attributed as part of the team's home success.", "The stadium displays multiple references to the stadium's location of above sea level, including a prominent mural just outside the visiting team's locker room.", "The team training facility, the UCHealth Training Center (formerly known as the Paul D. Bowlen Memorial Broncos Centre), is a state-of-the-art facility located in Dove Valley.", "With of property, the facility hosts three full-size fields, a complete weight and training facility, and a cafeteria.In their more than half-century of existence, the Broncos have never been shut out at home, a streak of over 400 games as of the season.In late 2012, the Broncos announced that the stadium would receive $30 million upgrades including a new video board in the south end zone three times larger than the previous display.", "The renovations were finished before kickoff of the 2013 season." ], [ "Logos and uniforms", "===1968–1996===Wordmark previously used by the Broncos (1968 - 1996)Denver Broncos uniform set from 1968 to 1996.The logo was designed by Edwin Guy Taylor of Denver.", "A contest was held through Public Service of Denver to come up with a new logo for the team.", "Taylor's submission was selected late in 1967 and adopted soon after.", "The team briefly wore orange pants with the away jerseys between 1969 and 1971 and 1978–1979.When the Broncos debuted in , their original uniforms drew were said to have drawn as much attention as their play on the field.", "They featured white and mustard yellow jerseys, contrasting brown helmets, brown pants, and vertically striped socks.", "Two years later, the team unveiled a new logo featuring a bucking horse and changed their team colors to orange, royal blue and white.", "The uniform consisted of white pants, orange helmets, and either orange or white jerseys.In , the Broncos debuted a design that became known as \"Orange Crush\".", "Their logo was redesigned so that the horse was coming out of a \"D\".", "Additionally, the helmets were changed to royal blue, and the sleeves had thin stripes with other minor modifications added.", "From 1969 to 1971, and again from 1978 to 1979, the team wore orange pants with their white jerseys.", "In 1975, the face masks were changed to white from grey.The Broncos wore their white jerseys at home throughout the season, as well as for home games against the San Diego Chargers and Dallas Cowboys, the latter in hopes to bring out the \"blue jersey jinx\" which has followed the Cowboys for decades.", "(The Broncos won 41–20.)", "The Broncos wore their white jerseys for home games against the Philadelphia Eagles, Los Angeles Raiders and Cincinnati Bengals, but did not wear white at home again for two decades — ''see next section''.In , in honor of the 75th anniversary season of the NFL, the Broncos wore their throwback uniforms for two games—a Week 3 home game against the Raiders and a road game at the Buffalo Bills the following week.===1997–2011===Thunder (mascot)The Broncos radically changed their logo and uniforms in , a design that the team continues to use to this day.", "The new logos and uniforms were unveiled on February 4, 1997.Navy blue replaced royal blue on the team's color scheme.", "The current logo is a profile of a horse's head, with an orange mane and navy blue outlines.", "The Broncos' popular live animal mascot Thunder was the inspiration to incorporate a horse-head profile as part of the logo on the team's helmets.", "During a February 4, 1997, press conference introducing the new logo, the team president and the art director for Nike, who were the creators of the new design, described it as \"a powerful horse with a fiery eye and mane.", "\"The Broncos began wearing navy blue jerseys, replacing their longtime orange jerseys that had been the team's predominant home jersey color since 1962.This new uniform design features a new word mark, numbering font and a streak that runs up and down the sides of both the jerseys and the pants.", "On the navy blue jerseys, the streak is orange, with an orange collar and white numerals trimmed in orange, while on the road white jerseys, the streak is navy blue, with a thin orange accent strip on both sides, a navy collar and navy numerals trimmed in orange; the helmet facemasks became navy blue.", "When they debuted, these uniforms were vilified by the press and fans, until the Broncos won their first-ever Super Bowl in the new design that same season.", "The navy blue jerseys served as the team's primary home jersey until the end of the season — ''see next section''.In , the Broncos introduced an alternate orange jersey that is a mirror image of the aforementioned navy blue jerseys, but with orange and navy trading places.", "Like the road white jerseys, the white pants with the navy blue streaks running down the sides are worn with this uniform.", "This jersey was used only once in the 2002 and seasons, and were used twice per season from 2008 to 2011.Mike Shanahan, the team's head coach from 1995 to 2008, was not a big fan of the alternate orange jerseys.", "The Broncos previously wore orange jerseys as a throwback uniform in a Thanksgiving Day game at the Dallas Cowboys in .The team also introduced navy blue pants in , with orange side streaks to match with the navy blue jerseys.", "Though they were part of the uniform change in 1997 (in fact, they were worn for a couple of 1997 preseason games) and most players wanted to wear them, the only player who vetoed wearing them was John Elway, thereby delaying their eventual introduction.", "From 2003 to 2011, these pants were primarily used for select prime-time and late-season home games (excluding the season), and since , are used exclusively with the now-alternate navy blue jerseys — ''see next section''.On November 16, 2003, the Broncos wore their white jerseys at home for the first time since , in a game vs. the San Diego Chargers.", "This was compensation for a uniform mix-up, after the teams' first meeting at San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium in Week 2 earlier that season, when the Chargers were the team that was supposed to declare their uniform color.", "The Chargers were planning to wear their white jerseys, but the visiting Broncos came to the stadium in white, and were fined $25,000 by the NFL as a result.", "When the two teams met at INVESCO Field at Mile High later that season (Week 11), the NFL allowed the visiting Chargers to choose their uniform color in advance, and they chose navy blue, forcing the Broncos to wear their white jerseys at home.In , in honor of their 50th anniversary season as one of the eight original American Football League teams, the Broncos wore their 1960 throwback uniforms (brown helmets, mustard yellow and brown jerseys) for games against two fellow AFL rivals—a Week 5 home game vs. the New England Patriots, as well as the following week at the San Diego Chargers.===2012–present===Beginning in , the orange jerseys that served as the alternate colored jerseys from 2002 to 2011 became the primary home jersey, while the navy blue jerseys that served as the primary home jersey from 1997 to 2011 switched to alternate designation.", "The change was made due to overwhelming popularity with the fans, who pressured the Broncos to return to orange as the team's primary home jersey color.", "Since the 2012 uniform change, the team has worn the alternate navy blue jerseys for at least one home game per season, with the exception of , in which the Broncos wore their alternate navy blue uniforms for an October 6, 2013, road game at the Dallas Cowboys, which the Broncos won in a shootout, 51–48.The team will either wear the navy blue or the white pants – with the orange side stripes – to match with the alternate navy blue jerseys.", "The team initially did not wear the white pants with the orange side stripes, until a November 1, 2015, game vs. the Green Bay Packers, in which the Broncos wore said design to match the uniform ensemble that was used during the team's Super Bowl XXXII win over the Packers.", "On October 30, 2022, the Broncos debuted a new combination of white jerseys and alternate navy blue pants in an NFL London Game at the Jacksonville Jaguars, with mismatched side stripes of navy blue (white jersey) and orange (navy blue pants).As the designated home team in Super Bowl 50, the Broncos – who have a 0–4 Super Bowl record when using their standard orange jerseys – chose to wear their white jerseys as the designated \"home\" team.In , the Broncos' unveiled a new Color Rush uniform, which the team wore for a ''Thursday Night'' game at the San Diego Chargers on October 13, 2016.The uniform kit contained the following features: orange pants, which the team wore for the first time since 1979, orange socks and shoes, along with block-style numerals trimmed in navy blue that mirrored the team's 1968–1996 uniform style.", "Due to the NFL's one-helmet rule implemented in 2013, the helmets remained the same, with the team temporarily replacing the modern primary logo with the throwback \"D-horse\" logo.", "The same uniform was used for a Thursday night game against the Indianapolis Colts during the season and again during a 2018 game against the Pittsburgh Steelers.", "In a Week 2 game vs. the Washington Commanders in 2023, the Broncos wore their white jerseys at home for the first time since 2003, to honor the 25th anniversary of the Super Bowl XXXIII team.", "Starting in 2023, the Color Rush uniforms were paired with a white alternate helmet, again using the modernized \"D-horse\" logo." ], [ "Statistics and records", "===Season-by-season records===" ], [ "Players of note", "===Current roster======50th Anniversary Team (2009)===The Denver Broncos announced the club's 50th anniversary team on September 15, 2009.The anniversary team was voted on by users at DenverBroncos.com from June 6 – September 4, 2009.===Retired numbers===Denver Broncos retired numbersNo.PlayerPositionCareerRetired '''7''' John Elway QB 1983–1998 September 13, 1999 '''18''' Frank Tripucka QB 1960–1963 1963–2012 QB '''44''' Floyd Little RB 1967–1975 1984'''† Note:''' No.", "18 was re-issued for Peyton Manning after Tripucka gave his approval; it was used by Manning from the 2012 season until his retirement after the 2015 season.", "Manning's name was added to the retired number's banner as an honorable mention.===Pro Football Hall of Famers===Hall of Fame CB Champ BaileyHall of Fame RB Terrell DavisHall of Fame QB John ElwayHall of Fame RB Floyd LittleHall of Fame TE Shannon SharpeDenver Broncos Hall of FamersPlayers No.", "Name Position(s) Season(s) Inducted 24 Brown, WillieWillie Brown CB 1963–1966 1984 33 RB 1988 1994 7 '''''' QB 1983–1998 2004 65 '''''' OT 1993–1997 2008 44 '''''' RB 1967–1975 2010 84 '''''' TE 1990–19992002–2003 2011 30 '''''' RB 1995–2001 2017 20 SS 2009–2011 2018 24 '''''' CB 2004–2013 2019 26 CB 2009 2019 27 '''''' FS 1989–1998 2020 47 SS 2004–2007 2021 18 QB 2012–2015 2021 94 LB 2014–2016 2023 52, 53 '''''' LB 1974–1983 2024Coaches and ContributorsName Position(s) Season(s) Inducted'''''' Owner/CEO 1984–2019 2019===Ring of Fame===The Broncos have a Ring of Fame on the Level 5 facade of Empower Field at Mile High, which honors the following:Denver Broncos Ring of FameNo.NamePosition(s)SeasonsInducted '''23''' Goose Gonsoulin S 1960–1966 1984 '''87''' Rich Jackson DE 1967–1972 1984 '''44''' Floyd Little RB 1967–1975 1984 '''87''' Lionel Taylor WR 1960–1966 1984 — Gerald Phipps Owner 1961–1981 1985 '''12''' Charley Johnson QB 1972–1975 1986 '''70''' Paul Smith DE 1968–1978 1986 '''18''' Frank Tripucka QB 1960–1963 1986 '''36''' Billy Thompson CB/S 1969–1981 1987 '''7''' Craig Morton QB 1977–1982 1988 '''25''' Haven Moses WR 1972–1981 1988 '''15''' Jim Turner PK 1971–1979 1988 '''53''' Randy Gradishar LB 1974–1983 1989 '''57''' Tom Jackson LB 1973–1986 1992 '''20''' Louis Wright CB 1975–1986 1993 '''7''' John Elway QBGeneral manager 1983–19982011–2020 1999 '''77''' Karl Mecklenburg LB 1983–1995 2001 '''49''' Dennis Smith SS 1981–1994 2001 '''65''' Gary Zimmerman OT 1993–1997 2003 '''27''' Steve Atwater SS 1989–1998 2005 '''30''' Terrell Davis RB 1995–2001 2007 '''84''' Shannon Sharpe TE 1990–1999, 2002–2003 2009 '''80''' Rod Smith WR 1994–2006 2012 '''66''' Tom Nalen C 1994–2007 2013 '''21''' Gene Mingo RB, K, RS 1960–1964 2014 — Dan Reeves Head coach 1981–1992 2014 '''80''' Rick Upchurch WR, RS 1975–1983 2014 — Pat Bowlen Owner 1984–2013 2015 '''1''' Jason Elam PK 1993–2007 2016 '''73''' Simon Fletcher LB/DE 1985–1995 2016 '''47''' John Lynch SS 2004–2007 2016 — Red Miller Head coach 1977–1980 2017 '''24''' Champ Bailey CB 2004–2013 2019 — Mike Shanahan Head coach 1984-1987 (WR Coach / QB Coach / Offensive Coordinator)1989–1991 (QB Coach / Offensive Coordinator)1995–2008 (Head Coach) 2020 '''18''' Peyton Manning QB 2012–2015 2021===Super Bowl MVPs===Super Bowl MVP WinnersSuper BowlPlayerPosition XXXII Terrell Davis RB XXXIII John Elway QB 50 Von Miller LB===Colorado Sports Hall of Fame===" ], [ "Staff and head coaches", "===Head coaches===The current head coach is Sean Payton, who was hired for the 2023 season.", "His predecessor was Nathaniel Hackett.", "On December 26, 2022, ownership announced that Hackett had been fired after he led the team to a disappointing 4–11 record despite entering the season with high expectations.===Current staff===" ], [ "In the media and popular culture", "* Tim McKernan, a.k.a.", "Barrel Man, began wearing a barrel in 1977 after making a $10 (equivalent to $ in ) bet with his brother, Scott, that by wearing one he could get on television.", "McKernan won the bet, and the barrel he had painted to look like an Orange Crush soda can became his signature costume, and resulted in him becoming one of the Broncos' most recognized fans and a popular mascot.", "McKernan died on December 5, 2009.", "* The animated television show ''South Park'', set in Park County, often mentions the Denver Broncos; show creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone both grew up in Colorado as devout Broncos fans.", "* In ''The Simpsons'' season 5 episode Cape Feare, when the family are to be given new identities, Homer imagines himself as John Elway, scoring a (consolation) touchdown against San Francisco.", "Conversely, in the 1996 episode \"You Only Move Twice\", Hank Scorpio gives Homer Simpson the Denver Broncos as a thank-you gift for helping him.", "However, Homer complains that he wanted to own the Dallas Cowboys, as the Broncos team that just arrived are playing very sloppy football on his front lawn (a reference to the team losing four Super Bowl appearances, three by significant margins including Super Bowl XII against Dallas).", "Incidentally, the Broncos were 13–3 in the 1996 season, and won the Super Bowl the next two seasons.", "Only two seasons later in the Super Bowl-centric episode \"Sunday, Cruddy Sunday\", Homer chooses Denver as his Super Bowl XXXIII pick over Moe's choice of the Atlanta Falcons.", "In the episode, \"The Bonfire of the Manatees\", Homer picks the Broncos to win the Super Bowl over the Seattle Seahawks.", "The two teams later did play against each other in Super Bowl XLVIII which aired on Fox, the U.S. home of ''The Simpsons''; but the result was a Seahawks victory instead.", "* In the 1979 ''Mork & Mindy'' episode \"Hold That Mork\", Mork's character, played by Robin Williams, became the first male cheerleader in Broncos' history.", "As a member of the \"Pony Express\", he trotted out on the field at Mile High Stadium during an actual Broncos' game vs. the New England Patriots on November 11, 1979.The episode aired exactly two weeks later.", "* Many former Broncos are now in broadcasting, including Shannon Sharpe, Mark Schlereth, Alfred Williams, Tom Jackson, Ed McCaffrey, Brian Griese, David Diaz-Infante, Terrell Davis and Brandon Stokley.", "Some former Broncos work in radio, KKFN and KDFD in Denver, Colorado.", "* Former tight end and wide receiver Nate Jackson has written and published two nonfiction books, ''Slow Getting Up'' and ''Fantasy Man''.", "His writing about the NFL has appeared in ''Slate'', ''Deadspin'', ''The Daily Beast'', ''The New York Times'', ''The Wall Street Journal'', and ''BuzzFeed'', among others.", "Jackson also co-hosts the ''Caveman Poet Society''." ], [ "Radio and television", "The Broncos' flagship radio station is currently KOA, 850AM, a 50,000-watt station owned by iHeartMedia.", "Dave Logan is the play-by-play announcer, with former Broncos' wide receiver Ed McCaffrey serving as the color commentator beginning in 2012, replacing Brian Griese.", "Ed McCaffrey was replaced by Rick Lewis.", "Until 2010, preseason games not selected for airing on national television were shown on KCNC, channel 4, which is a CBS owned-and-operated station, as well as other CBS affiliates around the Rocky Mountain region.", "On May 26, 2011, the Broncos announced that KUSA channel 9, an NBC affiliate also known as '''9NEWS''' in the Rocky Mountain region, will be the team's new television partner for preseason games.In 2011, the Broncos began a partnership with KJMN, 92.1 FM, a leading Spanish language radio station owned by Entravision Communications (EVC).", "The partnership also includes broadcasting rights for a half-hour weekly TV show on KCEC, the local Univision affiliate operated by Entravision Communications." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* Dater, Adrian (2007) ''The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Denver Broncos: Heart-Pounding, Jaw-Dropping, and Gut-Wrenching Moments from Denver Broncos History''.", "Triumph Books.", "* Frei, Terry (2009) ''77: Denver, The Broncos, and A Coming of Age'' .", "Taylor Trade Publishing.", "* Morton, Craig and Dater, Adrian (2008) ''Then Morton Said to Elway...: The Best Denver Broncos Stories Ever Told'', Triumph Books.", "* Saccomano, Jim (2007) ''Game of My Life: Denver Broncos: Memorable Stories of Broncos Football''.", "Sports Publishing LLC.", "* Saccomano, Jim and Elway, John (2009) ''Denver Broncos: The Complete Illustrated History''.", "MBI Publishing Company, * Sandler, Michael (2007) ''John Elway and the Denver Broncos: Super Bowl XXXIII''.", "Bearport Publishing Company.", "* Stewart, Mark (2006)''The Denver Broncos''.", "Norwood House Press.", "* Zimmer, Larry (2004) ''Denver Broncos: Colorful Tales of the Orange and Blue''.", "Globe Pequot Press." ], [ "External links", "* * Denver Broncos at the National Football League official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "D" ], [ "Introduction", "'''D''', or '''d''', is the fourth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide.", "Its name in English is ''dee'' (pronounced ), plural ''dees''." ], [ "History", " Egyptian hieroglyph door, fish Phoenician ''daleth'' Greek ''Delta'' Etruscan D Latin DO31K1K2 35x35px 55px 30px Latin DThe Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door.", "There are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this.", "In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented ; in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was archaic, but still retained (see letter B).", "The equivalent Greek letter is Delta, Δ." ], [ "Architecture", "The minuscule (lower-case) form of 'd' consists of a lower-story left bowl and a stem ascender.", "It most likely developed by gradual variations on the majuscule (capital) form 'D', and today now composed as a stem with a full lobe to the right.", "In handwriting, it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a serif at the top of the arc.", "This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke and loop.", "The angled stroke slowly developed into a vertical stroke." ], [ "Use in writing systems", "German for \"Germany\"), on a boundary stone at the border between Austria and Germany.", "In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, and in the International Phonetic Alphabet, generally represents the voiced alveolar or voiced dental plosive .", "However, in the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound in northern dialects or in southern dialects.", "(See D with stroke and Dz (digraph).)", "In Fijian it represents a prenasalized stop .", "In some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, represents an unaspirated , while represents an aspirated .", "Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo and the Pinyin transliteration of Mandarin.", "D is the tenth most frequently used letter in the English language." ], [ "Other uses", "* The Roman numeral D represents the number 500.", "* D is the grade below C but above E/F in the school grading system.", "* D is the International vehicle registration code for Germany (see also .de).", "* In Cantonese: Because the lack of Unicode CJK support in early computer systems, many Hong Kongers and Singaporeans used the capitalized D to represent (lit.", "a little).", "* In the Gregory-Aland system for cataloging Biblical manuscripts, D can refer to documents in the Western text-type tradition, either Codex Bezae or Codex Claromontanus.", "* d. is the standard abbreviation for the Penny (British pre-decimal coin) (from )" ], [ "Related characters", "===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet===Ɖ ɖ : African DÐ ð : Latin letter EthD with diacritics: Đ đ Ꟈ ꟈ Ɗ ɗ Ḋ ḋ Ḍ ḍ Ḑ ḑ Ḓ ḓ Ď ď Ḏ ḏPhonetic symbols related to D: Symbols related to D used in the IPA: Symbols related to D used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet: Superscript IPA letters: 𐞋 𐞌 𐞍 Other phonetic symbols related to D: ȡ ᵭ ᶁ ᶑƋ ƌ : D with topbar𝼥 : D with mid-height left hook - Used by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the early 20th century for romanization of the Malayalam language.", "Ꝺ ꝺ : Insular D is used in various phonetic contexts===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets===𐤃 : Semitic letter Dalet, from which the following symbols originally deriveΔ δ : Greek letter Delta, from which the following symbols originally derive* : Coptic letter Delta*Д д : Cyrillic letter De𐌃 : Old Italic D, the ancestor of modern Latin D* : Runic letter dagaz, which is possibly a descendant of Old Italic D Runic letter thurisaz, another possible descendant of Old Italic D* : Gothic letter daaz, which derives from Greek Delta===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations===₫ : Đồng signⅆ : Unicode symbol for d used as derivative symbol∂ : the partial derivative symbol," ], [ "Code points <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Computing codes\"></span>", "These are the code points for the forms of the letter in various systems: 1" ], [ "Other representations", "In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'd' is indicated by signing with the right hand held with the index and thumb extended and slightly curved, and the tip of the thumb and finger held against the extended index of the left hand." ], [ "Use as a number", "In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, D is a number that corresponds to the number 13 in decimal (base 10) counting.", "In the binary (base 2) numbering system, D is denoted by 1101." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Delta (letter)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Delta''' (; uppercase '''Δ''', lowercase '''δ'''; , ''délta'', ) is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet.", "In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 4.It was derived from the Phoenician letter dalet 𐤃.", "Letters that come from delta include Latin D and Cyrillic Д.A river delta (originally, the delta of the Nile River) is so named because its shape approximates the triangular uppercase letter delta.", "Contrary to a popular legend, this use of the word ''delta'' was not coined by Herodotus." ], [ "Pronunciation", "In Ancient Greek, delta represented a voiced dental plosive .", "In Modern Greek, it represents a voiced dental fricative , like the \"th\" in \"that\" or \"this\" (while in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as ντ).", "Delta is romanized as ''d'' or ''dh''." ], [ "Uppercase", "The uppercase letter Δ is used to denote:* Change of any changeable quantity, in mathematics and the sciences (in particular, the difference operator); for example, in the average change of ''y'' per unit ''x'' (i.e.", "the change of ''y'' over the change of ''x'').", "Delta is the initial letter of the Greek word ''diaphorá'', \"difference\".", "(The small Latin letter '''d''' is used in much the same way for the notation of derivatives and differentials, which also describe change by infinitesimal amounts.", ")* The Laplace operator:: The discriminant of a polynomial equation, especially the quadratic equation:: The area of a triangle: The symmetric difference of two sets.", "* A macroscopic change in the value of a variable in mathematics or science.", "* Uncertainty in a physical variable as seen in the uncertainty principle.", "* An interval of possible values for a given quantity.", "* Any of the delta particles in particle physics.", "* The determinant of the matrix of coefficients of a set of linear equations (see Cramer's rule).", "* That an associated locant number represents the location of a covalent bond in an organic compound, the position of which is variant between isomeric forms.", "* A simplex, simplicial complex, or convex hull.", "* In chemistry, the addition of heat in a reaction.", "* In legal shorthand, it represents a defendant.", "* In the financial markets, one of the Greeks, describing the rate of change of an option price for a given change in the underlying benchmark.", "* A major seventh chord in jazz music notation.", "* In genetics, it can stand for a gene deletion (e.g.", "the CCR5-Δ32, a 32 nucleotide/bp deletion within CCR5).", "* The American Dental Association cites it (together with omicron for \"odont\") as the symbol of dentistry.", "* The anonymous signature of James David Forbes.", "* Determinacy (having a definite truth-value) in philosophical logic.", "* In mathematics, the symbol ≜ (delta over equals) is occasionally used to define a new variable or function." ], [ "Lowercase", "The alphabet on a black figure vessel, with a D-shaped delta.The lowercase letter δ (or 𝛿) can be used to denote:* A change in the value of a variable in calculus* A functional derivative in functional calculus* An auxiliary function in calculus, used to rigorously define the limit or continuity of a given function* The Kronecker delta in mathematics* The degree of a vertex (graph theory)* The Dirac delta function in mathematics* The transition function in automata* Deflection in engineering mechanics* The force of interest in actuarial science* The chemical shift of nuclear magnetic resonance in chemistry* The relative electronegativity of different atoms in a molecule, δ− being more electronegative than δ+* Text requiring deletion in proofreading; the usage is said to date back to classical times* In some of the manuscripts written by Dr. John Dee, the character of delta is used to represent Dee* A subunit of the F1 sector of the F-ATPase* The declination of an object in the equatorial coordinate system of astronomy* The dividend yield in the Black–Scholes option pricing formula* Ratios of environmental isotopes, such as 18O/16O and D/1H from water are displayed using delta notation – δ18O and δD, respectively* The rate of depreciation of the aggregate capital stock of an economy in an exogenous growth model in macroeconomics* In a system that exhibits electrical reactance, the angle between voltage and current* Partial charge in chemistry* The maximum birrefringence of a crystal in optical mineralogy.", "* An Old Irish voiced dental or alveolar fricative of uncertain articulation, the ancestor of the sound represented by Modern Irish ''dh''" ], [ "Computer encodings", "* Greek Delta / Coptic Dalda* Latin Delta* Technical and Mathematical symbols* Mathematical DeltaThese characters are used only as mathematical symbols.", "Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style." ], [ "See also", "* Arrow (symbol)* Chevron (insignia)* ∆ (disambiguation)* D, d* Д, д* ẟ - Latin delta* ∂ - the partial derivative symbol, sometimes mistaken for a lowercase Greek letter Delta.", "* ð - the small eth appears similar to a small delta, and also represents a ''d'' sound in some contexts* Th (digraph)* Thorn (letter)* Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering* ∇ - Nabla symbol* Delta Air Lines* SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digamma" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Digamma''' or '''wau''' (uppercase: Ϝ, lowercase: ϝ, numeral: ϛ) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet.", "It originally stood for the sound but it has remained in use principally as a Greek numeral for 6.Whereas it was originally called ''waw'' or ''wau'', its most common appellation in classical Greek is ''digamma''; as a numeral, it was called ''episēmon'' during the Byzantine era and is now known as ''stigma'' after the Byzantine ligature combining σ-τ as ϛ.Digamma or wau was part of the original archaic Greek alphabet as initially adopted from Phoenician.", "Like its model, Phoenician waw, it represented the voiced labial-velar approximant and stood in the 6th position in the alphabet between epsilon and zeta.", "It is the consonantal doublet of the vowel letter upsilon (), which was also derived from waw but was placed near the end of the Greek alphabet.", "Digamma or wau is in turn the ancestor of the Latin letter F. As an alphabetic letter, it is attested in archaic and dialectal ancient Greek inscriptions until the classical period.The shape of the letter went through a development from x16px through x16px, x16px, x16px, x16px to x16px or x16px, which at that point was conflated with the σ-τ ligature x16px.", "In modern print, a distinction is made between the letter in its original alphabetic role as a consonant sign, which is rendered as \"Ϝ\" or its modern lowercase variant \"ϝ\", and the numeric symbol, which is represented by \"ϛ\".", "In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the digraph ." ], [ "Greek w", "===Mycenaean Greek===File:Ceramic fragment with WANAKTI inscription.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Ancient Greek ceramic fragment depicting a horse with rider.", "The inscription reads ...Ι ϜΑΝΑΚΤΙ (...i wanakti), \"to the king\", with an initial digamma (and a local Σ-shaped form for iota).The sound existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in Linear B and archaic Greek inscriptions using digamma.", "It is also confirmed by the Hittite name of Troy, ''Wilusa'', corresponding to the Greek name ''Wilion'', classical ''Ilion'' (Ilium).===Classical Greek===The sound was lost at various times in various dialects, mostly before the classical period.In Ionic, had probably disappeared before Homer's epics were written down (7th century BC), but its former presence can be detected in many cases because its omission left the meter defective.", "For example, the word (\"(tribal) king, lord, (military) leader\"), found in the Iliad, would have originally been (and is attested in this form in Mycenaean Greek), and the word (\"wine\"), are sometimes used in the meter where a word starting with a consonant would be expected.", "Further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that was earlier (compare Cretan Doric and Latin , which is the origin of English ''wine'').", "There have been editions of the Homeric epics where the wau was re-added, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these have largely fallen out of favour.Aeolian was the dialect that kept the sound longest.", "In discussions by ancient Greek grammarians of the Hellenistic era, the letter is therefore often described as a characteristic Aeolian feature.Loanwords that entered Greek before the loss of lost that sound when Greek did.", "For instance, Oscan ('land of the male calves', compare 'yearling, male calf') gave rise to the Greek word .", "The Adriatic tribe of the Veneti was called in .", "In loanwords that entered the Greek language after the drop of , the phoneme was once again registered, compare for example the spelling of for ''vates''.===Pamphylian digamma===Pamphylian digammaIn some local (''epichoric'') alphabets, a variant glyph of the letter digamma existed that resembled modern Cyrillic И.", "In one local alphabet, that of Pamphylia, this variant form existed side by side with standard digamma as two distinct letters.", "It has been surmised that in this dialect the sound may have changed to labiodental in some environments.", "The F-shaped letter may have stood for the new sound, while the special И-shaped form signified those positions where the old sound was preserved." ], [ "Numeral", "Digamma/wau remained in use in the system of Greek numerals attributed to Miletus, where it stood for the number 6, reflecting its original place in the sequence of the alphabet.", "It was one of three letters that were kept in this way in addition to the 24 letters of the classical alphabet, the other two being koppa (ϙ) for 90, and sampi (ϡ) for 900.During their history in handwriting in late antiquity and the Byzantine era, all three of these symbols underwent several changes in shape, with digamma ultimately taking the form of \"ϛ\".It has remained in use as a numeral in Greek to the present day, in contexts comparable to those where Latin numerals would be used in English, for instance in regnal numbers of monarchs or in enumerating chapters in a book, although in practice the letter sequence ΣΤ΄ is much more common." ], [ "Glyph development", "The alphabet on a black figure vessel, with a square-C digamma.===Epigraphy===Digamma was derived from Phoenician waw, which was shaped roughly like a Y (x14px).", "Of the two Greek reflexes of waw, digamma retained the alphabetic position, but had its shape modified to x16px, while the upsilon retained the original shape but was placed in a new alphabetic position.", "Early Crete had an archaic form of digamma somewhat closer to the original Phoenician, x16px, or a variant with the stem bent sidewards (x16px).", "The shape x16px, during the archaic period, underwent a development parallel to that of epsilon (which changed from x16px to \"E\", with the arms becoming orthogonal and the lower end of the stem being shed off).", "For digamma, this led to the two main variants of classical \"F\" and square x16px.The latter of these two shapes became dominant when used as a numeral, with \"F\" only very rarely employed in this function.", "However, in Athens, both of these were avoided in favour of a number of alternative numeral shapes (Ϝ, Ϝ, Ϝ, Ϝ, 5, 6).=== Early handwriting ===A fragment of Papyrus 115, showing the number \"\" (616, the \"Number of the Beast\"), with a C-shaped digamma.In cursive handwriting, the square-C form developed further into a rounded form resembling a \"C\" (found in papyrus manuscripts as x16px, on coins sometimes as x16px).", "It then developed a downward tail at the end (x16px, x16px) and finally adopted a shape like a Latin \"s\" (x16px) These cursive forms are also found in stone inscriptions in late antiquity.=== Conflation with the στ ligature ===Two instances of s-shaped numeral digamma in the number \"9996 4/6\" () in a minuscule mathematical manuscript, c.1100 AD.", "Below, a phrase containing two instances of the ligature \"στ\" (\"\"), still distinguished from the numeral.In the ninth and tenth centuries, the cursive shape digamma was visually conflated with a ligature of sigma (in its historical \"lunate\" form) and tau (x14px + x14px = x16px, x16px).", "The στ-ligature had become common in minuscule handwriting from the 9th century onwards.", "Both closed (x16px) and open (x16px) forms were subsequently used without distinction both for the ligature and for the numeral.", "The ligature took on the name of \"''stigma''\" or \"''sti''\", and the name stigma is today applied to it both in its textual and in the numeral function.", "The association between its two functions as a numeral and as a sign for \"st\" became so strong that in modern typographic practice in Greece, whenever the ϛʹ sign itself is not available, the letter sequences στʹ or ΣΤʹ are used instead for the number 6.=== Typography ===In western typesetting during the modern era, the numeral symbol was routinely represented by the same character as the ''stigma'' ligature (ϛ).", "In normal text, this ligature together with numerous others continued to be used widely until the early nineteenth century, following the style of earlier minuscule handwriting, but ligatures then gradually dropped out of use.", "The ''stigma'' ligature was among those that survived longest, but it too became obsolete in print after the mid-19th century.", "Today it is used only to represent the numeric digamma, and never to represent the sequence στ in text.Along with the other special numeric symbols koppa and sampi, numeric digamma/stigma normally has no distinction between uppercase and lowercase forms, (while other alphabetic letters can be used as numerals in both cases).", "Distinct uppercase versions were occasionally used in the 19th century.", "Several different shapes of uppercase stigma can be found, with the lower end either styled as a small curved S-like hook (x16px), or as a straight stem, the latter either with a serif (x16px) or without one (x16px).", "An alternative uppercase stylization in some twentieth-century fonts is x16px, visually a ligature of Roman-style uppercase C and T.The characters used for numeric digamma/stigma are distinguished in modern print from the character used to represent the ancient alphabetic digamma, the letter for the w sound.", "This is rendered in print by a Latin \"F\", or sometimes a variant of it specially designed to fit in typographically with Greek (Ϝ).", "It has a modern lowercase form (ϝ) that typically differs from Latin \"f\" by having two parallel horizontal strokes like the uppercase character, with the vertical stem often being somewhat slanted to the right or curved, and usually descending below the baseline.", "This character is used in Greek epigraphy to transcribe the text of ancient inscriptions that contain \"Ϝ\", and in linguistics and historical grammar when describing reconstructed proto-forms of Greek words that contained the sound ." ], [ "Glyph confusion", "Example of a nineteenth-century font using S-shaped capital Stigma (first row) and G-shaped capital Koppa (second row).Example of a nineteenth-century font using turned-lamedh-shaped capital Koppa and G-shaped capital Stigma.Stigma and Koppa in modern fonts.Throughout much of its history, the shape of digamma/stigma has often been very similar to that of other symbols, with which it can easily be confused.", "In ancient papyri, the cursive C-shaped form of numeric digamma is often indistinguishable from the C-shaped (\"lunate\") form that was then the common form of sigma.", "The similarity is still found today, since both the modern stigma (ϛ) and modern final sigma (ς) look identical or almost identical in most fonts; both are historically continuations of their ancient C-shaped forms with the addition of the same downward flourish.", "If the two characters are distinguished in print, the top loop of stigma tends to be somewhat larger and to extend farther to the right than that of final sigma.", "The two characters are, however, always distinguishable from the context in modern usage, both in numeric notation and in text: the final form of sigma never occurs in numerals (the number 200 being always written with the medial sigma, σ), and in normal Greek text the sequence \"στ\" can never occur word-finally.The medieval s-like shape of digamma (x16px) has the same shape as a contemporary abbreviation for (\"and\").Yet another case of glyph confusion exists in the printed uppercase forms, this time between stigma and the other numeral, koppa (90).", "In ancient and medieval handwriting, koppa developed from x16px through x16px, x16px, x16px to x16px.", "The uppercase forms x16px and x16px can represent either koppa or stigma.", "Frequent confusion between these two values in contemporary printing was already noted by some commentators in the eighteenth century.", "The ambiguity continues in modern fonts, many of which continue to have glyph similar to x16px for either koppa or stigma." ], [ "Names", "The symbol has been called by a variety of different names, referring either to its alphabetic or its numeral function or both.===Wau===''Wau'' (variously rendered as ''vau'', ''waw'' or similarly in English) is the original name of the alphabetic letter for in ancient Greek.", "It is often cited in its reconstructed acrophonic spelling \"\".", "This form itself is not historically attested in Greek inscriptions, but the existence of the name can be inferred from descriptions by contemporary Latin grammarians, who render it as ''vau''.", "In later Greek, where both the letter and the sound it represented had become inaccessible, the name is rendered as or .", "In the 19th century, ''vau'' in English was a common name for the symbol ϛ in its numerical function, used by authors who distinguished it both from the alphabetic \"digamma\" and from ϛ as a στ ligature.===Digamma===The name ''digamma'' was used in ancient Greek and is the most common name for the letter in its alphabetic function today.", "It literally means \"double gamma\" and is descriptive of the original letter's shape, which looked like a ''Γ'' (gamma) placed on top of another.===Episemon===The name ''episēmon'' was used for the numeral symbol during the Byzantine era and is still sometimes used today, either as a name specifically for digamma/stigma, or as a generic term for the whole group of extra-alphabetic numeral signs (digamma, koppa and sampi).", "The Greek word \"\", from (''epi-'', \"on\") and (''sēma'', \"sign\"), literally means \"a distinguishing mark\", \"a badge\", but is also the neuter form of the related adjective \"\" (\"distinguished\", \"remarkable\").", "This word was connected to the number \"six\" through early Christian mystical numerology.", "According to an account of the teachings of the heretic Marcus given by the church father Irenaeus, the number six was regarded as a symbol of Christ, and was hence called \"\" (\"the outstanding number\"); likewise, the name (''Jesus''), having six letters, was \"\" (\"the outstanding name\"), and so on.", "The sixth-century treatise ''About the Mystery of the Letters'', which also links the six to Christ, calls the number sign ''to Episēmon'' throughout.", "The same name is still found in a fifteenth-century arithmetical manual by the Greek mathematician Nikolaos Rabdas.", "It is also found in a number of western European accounts of the Greek alphabet written in Latin during the early Middle Ages.", "One of them is the work ''De loquela per gestum digitorum'', a didactic text about arithmetics attributed to the Venerable Bede, where the three Greek numerals for 6, 90 and 900 are called \"episimon\", \"cophe\" and \"enneacosis\" respectively.", "From Beda, the term was adopted by the seventeenth century humanist Joseph Justus Scaliger.", "However, misinterpreting Beda's reference, Scaliger applied the term ''episēmon'' not as a name proper for digamma/6 alone, but as a cover term for all three numeral letters.", "From Scaliger, the term found its way into modern academic usage in this new meaning, of referring to complementary numeral symbols standing outside the alphabetic sequence proper, in Greek and other similar scripts.===Gabex or Gamex===In one remark in the context of a biblical commentary, the 4th century scholar Ammonius of Alexandria is reported to have mentioned that the numeral symbol for 6 was called ''gabex'' by his contemporaries.", "The same reference in Ammonius has alternatively been read as ''gam(m)ex'' by some modern authors.", "Ammonius as well as later theologians discuss the symbol in the context of explaining the apparent contradiction and variant readings between the gospels in assigning the death of Jesus either to the \"third hour\" or \"sixth hour\", arguing that the one numeral symbol could easily have been substituted for the other through a scribal error.===Stigma===The name \"stigma\" () was originally a common Greek noun meaning \"a mark, dot, puncture\" or generally \"a sign\", from the verb στίζω (\"to puncture\").", "It had an earlier writing-related special meaning, being the name for a dot as a punctuation mark, used for instance to mark shortness of a syllable in the notation of rhythm.", "It was then co-opted as a name specifically for the στ ligature, evidently because of the acrophonic value of its initial ''st-'' as well as the analogy with the name of sigma.", "Other names coined according to the same analogical principle are ''sti'' or ''stau''." ], [ "Computer encodings", " Greek Digamma / Stigma* Coptic Digamma" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Peter T. Daniels – William Bright (edd.", "), ''The World's Writing Systems'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.", "* Jean Humbert, ''Histoire de la langue grecque'', Paris, 1972.", "* Michel Lejeune, ''Phonétique historique du mycénien et du grec ancien'', Klincksieck, Paris, 1967.", "* \"In Search of The Trojan War\", pp.", "142–143,187 by Michael Wood, 1985, published by BBC." ], [ "External links", "*Perseus Project: lexicon search for words starting with or containing digamma" ] ]	wikipedia

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