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[ [ "Davy Jones (musician)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Thomas Jones''' (30 December 1945 – 29 February 2012) was an English actor and singer.", "Best known as a member of the band The Monkees and a co-star of the TV series ''The Monkees'' (1966–1968), Jones was considered a teen idol.Aside from his work on ''The Monkees'' TV show, Jones's acting credits include a Tony-nominated performance as the Artful Dodger in the original London and Broadway productions of ''Oliver!''", "and a guest-starring role in a hallmark episode of ''The Brady Bunch'' television show and a later reprised parody film." ], [ "Early life", "David Thomas Jones was born on 30 December 1945 in Openshaw, England, to Harry and Doris Jones.", "He had three sisters: Hazel, Lynda and Beryl.", "Jones' mother died from emphysema when he was 14 years of age." ], [ "Career as actor and singer", "=== Early days (1961–1965) ===Jones in a 1965 ad for his Colpix single \"What Are We Going to Do?", "\"Jones' television acting debut was in the British television soap opera ''Coronation Street'', in which he appeared as Colin Lomax, grandson of the regular character Ena Sharples, for one episode on 6 March 1961.He also appeared in the BBC police series ''Z-Cars''.", "Following the death of his mother, Jones rejected acting in favour of becoming a jockey, commencing an apprenticeship with Newmarket trainer Basil Foster.", "He dropped out of secondary school to begin working in that field, but this career was short-lived.", "Even though Foster believed Jones would be successful as a jockey, he encouraged his young protégé to take a role as the Artful Dodger in a production of ''Oliver!''", "in London's West End.", "When approached by a friend who worked in a West End theatre during the show's casting, Foster replied, \"I've got the kid.\"", "Jones's portrayal brought him great acclaim.", "He played the role in London and then on Broadway, and was nominated for a Tony Award.On 9 February 1964, Jones appeared on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' with Georgia Brown, who was playing Nancy in the Broadway production of ''Oliver!''.", "This was the same episode of the show in which the Beatles made their first appearance on U.S. television.", "Jones said of that night, \"I watched the Beatles from the side of the stage, I saw the girls going crazy, and I said to myself, this is it, I want a piece of that.", "\"Following his ''Ed Sullivan'' appearance, Jones signed a contract with Ward Sylvester of Screen Gems (at that time the television division of Columbia Pictures).", "A pair of U.S. television appearances followed, as Jones received screen time in episodes of ''Ben Casey'' and ''The Farmer's Daughter''.Jones debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the week of 14 August 1965, with the single \"What Are We Going To Do?", "\", which peaked at number 93.The 19-year-old singer was signed to Colpix Records, a label owned by Columbia.", "His debut album, ''David Jones'', on the same label, followed soon afterward (CP493).=== The Monkees (1966–1970) ===From 1966 to 1970, Jones was a member of the Monkees, a pop-rock band formed expressly for a television show of the same name.", "With Screen Gems producing the series, Jones was shortlisted for auditions, as he was the only Monkee who was signed to a deal with the studio, but still had to meet the standards of producers Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider.", "Jones sang lead vocals on many of the Monkees' recordings, including \"I Wanna Be Free\" and \"Daydream Believer\".", "The DVD release of the first season of the show contained commentary from the various bandmates.", "In Peter Tork's commentary, he stated that Jones was a good drummer and had the live performance line-up been based solely on playing ability, it ought to have been Tork on guitar, Mike Nesmith on bass, and Jones on drums, with Micky Dolenz taking the fronting role, rather than as it was done (with Nesmith on guitar, Tork on bass, and Dolenz on drums).", "Like Peter Tork, Jones, despite playing mostly tambourine or maracas, was a multi-instrumentalist and would fill in for Tork on bass when he played keyboards and vice versa and for Dolenz on drums when the Monkees performed live concerts.Early photo of the MonkeesThe Monkees officially disbanded in 1970.The NBC television series ''The Monkees'' was popular and remained in syndication.===Post-Monkees career (1970–2012)===Ilene of \"Sunday's Child\" with Jones in the 1972 ABC special ''Pop Goes Davy Jones''Bell Records, then having a string of hits with ''The Partridge Family'', signed Jones to a somewhat inflexible solo record contract in 1971.Jones was not allowed to choose his songs or producer, resulting in several lacklustre and aimless records.", "His second solo album, ''Davy Jones'' (1971) was notable for the song \"Rainy Jane\", which reached No.", "52 in the ''Billboard'' charts.", "To promote the album, Jones performed \"Girl\" on an episode of ''The Brady Bunch'' entitled \"Getting Davy Jones\".", "Although the single sold poorly, the popularity of Jones' appearance on the show resulted in \"Girl\" becoming his best-remembered solo hit, even though it was not included in the album.", "The final single, \"I'll Believe In You\"/\"Road to Love\", was poorly received.====Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart (1976)====Thanks in part to reruns of ''The Monkees'' on Saturday mornings and in syndication, ''The Monkees Greatest Hits'' charted in 1976.The LP, issued by Arista (a subsidiary of Screen Gems), was actually a repackaging of a 1972 compilation LP called ''Refocus'' that had been issued by Arista's previous label imprint, Bell Records, also owned by Screen Gems.Dolenz and Jones took advantage of this, joining ex-Monkees songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart to tour the United States.", "From 1975 to 1977, as the \"Golden Hits of The Monkees\" show (\"The Guys who Wrote 'Em and the Guys who Sang 'Em!", "\"), they successfully performed in smaller venues such as state fairs and amusement parks as well as making stops in Japan, Thailand, and Singapore (although they were forbidden from using the \"Monkees\" name, as it was owned by Screen Gems at the time).", "They also released an album of new material appropriately as ''Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart''; a live album entitled ''Concert in Japan'' was also recorded in 1976, but was not released until 1996.====Further stage and screen appearances (1977–1999)====Jones with Maureen McCormick in the 1971 ''The Brady Bunch'' episode \"Getting Davy Jones\", in which he was a guest starDespite his initial high-profile after the Monkees disbanded, Jones struggled to establish himself as a solo music artist.", "Glenn A. Baker, author of ''Monkeemania: The True Story of the Monkees'', commented in 1986 that \"for an artist as versatile and confident as (Davy) Jones, the relative failure of his post-Monkees activities is puzzling.", "For all his cocky predictions to the press about his future plans, Davy fell into a directionless heap when left to his own devices.", "\"Jones returned to theatre several times after the Monkees disbanded.", "In 1977, he performed with former bandmate Micky Dolenz in a stage production of the Harry Nilsson musical ''The Point!''", "in London at the Mermaid Theatre, playing and singing the starring role of \"Oblio\" to Dolenz' roles as the \"Count's Kid\" and the \"Leafman\", (according to the CD booklet).", "An original cast recording was made and released.", "The comedic chemistry of Jones and Dolenz proved so strong that the show was revived in 1978 with Nilsson inserting additional comedy for the two, plus two more songs, with one of them (\"Gotta Get Up\") being sung by Jones and Dolenz.", "The show was considered so good that it was planned to be revived again in 1979 but it proved cost prohibitive (source CD booklet \"Harry Nilsson's The Point\").", "Jones also appeared in several productions of ''Oliver!''", "as the Artful Dodger, and in 1989 toured the US portraying \"Fagin\".Jones appeared in two episodes each of ''Love, American Style'' and ''My Two Dads''.", "Jones also appeared in animated form as himself in 1972 in an hour-long episode of ''The New Scooby-Doo Movies''.A ''Monkees'' television show marathon (\"Pleasant Valley Sunday\") broadcast on 23 February 1986 by MTV resulted in a wave of Monkeemania not seen since the band's heyday.", "Jones reunited with Dolenz and Peter Tork from 1986 to 1989 to celebrate the band's renewed success and promote the 20th anniversary of the band.", "A new top 20 hit, \"That Was Then, This Is Now\" was released (though Jones did not perform on the song) as well as an album, ''Pool It!", "''In 1996, Jones reunited with Dolenz, Tork and Michael Nesmith to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Monkees.", "The band released a new album entitled ''Justus'', the first album since 1967's ''Headquarters'' that featured the band members performing all instrumental duties.", "It was the last time all four Monkees performed together.Other television appearances include ''Sledge Hammer!", "'', ''Boy Meets World'', ''Hey Arnold!", "'', ''The Single Guy'' (where he is mistaken for Dudley Moore) and ''Sabrina, the Teenage Witch'' in which he sang \"Daydream Believer\" to Sabrina Spellman (played by Melissa Joan Hart) as well as (I'll) Love You Forever.In 1995, Jones acted in a notable episode of the sitcom ''Boy Meets World''.The continued popularity of Jones' 1971 ''Brady Bunch'' appearance led to his being cast as himself in ''The Brady Bunch Movie'' (1995).", "Jones sang his signature solo hit \"Girl\", with a grunge band providing backing, this time with middle-aged women swooning over him.", "Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork also appeared alongside Jones as judges.On 2 August 1996, while The Monkees were on their 30th-anniversary tour in New England, Jones was interviewed on the \"Sports Break\" radio show on WBPS 890-AM in Boston by host Roland Regan about his early days as a jockey and amateur boxer back in England as a youth, and now how he stays in shape by jogging and playing in celebrity tennis tournaments.On 21 June 1997, during a concert at the Los Angeles Coliseum, Jones joined U2's The Edge onstage for a karaoke performance of \"Daydream Believer\", which had become a fixture of the band's set during that year's PopMart Tour.====Later career (2000–2012)====Jones performing in 2011In 2001, Jones released ''Just Me'', an album of his own songs, some written for the album and others originally on Monkees releases.", "In the early 2000s he was performing in the Flower Power Concert Series during Epcot's Flower and Garden Festival, a yearly gig he would continue until his death.In April 2006, Jones recorded the single \"Your Personal Penguin\", written by children's author Sandra Boynton, as a companion piece to her new board book of the same title.In 2007, Jones performed the theme song for the film ''Sexina: Popstar P.I.''.", "On 1 November 2007, the Boynton book and CD titled ''Blue Moo'' was released and Jones is featured in both the book and CD, singing \"Your Personal Penguin\".", "In 2009, Jones released a collection of classics and standards from the 1940s through the 1970s entitled ''She''.In December 2008, ''Yahoo!", "Music'' named Jones the \"Number 1 teen idol of all time\".", "In 2009, Jones was rated second in a list of 10 best teen idols compiled by Fox News.In 2009, Jones made a cameo appearance as himself in the ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' episode \"SpongeBob SquarePants vs.", "The Big One\" (his appearance was meant as a pun on the phrase \"Davy Jones' Locker\").In February 2011, Jones confirmed rumours of another Monkees reunion.", "\"There's even talk of putting the Monkees back together again in the next year or so for a U.S. and UK tour,\" he told Disney's Backstage Pass newsletter.", "\"You're always hearing all those great songs on the radio, in commercials, movies, almost everywhere.\"", "The tour (Jones' last) came to fruition and was entitled ''An Evening with The Monkees: The 45th Anniversary Tour.''" ], [ "Other ventures", "In 1967, Jones opened his first store, called Zilch, at 217 Thompson Street in the Greenwich Village section of New York City.", "The store sold \"hip\" clothing and accessories, and also allowed customers to design their own clothes.After the Monkees disbanded in 1970, Jones kept himself busy by establishing a New York City-style street market in Los Angeles, called \"The Street\", which cost approximately $40,000.He also collaborated with musical director Doug Trevor on a one-hour ABC television special titled ''Pop Goes Davy Jones'', which featured new artists The Jackson 5 and the Osmonds.===Horse racing===In addition to his career as an entertainer, Jones' other great love was horses.", "Having trained as a jockey in his teens in the UK, he had at first intended to pursue a career as a professional race jockey.", "He held an amateur rider's licence, and rode in his first race at Newbury in Berkshire for renowned trainer Toby Balding.On 1 February 1996, Jones won his first race, on Digpast, in the one-mile Ontario Amateur Riders Handicap at Lingfield in Surrey.", "Jones also had horse ownership interests in both the US and the UK, and served as a commercial spokesman for Colonial Downs racetrack in Virginia.", "Following Jones' death, Lingfield announced that the first two races on the racecard for 3 March 2012 would be renamed the \"Hey Hey We're The Monkees Handicap\" and the \"In Memory of Davy Jones Selling Stakes\", with successful horses in those races accompanied into the winners' enclosure by some of the Monkees' biggest hits.", "Plans were also announced to erect a plaque to commemorate Jones next to a Monkey Puzzle tree on the course." ], [ "Personal life", "Jones was married three times and had four children.", "In December 1967, he married Dixie Linda Haines, with whom he had been living.", "Their relationship had been kept out of the public eye until after the birth of their first child in October 1968.It caused a considerable backlash for Jones from his fans when it was finally made public.", "Jones later stated in ''Tiger Beat'' magazine, \"I kept my marriage a secret because I believe stars should be allowed a private life.\"", "Jones and Haines had two daughters, Talia Elizabeth Jones (2 October 1968) and Sarah Lee Jones (3 July 1971).", "The marriage ended in 1975.Jones married his second wife, Anita Pollinger, on 24 January 1981, and also had two daughters.", "Jessica Lillian Jones (4 September 1981) and Annabel Charlotte Jones (26 June 1988).", "The couple divorced in 1996 during the Monkees' 30th-anniversary reunion tour.Jones married Jessica Pacheco in 2009.Jones and his wife appeared on the ''Dr.", "Phil'' show in April 2011.On 28 July 2011, Pacheco filed to divorce Jones in Miami-Dade County, Florida, but dropped the suit in October.", "They were still married when he died in February 2012.Pacheco was omitted from Jones' will, which he had made before their marriage.", "His oldest daughter, whom he named his executrix, was granted by the court the unusual request that her father's will be sealed, on the basis that \"planning documents and financial affairs as public opinion could have a material effect on his copyrights, royalties and ongoing goodwill\".\"" ], [ "Death", "On the morning of 29 February 2012, Jones went to tend his 14 horses at a farm in Indiantown, Florida.", "After riding one of his favourite horses around the track, he complained of chest pains and difficulty breathing and was given antacid pills.", "He got in his car to go home.", "Just after 8:00 a.m., a ranch-hand found him unconscious and an ambulance was called but Jones could not be revived.", "He was taken to Martin Memorial South Hospital in Stuart, Florida, where he died of a heart attack resulting from arteriosclerosis.", "He was 66.On 7 March, a private funeral service was held at Holy Cross Catholic parish church in Indiantown.", "To avoid drawing attention to the grieving family, the three surviving Monkees did not attend.", "Instead, the bandmates attended memorial services in New York City and organised their own private memorial in Los Angeles along with Jones' family and close friends.", "A public memorial service was held on 10 March in Beavertown, Pennsylvania, near a church Jones had purchased for future renovation.On 12 March, a private memorial service was held in Jones' hometown of Openshaw, Manchester, at Lees Street Congregational Church, where Jones performed as a child in church plays.", "Jones' wife and daughters travelled to England to join his relatives based there for the service, and placed his ashes on his parents' graves for a time.===Reaction===The news of Jones' death triggered a surge of Internet traffic, causing sales of the Monkees' music to increase dramatically.Guitarist Michael Nesmith stated that Jones' \"spirit and soul live well in my heart, among all the lovely people, who remember with me the good times, and the healing times, that were created for so many, including us.", "I have fond memories.", "I wish him safe travels.\"", "In an 8 March 2012 interview with ''Rolling Stone'' magazine, Nesmith commented, \"For me, David was the Monkees.", "They were his band.", "We were his side men.\"", "Bassist Peter Tork said, \"Adios to the Manchester Cowboy\", and speaking to CNN, drummer/singer Micky Dolenz said, \"He was the brother I never had and this leaves a gigantic hole in my heart.\"", "Dolenz claimed that he knew that something bad was about to happen and said \"Can't believe it..", "Still in shock.. had bad dreams all night long.\"", "Dolenz was gratified by the public affection expressed for both Jones and the Monkees in the wake of his bandmate's death.", "\"He was a very well-known and well-loved character and person.", "There are a lot of people who are grieving pretty hard.", "The Monkees obviously had a following, and so did (Jones) on his own.", "So I'm not surprised, but I was flattered and honored to be considered one of his friends and a cohort in Monkee business.", "\"''The Monkees'' co-creator Bob Rafelson commented that Jones \"deserves a lot of credit, let me tell you.", "He may not have lived as long as we wanted him to, but he survived about seven lifetimes, including being perhaps the biggest rock star of his time.", "\"''Brady Bunch'' co-star Maureen McCormick commented that \"Davy was a beautiful soul,\" and that he \"spread love and goodness around the world.", "He filled our lives with happiness, music, and joy.", "He will live on in our hearts forever.", "May he rest in peace.\"Yahoo!", "Music commented that Jones' death \"hit so many people so hard\" because \"Monkees nostalgia cuts across generations: from the people who discovered the band during their original 1960s run; to the kids who came of age watching 1970s reruns; to the 20- and 30-somethings who discovered the Monkees when MTV (a network that owes much to the Monkees' influence) began airing old episodes in 1986.", "\"''Time'' contributor James Poniewozik praised the Monkees' classic sitcom, and Jones in particular, saying, \"even if the show never meant to be more than entertainment and a hit-single generator, we shouldn't sell ''The Monkees'' short.", "It was far better television than it had to be; during an era of formulaic domestic sitcoms and wacky comedies, it was a stylistically ambitious show, with a distinctive visual style, absurdist sense of humor and unusual story structure.", "Whatever Jones and the Monkees were meant to be, they became creative artists in their own right, and Jones' chipper Brit-pop presence was a big reason they were able to produce work that was commercial, wholesome, and yet impressively weird.", "\"''Mediaite'' columnist Paul Levinson noted, \"The Monkees were the first example of something created in a medium – in this case, a rock band on television – that jumped off the screen to have big impact in the real world.\"" ], [ "Filmography", "+ Film Year Title Role Notes 1968 ''Head'' Davy Credited as David Jones 1971 ''Lollipops, Roses and Talangka'' Davy Credited as David Jones.", "Sings Monkees era tune \"French Song\" 1973 ''Treasure Island'' Jim Hawkins Voice 1974 ''Oliver Twist'' The Artful Dodger Voice 1995 ''The Brady Bunch Movie'' Himself 2004 ''The J-K Conspiracy'' Himself 2007 ''Sexina'' Singer Alternative title: ''Sexina: Popstar P.I.''", "2011 ''Goldberg P.I.''", "Davy Jones Alternative title: ''Jackie Goldberg Private Dick''+ Television Year Title Role Notes 1960 ''BBC Sunday-Night Play'' Episode: \"Summer Theatre: June Evening\" 1961 ''Coronation Street'' Colin Lomax Episode #1.25Credited as David Jones 1962 ''Z-Cars'' Various roles 3 episodesCredited as David Jones 1964 ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' Cast of ''Oliver!''", "Appeared on same episode as The Beatles on 9 February 1964 1965 ''Ben Casey'' Gregg Carter Episode: \"If You Play Your Cards Right, You Too Can Be a Loser\"Credited as David Jones 1966 ''The Farmer's Daughter'' Roland Episode: \"Moe Hill and the Mountains\"Credited as David Jones 1966–1968 ''The Monkees'' Davy 58 episodesCredited as David Jones 1969 ''Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In'' Guest performer Episodes #2.19, 3.11 1970 ''Make Room for Granddaddy'' Himself Episode: \"The Teen Idol\" 1970–1973 ''Love, American Style'' Various roles 2 episodes 1971 ''The Brady Bunch'' Davy Jones Episode: \"Getting Davy Jones\"Credited as David Jones 1972 ''The New Scooby-Doo Movies'' Himself Voice, Episode: \"The Haunted Horseman in Hagglethorn Hall\" 1977 ''The Wonderful World of Disney'' Davey Sanders Episode: \"The Bluegrass Special\" 1979 ''Horse in the House'' Frank Tyson 2 episodes 1986 ''New Love, American Style'' Episode: \"Love-a-Gram/Love and the Apartment\" 1988 ''Sledge Hammer!''", "Jerry Vicuna Episode: \"Sledge, Rattle 'n' Roll\" 1988–1989 ''My Two Dads'' Malcolm O'Dell 2 episodes 1991 ''ABC Afterschool Special'' Albert Lynch Episode: \"It's Only Rock & Roll\" 1991 ''Trainer'' Steve Moorcroft Episode: \"No Way to Treat a Lady\" 1992 ''Herman's Head'' Himself Episode: \"The One Where They Go on the Love Boat\" 1995 ''Boy Meets World'' Reg, Reginald Fairfield!", "Episode: \"Rave On\" 1996 ''Lush Life'' Johnny James Episode: \"The Not So Lush Rock Star\" 1996 ''The Single Guy'' Himself Episode: \"Davy Jones\" 1997 ''Sabrina, the Teenage Witch'' Himself Episode: \"Dante's Inferno\" 2002 ''Hey Arnold!''", "Himself Voice, Episode: \"Gerald's Game/Fishing Trip\" 2006 ''Extreme Makeover: Home Edition'' Himself Episode: \"The Craft Family (#3.34)\" 2009 ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' Himself Episode: \"SpongeBob SquarePants vs.", "The Big One\" 2011 ''The Dreamsters: Welcome to the Dreamery'' Davy Jones Television movie 2011 ''Phineas and Ferb'' Nigel Voice, Episode: \"Meatloaf Surprise\"" ], [ "Discography", "=== Albums ===''David Jones'' (1965)''Davy Jones'' (1971)''The Point'' (1978)''Incredible Revisited'' (1988)''It's Christmas Time Again'' (1991)''Just Me'' (2001)''Just Me 2'' (2004)''She'' (2009)" ], [ "Books", "* ''They Made a Monkee Out of Me'', autobiography (print book) by Davy Jones, Dome PR, 1987, .", "* ''They Made a Monkee Out of Me: Davy Jones Reads His Autobiography'', (audiobook), Dove Entertainment Inc (November 1988).", "* ''Mutant Monkees Meet the Masters of the Multimedia Manipulation Machine!''", "Written with Alan Green, Click!", "Publishing, First Edition, 1992, (softcover) * ''Daydream Believin'', Hercules Promotions, First Edition, (2000)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* – Davy Jones* * * Interview with Davy Jones" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Discharge" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Discharge''' may refer to" ], [ "Expel or let go", "* Discharge, the act of firing a gun* Discharge, or termination of employment, the end of an employee's duration with an employer* Military discharge, the release of a member of the armed forces from service" ], [ "Flow", "* Discharge (hydrology), the amount of water flowing through the channel Effluent released into a river or sea Groundwater discharge, the volumetric flow rate of groundwater through an aquifer* Discharging method (discrete mathematics) is a proof technique in discrete mathematics* Electric discharge: Corona discharge, a type of electric current Direct-current discharge, a plasma Discharger, an electrical device that releases stored energy* Battery discharging* Static discharger, a device used on airplanes to maintain use of electrical equipment Electrostatic discharge, sudden and momentary electric current flows between two objects* Dielectric barrier discharge, the electrical discharge between two electrodes separated by an insulating dielectric barrier Gas-discharge lamp, a light bulb that includes a discharge gas** Partial discharge, a temporary breakdown of electrical insulation" ], [ "Government and Law", "* Discharge (sentence), a criminal sentence where no punishment is imposed* Bankruptcy discharge, the injunction that bars acts to enforce certain debts* Discharge petition, the process of bringing a bill out of committee to the floor for a vote without the cooperation of leadership" ], [ "Healthcare", "* Discharge, the flow of fluids from certain parts of the body: Menstruation or other vaginal discharge Mucopurulent discharge, the emission or secretion of fluid containing mucus and pus** Nipple discharge, the release of fluid from the nipples of the breasts* Emotional discharge, in co-counselling, the ways in which pent-up emotional hurt can be released, e.g.", "via crying, laughter, etc.", "* Patient discharge, the formal ending of inpatient care" ], [ "Music", "* ''Discharge'' (album), a self-titled album by Discharge released in 2002* Discharge (band), British hardcore punk band* \"Discharge\", a song by Anthrax from ''Persistence of Time''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dolly (sheep)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dolly''' (5 July 1996 – 14 February 2003) was a female Finn-Dorset sheep and the first mammal that was cloned from an adult somatic cell.", "She was cloned by associates of the Roslin Institute in Scotland, using the process of nuclear transfer from a cell taken from a mammary gland.", "Her cloning proved that a cloned organism could be produced from a mature cell from a specific body part.", "Contrary to popular belief, she was not the first animal to be cloned.The employment of adult somatic cells in lieu of embryonic stem cells for cloning emerged from the foundational work of John Gurdon, who cloned African clawed frogs in 1958 with this approach.", "The successful cloning of Dolly led to widespread advancements within stem cell research, including the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells.Dolly lived at the Roslin Institute throughout her life and produced several lambs.", "She was euthanized at the age of six years due to a progressive lung disease.", "No cause which linked the disease to her cloning was found.Dolly's body was preserved and donated by the Roslin Institute in Scotland to the National Museum of Scotland, where it has been regularly exhibited since 2003." ], [ "Genesis", "Dolly was cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh.", "The funding for Dolly's cloning was provided by PPL Therapeutics and the Ministry of Agriculture.", "She was born on 5 July 1996 and died on 14 February 2003 from a progressive lung disease that was considered unrelated to her being a clone.", "She has been called \"the world's most famous sheep\" by sources including BBC News and ''Scientific American''.The cell used as the donor for the cloning of Dolly was taken from a mammary gland, and the production of a healthy clone, therefore, proved that a cell taken from a specific part of the body could recreate a whole individual.", "On Dolly's name, Wilmut stated \"Dolly is derived from a mammary gland cell and we couldn't think of a more impressive pair of glands than Dolly Parton's.\"" ], [ "Birth", "Dolly was born on 5 July 1996 and had three mothers: one provided the egg, another the DNA, and a third carried the cloned embryo to term.", "She was created using the technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer, where the cell nucleus from an adult cell is transferred into an unfertilized oocyte (developing egg cell) that has had its cell nucleus removed.", "The hybrid cell is then stimulated to divide by an electric shock, and when it develops into a blastocyst it is implanted in a surrogate mother.", "Dolly was the first clone produced from a cell taken from an adult mammal.", "The production of Dolly showed that genes in the nucleus of such a mature differentiated somatic cell are still capable of reverting to an embryonic totipotent state, creating a cell that can then go on to develop into any part of an animal.Dolly's existence was announced to the public on 22 February 1997.It gained much attention in the media.", "A commercial with Scottish scientists playing with sheep was aired on TV, and a special report in ''Time'' magazine featured Dolly.", "''Science'' featured Dolly as the breakthrough of the year.", "Even though Dolly was not the first animal cloned, she received media attention because she was the first cloned from an adult cell." ], [ "Life", "The cloning process that produced DollyDolly lived her entire life at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian.", "There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total.", "Her first lamb, named Bonnie, was born in April 1998.The next year Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie, and she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton in 2000.In late 2001, at the age of four, Dolly developed arthritis and began to walk stiffly.", "This was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs." ], [ "Death", "On 14 February 2003, Dolly was euthanised because she had a progressive lung disease and severe arthritis.", "A Finn Dorset such as Dolly has a life expectancy of around 11 to 12 years, but Dolly lived 6.5 years.", "A post-mortem examination showed she had a form of lung cancer called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma, also known as Jaagsiekte, which is a fairly common disease of sheep and is caused by the retrovirus JSRV.", "Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep in the same flock had died of the same disease.", "Such lung diseases are a particular danger for sheep kept indoors, and Dolly had to sleep inside for security reasons.Some in the press speculated that a contributing factor to Dolly's death was that she could have been born with a genetic age of six years, the same age as the sheep from which she was cloned.", "One basis for this idea was the finding that Dolly's telomeres were short, which is typically a result of the aging process.", "The Roslin Institute stated that intensive health screening did not reveal any abnormalities in Dolly that could have come from advanced aging.In 2016, scientists reported no defects in thirteen cloned sheep, including four from the same cell line as Dolly.", "The first study to review the long-term health outcomes of cloning, the authors found no evidence of late-onset, non-communicable diseases other than some minor examples of osteoarthritis and concluded \"We could find no evidence, therefore, of a detrimental long-term effect of cloning by SCNT on the health of aged offspring among our cohort.", "\"After her death Dolly's body was preserved via taxidermy and is currently on display at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh." ], [ "Legacy", "After cloning was successfully demonstrated through the production of Dolly, many other large mammals were cloned, including pigs, deer, horses and bulls.", "The attempt to clone argali (mountain sheep) did not produce viable embryos.", "The attempt to clone a banteng bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone mouflon (a form of wild sheep), both resulting in viable offspring.", "The reprogramming process that cells need to go through during cloning is not perfect and embryos produced by nuclear transfer often show abnormal development.", "Making cloned mammals was highly inefficientin 1996 Dolly was the only lamb that survived to adulthood from 277 attempts.", "By 2014 Chinese scientists were reported to have 70–80% success rates cloning pigs, and in 2016, a Korean company, Sooam Biotech, was producing 500 cloned embryos a day.", "Wilmut, who led the team that created Dolly, announced in 2007 that the nuclear transfer technique may never be sufficiently efficient for use in humans.Cloning may have uses in preserving endangered species, and may become a viable tool for reviving extinct species.", "In January 2009, scientists from the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon in northern Spain announced the cloning of the Pyrenean ibex, a form of wild mountain goat, which was officially declared extinct in 2000.Although the newborn ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs, it is the first time an extinct animal has been cloned, and may open doors for saving endangered and newly extinct species by resurrecting them from frozen tissue.In July 2016, four identical clones of Dolly (Daisy, Debbie, Dianna, and Denise) were alive and healthy at nine years old.", "''Scientific American'' concluded in 2016 that the main legacy of Dolly has not been cloning of animals but in advances into stem cell research.", "After Dolly, researchers realised that ordinary cells could be reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells, which can be grown into any tissue.The first successful cloning of a primate species was reported in January 2018, using the same method which produced Dolly.", "Two identical clones of a macaque monkey, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, were created by researchers in China and were born in late 2017.In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, again using this method, and the gene-editing CRISPR-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana.", "The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases." ], [ "See also", "* ''In re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh)'' – US court decision that determined that Dolly could not be patented" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dolly the Sheep at the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh* Cloning Dolly the Sheep Dolly the Sheep and the importance of animal research* Animal cloning and Dolly* Episode where several items appertaining to Dolly, including wool from a shearing and scientific instruments, were appraised." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dolores Fuller" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dolores Agnes Fuller''' ( '''Eble''', later '''Chamberlin'''; March 10, 1923 – May 9, 2011) was an American actress and songwriter known as the one-time girlfriend of the low-budget film director Ed Wood.", "She played the protagonist's girlfriend in ''Glen or Glenda'', co-starred in Wood's ''Jail Bait'', and had a minor role in his ''Bride of the Monster''.", "After she broke up with Wood in 1955, she relocated to New York and had a very successful career there as a songwriter.", "Elvis Presley recorded a number of her songs written for his films." ], [ "Film career", "Her first screen appearance was at the age of 10, when she appeared briefly in Frank Capra's ''It Happened One Night''.", "According to Fuller, the female lead in ''Bride of the Monster'' was written for her but Wood gave it to Loretta King instead.In August 1954, Fuller was cast in Wood's ''The Vampire's Tomb'', intended to star Bela Lugosi.", "Frank Yaconelli was named as her co-star and 'comic killer'.", "The film was never made.", "She ended up making an appearance in ''Bride of the Monster'' (1956), also with Lugosi.", "Fuller hosted a benefit for Lugosi which preceded the showing of ''Bride of the Atom'' (early working title of ''Bride of the Monster'') on May 11, 1955.A cocktail party was held at the Gardens Restaurant at 4311 Magnolia Avenue in Burbank, California.", "Vampira attended and was escorted by Paul Marco.", "A single screening of the film was presented at the Hollywood Paramount.According to Fuller, as quoted in Wood biography ''Nightmare of Ecstasy'' (1992), she first met Ed Wood when she attended a casting call with a friend for a movie he was supposed to direct called ''Behind Locked Doors'' (which he did not go on to direct); it has also been stated that they met in a restaurant.She became his girlfriend shortly thereafter and began acting in his films.", "Her movie career included a bit part in ''It Happened One Night'' (1934) and roles in ''Outlaw Women'' (1952), ''Glen or Glenda'' (1953), ''Body Beautiful'' (1953), ''The Blue Gardenia'' (1953), ''Count the Hours'' (1953), ''Mesa of Lost Women'' (1953), ''College Capers'' (1954), ''Jail Bait'' (1954), ''The Raid'' (1954), ''This Is My Love'' (1954), ''The Opposite Sex'' (1956), and many years later appearances in ''The Ironbound Vampire'' (1997) and ''Dimensions in Fear'' (1998)." ], [ "Television performer and songwriter", "Fuller had already had earlier experience on television in ''Queen for a Day'' and ''The Dinah Shore Show''.She also appeared on an episode of ''It's a Great Life'' as \"the blonde in the mink coat.", "\"Fuller's ability as a songwriter manifested itself through the intervention of her friend, producer Hal Wallis; Fuller had wanted to get an acting role in the Elvis Presley movie ''Blue Hawaii'', which Wallis was producing, but instead he put her in touch with Hill & Range, the publisher that provided Presley with songs.", "Fuller went into a collaborative partnership with composer Ben Weisman and co-wrote one song, \"Rock-A-Hula Baby\", for the film.", "Over time, this led to Presley recording a dozen of her songs, including \"I Got Lucky\" and \"Spinout\", primarily for his film soundtracks, though he also recorded \"Cindy, Cindy\" for his 1971 album ''Love Letters From Elvis''.", "Fuller's music was also recorded by Nat 'King' Cole, Peggy Lee, and other leading talents of the time.", "Toward the end of her life, Dolores helped edit and score a short western film Ed Wood had begun, but never completed, in the 1940s called ''Crossroads of Laredo''" ], [ "Private life", "Dolores married Donald Fuller in 1941, with whom she had two children.", "At the time she met Ed Wood, she was in the process of divorcing her husband (they finally divorced in 1955).", "She and Wood shared an apartment together for several years.", "Wood biographer Rudolph Grey quotes Fuller as saying of the period before her success, He Ed Wood begged me to marry him.", "I loved him in a way, but I couldn't handle the transvestism.", "I'm a very normal person.", "It's hard for me to deviate!", "I wanted a man that was all man.", "After we broke up, he would stand outside my home in Burbank and cry.", "\"Let me in, I love you!\"", "What good would I have done if I had married him?", "We would have starved together.", "I bettered myself.", "I had to uplift myself.", "She has also been quoted as saying that \"His dressing up didn't bother me—we all have our little queer habits\" and giving Wood's drinking as the reason for their breakup.Dolores remarried in 1988 at age 65, to Philip Chamberlin, and they remained married until her death in 2011.Fuller's autobiography, ''A Fuller Life: Hollywood, Ed Wood and Me'', co-authored by Winnipeg writer Stone Wallace and her husband Philip Chamberlin, was published in 2008." ], [ "Portrayal in ''Ed Wood''", "Fuller was portrayed by Sarah Jessica Parker in Tim Burton's 1994 Wood biographical film ''Ed Wood'', a portrayal of which she disapproved due to the fact that she was depicted smoking in the film, while Fuller said she herself was a lifelong non-smoker.", "She also complained that she was only portrayed as \"sort of as an actress\" and did not feel she was given credit for her other accomplishments and contributions towards Wood's career.", "However, she stated that she liked the film overall, praising Johnny Depp's performance in the title role." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Role Notes 1934 ''It Happened One Night'' Minor role Uncredited 1952 ''Outlaw Women'' One of Uncle Barney's Girls UncreditedAlternative title: ''Boot Hill Mamas''1953 ''Glen or Glenda'' Barbara ''Girls in the Night'' Beauty Contestant for Miss Third Avenue Alternative title: ''Life After Dark'' ''The Blue Gardenia'' Woman at bar Uncredited ''Count the Hours'' Reporter UncreditedAlternative title: ''Every Minute Counts'' ''Mesa of Lost Women'' Blonde \"Watcher in the Woods\" Alternative title: ''Lost Women'' ''The Body Beautiful'' June Credited as Sherry Caine ''The Moonlighter'' Miss Buckwalter Uncredited1954 ''Jail Bait'' Marilyn Gregor Alternative title: ''Hidden Face'' ''Playgirl'' GirlUncredited ''The Raid'' ''This Is My Love'' 1955 ''Bride of the Monster'' Margie cameoAlternative title: ''Bride of the Atom'' 1956 ''The Opposite Sex'' Bit Role Uncredited 1997 ''The Ironbound Vampire'' Theresa Powell Direct-to-video release 1998 ''Dimensions in Fear'' TV Station Owner Alternative titles: ''City in Terror''''Dimension in Fear'' 2000 ''The Corpse Grinders 2'' Patricia Grant Direct-to-video release=== Television === Year Title Role Notes1955 ''The Great Gildersleeve'' Miss Carroll1 episode ''It's a Great Life'' Girl 1956 ''Adventures of Superman'' Lorraine" ], [ "Discography", "Songs recorded by Elvis Presley with lyrics by Dolores Fuller:''Rock-A-Hula Baby'' (from the film ''Blue Hawaii'', 1961)''I Got Lucky'' (from the film ''Kid Galahad'', 1962)''Steppin' Out of Line'' (unused track from the ''Blue Hawaii'' sessions, first released on 1962 album ''Pot Luck'')''You Can't Say No in Acapulco'' (from the film ''Fun in Acapulco'', 1963)''Beyond the Bend'' (from the film ''It Happened at the World's Fair'', 1963)''Barefoot Ballad'' (from the film ''Kissin' Cousins'', 1964)''Big Love, Big Heartache'' (from the film ''Roustabout'', 1964)''Do the Clam'' (from the film ''Girl Happy'', 1965)''Spinout'' (from the film ''Spinout'', 1966)''I'll Take Love'' (from the film ''Easy Come, Easy Go'', 1967)''Have a Happy'' (from the film ''Change of Habit'', 1969)''Cindy, Cindy'' (''Love Letters from Elvis'', 1971 studio album)According to AllMusic, other songs co-written by her include \"I'll Touch a Star\" by Terry Stafford, \"Lost Summer Love\" by Shelley Fabares and \"Someone to Tell It To\" by Nat King Cole." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "De jure" ], [ "Introduction", "In law and government, '''de jure''' ( , ; ) describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality.", "In contrast, ('in fact') describes situations that exist in reality, even if not formally recognized." ], [ "Examples", "Between 1805 and 1914, the ruling dynasty of Egypt were subject to the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, but acted as de facto independent rulers who maintained a polite fiction of Ottoman suzerainty.", "However, starting from around 1882, the rulers had only de jure rule over Egypt, as it had by then become a British puppet state.", "Thus, by Ottoman law, Egypt was de jure a province of the Ottoman Empire, but de facto was part of the British Empire.In U.S. law, particularly after ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), the difference between de facto segregation (segregation that existed because of the voluntary associations and neighborhoods) and de jure segregation (segregation that existed because of local laws that mandated the segregation) became important distinctions for court-mandated remedial purposes.In a hypothetical situation, a king or emperor could be the de jure head of state.", "However, if the sovereign is unfit to rule the country, the prime minister or chancellor would usually become the practical, or de facto, leader, while the king remains the de jure leader.", "For example, Edward V was de jure King of England for a part of 1483, but he was never crowned and his uncle Richard III was the de facto king during this period." ], [ "See also", "Implied repealList of Latin phrases (D)ObrogationUnenforced law" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Des Moines, Iowa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Des Moines''' () is the capital and most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa.", "It is the county seat of Polk County with parts extending into Warren County.", "It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as '''Fort Des Moines''', which was shortened to \"Des Moines\" in 1857.It is located on, and named after, the Des Moines River, which likely was adapted from the early French name, ''Rivière des Moines,'' meaning \"River of the Monks\".", "The city's population was 214,133 as of the 2020 census.", "The six-county metropolitan area is ranked 81st in terms of population in the United States, with 709,466 residents according to the 2020 census by the United States Census Bureau, and is the largest metropolitan area fully located within the state.Des Moines is a major center of the US insurance industry and has a sizable financial-services and publishing business base.", "The city was credited as the \"number one spot for U.S. insurance companies\" in a ''Business Wire'' article and named the third-largest \"insurance capital\" of the world.", "The city is the headquarters for the Principal Financial Group, Ruan Transportation, TMC Transportation, EMC Insurance Companies, and Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield.", "Other major corporations such as Wells Fargo, Cognizant, Voya Financial, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, ACE Limited, Marsh, Monsanto, and Corteva have large operations in or near the metropolitan area.", "In recent years, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, and Facebook have built data-processing and logistical facilities in the Des Moines area.Des Moines is an important city in U.S. presidential politics; as the state's capital, it is the site of the first caucuses of the presidential primary cycle.", "Many presidential candidates set up campaign headquarters in Des Moines.", "A 2007 article in ''The New York Times'' said, \"If you have any desire to witness presidential candidates in the most close-up and intimate of settings, there is arguably no better place to go than Des Moines.\"" ], [ "History", "===Etymology===Des Moines takes its name from Fort Des Moines (1843–46), which was named for the Des Moines River.", "This was adopted from the name given by French colonists.", "''Des Moines'' (; formerly ) translates literally to either \"from the monks\" or \"of the monks\".One popular interpretation of \"Des Moines\" concludes that it refers to a group of French Trappist monks, who in the 17th century lived in huts built on top of what is now known as the ancient Monks Mound at Cahokia, the major center of Mississippian culture, which developed in what is present-day Illinois, east of the Mississippi River and the city of St. Louis.", "This was some from the Des Moines River.===Prehistoric inhabitants of early Des Moines===Map of prehistoric and historic American Indian sites in downtown Des MoinesBased on archaeological evidence, the junction of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers has attracted humans for at least 7,000 years.", "Several prehistoric occupation areas have been identified by archaeologists in downtown Des Moines.", "Discovered in December 2010, the \"Palace\" is an expansive, 7,000-year-old site found during excavations prior to construction of the new wastewater treatment plant in southeastern Des Moines.", "It contains well-preserved house deposits and numerous graves.", "More than 6,000 artifacts were found at this site.", "State of Iowa archaeologist John Doershuk was assisted by University of Iowa archaeologists at this dig.At least three Late Prehistoric villages, dating from about AD 1300 to 1700, stood in or near what developed later as downtown Des Moines.", "In addition, 15 to 18 prehistoric American Indian mounds were observed in this area by early settlers.", "All have been destroyed during development of the city.===Origin of Fort Des Moines===Des Moines traces its origins to May 1843, when Captain James Allen supervised the construction of a fort on the site where the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers merge.", "Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon; however, the U.S. War Department preferred Fort Des Moines.", "The fort was built to control the Sauk and Meskwaki tribes, whom the government had moved to the area from their traditional lands in eastern Iowa.", "The fort was abandoned in 1846 after the Sauk and Meskwaki were removed from the state and shifted to the Indian Territory.The Sauk and Meskwaki did not fare well in Des Moines.", "The illegal whiskey trade, combined with the destruction of traditional lifeways, led to severe problems for their society.", "One newspaper reported:\"It is a fact that the location of Fort Des Moines among the Sac and Fox Indians (under its present commander) for the last two years, had corrupted them more and lowered them deeper in the scale of vice and degradation, than all their intercourse with the whites for the ten years previous\".After official removal, the Meskwaki continued to return to Des Moines until around 1857.Archaeological excavations have shown that many fort-related features survived under what is now Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway and First Street.", "Soldiers stationed at Fort Des Moines opened the first coal mines in the area, mining coal from the riverbank for the fort's blacksmith.===Early, non-Native American, settlement===Excavation of the prehistoric component of the Bird's Run Site in Des MoinesFlood of Des Moines, 1851Settlers occupied the abandoned fort and nearby areas.", "On May 25, 1846, the state legislature designated Fort Des Moines as the seat of Polk County.", "Arozina Perkins, a school teacher who spent the winter of 1850–1851 in the town of Fort Des Moines, was not favorably impressed:This is one of the strangest looking \"cities\" I ever saw...", "This town is at the juncture of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers.", "It is mostly a level prairie with a few swells or hills around it.", "We have a court house of \"brick\" and one church, a plain, framed building belonging to the Methodists.", "There are two taverns here, one of which has a most important little bell that rings together some fifty boarders.", "I cannot tell you how many dwellings there are, for I have not counted them; some are of logs, some of brick, some framed, and some are the remains of the old dragoon houses...", "The people support two papers and there are several dry goods shops.", "I have been into but four of them... Society is as varied as the buildings are.", "There are people from nearly every state, and Dutch, Swedes, etc.In May 1851, much of the town was destroyed during the Flood of 1851.", "\"The Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers rose to an unprecedented height, inundating the entire country east of the Des Moines River.", "Crops were utterly destroyed, houses and fences swept away.\"", "The city started to rebuild from scratch.===Era of growth===On September 22, 1851, Des Moines was incorporated as a city; the charter was approved by voters on October 18.In 1857, the name \"Fort Des Moines\" was shortened to \"Des Moines\", and it was designated as the second state capital, previously at Iowa City.", "Growth was slow during the Civil War period, but the city exploded in size and importance after a railroad link was completed in 1866.In 1864, the Des Moines Coal Company was organized to begin the first systematic mining in the region.", "Its first mine, north of town on the river's west side, was exhausted by 1873.The Black Diamond mine, near the south end of the West Seventh Street Bridge, sank a mine shaft to reach a coal bed.", "By 1876, this mine employed 150 men and shipped 20 carloads of coal per day.", "By 1885, numerous mine shafts were within the city limits, and mining began to spread into the surrounding countryside.", "By 1893, 23 mines were in the region.", "By 1908, Des Moines' coal resources were largely exhausted.", "In 1912, Des Moines still had eight locals of the United Mine Workers union, representing 1,410 miners.", "This was about 1.7% of the city's population in 1910.By 1880, Des Moines had a population of 22,408, making it Iowa's largest city.", "It displaced the three Mississippi River ports: Burlington, Dubuque, and Davenport, that had alternated holding the position since the territorial period.", "Des Moines has remained Iowa's most populous city.", "In 1910, the Census Bureau reported Des Moines' population as 97.3% white and 2.7% black, reflecting its early settlement pattern primarily by ethnic Europeans.===\"City Beautiful\" project, decline and rebirth===The Barney Sakulin cabin, moved from Washington County, memorializes Fort Des Moines.Lyndon B. Johnson in Des Moines on June 30, 1966, near 5th Avenue and the (now-demolished) Hotel FranklinDes Moines Capitol building, 1917At the turn of the 20th century, encouraged by the Civic Committee of the Des Moines Women's Club, Des Moines undertook a \"City Beautiful\" project in which large Beaux Arts public buildings and fountains were constructed along the Des Moines River.", "The former Des Moines Public Library building (now the home of the World Food Prize); the United States central Post Office, built by the federal government (now the Polk County Administrative Building, with a newer addition); and the City Hall are surviving examples of the 1900–1910 buildings.", "They form the Civic Center Historic District.The ornate riverfront balustrades that line the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers were built by the federal Civilian Conservation Corps in the mid-1930s, during the Great Depression under Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a project to provide local employment and improve infrastructure.", "The ornamental fountains that stood along the riverbank were buried in the 1950s when the city began a postindustrial decline that lasted until the late 1980s.", "The city has since rebounded, transforming from a blue-collar industrial city to a white-collar professional city.An aerial view of floodwaters, July 19, 1993In 1907, the city adopted a city commission government known as the Des Moines Plan, comprising an elected mayor and four commissioners, all elected at-large, who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance.", "Considered progressive at the time, it diluted the votes of ethnic and national minorities, who generally could not command the majority to elect a candidate of their choice.That form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a council-manager government, with the council members elected at-large.", "In 1967, the city changed its government to elect four of the seven city council members from single-member districts or wards, rather than at-large.", "This enabled a broader representation of voters.", "As with many major urban areas, the city core began losing population to the suburbs in the 1960s (the peak population of 208,982 was recorded in 1960), as highway construction led to new residential construction outside the city.", "The population was 198,682 in 2000 and grew slightly to 200,538 in 2009.The growth of the outlying suburbs has continued, and the overall metropolitan-area population is over 700,000 today.During the Great Flood of 1993, heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers to rise above flood stage levels.", "The Des Moines Water Works was submerged by floodwaters during the early morning hours of July 11, 1993, leaving an estimated 250,000 people without running water for 12 days and without drinking water for 20 days.", "Des Moines suffered major flooding again in June 2008 with a major levee breach.", "The Des Moines river is controlled upstream by Saylorville Reservoir.", "In both 1993 and 2008, the flooding river overtopped the reservoir spillway.Today, Des Moines is a member of ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA.", "Through ICLEI, Des Moines has implemented \"The Tomorrow Plan\", a regional plan focused on developing central Iowa in a sustainable fashion, centrally-planned growth, and resource consumption to manage the local population." ], [ "Geography", "Astronaut photography of Des Moines taken from the International Space StationAerial view of Des Moines, 2012According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is covered by water.", "It is above sea level at the confluence of the Raccoon and Des Moines Rivers.In November 2005, Des Moines voters approved a measure that allowed the city to annex parcels of land in the northeast, southeast, and southern corners of Des Moines without agreement by local residents, particularly areas bordering the Iowa Highway 5/U.S.", "65 bypass.", "The annexations became official on June 26, 2009, as and around 868 new residents were added to the city of Des Moines.", "An additional were voluntarily annexed to the city over that same period.===Metropolitan area======Cityscape===Downtown Des Moines night skyline looking northwestThe skyline of Des Moines changed in the 1970s and the 1980s, when several new skyscrapers were built.", "Additional skyscrapers were built in the 1990s, including Iowa's tallest.", "Before then, the 19-story Equitable Building, from 1924, was the tallest building in the city and the tallest building in Iowa.", "The 25-story Financial Center was completed in 1973 and the 36-story Ruan Center was completed in 1974.They were later joined by the 33-story Des Moines Marriott Hotel (1981), the 25-story HUB Tower and 25-story Plaza Building (1985).", "Iowa's tallest building, Principal Financial Group's 45-story tower at 801 Grand was built in 1991, and the 19-story EMC Insurance Building was erected in 1997.During this time period, the Civic Center of Greater Des Moines (1979) was developed; it hosts Broadway shows and special events.", "Also constructed were the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden (1979), a large city botanical garden/greenhouse on the east side of the river; the Polk County Convention Complex (1985), and the State of Iowa Historical Museum (1987).", "The Des Moines skywalk also began to take shape during the 1980s.", "The skywalk system is long and connects many downtown buildings.In the early 21st century, the city has had more major construction in the downtown area.", "The new Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater and the Iowa Events Center opened in 2005.The new central branch of the Des Moines Public Library, designed by renowned architect David Chipperfield of London, opened on April 8, 2006.The World Food Prize Foundation, which is based in Des Moines, completed adaptation and restoration of the former Des Moines Public Library building in October 2011.The former library now serves as the home and headquarters of the Norman Borlaug/World Food Prize Hall of Laureates.===Climate===At the center of North America and far removed from large bodies of water, the Des Moines area has a hot summer type humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfa''), with warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters.", "Summer temperatures can often climb into the range, occasionally reaching .", "Humidity can be high in spring and summer, with frequent afternoon thunderstorms.", "Fall brings pleasant temperatures and colorful fall foliage.", "Winters vary from moderately cold to bitterly cold, with low temperatures venturing below quite often.", "Snowfall averages per season, and annual precipitation averages , with a peak in the warmer months.", "Winters are slightly colder than Chicago, but still warmer than Minneapolis, with summer temperatures being very similar between the Upper Midwest metropolitan areas." ], [ "Demographics", " Demographic profile 2020 2010 1990 1970 1950 White 64.5% 76.4% 89.2% 93.8% 95.4% —Non-Hispanic 61.0% 70.5% 87.8% 92.7% N/A Black or African American 11.7% 10.2% 7.1% 5.7% 4.5% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 15.6% 12.0% 2.4% 1.3% N/A Asian 6.8% 4.4% 2.4% 0.2% −===2020 census===+ Racial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census Race or Ethnicity ''(NH = Non-Hispanic)''Race AloneTotal White (NH) Hispanic or Latino African American (NH) Asian (NH) Native American (NH) Pacific Islander (NH) Other The 2020 United States census counted 214,133 people, 87,958 households, and 48,599 families in Des Moines.", "The population density was 2,428.4 per square mile (937.6/km).", "There were 95,082 housing units at an average density of 1,078.3 per square mile (416.3/km).", "The racial makeup was 64.54% (138,200) white or European American (60.99% non-Hispanic white), 11.68% (25,011) black or African-American, 0.69% (1,474) Native American or Alaska Native, 6.76% (14,474) Asian, 0.06% (135) Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian, 6.62% (14,178) from other races, and 9.65% (20,661) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race was 15.64% (33,480) of the population.The 2020 census population of the city included 252 people incarcerated in adult correctional facilities and 2,378 people in student housing.Of the 87,958 households, 28.0% had children under the age of 18; 35.5% were married couples living together; 31.3% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present.", "35.3% of households consisted of individuals and 11.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.5 and the average family size was 3.3.The percent of those with a bachelor's degree or higher was estimated to be 19.9% of the population.", "Of the population age 25 and over, 86.7% were high school graduates or higher and 27.9% had a bachelor's degree or higher.23.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.4% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 34.8 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 102.7 males.", "For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 104.4 males.The 2016-2020 5-year American Community Survey estimates show that the median household income was $54,843 (with a margin of error of +/- $1,544) and the median family income was $66,420 (+/- $1,919).", "Males had a median income of $38,326 (+/- $1,405) versus $29,855 (+/- $1,327) for females.", "The median income for those above 16 years old was $33,699 (+/- $740).", "Approximately, 12.1% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.8% of those ages 65 or over.===2010 census===Map of racial distribution in Des Moines, 2010 U.S. Census.", "Each dot is 25 people: As of the census of 2010, there were 203,433 people, 81,369 households, and 47,491 families residing in the city.", "Population density was .", "There were 88,729 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city for Unincorporated areas not merged with the city proper was 66.2% White, 15.5% African Americans, 0.5% Native American, 4.0% Asian, and 2.6% from Two or more races.", "People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, made up 12.1% of the population.", "The city's racial make up during the 2010 census was 76.4% White, 10.2% African American, 0.5% Native American, 4.4% Asian (1.2% Vietnamese, 0.9% Laotian, 0.4% Burmese, 0.3% Asian Indian, 0.3% Thai, 0.2% Chinese, 0.2% Cambodian, 0.2% Filipino, 0.1% Hmong, 0.1% Korean, 0.1% Nepalese), 0.1% Pacific Islander, 5.0% from other races, and 3.4% from two or more races.", "People of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, formed 12.0% of the population (9.4% Mexican, 0.7% Salvadoran, 0.3% Guatemalan, 0.3% Puerto Rican, 0.1% Honduran, 0.1% Ecuadorian, 0.1% Cuban, 0.1% Spaniard, 0.1% Spanish).", "Non-Hispanic Whites were 70.5% of the population in 2010.Des Moines also has a sizeable South Sudanese community.There were 81,369 households, of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.6% were non-families.", "32.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.11.The median age in the city was 33.5 years.", "24.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.4% were from 25 to 44; 23.9% were from 45 to 64; and 11% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.===2000 census===As of the 2000 census, there were 198,682 people, 80,504 households, and 48,704 families in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 85,067 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 82.3% white, 8.07% Black, 0.35% American Indian, 3.50% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 3.52% from other races, and 2.23% from two or more races.", "6.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.", "20.9% were of German, 10.3% Irish, 9.1% \"American\" and 8.0% English ancestry, according to Census 2000.There were 80,504 households, out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 12.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families.", "31.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.04.The age distribution was 24.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 34 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males.The median income for a household in the city was $38,408, and the median income for a family was $46,590.Males had a median income of $31,712 versus $25,832 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $19,467.About 7.9% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.9% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those ages 65 or over." ], [ "Economy", "+ Des Moines' top non-government employers (2021)RankEmployer# ofemployees1 Wells Fargo & Co.13,5002 UnityPoint Health8,0263 Principal Financial Group6,6004 MercyOne4,2765 Amazon3,5006 Nationwide/Allied Insurance3,3007 John Deere2,8848 Corteva2,5009 UPS1,72110 Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield1,600Many insurance companies are headquartered in Des Moines, including the Principal Financial Group, EMC Insurance Group, Fidelity & Guaranty Life, Allied Insurance, GuideOne Insurance, Wellmark Blue Cross Blue Shield of Iowa, FBL Financial Group, and American Republic Insurance Company.", "Iowa has one of the lowest insurance premium taxes in the nation at 1%, and does not charge any premium taxes on qualified life insurance plans, making the state attractive to insurance business.", "Des Moines has been referred to as the \"Hartford of the West\" and \"Insurance Capital\" because of this.", "Principal is one of two Fortune 500 companies with headquarters in Iowa (the other being Casey's General Stores), ranking 201st on the magazine's list in 2020.As a center of financial and insurance services, other major corporations headquartered outside of Iowa have a presence in the Des Moines Metro area, including Wells Fargo, Voya Financial, and Electronic Data Systems (EDS).", "The Meredith Corporation, a leading publishing and marketing company, was also based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021.Meredith published ''Better Homes and Gardens'', one of the most widely circulated publications in the United States.", "Des Moines was also the headquarters of ''Golf Digest'' magazine.Other major employers in Des Moines include UnityPoint Health, Mercy Medical Center, MidAmerican Energy Company, CDS Global, UPS, Firestone, Lumen Technologies, Drake University, Titan Tire, ''The Des Moines Register'', Anderson Erickson, Dee Zee and EMCO.In 2017, Kemin Industries opened a state-of-the-art worldwide headquarters building in Des Moines." ], [ "Arts and culture", "===Arts and theater===The Civic Center of Greater Des MoinesThe City of Des Moines is a cultural center for Iowa and home to several art and history museums and performing arts groups.", "The Des Moines Performing Arts routinely hosts touring Broadway shows and other live professional theater.", "Its president and CEO, Jeff Chelsvig, is a member of the League of American Theatres and Producers, Inc.", "The Temple for Performing Arts and Des Moines Playhouse are other venues for live theater, comedy, and performance arts.The Des Moines Metro Opera has been a cultural resource in Des Moines since 1973.The Opera offers educational and outreach programs and is one of the largest performing arts organizations in the state.", "Ballet Des Moines was established in 2002.Performing three productions each year, the Ballet also provides opportunities for education and outreach.The Des Moines Symphony performs frequently at different venues.", "In addition to performing seven pairs of classical concerts each season, the Symphony also entertains with New Year's Eve Pops and its annual Yankee Doodle Pops concerts.", "''Jazz in July'' is an annual event founded in 1969 that performs free jazz shows daily at venues throughout the city during July.Wells Fargo ArenaWells Fargo Arena is the Des Moines area's primary venue for sporting events and concerts since its opening in 2005.Named for title sponsor Wells Fargo Financial Services, Wells Fargo Arena holds 16,980 and books large, national touring acts for arena concert performances, while several smaller venues host local, regional, and national bands.", "It is the home of the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League.The Simon Estes Riverfront Amphitheater is an outdoor concert venue on the east bank of the Des Moines River which hosts music events such as the Alive Concert Series.Des Moines Art CenterThe Des Moines Art Center, with a wing designed by architect I. M. Pei, presents art exhibitions and educational programs as well as studio art classes.", "The Center houses a collection of artwork from the 19th century to the present.", "An extension of the art center is downtown in an urban museum space, featuring three or four exhibitions each year.The Pappajohn Sculpture Park in the Downtown's Western Gateway Park plays host to the Des Moines Arts Festival.The Pappajohn Sculpture Park was established in 2009.It showcases a collection of 24 sculptures donated by Des Moines philanthropists John and Mary Pappajohn.", "Nearby is the Temple for Performing Arts, a cultural center for the city.", "Next to the Temple is the Central Library, designed by renowned English architect David Chipperfield.Salisbury House and Gardens is a 42-room historic house museum on of woodlands in the South of Grand neighborhood of Des Moines.", "It is named after—and loosely inspired by—King's House in Salisbury, England.", "Built in the 1920s by cosmetics magnate Carl Weeks and his wife, Edith, the Salisbury House contains authentic 16th-century English oak and rafters dating to Shakespeare's days, numerous other architectural features re-purposed from other historic English homes, and an internationally significant collection of original fine art, tapestries, decorative art, furniture, musical instruments, and rare books and documents.", "The Salisbury House is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and has been featured on A&E's ''America's Castles'' and PBS's ''Antiques Roadshow''.", "Prominent artists in the Salisbury House collection include Joseph Stella, Lillian Genth, Anthony van Dyck and Lawrence Alma-Tadema.Built in 1877 by prominent pioneer businessman Hoyt Sherman, Hoyt Sherman Place mansion was Des Moines' first public art gallery and houses a distinctive collection of 19th and 20th century artwork.", "Its restored 1,250-seat theater features an intricate rococo plaster ceiling and excellent acoustics and is used for a variety of cultural performances and entertainment.===Attractions===The Iowa State Capitol, completed in 1886, is one of two state capitols to feature five domes, a central golden dome surrounded by four smaller domes.", "The other is the Rhode Island State House.Arising in the east and facing westward toward downtown, the Iowa State Capitol building with its , 23-karat gold leafed dome towering above the city is a favorite of sightseers.", "Four smaller domes flank the main dome.", "The Capitol houses the governor's offices, legislature, and the old Supreme Court Chambers.", "The ornate interior also features a grand staircase, mural \"Westward\", five-story law library, scale model of the USS ''Iowa'', and collection of first lady dolls.", "Guided tours are available.The Capitol grounds include a World War II memorial with sculpture and Wall of Memories, the 1894 Soldiers and Sailors Monument of the Civil War and memorials honoring those who served in the Spanish–American, Korean, and Vietnam Wars.The West Capitol Terrace provides the entrance from the west to the state's grandest building, the State Capitol Building.", "The \"people's park\" at the foot of the Capitol complex includes a promenade and landscaped gardens, in addition to providing public space for rallies and special events.", "A granite map of Iowa depicting all 99 counties rests at the base of the terrace and has become an attraction for in-state visitors, many of whom walk over the map to find their home county.The State of Iowa Historical Museum is near the state capitol in Des Moines' East Village.Iowa's history lives on in the State of Iowa Historical Museum.", "This modern granite and glass structure at the foot of the State Capitol Building houses permanent and temporary exhibits exploring the people, places, events, and issues of Iowa's past.", "The showcase includes native wildlife, American Indian and pioneer artifacts, and political and military items.", "The museum features a genealogy and Iowa history library, museum gift shop, and cafe.Terrace Hill, a National Historic Landmark and Iowa Governor's Residence, is among the best examples of American Victorian Second Empire architecture.", "This opulent 1869 home was built by Iowa's first millionaire, Benjamin F. Allen, and restored to the late 19th century period.", "It overlooks downtown Des Moines and is situated on with a re-created Victorian formal garden.", "Tours are conducted Tuesdays through Saturdays from March through December.The Science Center of Iowa and Blank IMAX Dome Theater offers seven interactive learning areas, live programs, and hands-on activities encouraging learning and fun for all ages.", "Among its three theaters include the 216-seat Blank IMAX Dome Theater, 175-seat John Deere Adventure Theater featuring live performances, and a domed Star Theater.Exterior of the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden building and domeThe Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, an indoor conservatory of over 15,000 exotic plants, is one of the largest collections of tropical, subtropical, and desert-growing plants in the Midwest.", "The Center blooms with thousands of flowers year-round.", "Nearby are the Robert D. Ray Asian Gardens and Pavilion, named in honor of the former governor whose influence helped relocate thousands of Vietnamese refugees to Iowa homes in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Developed by the city's Asian community, the Gardens include a three-story Chinese pavilion, bonsai landscaping, and granite sculptures to highlight the importance of diversity and recognize Asian American contributions in Iowa.Blank Park Zoo is a landscaped zoological park on the south side.", "Among the exhibits include a tropical rain forest, Australian Outback, and Africa.", "The Zoo offers education classes, tours, and rental facilities.The Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary was established as a scientific research facility with a campus housing bonobos and orangutans for the noninvasive interdisciplinary study of their cognitive and communicative capabilities.Locust Street looking east from 4th Street toward the Iowa State Capitol in East VillageThe East Village, on the east side of the Des Moines River, begins at the river and extends about five blocks east to the State Capitol Building, offering an eclectic blend of historic buildings, hip eateries, boutiques, art galleries, and a wide variety of other retail establishments mixed with residences.Adventureland Park is an amusement park in neighboring Altoona, just northeast of Des Moines.", "The park boasts more than 100 rides, shows, and attractions, including six rollercoasters.", "A hotel and campground is just outside the park.", "Also in Altoona is Prairie Meadows Racetrack and Casino, an entertainment venue for gambling and horse racing.", "Open 24 hours a day, year-round, the racetrack and casino features live racing, plus over 1,750 slot machines, table games, and concert and show entertainment.", "The racetrack hosts two Grade III races annually, the Iowa Oaks and the Cornhusker Handicap.Living History Farms in suburban Urbandale tells the story of Midwestern agriculture and rural life in a open-air museum with interpreters dressed in period costume who recreate the daily routines of early Iowans.", "Open daily from May through October, the Living History Farms include a 1700 Ioway Indian village, 1850 pioneer farm, 1875 frontier town, 1900 horse-powered farm, and a modern crop center.Wallace House was the home of the first Henry Wallace, a national leader in agriculture and conservation and the first editor of ''Wallaces' Farmer'' farm journal.", "This restored 1883 Italianate Victorian houses exhibits, artifacts, and information covering four generations of Henry Wallaces and other family members.Historic Jordan House in West Des Moines is a stately Victorian home built in 1850 and added to in 1870 by the first white settler in West Des Moines, James C. Jordan.", "Completely refurbished, this mansion was part of the Underground Railroad and today houses 16 period rooms, a railroad museum, West Des Moines community history, and a museum dedicated to the Underground Railroad in Iowa.", "In 1893 Jordan's daughter Eda was sliding down the banister when she fell off and broke her neck.", "She died two days later, and her ghost is reputed to haunt the house.The ''Chicago Tribune'' wrote that Iowa's capital city has \"walker-friendly downtown streets and enough outdoor sculpture, sleek buildings, storefronts and cafes to delight the most jaded stroller\".===Festivals and events===The 4th Street Neighborhood is within the Court Avenue Entertainment District of Downtown Des Moines.The Grand Concourse, between the Grandstand and the Varied Industries Building, during the 2006 Iowa State FairDes Moines plays host to a growing number of nationally acclaimed cultural events, including the annual Des Moines Arts Festival in June, Metro Arts Jazz in July, Iowa State Fair in August, and the World Food & Music Festival in September.", "On Saturdays from May through October, the Downtown Farmers' Market draws visitors from across the state.", "Local parades include Saint Patrick's Day Parade, Drake Relays Parade, Capitol City Pride Parade, Iowa State Fair Parade, Labor Day Parade, and Beaverdale Fall Festival Parade.Other annual festivals and events include: Des Moines Beer Week, 80/35 Music Festival, 515 Alive Music Festival, ArtFest Midwest, Blue Ribbon Bacon Fest, CelebrAsian Heritage Festival, Des Moines Pride Festival, Des Moines Renaissance Faire, Festa Italiana, Festival of Trees and Lights, World Food & Music Festival, I'll Make Me a World Iowa, Latino Heritage Festival, Oktoberfest, Winefest, ImaginEve!, Iowa's Premier Beer, Wine & Food Show, and Wild Rose Film Festival.===Museums===* Des Moines Art Center* Jordan House Museum* Hoyt Sherman Place* Salisbury House* Science Center of Iowa* State Historical Society of Iowa* Terrace Hill – Official residence of the governor of Iowa* Wallace House Museum* World Food Prize Hall of Laureates" ], [ "Sports", "Sec Taylor Field at Principal Park, during a May 28, 2006, game against the Nashville Sounds.", "The Iowa Capitol is visible beyond the center-field wall.Des Moines hosts professional minor league teams in several sports — baseball, basketball, hockey, indoor football, and soccer — and is home to the sports teams of Drake University which play in NCAA Division I.The Des Moines Menace soccer club, a member of USL League Two, play their home games at Valley Stadium in West Des Moines.", "Des Moines United FC of the National Premier Soccer League also utilize Valley Stadium.Des Moines is home to the Iowa Cubs baseball team of the Triple-A East.", "The I-Cubs, which are the Triple-A affiliate of the major league Chicago Cubs, play their home games at Principal Park near the confluence of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers.Wells Fargo Arena of the Iowa Events Center is home to the Iowa Barnstormers of the Indoor Football League, the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League, and the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League.", "The Barnstormers relaunched as an af2 club in 2008 before joining a relaunched Arena Football League in 2010 and the Indoor Football League in 2015; the Barnstormers had previously played in the Arena Football League from 1994 to 2000 (featuring future NFL Hall of Famer and Super Bowl MVP quarterback Kurt Warner) before relocating to New York.", "The Iowa Energy, a D-League team, began play in 2007.They were bought by the Minnesota Timberwolves in 2017 and were renamed the Iowa Wolves to reflect the new ownership.", "The Wild, the AHL affiliate of the National Hockey League's Minnesota Wild have played at Wells Fargo Arena since 2013; previously, the Iowa Chops played four seasons in Des Moines (known as the Iowa Stars for three of those seasons.", ")Additionally, the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League play at Buccaneer Arena in suburban Urbandale.Des Moines is also home to the Drake University Bulldogs, an NCAA Division I member of the Missouri Valley Conference, primarily playing northwest of downtown at the on-campus Drake Stadium and Knapp Center.", "Drake Stadium is home to the famed Drake Relays each April.", "In addition to the Drake Relays, Drake Stadium has hosted multiple NCAA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships.The Vikings of Grand View University also compete in intercollegiate athletics in Des Moines.", "A member of the Heart of America Athletic Conference, within the NAIA, they field 21 varsity athletic teams.", "They were NAIA National Champions in football in 2013.The Principal Charity Classic, a Champions Tour golf event, is held at Wakonda Club in late May or early June.", "The IMT Des Moines Marathon is held throughout the city each October.+ Professional and Division I sports teams Club Sport League Venue City Founded Iowa Barnstormers American football Indoor Football League Wells Fargo Arena Des Moines 1995 (2008) Iowa Cubs Baseball International League, Minor League Baseball Principal Park Des Moines 1969 Iowa Wolves Basketball NBA G League Wells Fargo Arena Des Moines 2007 Des Moines Buccaneers Ice hockey United States Hockey League Buccaneer Arena Urbandale 1980 Iowa Wild Ice hockey American Hockey League Wells Fargo Arena Des Moines 2013 Des Moines Menace Soccer USL League Two Valley Stadium West Des Moines 1994 Des Moines United FC Soccer National Premier Soccer League Valley Stadium West Des Moines 2021 Drake Bulldogs Multi NCAA Division I, Missouri Valley Conference Drake Stadium, Knapp Center Des Moines 1881" ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Kruidenier Trail bridge across Gray's LakeDes Moines has 76 city parks and three golf courses, as well as three family aquatic centers, five community centers and three swimming pools.", "The city has of trails.", "The first major park was Greenwood Park.", "The park commissioners purchased the land on April 21, 1894.The Principal Riverwalk is a riverwalk park district being constructed along the banks of the Des Moines River in the downtown.", "Primarily funded by the Principal Financial Group, the Riverwalk is a multi-year jointly funded project also funded by the city and state.", "Upon completion, it will feature a recreational trail connecting the east and west sides of downtown via two pedestrian bridges.", "A landscaped promenade along the street level is planned.", "The Riverwalk includes the downtown Brenton Skating Plaza, open from November through March.Gray's Lake, part of the of Gray's Lake Park, features a boat rental facility, fishing pier, floating boardwalks, and a park resource center.", "Located just south of the downtown, the centerpiece of the park is a lighted Kruidenier Trail, encircling it entirely.From downtown Des Moines primarily along the east bank of the Des Moines River, the Neil Smith and John Pat Dorrian Trails are paved recreational trails that connect Gray's Lake northward to the east shore of Saylorville Lake, Big Creek State Park, and the recreational trails of Ankeny including the High Trestle Trail.", "These trails are near several recreational facilities including the Pete Crivaro Park, Principal Park, the Principal Riverwalk, the Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden, Union Park and its Heritage Carousel of Des Moines, Birdland Park and the Birdland Marina/Boatramp on the Des Moines River, Riverview Park, McHenry Park, and River Drive Park.", "Although outside of Des Moines, Jester Park has of land along the western shore of Saylorville Lake and can be reached from the Neil Smith Trail over the Saylorville Dam.Just west of Gray's Lake are the of the Des Moines Water Works Park.", "The Water Works Park is along the banks of the Raccoon River immediately upstream from where the Raccoon River empties into the Des Moines River.", "The Des Moines Water Works Facility, which obtains the city's drinking water from the Raccoon River, is entirely within the Water Works Park.", "A bridge in the park crosses the Raccoon River.", "The Water Works Park recreational trails link to downtown Des Moines by travelling past Gray's Lake and back across the Raccoon River via either along the Meredith Trail near Principal Park, or along the Martin Luther King Jr. Parkway.", "The Water Works Park trails connect westward to Valley Junction and the recreational trails of the western suburbs: Windsor Heights, Urbandale, Clive, and Waukee.", "Also originating from Water Works Park, the Great Western Trail is an journey southward from Des Moines to Martensdale through the Willow Creek Golf Course, Orilla, and Cumming.", "Often, the location for summer music festivals and concerts, Water Works Park was the overnight campground for thousands of bicyclists on Tuesday, July 23, 2013, during RAGBRAI XLI." ], [ "Government", "Des Moines Municipal BuildingDes Moines operates under a council–manager form of government.", "The council consists of a mayor who is elected in citywide vote, two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards.", "In 2014, Jonathan Gano was appointed as the new Public Works Director.", "In 2015, Dana Wingert was appointed as Police Chief.", "In 2018, Steven L. Naber was appointed as the new City Engineer.The council members include:WardLocaleMemberElectedTerm Ends1NorthwestChris Coleman202320262NortheastLinda Westergaard201520283SouthwestJosh Mandelbaum201720264SouthwestJoe Gatto20142028At-largeCitywideCarl Voss20192028At-largeCitywide''Vacant''20212026MayorCitywideConnie Boesen20232028A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the November 2, 2004, election.", "The consolidated city-county government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs.", "Each suburb would still have retained its individual government but with the option to join the consolidated government at any time.", "Although a full merger was soundly rejected, many city and county departments and programs have been consolidated." ], [ "Education", "Old Main on the campusof Drake UniversityThe Des Moines Public Schools district is the largest community school district in Iowa with 32,062 enrolled students as of the 2012–2013 school year.", "The district consists of 63 schools: 38 elementary schools, eleven middle schools, five high schools (East, Hoover, Lincoln, North, and Roosevelt), and ten special schools and programs.", "Small parts of the city are instead served by Carlisle Community Schools, Johnston Community School District, the Southeast Polk Community School District and the Saydel School District Grand View Christian School is the only private school in the city, although Des Moines Christian School (in Des Moines from 1947 to 2006) in Urbandale, Dowling Catholic High School in West Des Moines, and Ankeny Christian Academy on the north side of the metro area serve some city residents.Des Moines is also home to the main campuses of three four-year private colleges: Drake University, Grand View University, and Mercy College of Health Sciences.", "The University of Iowa has a satellite facility in the city's Western Gateway Park, while Iowa State University hosts Master of Business Administration classes downtown.", "Des Moines Area Community College is the area's community college with campuses in Ankeny, Des Moines, and West Des Moines.", "The city is also home to Des Moines University, an osteopathic medical school." ], [ "Media", "The Des Moines market, which originally consisted of Polk, Dallas, Story, and Warren counties, was ranked 91st by Arbitron as of the fall of 2007 with a population of 512,000 aged 12 and older.", "But in June 2011 it was moved up to 72nd with the addition of Boone, Clarke, Greene, Guthrie, Jasper, Lucas, Madison and Marion counties.===Radio=======Commercial stations====iHeartMedia owns five radio stations in the area, including WHO 1040 AM, a 50,000-watt AM news/talk station that has the highest ratings in the area and once employed future President Ronald Reagan as a sportscaster.", "In addition to WHO, iHeartMedia owns KDRB 100.3 FM (adult hits), KKDM 107.5 FM (contemporary hits), KXNO-FM 106.3, and KXNO 1460 AM (sports radio).", "They also own news/talk station KASI 1430 AM and hot adult contemporary station KCYZ 105.1 FM, both of which broadcast from Ames.Cumulus Media owns five stations that broadcast from facilities in Urbandale: KBGG 1700 AM (sports), KGGO 94.9 FM (classic rock), KHKI 97.3 FM (country music), KJJY 92.5 FM (country music), and KWQW 98.3 FM (contemporary hits).Saga Communications owns nine stations in the area: KAZR 103.3 FM (rock), KAZR-HD2 (oldies), KIOA 93.3 FM (oldies), KIOA-HD2 99.9FM & 93.3 HD2 (Rhythmic Top 40), KOEZ 104.1 FM (soft adult contemporary), KPSZ 940 AM (contemporary Christian music, religious teaching, and conservative talk), KRNT 1350 AM (ESPN Radio), KSTZ 102.5 FM (adult contemporary hits), and KSTZ-HD2 (classic country).Other stations in the Des Moines area include religious stations KWKY 1150 AM, and KPUL 101.7 FM.====Non-commercial stations====Non-commercial radio stations in the Des Moines area include KDPS 88.1 FM, a station operated by the Des Moines Public Schools; KWDM 88.7 FM, a station operated by Valley High School; KJMC 89.3 FM, an urban contemporary station; K213DV 90.5 FM, the contemporary Christian K-Love affiliate for the area; and KDFR 91.3 FM, operated by Family Radio.", "Iowa Public Radio broadcasts several stations in the Des Moines area, all of which are owned by Iowa State University and operated on campus.", "WOI 640 am, the networks flagship station, and WOI-FM 90.1, the networks flagship \"Studio One\" station, are both based out of Ames and serve as the area's National Public Radio outlets.", "The network also operates classical stations KICG, KICJ, KICL and KICP.", "The University of Northwestern – St. Paul operates Contemporary Christian simulcasts of KNWI-FM at 107.1 Osceola/Des Moines, KNWM-FM at 96.1 Madrid/Ames/Des Moines, and K264CD at 100.7 in downtown Des Moines.Low-power FM stations include KFMG-LP 99.1, a community radio station broadcasting from the Hotel Fort Des Moines and also webstreamed.===Television===The Des Moines-Ames media market consists of 35 central Iowa counties: Adair, Adams, Appanoose, Audubon, Boone, Calhoun, Carroll, Clarke, Dallas, Decatur, Franklin, Greene, Guthrie, Hamilton, Hardin, Humboldt, Jasper, Kossuth, Lucas, Madison, Mahaska, Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Pocahontas, Polk, Poweshiek, Ringgold, Story, Taylor, Union, Warren, Wayne, Webster, and Wright.", "It was ranked 71st by Nielsen Media Research for the 2008–2009 television season with 432,410 television households.Commercial television stations serving Des Moines include CBS affiliate KCCI channel 8, NBC affiliate WHO-DT channel 13, and Fox affiliate KDSM-TV channel 17.ABC affiliate WOI-TV channel 5 and CW affiliate KCWI-TV channel 23 are both licensed to Ames and broadcast from studios in West Des Moines.", "KFPX-TV channel 39, the local ION affiliate, is licensed to Newton.", "Two non-commercial stations are also licensed to Des Moines: KDIN channel 11, the local PBS member station and flagship of the Iowa Public Television network, and KDMI channel 19, a TCT affiliate.", "Mediacom is the Des Moines area's cable television provider.", "Television sports listings for Des Moines and Iowa can be found on the Des Moines Register website.===Print===''The Des Moines Register'' is the city's primary daily newspaper.", "As of March 31, 2007, the ''Register'' ranked 71st in circulation among daily newspapers in the United States according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations with 146,050 daily and 233,229 Sunday subscribers.", "Weekly newspapers include ''Juice'', a publication aimed at the 25–34 demographic published by the ''Register'' on Wednesdays; ''Cityview'', an alternative weekly published on Thursdays; and the ''Des Moines Business Record'', a business journal published on Sundays, along with the West Des Moines Register, the Johnston Register, and the Waukee Register on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Thursdays depending on the address of the subscriber.", "Additionally, magazine publisher Meredith Corporation was based in Des Moines prior to its acquisition by IAC and merger with Dotdash in 2021." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===Edna M. Griffin Memorial Pedestrian Bridge over Interstate 235Des Moines has an extensive skywalk system within its downtown core.", "With over four miles of enclosed walkway, it is one of the largest of such systems in the United States.", "The Des Moines Skywalk System has been criticized for hurting street-level business, though a recent initiative has been made to make street-level Skywalk entrances more visible.Skywalks connecting buildings over 8th Street in the Downtown Core of Des MoinesInterstate 235 (I-235) cuts through the city, and I-35 and I-80 both pass through the Des Moines metropolitan area, as well as the city of Des Moines.", "On the northern side of the city of Des Moines and passing through the cities of Altoona, Clive, Johnston, Urbandale and West Des Moines, I-35 and I-80 converge into a long concurrency while I-235 takes a direct route through Des Moines, Windsor Heights, and West Des Moines before meeting up with I-35 and I-80 on the western edge of the metro.", "The Des Moines Bypass passes south and east of the city.", "Other routes in and around the city include US 6, US 69, Iowa 28, Iowa 141, Iowa 163, Iowa 330, Iowa 415, and Iowa 160.A new Des Moines Skywalk EntranceDes Moines's public transit system, operated by DART (Des Moines Area Regional Transit), which was the Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority until October 2006, consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas.Characteristics of household ownership of cars in Des Moines are similar to national averages.", "In 2015, 8.5 percent of Des Moines households lacked a car, and increased to 9.6 percent in 2016.The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Des Moines averaged 1.71 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.Burlington Trailways, and Jefferson Lines run long-distance, intercity bus routes through Des Moines.", "The bus station is located north of downtown.", "The Des Moines Rock Island stationAlthough Des Moines was historically a train hub, it does not have direct passenger train service.", "For east–west traffic it was served at the Rock Island Depot by the ''Corn Belt Rocket'' express from Omaha to the west, to Chicago in the east.", "The Rock Island also offered the ''Rocky Mountain Rocket'' from Colorado Springs in the west, to Chicago, and the ''Twin Star Rocket'' to Minneapolis to the north and Dallas and Houston to the south.", "The last train was an unnamed service ending at Council Bluffs, and it was discontinued on May 31, 1970.Today, this line constitutes the mainline of the Iowa Interstate Railroad.Other railroads used the East Des Moines Union Station.", "Northward and northwest bound, there were Chicago and North Western trains to destinations including Minneapolis.", "The Wabash Railroad ran service to the southeast to St. Louis.", "These lines remain in use but are now operated by Union Pacific and BNSF.The nearest Amtrak station is in Osceola, about south of Des Moines.", "The Osceola station is served by the Chicago–San Francisco ''California Zephyr''; there is no Osceola–Des Moines Amtrak Thruway connecting service.", "There have been proposals to extend Amtrak's planned Chicago–Moline ''Quad City Rocket'' to Des Moines via the Iowa Interstate Railroad.The Des Moines International Airport (DSM), on Fleur Drive in the southern part of Des Moines, offers nonstop service to destinations within the United States.", "The only international service is cargo service, but there have been discussions about adding an international terminal." ], [ "Sister cities", "The Greater Des Moines Sister City Commission, with members from the City of Des Moines and the suburbs of Cumming, Norwalk, Windsor Heights, Johnston, Urbandale, and Ankeny, maintains sister city relationships with:* Kōfu, Japan (1958)* Saint-Étienne, France (1985)* Shijiazhuang, China (1985)* Stavropol, Russia (1992) (suspended)* Pristina, Kosovo (2018) (Kosovo also opened Consulate in downtown Des Moines in 2015 – List of diplomatic missions of Kosovo)* Catanzaro, Italy (2006)* Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia (1987)" ], [ "See also", "* List of people from Des Moines, Iowa* B-Bop's * Moingona* Des Moines Police Department* USS ''Des Moines'', 3 ships* Des Moines-class cruiser" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Friedericks, William B.", "''Covering Iowa: The History of the Des Moines Register and Tribune Company, 1849-1985'' (Iowa State University Press, 2000), 318 pp.", "* " ], [ "External links", " * Des Moines Featured on NPR's State of the Re:Union* Greater Des Moines Convention & Visitors Bureau" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Donald Campbell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Donald Malcolm Campbell''', (23 March 1921 – 4 January 1967) was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s.", "He remains the only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year (1964).", "He died during a water speed record attempt at Coniston Water in the Lake District, England." ], [ "Family and personal life", "Donald Campbell was born at Canbury House, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, the son of Malcolm, later Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 1930s in the ''Bluebird'' cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn (née Whittall).Campbell attended St Peter's School, Seaford and Uppingham School.", "At the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever.", "He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer.", "Subsequently, he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine Engineering, producing machine tools.", "Following his father's death on 31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolm's chief engineer, Leo Villa, the younger Campbell strove to set speed records first on water and then land.He married three times — to Daphne Harvey in 1945, producing daughter Georgina (Gina) Campbell, born on 19 September 1946; to Dorothy McKegg (1928–2008) in 1952; and to Tonia Bern (1928–2021) in December 1958, which union lasted until his death in 1967.Campbell was intensely superstitious, hating the colour green, the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday.", "He also had some interest in the paranormal, which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club." ], [ "Water speed records", "''Bluebird K7'' on display at Goodwood Motor Racing circuit in 1960Campbell began his speed record attempts in the summer of 1949, using his father's old boat, ''Blue Bird K4'', which he renamed ''Bluebird K4''.", "His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful, although he did come close to raising his father's existing record.", "The team returned to Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1950 for further trials.", "While there, they heard that an American, Stanley Sayres, had raised the record from , beyond K4's capabilities without substantial modification.In late 1950 and 1951, ''Bluebird K4'' was modified to make it a \"prop-rider\" as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration.", "This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag: The third planing point would now be the propeller hub, meaning one of the two propeller blades was always out of the water at high speed.", "She now sported two cockpits, the second one being for Leo Villa.", "''Bluebird K4'' now had a chance of exceeding Sayres' record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer, winning the Oltranza Cup in Italy in the spring of that year.", "Returning to Coniston in September, they finally got ''Bluebird'' up to 170 mph after further trials, only to suffer a structural failure at which wrecked the boat.", "Sayres raised the record the following year to in Slo-Mo-Shun IV.Along with Campbell, Britain had another potential contender for water speed record honours — John Cobb.", "He had commissioned the world's first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane, ''Crusader'', with a target speed of over , and began trials on Loch Ness in autumn 1952.Cobb was killed later that year, when Crusader broke up, during an attempt on the record.", "Campbell was devastated at Cobb's loss, but he resolved to build a new ''Bluebird'' boat to bring the water speed record back to Britain.In early 1953, Campbell began development of his own advanced all-metal jet-powered ''Bluebird K7'' hydroplane to challenge the record, by now held by the American prop rider hydroplane Slo-Mo-Shun IV.1 Designed by Ken and Lew Norris, the K7 was a steel-framed, aluminium-bodied, three-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl axial-flow turbojet engine, producing 3,500-pound-force (16 kN) of thrust.Like Slo-Mo-Shun, but unlike Cobb's tricycle Crusader, the three planing points were arranged with two forward, on outrigged sponsons and one aft, in a \"pickle-fork\" layout, prompting ''Bluebird''s early comparison to a blue lobster.", "K7 was of very advanced design and construction, and its load bearing steel space frame ultra rigid and stressed to 25 g (exceeding contemporary military jet aircraft).", "It had a design speed of and remained the only successful jet-boat in the world until the late 1960s.The designation \"K7\" was derived from its Lloyd's unlimited rating registration.", "It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson, underneath an infinity symbol.", "''Bluebird K7'' was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the \"Unlimited\" series.Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between July 1955 and December 1964.The first of these marks was set at Ullswater on 23 July 1955, where he achieved a speed of but only after many months of trials and a major redesign of ''Bluebird''s forward sponson attachments points.", "Campbell achieved a steady series of subsequent speed-record increases with the boat during the rest of the decade, beginning with a mark of in 1955 on Lake Mead in Nevada.", "Subsequently, four new marks were registered on Coniston Water, where Campbell and ''Bluebird'' became an annual fixture in the latter half of the 1950s, enjoying significant sponsorship from the Mobil oil company and then subsequently BP.Campbell also made an attempt in the summer of 1957 at Canandaigua, New York, which failed due to lack of suitable calm water conditions.", "''Bluebird K7'' became a well known and popular attraction, and as well as her annual Coniston appearances, ''K7'' was displayed extensively in the UK, United States, Canada and Europe, and then subsequently in Australia during Campbell's prolonged attempt on the land speed record in 1963–1964.To extract more speed, and endow the boat with greater high-speed stability, in both pitch and yaw, ''K7'' was subtly modified in the second half of the 1950s to incorporate more effective streamlining with a blown Perspex cockpit canopy and fluting to the lower part of the main hull.", "In 1958, a small wedge shaped tail fin, housing an arrester parachute, modified sponson fairings, that gave a significant reduction in forward aerodynamic lift, and a fixed hydrodynamic stabilising fin, attached to the transom to aid directional stability, and exert a marginal down-force on the nose were incorporated into the design to increase the safe operating envelope of the hydroplane.", "Thus she reached in 1956, where an unprecedented peak speed of was achieved on one run, in 1957, in 1958 and in 1959.Campbell was awarded the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking, and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the United States which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim.On 23 November 1964, Campbell achieved the Australian water speed record of on Lake Bonney Riverland in South Australia, although he was unable to break the world record on that attempt." ], [ "Land speed record attempt", "National Motor Museum in Beaulieu.It was after the Lake Mead water speed record success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell's ambition to hold the land speed record as well were planted.", "The following year, the serious planning was under way — to build a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at set by John Cobb in 1947.The Norris brothers designed ''Bluebird-Proteus CN7'' with in mind.The British motor industry, in the guise of Dunlop, BP, Smiths Industries, Lucas Automotive, Rubery Owen as well as many others, became heavily involved in the project to build the most advanced car the world had yet seen.", "CN7 was powered by a specially modified Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of driving all four wheels.", "''Bluebird CN7'' was designed to achieve 475–500 mph and was completed by the spring of 1960.Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood motor racing circuit in Sussex, in July, the ''CN7'' was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, United States, scene of his father's last land speed record triumph, some 25 years earlier in September 1935.The trials initially went well, and various adjustments were made to the car.", "On the sixth run in CN7, Campbell lost control at over 360 mph and crashed.", "It was the car's tremendous structural integrity that saved his life.", "He was hospitalised with a fractured skull and a burst eardrum, as well as minor cuts and bruises, but ''CN7'' was a write-off.", "Almost immediately, Campbell announced he was determined to have another go.", "Sir Alfred Owen, whose Rubery Owen industrial group had built CN7, offered to rebuild it for him.", "That single decision was to have a profound influence on the rest of Campbell's life.", "His original plan had been to break the land speed record at over 400 mph in 1960, return to Bonneville the following year to really bump up the speed to something near to 500 mph, get his seventh water speed record with K7 and then retire.Campbell decided not to go back to Utah for the new trials.", "He felt the Bonneville course was too short at and the salt surface was in poor condition.", "BP offered to find another venue and eventually after a long search, Lake Eyre, in South Australia, was chosen.", "It hadn't rained there for nine years and the vast dry bed of the salt lake offered a course of up to .", "By the summer of 1962, ''Bluebird CN7'' was rebuilt, some nine months later than Campbell had hoped.", "It was essentially the same car, but with the addition of a large stabilising tail fin and a reinforced fibreglass cockpit cover.", "At the end of 1962, ''CN7'' was shipped out to Australia ready for the new attempt.", "Low-speed runs had just started when the rains came.", "The course was compromised and further rain meant, that by May 1963, Lake Eyre was flooded to a depth of 3 inches, causing the attempt to be abandoned.", "Campbell was heavily criticised in the press for alleged time wasting and mismanagement of the project, despite the fact that he could hardly be held responsible for the unprecedented weather.To make matters worse for Campbell, American Craig Breedlove drove his pure thrust jet car \"Spirit of America\" to a speed of at Bonneville in July 1963.Although the \"car\" did not conform to FIA (Federation Internationale de L'Automobile) regulations, that stipulated it had to be wheel-driven and have a minimum of four wheels, in the eyes of the world, Breedlove was now the fastest man on Earth.Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964, but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain.", "BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute, but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol.The track never properly dried out and Campbell was forced to make the best of the conditions.", "Finally, in July 1964, he was able to post some speeds that approached the record.", "On the 17th of that month, he took advantage of a break in the weather and made two courageous runs along the shortened and still damp track, posting a new land speed record of .", "The surreal moment was captured in a number of well-known images by photographers, including Australia's Jeff Carter.", "Campbell was bitterly disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds.", "''CN7'' covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of , peaking as it left the measured distance at over .", "He resented the fact that it had all been so difficult.", "\"We've made it — we got the bastard at last,\" was his reaction to the success.", "Campbell's 403.1 mph represented the official land speed record.In 1969, after Campbell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, president of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run ''Bluebird'' on Bonneville's Salt Flats.", "This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support.Model of Donald Campbell ''Bluebird'' used in Breedlove promotion" ], [ "Double records", "Campbell now planned to go after the water speed record one more time with ''Bluebird K7'' — to do what he had aimed for so many years earlier, during the initial planning stages of CN7 — break both records in the same year.", "After more delays, he finally achieved his seventh water speed record at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth, Western Australia, on the last day of 1964, at a speed of .", "He had become the first, and so far only, person to set both land and water speed records in the same year.Campbell's land speed record was short-lived, because FIA rule changes meant that pure jet cars would be eligible to set records from October 1964.Campbell's speed on his final Lake Eyre run remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001; ''Bluebird CN7'' is now on display at the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu in Hampshire, England, its potential only partly realised." ], [ "Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt", "===Bluebird Mach 1.1===Promotional model of ''Bluebird Mach 1.1'' displayed outside Campbell's house in spring 1966.Campbell decided a massive jump in speed was called for following his successful 1964 land speed record attempt in ''Bluebird CN7''.", "His vision was of a supersonic rocket car with a potential maximum speed of .", "Norris Brothers were requested to undertake a design study.", "''Bluebird Mach 1.1'' was a design for a rocket-powered supersonic land speed record car.", "Campbell chose a lucky date to hold a press conference at the Charing Cross Hotel on 7 July 1965 to announce his future record breaking plans:''Bluebird Mach 1.1'' was to be rocket-powered.", "Ken Norris had calculated using rocket motors would result in a vehicle with very low frontal area, greater density, and lighter weight than if he were to employ a jet engine.", "''Bluebird Mach 1.1'' would also be a relatively compact and simple design.", "Norris specified two off-the-shelf Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines.", "The 605 had been developed as a rocket-assisted take-off engine for military aircraft and was fuelled with kerosene, using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser.", "Each engine was rated at thrust.", "In ''Bluebird Mach 1.1'' application, the combined thrust would be equivalent of 36,000 bhp (27,000 kW; 36,000 PS) at .===Final record attempt===To increase publicity for his rocket car venture, in the spring of 1966, Campbell decided to try once more for a water speed record.", "This time the target was .", "''Bluebird K7'' was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine, taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft, which developed of thrust.", "The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966.The trials did not go well.", "The weather was very poor, and ''K7'' suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine.", "By the middle of December, some high-speed runs were made, in excess of but still well below Campbell's existing record.", "Problems with ''Bluebird''s fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full speed, and so would not develop maximum power.", "Eventually, by the end of December, after further modifications to her fuel system, and the replacement of a fuel pump, the fuel starvation problem was fixed, and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt." ], [ "Death", "Memorial plaque for Donald Campbell, in Coniston villageOn 4 January 1967, weather conditions were finally suitable for an attempt.", "Campbell commenced the first run of his last record attempt at just after 8:45 am.", "''Bluebird'' moved slowly out towards the middle of the lake, where she paused briefly as Campbell lined her up.", "With a deafening blast of power, Campbell now applied full throttle and ''Bluebird'' began to surge forward.", "Clouds of spray issued from the jet-pipe, water poured over the rear spar and after a few hundred yards, at , ''Bluebird'' unstuck from the surface and rocketed off towards the southern end of the lake, producing her characteristic comet's tail of spray.", "She entered the measured kilometre at 8:46 am.", "Leo Villa witnessed her passing the first marker buoy at about in perfect steady planing trim, her nose slightly down, still accelerating.", "7.525 seconds later, Keith Harrison saw her leave the measured kilometre at a speed of over .", "The average speed for the first run was .", "Campbell lifted his foot from the throttle about 3/10 of a second before passing the southern kilometre marker.", "As ''Bluebird'' left the measured kilometre, Keith Harrison and Eric Shaw in a course boat at the southern end of the measured kilometre both noticed that she was very light around the bows, riding on her front stabilising fins.", "Her planing trim was no worse than she had exhibited when equipped with the Beryl engine, but it was markedly different from that observed by Leo Villa at the northern end of the kilometre, when she was under full acceleration.", "Campbell had made his usual commentary throughout the run.Campbell's words on his first run were, via radio intercom:Instead of refuelling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside, Campbell decided to make the return run immediately.", "This was not an unprecedented diversion from normal practice, as Campbell had used the advantage presented; i.e., no encroachment of water disturbances on the measured kilometre by the quick turnaround in many previous runs.", "The second run was even faster once severe tramping subsided on the run-up from Peel Island (caused by the water-brake disturbance).", "Once smooth water was reached some or so from the start of the kilometre, K7 demonstrated cycles of ground effect hovering before accelerating hard at 0.63 g to a peak speed of some 200 metres or so from the southern marker buoy.", "''Bluebird'' was now experiencing bouncing episodes of the starboard sponson with increasing ferocity.", "At the peak speed, the most intense and long-lasting bounce precipitated a severe decelerating episode — to , -1.86g — as ''K7'' dropped back onto the water.", "Engine flame-out then occurred and, shorn of thrust nose-down momentum, K7 experienced a gliding episode in strong ground effect with increasing angle-of-attack, before completely leaving the water at her static stability pitch-up limit of 5.2°.", "''Bluebird'' then executed an almost complete backflip (~ 320° and slightly off-axis) before plunging into the water (port sponson marginally in advance of the starboard), approximately 230 metres from the end of the measured kilometre.", "The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest.", "The impact broke ''K7'' forward of the air intakes (where Campbell was sitting) and the main hull sank shortly afterwards.Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris and the pilot's helmet was recovered.", "Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but, although the wreck of ''K7'' was found, they called off the search, after two weeks, without locating his body.", "Campbell's body was finally located in 2001.Campbell's last words, during a 31-second transmission, on his final run were, via radio intercom:The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to several possible causes (or a combination of these causes):* Campbell did not wait to refuel after doing a first run of and hence the boat was lighter and travelled through the wash caused by his first run, a wash made much worse by the use of the water brake.", "These factors have since been found to be not particularly important: The water brake was used well to the south of the measured distance, and only from approx.", ".", "The area in the centre of the course where ''Bluebird'' was travelling at peak speed on her return run was flat calm, and not disturbed by the wash from the first run, which had not had time to be reflected back on the course.", "Campbell knew this and, as discussed previously, adopted his well-practised, \"quick turn-around\" strategy.", "* ''Bluebird'' may have exceeded its aerodynamic static stability limit, complicated by the additional destabilising influences of loss of engine thrust.", "There is also evidence to point to the fact that K7's dynamic stability limit had been exceeded.", "The cause(s) of the engine flame-out cannot be established unequivocally.", "It could have been due to fuel starvation, damage to some ancillary structural element associated with engine function (following the worst bouncing episode), disturbance of the airstream into the intakes during the pitching episodes, or indeed a combination of all three.", "Further evidence of lost engine thrust may be seen in both cinematographic and still film recordings of the latter part of the run — as ''Bluebird'' left the water, jet exhaust from a functioning engine would have severely disturbed the water surface; no such disturbance or accompanying spray is evident.", "Also, close examination of such records show no evidence to the effect that the water brake was deployed.", "* Analysis of film footage suggests that ''Bluebird'' may have hit a duck during test runs, which may have affected the aerodynamic shape of the boat, making it harder to control at extreme speeds.On 28 January 1967, Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct \"for courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record.\"" ], [ "Recovery of ''Bluebird K7'' and Campbell's body", "The wreckage of Campbell's craft was recovered by the Bluebird Project between October 2000, when the first sections were raised, and May 2001, when Campbell's body was recovered.", "The largest section, comprising approximately two-thirds of the centre hull, was raised on 8 March 2001.The project began when diver Bill Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song \"Out of This World\" (from the album ''Afraid of Sunlight''), which was written about Campbell and ''Bluebird''.The recovered wreck revealed that the water brake had deployed after the accident as a result of stored accumulator pressure; Campbell would not have had time to deploy the relatively slow-moving brake as the boat flipped out of control.", "The boat still contained fuel in the engine fuel lines, discounting the fuel-starvation theory.", "The wreckage all evidenced an impact from left to right, wiping the whole front of the boat off in that direction.", "Campbell's lower harness mounts had failed and were found to be effectively useless.", "Further dives recovered various parts of ''K7'', which had separated from the main hull when it broke up on impact.Part of Campbell's body was finally located just over two months later and recovered from the lake on 28 May 2001, still wearing his blue nylon overalls.", "On the night before his death, while playing cards he had drawn the queen and the ace of spades.", "Reflecting upon the fact that Mary, Queen of Scots had drawn the same two cards the night before she was beheaded, he told his mechanics, who were playing cards with him, that he had a fearful premonition that he was going to \"get the chop\".", "It was not possible to determine the cause of Campbell's death, though a consultant engineer giving evidence to the inquest said that the force of the impact could have caused him to be decapitated.", "When his remains were found, his skull was not present and is still missing.Campbell's gravestone in ConistonCampbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 after his coffin was carried down the lake, and through the measured kilometre, on a launch, one last time.", "A funeral service was then held at St Andrew's Church in Coniston, after an earlier, and positive DNA examination had been carried out.", "The funeral was attended by his widow, Tonia, daughter Gina, other members of his family, members of his former team and admirers.", "The funeral was overshadowed in the media by coverage of the 9/11 attacks in the United States.Campbell's sister, Jean Wales, had been against the recovery of her brother's body out of respect for his stated wish that, in the event of something going wrong, \"Skipper and boat stay together\".", "Jean Wales did, however, remain in daily telephone contact with project leader Bill Smith during the recovery operation in anticipation of any news of her brother's remains.", "When Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 she did not attend the service.", "Steve Hogarth, lead singer for Marillion, was present at the funeral and performed the song \"Out of This World\" solo." ], [ "Legacy", "Between them, Campbell and his father had set 11 speed records on water and 10 on land.The story of Campbell's last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the BBC television film ''Across the Lake'' in 1988, with Anthony Hopkins as Campbell.", "Nine years earlier, Robert Hardy had played Campbell's father, Sir Malcolm Campbell, in the ''BBC2 Playhouse'' television drama \"Speed King\"; both were written by Roger Milner and produced by Innes Lloyd.", "In 2003, the BBC showed a documentary reconstruction of Campbell's fateful water-speed record attempt in an episode of ''Days That Shook the World''.", "It featured a mixture of modern reconstruction and original film footage.", "All of the original colour clips were taken from a film capturing the event, ''Campbell at Coniston'' by John Lomax, a local amateur filmmaker from Wallasey, England.", "Lomax's film won awards worldwide in the late 1960s for recording the final weeks of Campbell's life.In 1956, Campbell was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for the seventh episode of the new television show ''This Is Your Life''.An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Campbell and his father at Canbury School, Kingston Hill, Kingston upon Thames, where they lived.In the village of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum has a display of Campbell memorabilia, and the Bristol Orpheus engine recovered in 2001 is also displayed.", "The engine's casing is mostly missing, having acted as a sacrificial anode in its time underwater, but the internals are preserved.", "Campbell's helmet from the ill-fated run is also on display.On 23 March 2021, organised by the Ruskin Museum, two Hawk jets of the Royal Air Force staged a fly past over the Lake District to mark the 100th anniversary of Campbell's birth.", "As they flew over Coniston Water, the jets dipped their wings in salute, in a repeat of a gesture carried out by an Avro Vulcan on the day after his death.", "Campbell's daughter, Gina, laid flowers on the surface of the lake as the jets flew overhead." ], [ "Restoration", "On 7 December 2006, Campbell's daughter, Gina Campbell, formally gifted ''Bluebird K7'' to the Ruskin Museum in Coniston on behalf of the Campbell Family Heritage Trust.", "In agreement with the trust and the museum, Bill Smith was to organise the restoration of the boat back to running order circa 4 January 1967.Smith said that this would take an undisclosed number of years to accomplish.", "Gina Campbell commented: \"I've decided to secure the future of Bluebird for the people of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum and the people of the world\".", "Museum Director Vicky Slowe spoke of Gina Campbell's generosity and said that: \"Bill Smith has assured us he can get Bluebird fully conserved and reconfigured at no cost to the museum.", "As of 2008, K7 is being fully restored by The Bluebird Project, to a very high standard of working condition in North Shields, Tyne and Wear, using a significant proportion of her original fabric, but with a replacement BS Orpheus engine of the same type albeit incorporating many original components.", "\"As of May 2009, permission had been given for a one-off set of proving trials of ''Bluebird'' on Coniston Water, where she would be tested to a safe speed for demonstration purposes only.", "There was no fixed date given for completion of ''Bluebird K7'' or the trials.", "Upon restoration, it was planned that ''K7'' would be housed in her own purpose-built wing at the Ruskin Museum in Coniston.On 20 March 2018 the restoration was featured on the BBC's ''The One Show'', when it was announced that ''Bluebird K7'' would return to the water on Loch Fad, on the Isle of Bute in Scotland, in August 2018 for handling trials.===Refloating and initial trials===In August 2018, initial restoration work on ''Bluebird'' was completed.", "She was transported to Loch Fad where she was refloated on 4 August 2018.Following initial engine trials on 5 August, ''Bluebird'' completed a series of test runs on the loch, reaching speeds of about .", "For safety reasons, there are no plans to attempt to reach any higher speeds." ], [ "World speed records established by Campbell", " Speed Record Vehicle Location Date Water ''Bluebird K7'' Ullswater 23 July 1955 Water ''Bluebird K7'' Lake Mead 16 November 1955 Water ''Bluebird K7'' Coniston Water 19 September 1956 Water ''Bluebird K7'' Coniston Water 7 November 1957 Water ''Bluebird K7'' Coniston Water 10 November 1958 Water ''Bluebird K7'' Coniston Water 14 May 1959 Water ''Bluebird K7'' Lake Dumbleyung 31 December 1964 Land ''Bluebird CN7'' Lake Eyre 17 July 1964" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " * https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1556039/Jean-Wales.html" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Directed set" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''directed set''' (or a '''directed preorder''' or a '''filtered set''') is a nonempty set together with a reflexive and transitive binary relation (that is, a preorder), with the additional property that every pair of elements has an upper bound.", "In other words, for any and in there must exist in with and A directed set's preorder is called a '''direction'''.The notion defined above is sometimes called an ''''''.", "A '''''' is defined analogously, meaning that every pair of elements is bounded below.", "Some authors (and this article) assume that a directed set is directed upward, unless otherwise stated.", "Other authors call a set directed if and only if it is directed both upward and downward.Directed sets are a generalization of nonempty totally ordered sets.", "That is, all totally ordered sets are directed sets (contrast ordered sets, which need not be directed).", "Join-semilattices (which are partially ordered sets) are directed sets as well, but not conversely.", "Likewise, lattices are directed sets both upward and downward.In topology, directed sets are used to define nets, which generalize sequences and unite the various notions of limit used in analysis.", "Directed sets also give rise to direct limits in abstract algebra and (more generally) category theory." ], [ "Equivalent definition", "In addition to the definition above, there is an equivalent definition.", "A '''directed set''' is a set with a preorder such that every finite subset of has an upper bound.", "In this definition, the existence of an upper bound of the empty subset implies that is nonempty." ], [ "Examples", "The set of natural numbers with the ordinary order is one of the most important examples of a directed set.", "Every totally ordered set is a directed set, including and A (trivial) example of a partially ordered set that is '''''' directed is the set in which the only order relations are and A less trivial example is like the previous example of the \"reals directed towards \" but in which the ordering rule only applies to pairs of elements on the same side of (that is, if one takes an element to the left of and to its right, then and are not comparable, and the subset has no upper bound).===Product of directed sets===Let and be directed sets.", "Then the Cartesian product set can be made into a directed set by defining if and only if and In analogy to the product order this is the product direction on the Cartesian product.", "For example, the set of pairs of natural numbers can be made into a directed set by defining if and only if and ===Directed towards a point===If is a real number then the set can be turned into a directed set by defining if (so \"greater\" elements are closer to ).", "We then say that the reals have been '''directed towards ''' This is an example of a directed set that is partially ordered nor totally ordered.", "This is because antisymmetry breaks down for every pair and equidistant from where and are on opposite sides of Explicitly, this happens when for some real in which case and even though Had this preorder been defined on instead of then it would still form a directed set but it would now have a (unique) greatest element, specifically ; however, it still wouldn't be partially ordered.", "This example can be generalized to a metric space by defining on or the preorder if and only if ===Maximal and greatest elements===An element of a preordered set is a ''maximal element'' if for every implies It is a ''greatest element'' if for every Any preordered set with a greatest element is a directed set with the same preorder.", "For instance, in a poset every lower closure of an element; that is, every subset of the form where is a fixed element from is directed.Every maximal element of a directed preordered set is a greatest element.", "Indeed, a directed preordered set is characterized by equality of the (possibly empty) sets of maximal and of greatest elements.===Subset inclusion===The subset inclusion relation along with its dual define partial orders on any given family of sets.", "A non-empty family of sets is a directed set with respect to the partial order (respectively, ) if and only if the intersection (respectively, union) of any two of its members contains as a subset (respectively, is contained as a subset of) some third member.", "In symbols, a family of sets is directed with respect to (respectively, ) if and only if :for all there exists some such that and (respectively, and ) or equivalently, :for all there exists some such that (respectively, ).Many important examples of directed sets can be defined using these partial orders.", "For example, by definition, a or is a non-empty family of sets that is a directed set with respect to the partial order and that also does not contain the empty set (this condition prevents triviality because otherwise, the empty set would then be a greatest element with respect to ).", "Every -system, which is a non-empty family of sets that is closed under the intersection of any two of its members, is a directed set with respect to Every λ-system is a directed set with respect to Every filter, topology, and σ-algebra is a directed set with respect to both and ====Tails of nets====By definition, a is a function from a directed set and a sequence is a function from the natural numbers Every sequence canonically becomes a net by endowing with If is any net from a directed set then for any index the set is called the tail of starting at The family of all tails is a directed set with respect to in fact, it is even a prefilter.====Neighborhoods====If is a topological space and is a point in set of all neighbourhoods of can be turned into a directed set by writing if and only if contains For every and :* since contains itself.", "* if and then and which implies Thus * because and since both and we have and ====Finite subsets====The set of all finite subsets of a set is directed with respect to since given any two their union is an upper bound of and in This particular directed set is used to define the sum of a generalized series of an -indexed collection of numbers (or more generally, the sum of elements in an abelian topological group, such as vectors in a topological vector space) as the limit of the net of partial sums that is:===Logic===Let be a formal theory, which is a set of sentences with certain properties (details of which can be found in the article on the subject).", "For instance, could be a first-order theory (like Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory) or a simpler zeroth-order theory.", "The preordered set is a directed set because if and if denotes the sentence formed by logical conjunction then and where If is the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra associated with then is a partially ordered set that is also a directed set." ], [ "Contrast with semilattices", "Example of a directed set which is not a join-semilatticeDirected set is a more general concept than (join) semilattice: every join semilattice is a directed set, as the join or least upper bound of two elements is the desired The converse does not hold however, witness the directed set {1000,0001,1101,1011,1111} ordered bitwise (e.g.", "holds, but does not, since in the last bit 1 > 0), where {1000,0001} has three upper bounds but no upper bound, cf.", "picture.", "(Also note that without 1111, the set is not directed.)" ], [ "Directed subsets", "The order relation in a directed set is not required to be antisymmetric, and therefore directed sets are not always partial orders.", "However, the term is also used frequently in the context of posets.", "In this setting, a subset of a partially ordered set is called a '''directed subset''' if it is a directed set according to the same partial order: in other words, it is not the empty set, and every pair of elements has an upper bound.", "Here the order relation on the elements of is inherited from ; for this reason, reflexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly.A directed subset of a poset is not required to be downward closed; a subset of a poset is directed if and only if its downward closure is an ideal.", "While the definition of a directed set is for an \"upward-directed\" set (every pair of elements has an upper bound), it is also possible to define a downward-directed set in which every pair of elements has a common lower bound.", "A subset of a poset is downward-directed if and only if its upper closure is a filter.Directed subsets are used in domain theory, which studies directed-complete partial orders.", "These are posets in which every upward-directed set is required to have a least upper bound.", "In this context, directed subsets again provide a generalization of convergent sequences." ], [ "See also", "* * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " J. L. Kelley (1955), ''General Topology''.", "* Gierz, Hofmann, Keimel, ''et al.''", "(2003), ''Continuous Lattices and Domains'', Cambridge University Press.", "." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Bellamy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Bellamy''' (March 26, 1850 – May 22, 1898) was an American author, journalist, and political activist most famous for his utopian novel ''Looking Backward''.", "Bellamy's vision of a harmonious future world inspired the formation of numerous \"Nationalist Clubs\" dedicated to the propagation of his political ideas.After working as a journalist and writing several unremarkable novels, Bellamy published ''Looking Backward'' in 1888.It was one of the most commercially successful books published in the United States in the 19th century, and it especially appealed to a generation of intellectuals alienated from the alleged dark side of the Gilded Age.", "In the early 1890s, Bellamy established a newspaper known as ''The New Nation'' and began to promote united action between the various Nationalist Clubs and the emerging Populist Party.", "He published ''Equality'', a sequel to ''Looking Backward'', in 1897, and died the following year." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Edward Bellamy was born in Chicopee, Massachusetts.", "His father was Rufus King Bellamy (1816–1886), a Baptist minister and a descendant of Joseph Bellamy.", "His mother, Maria Louisa Putnam Bellamy, was a Calvinist.", "She was the daughter of a Baptist minister named Benjamin Putnam, who was forced to withdraw from the ministry in Salem, Massachusetts, following objections to his becoming a Freemason.Bellamy attended public school at Chicopee Falls before leaving for Union College of Schenectady, New York, where he studied for just two semesters.", "Upon leaving school, he made his way to Europe for a year, spending extensive time in Germany.", "He briefly studied law but abandoned that field without ever having practiced as a lawyer, instead entering the world of journalism.", "In this capacity Bellamy briefly served on the staff of the ''New York Post'' before returning to his native Massachusetts to take a position at the ''Springfield Union''.At the age of 25, Bellamy developed tuberculosis, the disease that would ultimately kill him.", "He suffered with its effects throughout his adult life.", "In an effort to regain his health, Bellamy spent a year in the Hawaiian Islands (1877 to 1878).", "Returning to the United States, he decided to abandon the daily grind of journalism in favor of literary work, which put fewer demands upon his time and his health.Bellamy married Emma Augusta Sanderson in 1882.The couple had two children.===Literary career===Bellamy's early novels, including ''Six to One'' (1878), ''Dr.", "Heidenhoff's Process'' (1880), and ''Miss Ludington's Sister'' (1885), were unremarkable works, making use of standard psychological plots.A turn to utopian science fiction with ''Looking Backward, 2000–1887,'' published in January 1888, captured the public imagination and catapulted Bellamy to literary fame.", "Its publisher could scarcely keep up with demand.", "Within a year it had sold some 200,000 copies, and by the end of the 19th century had sold more copies than any other book published in America up to that time except for ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' by Harriet Beecher Stowe and ''Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'' by Lew Wallace.", "The book gained an extensive readership in the United Kingdom as well, more than 235,000 copies being sold there between 1890 and 1935.In ''Looking Backward'', a non-violent revolution had transformed the American economy and thereby society; private property had been abolished in favor of state ownership of capital and the elimination of social classes and the ills of society that he thought inevitably followed from them.", "In the new world of the year 2000, there was no longer war, poverty, crime, prostitution, corruption, money, or taxes.", "Neither did there exist such occupations seen by Bellamy as of dubious worth to society, such as politicians, lawyers, merchants, or soldiers.", "Instead, Bellamy's utopian society of the future was based upon the voluntary employment of all citizens between the ages of 21 and 45, after which time all would retire.", "Work was simple, aided by machine production, working hours short and vacation time long.", "The new economic basis of society effectively remade human nature itself in Bellamy's idyllic vision, with greed, maliciousness, untruthfulness, and insanity all relegated to the past." ], [ "Bellamyite movement", "Bellamy's book inspired legions of inspired readers to establish so-called Nationalist Clubs, beginning in Boston late in 1888.His vision of a country relieved of its social ills through abandonment of the principle of competition and establishment of state ownership of industry proved an appealing panacea to a generation of intellectuals alienated from the dark side of Gilded Age America.", "By 1891 it was reported that no fewer than 162 Nationalist Clubs were in existence.Bellamy's use of the term \"Nationalism\" rather than \"socialism\" as a descriptor of his governmental vision was calculated, as he did not want to limit either sales of his novel or the potential influence of its political ideas.", "In an 1888 letter to literary critic William Dean Howells, Bellamy wrote:Bellamy himself came to actively participate in the political movement which emerged around his book, particularly after 1891 when he founded his own magazine, ''The New Nation,'' and began to promote united action between the various Nationalist Clubs and the emerging People's Party.", "For the next three and a half years, Bellamy gave his all to politics, publishing his magazine, working to influence the platform of the People's Party, and publicizing the Nationalist movement in the popular press.", "This phase of his life came to an end in 1894, when ''The New Nation'' was forced to suspend publication owing to financial difficulties.With the key activists of the Nationalist Clubs largely absorbed into the apparatus of the People's Party (although a Nationalist Party did run three candidates for office in Wisconsin as late as 1896), Bellamy abandoned politics for a return to literature.", "He set to work on a sequel to ''Looking Backward'' titled ''Equality,'' attempting to deal with the ideal society of the post-revolutionary future in greater detail.", "In this final work, he addressed the question of feminism, dealing with the taboo subject of female reproductive rights in a future, post-revolutionary America.", "Other subjects overlooked in ''Looking Backward,'' such as animal rights and wilderness preservation, were dealt with in a similar context.", "The book saw print in 1897 and would prove to be Bellamy's final creation.Several short stories of Bellamy's were published in 1898, and ''The Duke of Stockbridge; a Romance of Shays' Rebellion'' was published in 1900.===Death and legacy===Edward Bellamy died of tuberculosis in Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts ten years after the publication of his most famous book.", "He was 48 years old.His lifelong home in Chicopee Falls, built by his father, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1971.Bellamy was the cousin of Francis Bellamy, famous for writing the original version of the Pledge of Allegiance.Bellamy Road, a residential road in Toronto, is named for the author." ], [ "Published works", "===Novels===''Six to One'' (1878)''Dr.", "Heidenhoff's Process'' (1880)''Miss Ludington's Sister'' (1885)''Looking Backward, 2000–1887'' (1888)''Equality'' (1897)''The Duke of Stockbridge; a Romance of Shays' Rebellion'' (1900)===Short stories===\"At Pinney's Ranch\"\"The Blindman's World\"\"Deserted\"\"An Echo Of Antietam\"\"Hooking Watermelons\"\"Lost\"\"A Love Story Reversed\"\"The Old Folks' Party\"\"A Positive Romance\"\"Potts's Painless Cure\"\"A Summer Evening's Dream\"\"To Whom This May Come\"\"Two Days' Solitary Imprisonment\"\"With The Eyes Shut\"\"The Cold Snap\"\"The Old Folks' Party\"" ], [ "See also", "* Nationalist Clubs* ''The Nationalist''* Equality Colony* Dutch Bellamy Party* Monument to credit card" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Six to One: A Nantucket Idyl.''", "New York: G.P.", "Putnam's Sons, 1878.", "* ''Dr.", "Heidenhoff's Process.''", "London: William Reeves, 1880.", "* Miss Ludington's Sister: A Romance of Immorality.", "Boston: James R. Osgoode and Co., 1885.", "* ''Looking Backward, 2000–1887.''", "Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1889.", "* \"How I Came to Write ''Looking Backward\"'', ''The Nationalist'' (Boston), vol.", "1, no.", "1 (May 1889), pp. 1–4.", "* ''Plutocracy or Nationalism – Which?", "''* ''Principles and Purposes of Nationalism: Edward Bellamy's Address at Tremont Temple, Boston, on the Nationalist Club's First Anniversary, Dec. 19, 1889.''", "Philadelphia: Bureau of Nationalist Literature, n.d.", "1890.", "* ''The Programme of the Nationalists.''", "Philadelphia: Bureau of Nationalist Literature, 1894.—First published in ''The Forum,'' March 1894.", "* ''Equality.''", "New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1898.", "* ''The Blindman's World and Other Stories.''", "William Dean Howells, intro.", "Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1898.", "* ''The Duke of Stockbridge: A Romance of Shays' Rebellion.''", "New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1900.", "* ''Edward Bellamy: Selected Writings on Religion and Society.''", "Joseph Schiffman (ed.)", "New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1955.", "* ''Apparitions of Things to Come: Edward Bellamy's Tales of Mystery & Imagination.''", "Franklin Rosemont, ed.", "Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company, 1990." ], [ "Further reading", "* Sylvia E. Bowman, ''Edward Bellamy Abroad: An American Prophet's Influence.''", "New York: Twayne Publishers, 1962.", "* Sylvia E. Bowman, ''The Year 2000: A Critical Biography Of Edward Bellamy.''", "New York: Bookman Associates, 1958.", "* John Dewey, \"A Great American Prophet\", ''Common Sense,'' April 1934, pp. 1–4.", "* Louis Filler, \"Edward Bellamy and the Spiritual Unrest,\" ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology,'' vol.", "8, no.", "3 (April 1949), pp.", "239–249.In JSTOR* Arthur Lipow, ''Authoritarian Socialism in America: Edward Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement.''", "Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1982Fernando Alberto Lizarraga.", "“Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity: The Relevance of Edward Bellamy’s Utopia for Contemporary Political Theory.” ''Utopian Studies'' 31, no.", "3 (2021): 512–31.", " Everett W. MacNair, ''Edward Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement, 1889 to 1894: A Research Study of Edward Bellamy's Work as a Social Reformer.''", "Milwaukee, WI: Fitzgerald Co., 1957.", "* Arthur E. Morgan, ''Edward Bellamy.''", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1944.", "* Arthur E. Morgan, ''The Philosophy of Edward Bellamy.''", "King's Crown Press, 1945.", "* Daphne Patai (ed.", "), ''Looking Backward, 1988–1888: Essays on Edward Bellamy.''", "Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988.", "* Jean Pfaelzer, ''The Utopian Novel in America, 1886–1896: The Politics of Form.''", "Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985.", "* Robertson, Michael, 'Edward Bellamy’s Orderly Utopia', ''The Last Utopians: Four Late Nineteenth-Century Visionaries and Their Legacy'' (Princeton, NJ, 2018; online edn, Princeton Scholarship Online, 24 Jan. 2019), https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691154169.003.0003,* Elizabeth Sadler, \"One Book's Influence: Edward Bellamy's ''Looking Backward''\" ''New England Quarterly'', vol.", "17 (Dec. 1944), pp. 530–555.", "* Robert L. Shurter, \"The Literary Work of Edward Bellamy\", ''American Literature,'' vol.", "5, no.", "3 (Nov. 1933), pp. 229–234.", "* Ida M. Tarbell, \"New Dealers of the 'Seventies: Henry George and Edward Bellamy\", ''The Forum,'' vol.", "92, no.", "3 (Sept. 1934), p.", "157.", "* John Thomas, ''Alternative America: Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Henry Demarest Lloyd and the Adversary Tradition.''", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.", "* Richard Toby Widdicombe, ''Edward Bellamy: An Annotated Bibliography of Secondary Criticism.''", "New York: Garland Publishing, 1988.", "* Frances E. Willard, \"An Interview with Edward Bellamy\", ''Our Day,'' vol.", "4, no.", "24 (Dec. 1889), pp.", "539–542." ], [ "External links", "* * * Edward Bellamy Archive at marxists.org* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "E" ], [ "Introduction", "'''E''', or '''e''', is the fifth letter and the second vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide.", "Its name in English is ''e'' (pronounced ); plural ''es'', ''Es'' or ''E's''.", "It is the most commonly used letter in many languages, including Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish." ], [ "History", " Egyptian hieroglyph''qʼ''Proto-SinaiticProto-Canaanite''hillul'' Phoenician ''He'' EtruscanE Greek''Epsilon'' Latin/ CyrillicE A2840x40px40x40px40x40px40px55pxLatin EThe Latin letter 'E' differs little from its source, the Greek letter epsilon, 'Ε'.", "This in turn comes from the Semitic letter ''hê'', which has been suggested to have started as a praying or calling human figure (''hillul'' 'jubilation'), and was most likely based on a similar Egyptian hieroglyph that indicated a different pronunciation.", "In Semitic, the letter represented (and in foreign words); in Greek, ''hê'' became the letter epsilon, used to represent .", "The various forms of the Old Italic script and the Latin alphabet followed this usage." ], [ "Use in writing systems", "305x305px===English===Although Middle English spelling used to represent long and short , the Great Vowel Shift changed long (as in ''me'' or ''bee'') to while short (as in ''met'' or ''bed'') remained a mid vowel.", "In unstressed syllables, this letter is usually pronounced either as or .", "In other cases, the letter is silent, generally at the end of words like ''queue''.===Other languages===In the orthography of many languages it represents either , , , or some variation (such as a nasalized version) of these sounds, often with diacritics (as: ) to indicate contrasts.", "Less commonly, as in French, German, or Saanich, represents a mid-central vowel .", "Digraphs with are common to indicate either diphthongs or monophthongs, such as or for or in English, for in German, and for in French or in German.===Other systems===The International Phonetic Alphabet uses for the close-mid front unrounded vowel or the mid front unrounded vowel." ], [ "Most common letter", "'E' is the most common (or highest-frequency) letter in the English language alphabet and several other European languages, which has implications in both cryptography and data compression.", "In the story \"The Gold-Bug\" by Edgar Allan Poe, a character figures out a random character code by remembering that the most used letter in English is E. This makes it a hard and popular letter to use when writing lipograms.", "Ernest Vincent Wright's ''Gadsby'' (1939) is considered a \"dreadful\" novel, and supposedly \"at least part of Wright's narrative issues were caused by language limitations imposed by the lack of ''E''.\"", "Both Georges Perec's novel ''A Void'' (''La Disparition'') (1969) and its English translation by Gilbert Adair omit 'e' and are considered better works." ], [ "Related characters", "===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet===* E with diacritics: Ĕ ĕ Ḝ ḝ Ȇ ȇ Ê ê Ê̄ ê̄ Ê̌ ê̌ Ề ề Ế ế Ể ể Ễ ễ Ệ ệ Ẻ ẻ Ḙ ḙ Ě ě Ɇ ɇ Ė ė Ė́ ė́ Ė̃ ė̃ Ẹ ẹ Ë ë È è È̩ è̩ Ȅ ȅ É é É̩ Ē ē Ḕ ḕ Ḗ ḗ Ẽ ẽ Ḛ ḛ Ę ę Ę́ ę́ Ę̃ ę̃ Ȩ ȩ E̩ e̩ ᶒ* ⱸ : E with notch is used in the Swedish Dialect Alphabet* Æ æ : Latin ''AE'' ligature* Œ œ : Latin ''OE'' ligature* The umlaut diacritic ¨ used above a vowel letter in German and other languages to indicate a fronted or front vowel (this sign originated as a superscript e)* Phonetic alphabet symbols related to E (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): Ɛ ɛ : Latin letter epsilon / open e, which represents an open-mid front unrounded vowel in the IPA ᶓ : Epsilon / open e with retroflex hook Ɜ ɜ : Latin letter reversed epsilon / open e, which represents an open-mid central unrounded vowel in the IPA ɝ : Latin small letter reversed epsilon / open e with hook, which represents a rhotacized open-mid central vowel in the IPA ᶔ : Reversed epsilon / open e with retroflex hookᶟ : Modifier letter small reversed epsilon / open e ɞ : Latin small letter closed reversed open e, which represents an open-mid central rounded vowel in IPA (shown as ʚ on the 1993 IPA chart) 𐞏 : Modifier letter small closed reversed open e, which is a superscript IPA letter Ə ə : Latin letter schwa, which represents a mid central vowel in the IPA Ǝ ǝ : Latin letter turned e, which is used in the writing systems of some African languages ɘ : Latin letter reversed e, which represents a close-mid central unrounded vowel in the IPA 𐞎 : Modifier letter small reversed e, which is a superscript IPA letter* The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet uses various forms of e and epsilon / open e:****************e : Subscript small e is used in Indo-European studies Teuthonista phonetic transcription system symbols related to E:*****===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets=== 𐤄 : Semitic letter He (letter), from which the following symbols originally derive Ε ε : Greek letter Epsilon, from which the following symbols originally derive* Е е : Cyrillic letter Ye* Є є : Ukrainian Ye* Э э : Cyrillic letter E* : Coptic letter Ei* 𐌄 : Old Italic E, which is the ancestor of modern Latin E** : Runic letter Ehwaz, which is possibly a descendant of Old Italic E* : Gothic letter eyz===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations===* € : Euro sign.", "* ℮ : Estimated sign (used on prepackaged goods for sale within the European Union).", "* ''e'' : the symbol for the elementary charge (the electric charge carried by a single proton)* ∃ : existential quantifier in predicate logic.", "It is read \"there exists ... such that\".", "* ∈ : the symbol for set membership in set theory.", "* 𝑒 : the base of the natural logarithm." ], [ "Code points <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Computing codes\"></span>", ": 1" ], [ "Other representations", "In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'e' is signed by extending the index finger of the right hand touching the tip of index on the left hand, with all fingers of left hand open." ], [ "Use as a number", "A scientific calculator display showing the Avogadro constant () in E notation* In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, \"E\" corresponds to the number 14 in decimal (base 10) counting.", "* \"e\" is also commonly used to denote Euler's number." ], [ "See also", "* \"E notation\" is used by scientific calculators to indicate a power of ten multiplier.", "" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Economics''' () is a social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work.", "Microeconomics analyzes what's viewed as basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions.", "Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers.", "Macroeconomics analyzes the economy as a system where production, consumption, saving, and investment interact, and factors affecting it: employment of the resources of labour, capital, and land, currency inflation, economic growth, and public policies that have impact on these elements.Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing \"what is\", and normative economics, advocating \"what ought to be\"; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioural economics; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics.Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, including business, finance, cybersecurity, health care, engineering and government.", "It is also applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, feminism, law, philosophy, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science and the environment." ], [ "Definitions of economics", "The earlier term for the discipline was 'political economy', but since the late 19th century, it has commonly been called 'economics'.", "The term is ultimately derived from Ancient Greek (''oikonomia'') which is a term for the \"way (nomos) to run a household (oikos)\", or in other words the know-how of an (''oikonomikos''), or \"household or homestead manager\".", "Derived terms such as \"economy\" can therefore often mean \"frugal\" or \"thrifty\".", "By extension then, \"political economy\" was the way to manage a polis or state.There are a variety of modern definitions of economics; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists.", "Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined what was then called political economy as \"an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations\", in particular as:Jean-Baptiste Say (1803), distinguishing the subject matter from its public-policy uses, defined it as the science ''of'' production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.", "On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle (1849) coined \"the dismal science\" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of Malthus (1798).", "John Stuart Mill (1844) delimited the subject matter further:Alfred Marshall provided a still widely cited definition in his textbook ''Principles of Economics'' (1890) that extended analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level:Lionel Robbins (1932) developed implications of what has been termed \"perhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject\":Robbins described the definition as not ''classificatory'' in \"picking out certain ''kinds'' of behaviour\" but rather ''analytical'' in \"focusing attention on a particular ''aspect'' of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity.\"", "He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.", "But he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus.", "This is because war has as the goal winning it (as a sought after ''end''), generates both cost and benefits; and, ''resources'' (human life and other costs) are used to attain the goal.", "If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding ''actors'' (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a ''decision'') but rather explore other alternatives.", "Economics cannot be defined as the science that studies wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that studies a particular common aspect of each of those subjects (they all use scarce resources to attain a sought after end).Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets.", "From the 1960s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behaviour and rational-choice modelling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields.", "There are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment.Gary Becker, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, described the approach he favoured as \"combining the assumptions of maximizing behaviour, stable preferences, and market equilibrium, used relentlessly and unflinchingly.\"", "One commentary characterizes the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the \"choice process and the type of social interaction that such analysis involves.\"", "The same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat.", "Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve.Many economists including nobel prize winners James M. Buchanan and Ronald Coase reject the method-based definition of Robbins and continue to prefer definitions like those of Say, in terms of its subject matter.", "Ha-Joon Chang has for example argued that the definition of Robbins would make economics very peculiar because all other sciences define themselves in terms of the area of inquiry or object of inquiry rather than the methodology.", "In the biology department, they do not say that all biology should be studied with DNA analysis.", "People study living organisms in many different ways, so some people will do DNA analysis, others might do anatomy, and still others might build game theoretic models of animal behavior.", "But they are all called biology because they all study living organisms.", "According to Ha Joon Chang, this view that the economy can and should be studied in only one way (for example by studying only rational choices), and going even one step further and basically redefining economics as a theory of everything, is very peculiar." ], [ "History of economic thought", "=== From antiquity through the physiocrats ===Questions regarding distribution of resources are found throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the \"first economist\".", "However, the word Oikos, the Greek word from which the word economy derives, was used for issues regarding how to manage a household (which was understood to be the landowner, his family, and his slaves) rather than to refer to some normative societal system of distribution of resources, which is a much more recent phenomenon.", "Xenophon, the author of the Oeconomicus, is credited by philologues for being the source of the word economy.", "Other notable writers from Antiquity through to the Renaissance which wrote on include Aristotle, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya), Qin Shi Huang, Ibn Khaldun, and Thomas Aquinas.", "Joseph Schumpeter described 16th and 17th century scholastic writers, including Tomás de Mercado, Luis de Molina, and Juan de Lugo, as \"coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics\" as to monetary, interest, and value theory within a natural-law perspective.A 1638 painting of a French seaport during the heyday of alt=A seaport with a ship arrivingTwo groups, who later were called \"mercantilists\" and \"physiocrats\", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject.", "Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe.", "Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen.", "It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.", "Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver.", "The doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies.Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output.", "Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth.", "Thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs.", "Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners.", "In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of ''laissez-faire'', which called for minimal government intervention in the economy.Adam Smith (1723–1790) was an early economic theorist.", "Smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system \"with all its imperfections\" as \"perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published\" on the subject.=== Classical political economy ===The publication of Adam Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' in 1776 is considered to be the first formalisation of economic thought.\|alt=Picture of Adam Smith facing to the rightThe publication of Adam Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' in 1776, has been described as \"the effective birth of economics as a separate discipline.\"", "The book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the physiocratic idea that only agriculture was productive.Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.", "His \"theorem\" that \"the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market\" has been described as the \"core of a theory of the functions of firm and industry\" and a \"fundamental principle of economic organization.\"", "To Smith has also been ascribed \"the most important substantive proposition in all of economics\" and foundation of resource-allocation theory—that, under competition, resource owners (of labour, land, and capital) seek their most profitable uses, resulting in an equal rate of return for all uses in equilibrium (adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training and unemployment).In an argument that includes \"one of the most famous passages in all economics,\" Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society, and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce.", "In this:The Rev.", "Thomas Robert Malthus (1798) used the concept of diminishing returns to explain low living standards.", "Human population, he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically.", "The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.", "The result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level.", "Economist Julian Lincoln Simon has criticized Malthus's conclusions.While Adam Smith emphasized production and income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists.", "Ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labour and capital on the other.", "He posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits.", "Ricardo was also the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower ''relative'' cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.", "It has been termed a \"fundamental analytical explanation\" for gains from trade.Coming at the end of the classical tradition, John Stuart Mill (1848) parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system.", "Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income.", "The market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene.Value theory was important in classical theory.", "Smith wrote that the \"real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it\".", "Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity.", "Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'.", "Classical economics focused on the tendency of any market economy to settle in a final stationary state made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (capital) and a constant population size.The Marxist critique of political economy comes from the work of German philosopher Karl Marx.\|alt=Photograph of Karl Marx facing the viewer=== Marxian economics ===Marxist (later, Marxian) economics descends from classical economics and it derives from the work of Karl Marx.", "The first volume of Marx's major work, ''Das Kapital'', was published in 1867.Marx focused on the labour theory of value and theory of surplus value which, he believed, explained the exploitation of labour by capital.", "The labour theory of value held that the value of an exchanged commodity was determined by the labour that went into its production, and the theory of surplus value demonstrated how workers were only paid a proportion of the value their work had created.Marxian economics was further developed by Karl Kautsky (1854–1938)'s ''The Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx'' and ''The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program)'', Rudolf Hilferding's (1877–1941) ''Finance Capital'', Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924)'s ''The Development of Capitalism in Russia'' and ''Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism'', and Rosa Luxemburg (1871–1919)'s ''The Accumulation of Capital''.=== Neoclassical economics ===At its inception as a social science, ''economics'' was defined and discussed at length as the study of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth by Jean-Baptiste Say in his ''Treatise on Political Economy or, The Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth'' (1803).", "These three items were considered only in relation to the increase or diminution of wealth, and not in reference to their processes of execution.", "Say's definition has survived in part up to the present, modified by substituting the word \"wealth\" for \"goods and services\" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well.", "One hundred and thirty years later, Lionel Robbins noticed that this definition no longer sufficed, because many economists were making theoretical and philosophical inroads in other areas of human activity.", "In his ''Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science'', he proposed a definition of economics as a study of human behaviour, subject to and constrained by scarcity, which forces people to choose, allocate scarce resources to competing ends, and economize (seeking the greatest welfare while avoiding the wasting of scarce resources).", "According to Robbins: \"Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses\".", "Robbins' definition eventually became widely accepted by mainstream economists, and found its way into current textbooks.", "Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.A body of theory later termed \"neoclassical economics\" formed from about 1870 to 1910.The term \"economics\" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall and Mary Paley Marshall as a concise synonym for \"economic science\" and a substitute for the earlier \"political economy\".", "This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.Neoclassical economics systematically integrated supply and demand as joint determinants of both price and quantity in market equilibrium, influencing the allocation of output and income distribution.", "It rejected the classical economics' labour theory of value in favor of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more comprehensive theory of costs on the supply side.", "In the 20th century, neoclassical theorists departed from an earlier idea that suggested measuring total utility for a society, opting instead for ordinal utility, which posits behavior-based relations across individuals.In microeconomics, neoclassical economics represents incentives and costs as playing a pervasive role in shaping decision making.", "An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.", "In macroeconomics it is reflected in an early and lasting neoclassical synthesis with Keynesian macroeconomics.Neoclassical economics is occasionally referred as ''orthodox economics'' whether by its critics or sympathizers.", "Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.Neoclassical economics studies the behaviour of individuals, households, and organizations (called economic actors, players, or agents), when they manage or use scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends.", "Agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice.", "There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more players to attain the best possible outcome.=== Keynesian economics ===John Maynard Keynes was a key theorist in economics.Keynesian economics derives from John Maynard Keynes, in particular his book ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money'' (1936), which ushered in contemporary macroeconomics as a distinct field.", "The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.", "Keynes attempted to explain in broad theoretical detail why high labour-market unemployment might not be self-correcting due to low \"effective demand\" and why even price flexibility and monetary policy might be unavailing.", "The term \"revolutionary\" has been applied to the book in its impact on economic analysis.", "During the following decades, many economists followed Keynes' ideas and expanded on his works.", "John Hicks and Alvin Hansen developed the IS–LM model which was a simple formalisation of some of Keynes' insights on the economy's short-run equilibrium.", "Franco Modigliani and James Tobin developed important theories of private consumption and investment, respectively, two major components of aggregate demand.", "Lawrence Klein built the first large-scale macroeconometric model, applying the Keynesian thinking systematically to the US economy.=== Post-WWII economics ===Immediately after World War II, Keynesian was the dominant economic view of the United States establishment and its allies, Marxian economics was the dominant economic view of the Soviet Union nomenklatura and its allies.", "==== Monetarism ====Monetarism appeared in the 1950s and 1960s, its intellectual leader being Milton Friedman.", "Monetarists contended that monetary policy and other monetary shocks, as represented by the growth in the money stock, was an important cause of economic fluctuations, and consequently that monetary policy was more important than fiscal policy for purposes of stabilization.", "Friedman was also skeptical about the ability of central banks to conduct a sensible active monetary policy in practice, advocating instead using simple rules such as a steady rate of money growth.Monetarism rose to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, when several major central banks followed a monetarist-inspired policy, but was later abandoned again because the results turned out to be unsatisfactory.==== New classical economics ====A more fundamental challenge to the prevailing Keynesian paradigm came in the 1970s from new classical economists like Robert Lucas, Thomas Sargent and Edward Prescott.", "They introduced the notion of rational expectations in economics, which had profound implications for many economic discussions, among which were the socalled Lucas critique and the presentation of real business cycle models.==== New Keynesians ====During the 1980s a group of researchers appeared being called New Keynesian economists, including among others George Akerlof, Janet Yellen, Gregory Mankiw and Olivier Blanchard.", "They adopted the principle of rational expectations and other monetarist or new classical ideas such as building upon models employing micro foundations and optimizing behaviour, but simultaneously emphasized the importance of various market failures for the functioning of the economy, as had Keynes.", "Not least, they proposed various reasons that potentially explained the empirically observed features of price and wage rigidity, usually made to be endogenous features of the models, rather than simply assumed as in older Keynesian-style ones.==== New neoclassical synthesis====After decades of often heated discussions between Keynesians, monetarists, new classical and new Keynesian economists, a synthesis emerged by the 2000s, often given the name ''the new neoclassical synthesis''.", "It integrated the rational expectations and optimizing framework of the new classical theory with a new Keynesian role for nominal rigidities and other market imperfections like imperfect information in goods, labour and credit markets.", "The monetarist importance of monetary policy in stabilizing the economy and in particular controlling inflation was recognized as well as the traditional Keynesian insistence that fiscal policy could also play an influential role in affecting aggregate demand.", "Methodologically, the synthesis led to a new class of applied models, known as dynamic stochastic general equilibrium or DSGE models, descending from real business cycles models, but extended with several new Keynesian and other features.", "These models proved very useful and influential in the design of modern monetary policy and are now standard workhorses in most central banks.==== After the financial crisis ====After the 2007–2008 financial crisis, macroeconomic research has put greater emphasis on understanding and integrating the financial system into models of the general economy and shedding light on the ways in which problems in the financial sector can turn into major macroeconomic recessions.", "In this and other research branches, inspiration from behavioral economics has started playing a more important role in mainstream economic theory.", "Also, heterogeneity among the economic agents, e.g.", "differences in income, plays an increasing role in recent economic research.=== Other schools and approaches ===Other schools or trends of thought referring to a particular style of economics practised at and disseminated from well-defined groups of academicians that have become known worldwide, include the Freiburg School, the School of Lausanne, the Stockholm school and the Chicago school of economics.", "During the 1970s and 1980s mainstream economics was sometimes separated into the Saltwater approach of those universities along the Eastern and Western coasts of the US, and the Freshwater, or Chicago school approach.Within macroeconomics there is, in general order of their historical appearance in the literature; classical economics, neoclassical economics, Keynesian economics, the neoclassical synthesis, monetarism, new classical economics, New Keynesian economics and the new neoclassical synthesis.", "Beside the mainstream development of economic thought, various alternative or heterodox economic theories have evolved over time, positioning themselves in contrast to mainstream theory.", "These include:* Austrian School, emphasizing human action, property rights and the freedom to contract and transact to have a thriving and successful economy.", "It also emphasizes that the state should play as small role as possible (if any role) in the regulation of economic activity between two transacting parties.", "Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises are the two most prominent representatives of the Austrian school.", "* Post-Keynesian economics concentrates on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes.", "It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.", "* Ecological economics like environmental economics studies the interactions between human economies and the ecosystems in which they are embedded, but in contrast to environmental economics takes an oppositional position towards general mainstream economic principles.", "A major difference between the two subdisciplines is their assumptions about the substitution possibilities between man-made and natural capital.Additionally, alternative developments include Marxian economics, constitutional economics, institutional economics, evolutionary economics, dependency theory, structuralist economics, world systems theory, econophysics, econodynamics, feminist economics and biophysical economics.Feminist economics emphasizes the role that gender plays in economies, challenging analyses that render gender invisible or support gender-oppressive economic systems.", "The goal is to create economic research and policy analysis that is inclusive and gender-aware to encourage gender equality and improve the well-being of marginalized groups." ], [ "Methodology", "=== Theoretical research ===Mainstream economic theory relies upon analytical economic models.", "When creating theories, the objective is to find assumptions which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.", "While neoclassical economic theory constitutes both the dominant or orthodox theoretical as well as methodological framework, economic theory can also take the form of other schools of thought such as in heterodox economic theories.In microeconomics, principal concepts include supply and demand, marginalism, rational choice theory, opportunity cost, budget constraints, utility, and the theory of the firm.", "Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models with microfoundations, in which microeconomic concepts play a major part.", "Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only ''qualitative'', not ''quantitative''.Expositions of economic reasoning often use two-dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships.", "At a higher level of generality, mathematical economics is the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics.", "Paul Samuelson's treatise ''Foundations of Economic Analysis'' (1947) exemplifies the method, particularly as to maximizing behavioral relations of agents reaching equilibrium.", "The book focused on examining the class of statements called ''operationally meaningful theorems'' in economics, which are theorems that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data.=== Empirical research ===Economic theories are frequently tested empirically, largely through the use of econometrics using economic data.", "The controlled experiments common to the physical sciences are difficult and uncommon in economics, and instead broad data is observationally studied; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative.", "However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.Statistical methods such as regression analysis are common.", "Practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and statistical significance (\"signal strength\") of the hypothesized relation(s) and to adjust for noise from other variables.", "By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.", "Acceptance is dependent upon the falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests.", "Use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, data sets, and prior beliefs.Experimental economics has promoted the use of scientifically controlled experiments.", "This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.", "In some cases these have found that the axioms are not entirely correct.In behavioural economics, psychologist Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Prize in economics in 2002 for his and Amos Tversky's empirical discovery of several cognitive biases and heuristics.", "Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.", "Another example is the assumption of narrowly selfish preferences versus a model that tests for selfish, altruistic, and cooperative preferences.", "These techniques have led some to argue that economics is a \"genuine science\"." ], [ "Microeconomics", "Economists study trade, production and consumption decisions, such as those that occur in a traditional alt=A vegetable vendor in a marketplace.Electronic trading brings together buyers and sellers through an electronic trading platform and network to create virtual market places.", "Pictured: São Paulo Stock Exchange, Brazil.\|alt=Two traders sit at computer monitors with financial information.Microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system.", "These entities include private and public players with various classifications, typically operating under scarcity of tradable units and regulation.", "The item traded may be a tangible product such as apples or a service such as repair services, legal counsel, or entertainment.Various market structures exist.", "In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product.", "In other words, every participant is a \"price taker\" as no participant influences the price of a product.", "In the real world, markets often experience imperfect competition.Forms of imperfect competition include monopoly (in which there is only one seller of a good), duopoly (in which there are only two sellers of a good), oligopoly (in which there are few sellers of a good), monopolistic competition (in which there are many sellers producing highly differentiated goods), monopsony (in which there is only one buyer of a good), and oligopsony (in which there are few buyers of a good).", "Firms under imperfect competition have the potential to be \"price makers\", which means that they can influence the prices of their products.In partial equilibrium method of analysis, it is assumed that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets.", "This method aggregates (the sum of all activity) in only one market.", "General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour.", "It aggregates (the sum of all activity) across ''all'' markets.", "This method studies both changes in markets and their interactions leading towards equilibrium.=== Production, cost, and efficiency ===In microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs.", "It is an economic process that uses inputs to create a commodity or a service for exchange or direct use.", "Production is a flow and thus a rate of output per period of time.", "Distinctions include such production alternatives as for consumption (food, haircuts, etc.)", "vs. investment goods (new tractors, buildings, roads, etc.", "), public goods (national defence, smallpox vaccinations, etc.)", "or private goods (new computers, bananas, etc.", "), and \"guns\" vs \"butter\".Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources).", "Other inputs may include intermediate goods used in production of final goods, such as the steel in a new car.Economic efficiency measures how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available technology.", "Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs.", "A widely accepted general standard is Pareto efficiency, which is reached when no further change can make someone better off without making someone else worse off.An example production–possibility frontier with illustrative points markedThe production–possibility frontier (PPF) is an expository figure for representing scarcity, cost, and efficiency.", "In the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say \"guns\" and \"butter\").", "The PPF is a table or graph (as at the right) showing the different quantity combinations of the two goods producible with a given technology and total factor inputs, which limit feasible total output.", "Each point on the curve shows potential total output for the economy, which is the maximum feasible output of one good, given a feasible output quantity of the other good.Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume ''beyond the PPF'' (such as at ''X'') and by the negative slope of the curve.", "If production of one good ''increases'' along the curve, production of the other good ''decreases'', an inverse relationship.", "This is because increasing output of one good requires transferring inputs to it from production of the other good, decreasing the latter.The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods.", "It measures what an additional unit of one good costs in units forgone of the other good, an example of a ''real opportunity cost''.", "Thus, if one more Gun costs 100 units of butter, the opportunity cost of one Gun is 100 Butter.", "''Along the PPF'', scarcity implies that choosing ''more'' of one good in the aggregate entails doing with ''less'' of the other good.", "Still, in a market economy, movement along the curve may indicate that the choice of the increased output is anticipated to be worth the cost to the agents.By construction, each point on the curve shows ''productive efficiency'' in maximizing output for given total inputs.", "A point ''inside'' the curve (as at ''A''), is feasible but represents ''production inefficiency'' (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of ''one or both goods'' could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve.", "Examples cited of such inefficiency include high unemployment during a business-cycle recession or economic organization of a country that discourages full use of resources.", "Being on the curve might still not fully satisfy allocative efficiency (also called Pareto efficiency) if it does not produce a mix of goods that consumers prefer over other points.Much applied economics in public policy is concerned with determining how the efficiency of an economy can be improved.", "Recognizing the reality of scarcity and then figuring out how to organize society for the most efficient use of resources has been described as the \"essence of economics\", where the subject \"makes its unique contribution.", "\"=== Specialization ===A map showing the main trade routes for goods within late medieval EuropeSpecialization is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations.", "Different individuals or nations may have different real opportunity costs of production, say from differences in stocks of human capital per worker or capital/labour ratios.", "According to theory, this may give a comparative advantage in production of goods that make more intensive use of the relatively more abundant, thus ''relatively'' cheaper, input.Even if one region has an absolute advantage as to the ratio of its outputs to inputs in every type of output, it may still specialize in the output in which it has a comparative advantage and thereby gain from trading with a region that lacks any absolute advantage but has a comparative advantage in producing something else.It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries.", "This has led to investigation of economies of scale and agglomeration to explain specialization in similar but differentiated product lines, to the overall benefit of respective trading parties or regions.The general theory of specialization applies to trade among individuals, farms, manufacturers, service providers, and economies.", "Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding ''division of labour'' with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.An example that combines features above is a country that specializes in the production of high-tech knowledge products, as developed countries do, and trades with developing nations for goods produced in factories where labour is relatively cheap and plentiful, resulting in different in opportunity costs of production.", "More total output and utility thereby results from specializing in production and trading than if each country produced its own high-tech and low-tech products.Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs.", "In the process, aggregate output may increase as a by-product or by design.", "Such specialization of production creates opportunities for gains from trade whereby resource owners benefit from trade in the sale of one type of output for other, more highly valued goods.", "A measure of gains from trade is the ''increased income levels'' that trade may facilitate.=== Supply and demand ===The alt=A graph depicting Quantity on the X-axis and Price on the Y-axisPrices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy.", "The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed.", "In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.For a given market of a commodity, ''demand'' is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good.", "Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure).", "Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.", "A term for this is \"constrained utility maximization\" (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand).", "Here, utility refers to the hypothesized relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred.The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.", "That is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things unchanged).", "As the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the substitution effect).", "In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).", "Other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a normal good outward relative to the origin, as in the figure.", "All determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply.", "''Supply'' is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.", "It may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied.", "Producers, for example business firms, are hypothesized to be ''profit maximizers'', meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit.", "Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure.", "The higher price makes it profitable to increase production.", "Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.", "The \"Law of Supply\" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply.", "Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply.Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.", "At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.", "This is posited to bid the price up.", "At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.", "This pushes the price down.", "The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded.", "Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply.=== Firms ===People frequently do not trade directly on markets.", "Instead, on the supply side, they may work in and produce through ''firms''.", "The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.", "According to Ronald Coase, people begin to organize their production in firms when the costs of doing business becomes lower than doing it on the market.", "Firms combine labour and capital, and can achieve far greater economies of scale (when the average cost per unit declines as more units are produced) than individual market trading.In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.", "Industrial organization generalizes from that special case to study the strategic behaviour of firms that do have significant control of price.", "It considers the structure of such markets and their interactions.", "Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units.", "It draws heavily from quantitative methods such as operations research and programming and from statistical methods such as regression analysis in the absence of certainty and perfect knowledge.", "A unifying theme is the attempt to optimize business decisions, including unit-cost minimization and profit maximization, given the firm's objectives and constraints imposed by technology and market conditions.=== Uncertainty and game theory ===Uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as risk or not.", "Without it, household behaviour would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, financial and capital markets would reduce to exchange of a single instrument in each market period, and there would be no communications industry.", "Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents, one kind of uncertainty.", "It provides a mathematical foundation of industrial organization, discussed above, to model different types of firm behaviour, for example in a solipsistic industry (few sellers), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, bargaining, contract design, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other.", "In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.In this, it generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyse market actors such as in the supply and demand model and allows for incomplete information of actors.", "The field dates from the 1944 classic ''Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.", "It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as the formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.Risk aversion may stimulate activity that in well-functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for insurance, commodity futures contracts, and financial instruments.", "Financial economics or simply finance describes the allocation of financial resources.", "It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.Some market organizations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty.", "Based on George Akerlof's \"Market for Lemons\" article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second-hand car market.", "Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a \"lemon\" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.", "Information asymmetry arises here, if the seller has more relevant information than the buyer but no incentive to disclose it.", "Related problems in insurance are adverse selection, such that those at most risk are most likely to insure (say reckless drivers), and moral hazard, such that insurance results in riskier behaviour (say more reckless driving).Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market (\"incomplete markets\").", "Moreover, attempting to reduce one problem, say adverse selection by mandating insurance, may add to another, say moral hazard.", "Information economics, which studies such problems, has relevance in subjects such as insurance, contract law, mechanism design, monetary economics, and health care.", "Applied subjects include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, restructuring or bankruptcy law, inspection, and regulation for quality and information disclosure.=== Market failure ===Pollution can be a simple example of market failure.", "If costs of production are not borne by producers but are by the environment, accident victims or others, then prices are distorted.\|alt=A smokestack releasing smokealt=A woman takes samples of water from a river.The term \"market failure\" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions.", "Although economists categorize market failures differently, the following categories emerge in the main texts.Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.Natural monopoly, or the overlapping concepts of \"practical\" and \"technical\" monopoly, is an extreme case of ''failure of competition'' as a restraint on producers.", "Extreme economies of scale are one possible cause.Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.", "The defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time.Externalities occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices.", "For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).", "Governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidize or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price distortions caused by these externalities.", "Elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply.In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.", "This includes standard analysis of the business cycle in macroeconomics.", "Analysis often revolves around causes of such price stickiness and their implications for reaching a hypothesized long-run equilibrium.", "Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.Some specialized fields of economics deal in market failure more than others.", "The economics of the public sector is one example.", "Much environmental economics concerns externalities or \"public bads\".Policy options include regulations that reflect cost–benefit analysis or market solutions that change incentives, such as emission fees or redefinition of property rights.=== Welfare ===Welfare economics uses microeconomics techniques to evaluate well-being from allocation of productive factors as to desirability and economic efficiency within an economy, often relative to competitive general equilibrium.", "It analyzes ''social welfare'', however measured, in terms of economic activities of the individuals that compose the theoretical society considered.", "Accordingly, individuals, with associated economic activities, are the basic units for aggregating to social welfare, whether of a group, a community, or a society, and there is no \"social welfare\" apart from the \"welfare\" associated with its individual units." ], [ "Macroeconomics", "The circulation of money in an economy in a macroeconomic model.", "In this model the use of natural resources and the generation of waste (like greenhouse gases) is not included.Macroeconomics, another branch of economics, examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions \"top down\", that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory.", "Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.", "It also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy.Since at least the 1960s, macroeconomics has been characterized by further integration as to micro-based modelling of sectors, including rationality of players, efficient use of market information, and imperfect competition.", "This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.Macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and growth of national income.", "Such factors include capital accumulation, technological change and labour force growth.=== Growth ===''Growth economics'' studies factors that explain economic growth – the increase in output ''per capita'' of a country over a long period of time.", "The same factors are used to explain differences in the ''level'' of output ''per capita'' ''between'' countries, in particular why some countries grow faster than others, and whether countries converge at the same rates of growth.Much-studied factors include the rate of investment, population growth, and technological change.", "These are represented in theoretical and empirical forms (as in the neoclassical and endogenous growth models) and in growth accounting.=== Business cycle ===economic/business cyclesThe economics of a depression were the spur for the creation of \"macroeconomics\" as a separate discipline.", "During the Great Depression of the 1930s, John Maynard Keynes authored a book entitled ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money'' outlining the key theories of Keynesian economics.", "Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.He therefore advocated active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle.Thus, a central conclusion of Keynesian economics is that, in some situations, no strong automatic mechanism moves output and employment towards full employment levels.", "John Hicks' IS/LM model has been the most influential interpretation of ''The General Theory''.Over the years, understanding of the business cycle has branched into various research programmes, mostly related to or distinct from Keynesianism.", "The neoclassical synthesis refers to the reconciliation of Keynesian economics with classical economics, stating that Keynesianism is correct in the short run but qualified by classical-like considerations in the intermediate and long run.New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.", "It includes Friedman's permanent income hypothesis on consumption and \"rational expectations\" theory, led by Robert Lucas, and real business cycle theory.In contrast, the new Keynesian approach retains the rational expectations assumption, however it assumes a variety of market failures.", "In particular, New Keynesians assume prices and wages are \"sticky\", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.Thus, the new classicals assume that prices and wages adjust automatically to attain full employment, whereas the new Keynesians see full employment as being automatically achieved only in the long run, and hence government and central-bank policies are needed because the \"long run\" may be very long.=== Unemployment ===US unemployment rate, 1990–2022The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, the percentage of workers without jobs in the labour force.", "The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.", "People who are retired, pursuing education, or discouraged from seeking work by a lack of job prospects are excluded from the labour force.", "Unemployment can be generally broken down into several types that are related to different causes.Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.", "Consistent with classical unemployment, frictional unemployment occurs when appropriate job vacancies exist for a worker, but the length of time needed to search for and find the job leads to a period of unemployment.Structural unemployment covers a variety of possible causes of unemployment including a mismatch between workers' skills and the skills required for open jobs.", "Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.", "Structural unemployment is similar to frictional unemployment since both reflect the problem of matching workers with job vacancies, but structural unemployment covers the time needed to acquire new skills not just the short term search process.While some types of unemployment may occur regardless of the condition of the economy, cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates.", "Okun's law represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and economic growth.", "The original version of Okun's law states that a 3% increase in output would lead to a 1% decrease in unemployment.=== Money and monetary policy ===Money is a ''means of final payment'' for goods in most price system economies, and is the unit of account in which prices are typically stated.", "Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.", "It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits.", "It has been described as a social convention, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others.", "In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, \"Money is what money does\" (\"Money is ''that'' money does\" in the original).As a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade.", "It is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation.", "Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).", "Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book.", "Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability.", "Then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces.Monetary policy is the policy that central banks conduct to accomplish their broader objectives.", "Most central banks in developed countries follow inflation targeting, whereas the main objective for many central banks in development countries is to uphold a fixed exchange rate system.", "The primary monetary tool is normally the adjustment of interest rates, either directly via administratively changing the central bank's own interest rates or indirectly via open market operations.", "Via the monetary transmission mechanism, interest rate changes affect investment, consumption and net export, and hence aggregate demand, output and employment, and ultimately the development of wages and inflation.=== Fiscal policy ===Governments implement fiscal policy to influence macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand.", "When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.", "Governments increase spending and cut taxes to boost aggregate demand.", "Resources that have been idled can be used by the government.For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.", "Tax cuts allow consumers to increase their spending, which boosts aggregate demand.", "Both tax cuts and spending have multiplier effects where the initial increase in demand from the policy percolates through the economy and generates additional economic activity.The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.", "When there is no output gap, the economy is producing at full capacity and there are no excess productive resources.", "If the government increases spending in this situation, the government uses resources that otherwise would have been used by the private sector, so there is no increase in overall output.", "Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.Sceptics of fiscal policy also make the argument of Ricardian equivalence.", "They argue that an increase in debt will have to be paid for with future tax increases, which will cause people to reduce their consumption and save money to pay for the future tax increase.", "Under Ricardian equivalence, any boost in demand from tax cuts will be offset by the increased saving intended to pay for future higher taxes.=== Inequality ===Economic inequality includes income inequality, measured using the distribution of income (the amount of money people receive), and wealth inequality measured using the distribution of wealth (the amount of wealth people own), and other measures such as consumption, land ownership, and human capital.", "Inequality exists at different extents between countries or states, groups of people, and individuals.", "There are many methods for measuring inequality, the Gini coefficient being widely used for income differences among individuals.", "An example measure of inequality between countries is the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, a composite index that takes inequality into account.", "Important concepts of equality include equity, equality of outcome, and equality of opportunity.Research has linked economic inequality to political and social instability, including revolution, democratic breakdown and civil conflict.", "Research suggests that greater inequality hinders economic growth and macroeconomic stability, and that land and human capital inequality reduce growth more than inequality of income.", "Inequality is at the center stage of economic policy debate across the globe, as government tax and spending policies have significant effects on income distribution.", "In advanced economies, taxes and transfers decrease income inequality by one-third, with most of this being achieved via public social spending (such as pensions and family benefits.)" ], [ "Other branches of economics", "=== Public economics ===Public economics is the field of economics that deals with economic activities of a public sector, usually government.", "The subject addresses such matters as tax incidence (who really pays a particular tax), cost–benefit analysis of government programmes, effects on economic efficiency and income distribution of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics.", "The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.Much of economics is positive, seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena.", "Normative economics seeks to identify what economies ''ought'' to be like.Welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it.", "It attempts to measure social welfare by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society.=== International economics ===List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita in April 2022International trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries.", "It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.", "Policy applications include estimating the effects of changing tariff rates and trade quotas.", "International finance is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on exchange rates.", "Increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary globalization.=== Labor economics ===Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labor.", "''Labor markets'' function through the interaction of workers and employers.", "Labor economics looks at the suppliers of labor services (workers), the demands of labor services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income.", "In economics, ''labor'' is a measure of the work done by human beings.", "It is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital.", "There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms.=== Development economics ===Development economics examines economic aspects of the economic development process in relatively low-income countries focusing on structural change, poverty, and economic growth.", "Approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors." ], [ "Criticism", "Economics has been subject to criticism that it relies on unrealistic, unverifiable, or highly simplified assumptions, in some cases because these assumptions simplify the proofs of desired conclusions.", "For example, the economist Friedrich Hayek claimed that economics (at least historically) used a scientistic approach which he claimed was \"''decidedly unscientific in the true sense of the word, since it involves a mechanical and uncritical application of habits of thought to fields different from those in which they have been formed''\".", "Latter-day examples of such assumptions include perfect information, profit maximization and rational choices, axioms of neoclassical economics.", "Such criticisms often conflate neoclassical economics with all of contemporary economics.", "The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.Prominent historical mainstream economists such as Keynes and Joskow observed that much of the economics of their time was conceptual rather than quantitative, and difficult to model and formalize quantitatively.", "In a discussion on oligopoly research, Paul Joskow pointed out in 1975 that in practice, serious students of actual economies tended to use \"informal models\" based upon qualitative factors specific to particular industries.", "Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were \"trotted out ''ex post''\".", "He argued that formal models were largely not important in the empirical work, either, and that the fundamental factor behind the theory of the firm, behaviour, was neglected.", "Deirdre McCloskey has argued that many empirical economic studies are poorly reported, and she and Stephen Ziliak argue that although her critique has been well-received, practice has not improved.", "The extent to which practice has improved since the early 2000s is contested: although economists have noted the discipline's adoption of increasingly rigorous modeling, other have criticized the field's focus on creating computer simulations detached from reality, as well as noting the loss of prestige suffered by the field for failing to anticipate the Great Recession.Economics has been derogatorily dubbed \"the dismal science\", first coined by the Victorian historian Thomas Carlyle in the 19th century.", "It is often stated that Carlyle gave it this nickname as a response to the work of Thomas Robert Malthus, who predicted widespread starvation resulting from projections that population growth would exceed the rate of increase in the food supply.", "However, the actual phrase was coined by Carlyle in the context of a debate with John Stuart Mill on slavery, in which Carlyle argued for slavery; the \"dismal\" nature of economics in Carlyle's view was that it \"found the secret of this Universe in 'supply and demand', and reduced the duty of human governors to that of letting men alone\".\"" ], [ "Related subjects", "Economics is one social science among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including economic geography, economic history, public choice, energy economics, cultural economics, family economics and institutional economics.Law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is an approach to legal theory that applies methods of economics to law.", "It includes the use of economic concepts to explain the effects of legal rules, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient, and to predict what the legal rules will be.", "A seminal article by Ronald Coase published in 1961 suggested that well-defined property rights could overcome the problems of externalities.Political economy is the interdisciplinary study that combines economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system (capitalist, socialist, mixed) influence each other.", "It studies questions such as how monopoly, rent-seeking behaviour, and externalities should impact government policy.", "Historians have employed ''political economy'' to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.Energy economics is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to energy supply and energy demand.", "Georgescu-Roegen reintroduced the concept of entropy in relation to economics and energy from thermodynamics, as distinguished from what he viewed as the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from Newtonian physics.", "His work contributed significantly to thermoeconomics and to ecological economics.", "He also did foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics.The sociological subfield of economic sociology arose, primarily through the work of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel, as an approach to analysing the effects of economic phenomena in relation to the overarching social paradigm (i.e.", "modernity).", "Classic works include Max Weber's ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' (1905) and Georg Simmel's ''The Philosophy of Money'' (1900).", "More recently, the works of James S. Coleman, Mark Granovetter, Peter Hedstrom and Richard Swedberg have been influential in this field.Gary Becker in 1974 presented an economic theory of social interactions, whose applications included the family, charity, merit goods and multiperson interactions, and envy and hatred.", "He and Kevin Murphy authored a book in 2001 that analyzed market behavior in a social environment." ], [ "Profession", "The professionalization of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programmes on the subject, has been described as \"the main change in economics since around 1900\".", "Most major universities and many colleges have a major, school, or department in which academic degrees are awarded in the subject, whether in the liberal arts, business, or for professional study.See Bachelor of Economics and Master of Economics.In the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including banking and finance.", "Economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national treasury, central bank or National Bureau of Statistics.", "See Economic analyst.There are dozens of prizes awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions to the field, the most prominent of which is the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, though it is not a Nobel Prize.Contemporary economics uses mathematics.", "Economists draw on the tools of calculus, linear algebra, statistics, game theory, and computer science.", "Professional economists are expected to be familiar with these tools, while a minority specialize in econometrics and mathematical methods.===Women in economics===Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) was a widely-read populariser of classical economic thought.", "Mary Paley Marshall (1850–1944), the first women lecturer at a British economics faculty, wrote ''The Economics of Industry'' with her husband Alfred Marshall.", "Joan Robinson (1903–1983) was an important post-Keynesian economist.", "The economic historian Anna Schwartz (1915–2012) coauthored ''A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960'' with Milton Friedman.", "Three women have received the Nobel Prize in Economics: Elinor Ostrom (2009), Esther Duflo (2019) and Claudia Goldin (2023).", "Five have received the John Bates Clark Medal: Susan Athey (2007), Esther Duflo (2010), Amy Finkelstein (2012), Emi Nakamura (2019) and Melissa Dell (2020).Women's authorship share in prominent economic journals reduced from 1940 to the 1970s, but has subsequently risen, with different patterns of gendered coauthorship.", "Women remain globally under-represented in the profession (19% of authors in the RePEc database in 2018), with national variation." ], [ "See also", "* Critical juncture theory* Economic democracy* Economic ideology* Economic union* Economics terminology that differs from common usage* Free trade* Glossary of economics* Happiness economics* Humanistic economics* Index of economics articles* * List of economics awards* List of economics films* Outline of economics* Socioeconomics* Solidarity economy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", "===General information=== * Economic journals on the web.", "* Economics at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Economics A–Z.", "Definitions from ''The Economist''.", "* Economics Online (UK-based), with drop-down menus at top, incl.", "Definitions.", "* Intute: Economics: Internet directory of UK universities.", "* Research Papers in Economics (RePEc) * Resources For Economists : American Economic Association-sponsored guide to 2,000+ Internet resources from \"Data\" to \"Neat Stuff\", updated quarterly.===Institutions and organizations===* Economics Departments, Institutes and Research Centers in the World * Organization For Co-operation and Economic Development (OECD) Statistics* United Nations Statistics Division * World Bank Data * American Economic Association ===Study resources===* * * Economics at About.com * Economics textbooks on Wikibooks* MERLOT Learning Materials: Economics : US-based database of learning materials* Online Learning and Teaching Materials UK Economics Network's database of text, slides, glossaries and other resources" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electronic paper" ], [ "Introduction", "Many e-readers, devices meant to replace traditional books, utilize electronic paper for their displays in order to further resemble paper books; one such example is the Kindle series by Amazon.", "'''Electronic paper''', also known as '''electronic ink''' ('''e-ink''') or '''intelligent paper''', is a display device that mimics the appearance of ordinary ink on paper.", "Unlike conventional flat panel displays that emit light, an electronic paper display reflects ambient light, like paper.", "This may make them more comfortable to read, and provide a wider viewing angle than most light-emitting displays.", "The contrast ratio in electronic displays available as of 2008 approaches newspaper, and newly developed displays are slightly better.", "An ideal e-paper display can be read in direct sunlight without the image appearing to fade.Technologies include Gyricon, electrophoretics, electrowetting, interferometry, and plasmonics.Many electronic paper technologies hold static text and images indefinitely without electricity.", "Flexible electronic paper uses plastic substrates and plastic electronics for the display backplane.", "Applications of e-paper include electronic shelf labels and digital signage, bus station time tables, electronic billboards, smartphone displays, and e-readers able to display digital versions of books and magazines." ], [ "Technologies", "===Gyricon===Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by Nick Sheridon at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center.", "The first electronic paper, called '''Gyricon''', consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometers across.", "Each sphere is a Janus particle composed of negatively charged black plastic on one side and positively charged white plastic on the other (each bead is thus a dipole).", "The spheres are embedded in a transparent silicone sheet, with each sphere suspended in a bubble of oil so that it can rotate freely.", "The polarity of the voltage applied to each pair of electrodes then determines whether the white or black side is face-up, thus giving the pixel a white or black appearance.At the FPD 2008 exhibition, Japanese company Soken demonstrated a wall with electronic wall-paper using this technology.", "In 2007, the Estonian company Visitret Displays was developing this kind of display using polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as the material for the spheres, dramatically improving the video speed and decreasing the control voltage needed.===Electrophoretic===Appearance of pixelsAn '''electrophoretic display''' ('''EPD''') forms images by rearranging charged pigment particles with an applied electric field.In the simplest implementation of an EPD, titanium dioxide (titania) particles approximately one micrometer in diameter are dispersed in a hydrocarbon oil.", "A dark-colored dye is also added to the oil, along with surfactants and charging agents that cause the particles to take on an electric charge.", "This mixture is placed between two parallel, conductive plates separated by a gap of 10 to 100 micrometres.", "When a voltage is applied across the two plates, the particles migrate electrophoretically to the plate that bears the opposite charge from that on the particles.", "When the particles are located at the front (viewing) side of the display, it appears white, because the light is scattered back to the viewer by the high-index titania particles.", "When the particles are located at the rear side of the display, it appears dark, because the light is absorbed by the colored dye.", "If the rear electrode is divided into a number of small picture elements (pixels), then an image can be formed by applying the appropriate voltage to each region of the display to create a pattern of reflecting and absorbing regions.EPDs are typically addressed using MOSFET-based thin-film transistor (TFT) technology.", "TFTs are often used to form a high-density image in an EPD.A common application for TFT-based EPDs are e-readers.", "Electrophoretic displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category, because of their paper-like appearance and low power consumption.", "Examples of commercial electrophoretic displays include the high-resolution active matrix displays used in the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, Sony Reader, Kobo eReader, and iRex iLiad e-readers.", "These displays are constructed from an electrophoretic imaging film manufactured by E Ink Corporation.", "A mobile phone that used the technology is the Motorola Fone.Electrophoretic Display technology has also been developed by SiPix and Bridgestone/Delta.", "SiPix is now part of E Ink Corporation.", "The SiPix design uses a flexible 0.15 mm Microcup architecture, instead of E Ink's 0.04 mm diameter microcapsules.", "Bridgestone Corp.'s Advanced Materials Division cooperated with Delta Optoelectronics Inc. in developing Quick Response Liquid Powder Display technology.Electrophoretic displays can be manufactured using the Electronics on Plastic by Laser Release (EPLaR) process, developed by Philips Research, to enable existing AM-LCD manufacturing plants to create flexible plastic displays.====Microencapsulated electrophoretic display====Scheme of an electrophoretic displayScheme of an electrophoretic display using color filtersMacro photograph of Kindle 3 screen; microcapsules are evident at //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Kindle_3_texture_%28crop%29.jpg full size.In the 1990s another type of electronic ink based on a microencapsulated electrophoretic display was conceived and prototyped by a team of undergraduates at MIT as described in their Nature paper.", "J.D.", "Albert, Barrett Comiskey, Joseph Jacobson, Jeremy Rubin and Russ Wilcox co-founded E Ink Corporation in 1997 to commercialize the technology.", "E Ink subsequently formed a partnership with Philips Components two years later to develop and market the technology.", "In 2005, Philips sold the electronic paper business as well as its related patents to Prime View International.", "\"It has for many years been an ambition of researchers in display media to create a flexible low-cost system that is the electronic analog of paper.", "In this context, microparticle-based displays have long intrigued researchers.", "Switchable contrast in such displays is achieved by the electromigration of highly scattering or absorbing microparticles (in the size range 0.1–5 μm), quite distinct from the molecular-scale properties that govern the behavior of the more familiar liquid-crystal displays.", "Micro-particle-based displays possess intrinsic bistability, exhibit extremely low power d.c. field addressing and have demonstrated high contrast and reflectivity.", "These features, combined with a near-lambertian viewing characteristic, result in an 'ink on paper' look.", "But such displays have to date suffered from short lifetimes and difficulty in manufacture.", "Here we report the synthesis of an electrophoretic ink based on the microencapsulation of an electrophoretic dispersion.", "The use of a microencapsulated electrophoretic medium solves the lifetime issues and permits the fabrication of a bistable electronic display solely by means of printing.", "This system may satisfy the practical requirements of electronic paper.", "\"This used tiny microcapsules filled with electrically charged white particles suspended in a colored oil.", "In early versions, the underlying circuitry controlled whether the white particles were at the top of the capsule (so it looked white to the viewer) or at the bottom of the capsule (so the viewer saw the color of the oil).", "This was essentially a reintroduction of the well-known electrophoretic display technology, but microcapsules meant the display could be made on flexible plastic sheets instead of glass.One early version of the electronic paper consists of a sheet of very small transparent capsules, each about 40 micrometers across.", "Each capsule contains an oily solution containing black dye (the electronic ink), with numerous white titanium dioxide particles suspended within.", "The particles are slightly negatively charged, and each one is naturally white.The screen holds microcapsules in a layer of liquid polymer, sandwiched between two arrays of electrodes, the upper of which is transparent.", "The two arrays are aligned to divide the sheet into pixels, and each pixel corresponds to a pair of electrodes situated on either side of the sheet.", "The sheet is laminated with transparent plastic for protection, resulting in an overall thickness of 80 micrometers, or twice that of ordinary paper.The network of electrodes connects to display circuitry, which turns the electronic ink 'on' and 'off' at specific pixels by applying a voltage to specific electrode pairs.", "A negative charge to the surface electrode repels the particles to the bottom of local capsules, forcing the black dye to the surface and turning the pixel black.", "Reversing the voltage has the opposite effect.", "It forces the particles to the surface, turning the pixel white.", "A more recent implementation of this concept requires only one layer of electrodes beneath the microcapsules.", "These are commercially referred to as Active Matrix Electrophoretic Displays (AMEPD).===Electrowetting==='''Electrowetting display''' ('''EWD''') is based on controlling the shape of a confined water/oil interface by an applied voltage.", "With no voltage applied, the (colored) oil forms a flat film between the water and a hydrophobic (water-repellent) insulating coating of an electrode, resulting in a colored pixel.", "When a voltage is applied between the electrode and the water, the interfacial tension between the water and the coating changes.", "As a result, the stacked state is no longer stable, causing the water to move the oil aside.", "This makes a partly transparent pixel, or, if a reflective white surface is under the switchable element, a white pixel.", "Because of the small pixel size, the user only experiences the average reflection, which provides a high-brightness, high-contrast switchable element.Displays based on electrowetting provide several attractive features.", "The switching between white and colored reflection is fast enough to display video content.", "It is a low-power, low-voltage technology, and displays based on the effect can be made flat and thin.", "The reflectivity and contrast are better than or equal to other reflective display types and approach the visual qualities of paper.", "In addition, the technology offers a unique path toward high-brightness full-color displays, leading to displays that are four times brighter than reflective LCDs and twice as bright as other emerging technologies.", "Instead of using red, green, and blue (RGB) filters or alternating segments of the three primary colors, which effectively result in only one-third of the display reflecting light in the desired color, electrowetting allows for a system in which one sub-pixel can switch two different colors independently.This results in the availability of two-thirds of the display area to reflect light in any desired color.", "This is achieved by building up a pixel with a stack of two independently controllable colored oil films plus a color filter.The colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow, which is a subtractive system, comparable to the principle used in inkjet printing.", "Compared to LCD, brightness is gained because no polarisers are required.====Electrofluidic===='''Electrofluidic display''' is a variation of an electrowetting display that place an aqueous pigment dispersion inside a tiny reservoir.", "The reservoir comprises less than 5-10% of the viewable pixel area and therefore the pigment is substantially hidden from view.", "Voltage is used to electromechanically pull the pigment out of the reservoir and spread it as a film directly behind the viewing substrate.", "As a result, the display takes on color and brightness similar to that of conventional pigments printed on paper.", "When voltage is removed liquid surface tension causes the pigment dispersion to rapidly recoil into the reservoir.", "The technology can potentially provide greater than 85% white state reflectance for electronic paper.The core technology was invented at the Novel Devices Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati and there are working prototypes developed by collaboration with Sun Chemical, Polymer Vision and Gamma Dynamics.It has a wide margin in critical aspects such as brightness, color saturation and response time.Because the optically active layer can be less than 15 micrometres thick, there is strong potential for rollable displays.===Interferometric modulator (Mirasol)===The technology used in electronic visual displays that can create various colors via interference of reflected light.", "The color is selected with an electrically switched light modulator comprising a microscopic cavity that is switched on and off using driver integrated circuits similar to those used to address liquid-crystal displays (LCD).===Plasmonic electronic display===Plasmonic nanostructures with conductive polymers have also been suggested as one kind of electronic paper.", "The material has two parts.", "The first part is a highly reflective metasurface made by metal-insulator-metal films tens of nanometers in thickness including nanoscale holes.", "The metasurfaces can reflect different colors depending on the thickness of the insulator.", "The standard RGB color schema can be used as pixels for full-color displays.", "The second part is a polymer with optical absorption controllable by an electrochemical potential.", "After growing the polymer on the plasmonic metasurfaces, the reflection of the metasurfaces can be modulated by the applied voltage.", "This technology presents broad range colors, high polarization-independent reflection (>50 %), strong contrast (>30 %), the fast response time (hundreds of ms), and long-term stability.", "In addition, it has ultralow power consumption (10000 dpi).", "Since the ultrathin metasurfaces are flexible and the polymer is soft, the whole system can be bent.", "Desired future improvements for this technology include bistability, cheaper materials and implementation with TFT arrays.===Other technologies===Other research efforts into e-paper have involved using organic transistors embedded into flexible substrates, including attempts to build them into conventional paper.Simple color e-paper consists of a thin colored optical filter added to the monochrome technology described above.", "The array of pixels is divided into triads, typically consisting of the standard cyan, magenta and yellow, in the same way as CRT monitors (although using subtractive primary colors as opposed to additive primary colors).", "The display is then controlled like any other electronic color display." ], [ "History", "E Ink Corporation of E Ink Holdings Inc. released the first colored E Ink displays to be used in a marketed product.", "The Ectaco jetBook Color was released in 2012 as the first colored electronic ink device, which used E Ink's Triton display technology.", "E Ink in early 2015 also announced another color electronic ink technology called Prism.", "This new technology is a color changing film that can be used for e-readers, but Prism is also marketed as a film that can be integrated into architectural design such as \"wall, ceiling panel, or entire room instantly.\"", "The disadvantage of these current color displays is that they are considerably more expensive than standard E Ink displays.", "The jetBook Color costs roughly nine times more than other popular e-readers such as the Amazon Kindle.", "As of January 2015, Prism had not been announced to be used in the plans for any e-reader devices." ], [ "Applications", "An e-paper display on a watch refreshes to remove ghosts.Several companies are simultaneously developing electronic paper and ink.", "While the technologies used by each company provide many of the same features, each has its own distinct technological advantages.", "All electronic paper technologies face the following general challenges:* A method for encapsulation* An ink or active material to fill the encapsulation* Electronics to activate the inkElectronic ink can be applied to flexible or rigid materials.", "For flexible displays, the base requires a thin, flexible material tough enough to withstand considerable wear, such as extremely thin plastic.", "The method of how the inks are encapsulated and then applied to the substrate is what distinguishes each company from others.", "These processes are complex and are carefully guarded industry secrets.", "Nevertheless, making electronic paper is less complex and costly than LCDs.There are many approaches to electronic paper, with many companies developing technology in this area.", "Other technologies being applied to electronic paper include modifications of liquid-crystal displays, electrochromic displays, and the electronic equivalent of an Etch A Sketch at Kyushu University.", "Advantages of electronic paper include low power usage (power is only drawn when the display is updated), flexibility and better readability than most displays.", "Electronic ink can be printed on any surface, including walls, billboards, product labels and T-shirts.", "The ink's flexibility would also make it possible to develop rollable displays for electronic devices.Motorola F3 uses an e-paper display instead of an LCD.===Wristwatches===In December 2005, Seiko released the first electronic ink based watch called the Spectrum SVRD001 wristwatch, which has a flexible electrophoretic display and in March 2010 Seiko released a second generation of this famous electronic ink watch with an active matrix display.", "The Pebble smart watch (2013) uses a low-power memory LCD manufactured by Sharp for its e-paper display.In 2019, Fossil launched a hybrid smartwatch called the Hybrid HR, integrating an always on electronic ink display with physical hands and dial to simulate the look of a traditional analog watch.===E-book readers===iLiad e-book reader equipped with an e-paper display visible in the sunlightIn 2004, Sony released the Librié in Japan, the first e-book reader with an electronic paper E Ink display.", "In September 2006, Sony released the PRS-500 Sony Reader e-book reader in the USA.", "On October 2, 2007, Sony announced the PRS-505, an updated version of the Reader.", "In November 2008, Sony released the PRS-700BC, which incorporated a backlight and a touchscreen.In late 2007, Amazon began producing and marketing the Amazon Kindle, an e-book reader with an e-paper display.", "In February 2009, Amazon released the Kindle 2 and in May 2009 the larger Kindle DX was announced.", "In July 2010 the third-generation Kindle was announced, with notable design changes.", "The fourth generation of Kindle, called Touch, was announced in September 2011 that was the Kindle's first departure from keyboards and page turn buttons in favor of touchscreens.", "In September 2012, Amazon announced the fifth generation of the Kindle called the Paperwhite, which incorporates a LED frontlight and a higher contrast display.In November 2009, Barnes and Noble launched the Barnes & Noble Nook, running an Android operating system.", "It differs from other e-readers in having a replaceable battery, and a separate touch-screen color LCD below the main electronic paper reading screen.In 2017, Sony and reMarkable offered e-books tailored for writing with a smart stylus.In 2020, Onyx released the first frontlit 13.3 inch electronic paper Android tablet, the Boox Max Lumi.", "At the end of the same year, Bigme released the first 10.3 inch color electronic paper Android tablet, the Bigme B1 Pro.", "This was also the first large electronic paper tablet to support 4g cellular data.===Newspapers===In February 2006, the Flemish daily ''De Tijd'' distributed an electronic version of the paper to select subscribers in a limited marketing study, using a pre-release version of the iRex iLiad.", "This was the first recorded application of electronic ink to newspaper publishing.The French daily ''Les Échos'' announced the official launch of an electronic version of the paper on a subscription basis in September 2007.Two offers were available, combining a one-year subscription and a reading device.", "The offer included either a light (176g) reading device (adapted for Les Echos by Ganaxa) or the iRex iLiad.", "Two different processing platforms were used to deliver readable information of the daily, one based on the newly developed GPP electronic ink platform from ''Ganaxa'', and the other one developed internally by Les Echos.===Displays embedded in smart cards===Flexible display cards enable financial payment cardholders to generate a one-time password to reduce online banking and transaction fraud.", "Electronic paper offers a flat and thin alternative to existing key fob tokens for data security.", "The world's first ISO compliant smart card with an embedded display was developed by Innovative Card Technologies and nCryptone in 2005.The cards were manufactured by Nagra ID.===Status displays===USB flash drive with E Ink-implemented capacity meter of available flash memorySome devices, like USB flash drives, have used electronic paper to display status information, such as available storage space.", "Once the image on the electronic paper has been set, it requires no power to maintain, so the readout can be seen even when the flash drive is not plugged in.===Mobile phones===Motorola's low-cost mobile phone, the Motorola F3, uses an alphanumeric black-and-white electrophoretic display.The Samsung Alias 2 mobile phone incorporates electronic ink from E Ink into the keypad, which allows the keypad to change character sets and orientation while in different display modes.On December 12, 2012, Yota Devices announced the first \"YotaPhone\" prototype and was later released in December 2013, a unique double-display smartphone.", "It has a 4.3-inch, HD LCD on the front and an electronic ink display on the back.On May and June 2020, Hisense released the Hisense A5c and A5 pro cc, the first color electronic ink smartphones.", "With a single color display, with a togglable front light running android 9 and Android 10.===Electronic shelf labels===E-paper based electronic shelf labels (ESL) are used to digitally display the prices of goods at retail stores.", "Electronic-paper-based labels are updated via two-way infrared or radio technology and powered by a rechargeable coin cell.Some variants use ZBD (zenithal bistable display) which is more similar to LCD but does not need power to retain an image.===Public transport timetables===Tram timetables on e-paper.", "Prague, prototype from May 2019.E-paper displays at bus or trams stops can be remotely updated.", "Compared to LED or liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), they consume lower energy and the text or graphics stays visible during a power failure.", "Compared to LCDs, it easily visible under full sunshine.===Digital signage===Because of its energy-saving properties, electronic paper has proved a technology suited to digital signage applications.===Computer monitor===Electronic paper is used on computer monitors like the 13.3 inch Dasung Paperlike 3 HD and 25.3 inch Paperlike 253.===Laptop===Some laptops like Lenovo ThinkBook Plus use e-paper as a secondary screen.===Electronic tags===Typically, e-paper electronic tags integrate e-ink technology with wireless interfaces like NFC or UHF.", "They are most commonly used as employees' ID cards or as production labels to track manufacturing changes and status.", "E-paper tags are also increasingly being used as shipping labels, especially in the case of reusable boxes.", "An interesting feature provided by some e-paper Tags manufacturers is batteryless design.", "This means that the power needed for a display's content update is provided wirelessly and the module itself doesn't contain any battery.===Other===Other proposed applications include clothes, digital photo frames, information boards, and keyboards.", "Keyboards with dynamically changeable keys are useful for less represented languages, non-standard keyboard layouts such as Dvorak, or for special non-alphabetical applications such as video editing or games.The reMarkable is a writer tablet for reading and taking notes." ], [ "See also", "* E-book* Embedded controller* Electrofluidic* Flexible display* Flexible electronics* Hardware Attached on Top (HAT)* History of display technology* Raspberry Pi/Arduino* Raw display* Serial Peripheral Interface" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Electric paper, ''New Scientist'', 2003* E-paper may offer video images, ''New Scientist'', 2003* Paper comes alive ''New Scientist'', 2003* Most flexible electronic paper yet revealed, ''New Scientist'', 2004* Roll-up digital displays move closer to market ''New Scientist'', 2005" ], [ "External links", "* Wired article on E Ink-Philips partnership, and background* , retrieved 2007-08-26* MIT ePaper Project* * Fujitsu Develops World's First Film Substrate-based Bendable Color Electronic Paper featuring Image Memory Function" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Earth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Earth''' is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.", "This is enabled by Earth being a water world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water.", "Almost all of Earth's water is contained in its global ocean, covering 70.8% of Earth's crust.", "The remaining 29.2% of Earth's crust is land, most of which is located in the form of continental landmasses within one hemisphere, Earth's land hemisphere.", "Most of Earth's land is somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while large sheets of ice at Earth's polar deserts retain more water than Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers and atmospheric water combined.", "Earth's crust consists of slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes.", "Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation.Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry.", "It has a composition of primarily nitrogen and oxygen.", "Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet.", "The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Sun's light.", "This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C, at which water is liquid under atmospheric pressure.", "Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as nitrogen to cycle.Earth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 km.", "It is the densest planet in the Solar System.", "Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive.", "Earth is about eight light-minutes away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution.", "Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes).", "Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons.", "Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 384,400 km (1.28 light seconds) and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth.", "The Moon's gravity helps stabilize Earth's axis, causes tides and gradually slows Earth's rotation.", "Tidal locking has made the Moon always face Earth with the same side.Earth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, formed 4.5 billion years ago from gas in the early Solar System.", "During the first billion years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it.", "Life spread globally and has been altering Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago.", "Humans emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread across every continent on Earth with the exception of Antarctica.", "Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted the planet's environment.", "Humanity's current impact on Earth's climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and causing widespread extinctions." ], [ "Etymology", "The Modern English word ''Earth'' developed, via Middle English, from an Old English noun most often spelled ''''.", "It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their ancestral root has been reconstructed as ''erþō''.", "In its earliest attestation, the word ''eorðe'' was used to translate the many senses of Latin '''' and Greek γῆ ''gē'': the ground, its soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of the world (including the sea), and the globe itself.", "As with Roman Terra/Tellūs and Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late Norse mythology included Jörð (\"Earth\"), a giantess often given as the mother of Thor.Historically, \"Earth\" has been written in lowercase.", "Beginning with the use of Early Middle English, its definite sense as \"the globe\" was expressed as \"the earth\".", "By the era of Early Modern English, capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and ''the earth'' was also written ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies.", "More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the other planets, though \"earth\" and forms with \"the earth\" remain common.", "House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant.", "Another convention capitalizes \"Earth\" when appearing as a name, such as a description of the \"Earth's atmosphere\", but employs the lowercase when it is preceded by \"the\", such as \"the atmosphere of the earth\").", "It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as \"what on earth are you doing?", "\"The name ''Terra'' occasionally is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from others, while in poetry ''Tellus'' has been used to denote personification of the Earth.", "''Terra'' is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages, languages that evolved from Latin, like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance languages the word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings, like the Spanish ''Tierra'' and the French ''Terre''.", "The Latinate form ''Gæa'' or ''Gaea'' () of the Greek poetic name ''Gaia'' (; or ) is rare, though the alternative spelling ''Gaia'' has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis, in which case its pronunciation is rather than the more classical English .There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth.", "The word \"earthly\" is derived from \"Earth\".", "From the Latin ''Terra'' comes ''terran'' , ''terrestrial'' , and (via French) ''terrene'' , and from the Latin ''Tellus'' comes ''tellurian'' and ''telluric''." ], [ "Natural history", "=== Formation ===A 2012 artistic impression of the early Solar System's protoplanetary disk from which Earth and other Solar System bodies were formedThe oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to Ga (billion years) ago.", "By the primordial Earth had formed.", "The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun.", "In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun.", "A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and dust (including primordial nuclides).", "According to nebular theory, planetesimals formed by accretion, with the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking anywhere from 70 to 100 million years to form.Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga to significantly younger.", "A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's mass, named Theia, collided with Earth.", "It hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.", "Between approximately 4.1 and , numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.=== After formation ===''Pale orange dot'', an artist's impression of Early Earth, featuring its tinted orange methane-rich early atmosphereEarth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing.", "Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets.", "Sufficient water to fill the oceans may have been on Earth since it formed.", "In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity.", "By , Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to have been mafic in composition.", "The first continental crust, which was more felsic in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust.", "The presence of grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as , only after Earth's formation.", "There are two main models of how this initial small volume of continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance: (1) a relatively steady growth up to the present day, which is supported by the radiometric dating of continental crust globally and (2) an initial rapid growth in the volume of continental crust during the Archean, forming the bulk of the continental crust that now exists, which is supported by isotopic evidence from hafnium in zircons and neodymium in sedimentary rocks.", "The two models and the data that support them can be reconciled by large-scale recycling of the continental crust, particularly during the early stages of Earth's history.New continental crust forms as a result of plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior.", "Over the period of hundreds of millions of years, tectonic forces have caused areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents that have subsequently broken apart.", "At approximately , one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.", "The continents later recombined to form Pannotia at , then finally Pangaea, which also began to break apart at .The most recent pattern of ice ages began about , and then intensified during the Pleistocene about .", "High- and middle-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000 and 100,000 years.", "The Last Glacial Period, colloquially called the \"last ice age\", covered large parts of the continents, to the middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago.=== Origin of life and evolution ===An artist's impression of the Archean, the eon after Earth's formation, featuring round stromatolites, which are early oxygen-producing forms of life from billions of years ago.", "After the Late Heavy Bombardment, Earth's crust had cooled, its water-rich barren surface is marked by continents and volcanoes, with the Moon still orbiting Earth half as far as it is today, appearing 2.8 times larger and producing strong tides.Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago.", "A half billion years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose.", "The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms.", "The resultant molecular oxygen () accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective ozone layer () in the upper atmosphere.", "The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes.", "True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized.", "Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.", "Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia, biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland, and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.", "The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms.During the Neoproterozoic, , much of Earth might have been covered in ice.", "This hypothesis has been termed \"Snowball Earth\", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.", "Following the Cambrian explosion, , there have been at least five major mass extinctions and many minor ones.", "Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event, the most recent was , when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but largely spared small animals such as insects, mammals, lizards and birds.", "Mammalian life has diversified over the past , and several million years ago an African ape species gained the ability to stand upright.", "This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans.", "The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.=== Future ===Conjectured illustration of the scorched Earth after the Sun has entered the red giant phase, about 5–7 billion years from nowEarth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun.", "Over the next , solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next by 40%.", "Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle, reducing concentration to levels lethally low for plants ( for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately .", "The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.", "Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean temperature may reach in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years.", "Even if the Sun were stable, a fraction of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about .", "Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly , about 250 times its present radius.", "Earth's fate is less clear.", "As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius, otherwise, with tidal effects, it may enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "=== Size and shape ===Earth's western hemisphere showing topography relative to Earth's center instead of to mean sea level, as in common topographic mapsEarth has a rounded shape, through hydrostatic equilibrium, with an average diameter of , making it the fifth largest planetary sized and largest terrestrial object of the Solar System.Due to Earth's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid, bulging at its Equator; its diameter is longer there than at its poles.Earth's shape furthermore has local topographic variations.", "Though the largest local variations, like the Mariana Trench ( below local sea level), only shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount Everest ( above local sea level) lengthens it by only 0.14%.", "Since Earth's surface is farthest out from Earth's center of mass at its equatorial bulge, the summit of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador () is its farthest point out.Parallel to the rigid land topography the Ocean exhibits a more dynamic topography.To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an idealized Earth producing a shape called a geoid.", "Such a geoid shape is gained if the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any perturbations such as tides and winds.", "The result is a smooth but gravitational irregular geoid surface, providing a mean sea level (MSL) as a reference level for topographic measurements.=== Surface ===composite image of Earth, with its different types of surface discernible: Earth's surface dominating Ocean (blue), Africa with lush (green) to dry (brown) land and Earth's polar ice in the form of Antarctic sea ice (grey) covering the Antarctic or Southern Ocean and the Antarctic ice sheet (white) covering Antarctica.Relief of Earth's crustEarth's surface is the boundary between the atmosphere, and the solid Earth and oceans.", "Defined in this way, Earth's shape is an idealized spheroid – a squashed sphere – with a surface area of about .", "Earth can be divided into two hemispheres: by latitude into the polar Northern and Southern hemispheres; or by longitude into the continental Eastern and Western hemispheres.Most of Earth's surface is ocean water: 70.8% or .", "This vast pool of salty water is often called the ''world ocean'', and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world.", "Indeed, in Earth's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely.", "The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Antarctic or Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean, from largest to smallest.", "The ocean covers Earth's oceanic crust, but to a lesser extent with shelf seas also shelves of the continental crust.", "The oceanic crust forms large oceanic basins with features like abyssal plains, seamounts, submarine volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system.At Earth's polar regions, the ocean surface is covered by seasonally variable amounts of sea ice that often connects with polar land, permafrost and ice sheets, forming polar ice caps.Earth's land covers 29.2%, or of Earth's surface.", "The land surface includes many islands around the globe, but most of the land surface is taken by the four continental landmasses, which are (in descending order): Africa-Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica, and Australia (landmass).", "These landmasses are further broken down and grouped into the continents.", "The terrain of the land surface varies greatly and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms.", "The elevation of the land surface varies from a low point of at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of at the top of Mount Everest.", "The mean height of land above sea level is about .Land can be covered by surface water, snow, ice, artificial structures or vegetation.", "Most of Earth's land hosts vegetation, but ice sheets (10%, not including the equally large land under permafrost) or cold as well as hot deserts (33%) occupy also considerable amounts of it.The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's land surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes.", "Soil is crucial for land to be arable.", "Earth's total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.", "Earth has an estimated of cropland and of pastureland.The land surface and the ocean floor form the top of Earth's crust, which together with parts of the upper mantle form Earth's lithosphere.", "Earth's crust may be divided into oceanic and continental crust.", "Beneath the ocean-floor sediments, the oceanic crust is predominantly basaltic, while the continental crust may include lower density materials such as granite, sediments and metamorphic rocks.", "Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the mass of the crust.Earth's surface topography comprises both the topography of the ocean surface, and the shape of Earth's land surface.", "The submarine terrain of the ocean floor has an average bathymetric depth of 4 km, and is as varied as the terrain above sea level.Earth's surface is continually being shaped by internal plate tectonic processes including earthquakes and volcanism; by weathering and erosion driven by ice, water, wind and temperature; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into soil.=== Tectonic plates ===Earth's major plates, which are:Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth's crust and upper mantle, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates.", "These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: at convergent boundaries, two plates come together; at divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart; and at transform boundaries, two plates slide past one another laterally.", "Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur.", "The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries.", "At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges.", "The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle.", "Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than old.", "The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be old.", "By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is , although zircons have been found preserved as clasts within Eoarchean sedimentary rocks that give ages up to , indicating that at least some continental crust existed at that time.The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, and South American.", "Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean.", "The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between .", "The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of and the Pacific Plate moving .", "At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the South American Plate, progressing at a typical rate of .=== Internal structure ===+Geologic layers of EarthframelessIllustration of Earth's cutaway, not to scaleDepth(km) Component layer nameDensity(g/cm3)0–60Lithosphere—0–35Crust2.2–2.935–660Upper mantle3.4–4.4660–2890Lower mantle3.4–5.6100–700Asthenosphere—2890–5100Outer core9.9–12.25100–6378Inner core12.8–13.1Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties.", "The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle.", "The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity.", "The thickness of the crust varies from about under the oceans to for the continents.", "The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, which is divided into independently moving tectonic plates.Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides.", "Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle.", "Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core.", "Earth's inner core may be rotating at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year, although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also been proposed.", "The radius of the inner core is about one-fifth of that of Earth.Density increases with depth, as described in the table on the right.Among the Solar System's planetary-sized objects Earth is the object with the highest density.=== Chemical composition ===Earth's mass is approximately (5,970 Yg).", "It is composed mostly of iron (32.1% by mass), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements.", "Due to gravitational separation, the core is primarily composed of the denser elements: iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.", "The most common rock constituents of the crust are oxides.", "Over 99% of the crust is composed of various oxides of eleven elements, principally oxides containing silicon (the silicate minerals), aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, or sodium.=== Internal heat ===A map of heat flow from Earth's interior to the surface of Earth's crust, mostly along the oceanic ridgesThe major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232.At the center, the temperature may be up to , and the pressure could reach .", "Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher.", "At approximately , twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today.The mean heat loss from Earth is , for a global heat loss of .", "A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock.", "These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts.", "More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges.", "The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.=== Gravitational field ===The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth.", "Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately .", "Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.=== Magnetic field ===A schematic view of Earth's magnetosphere with solar wind flowing from left to rightThe main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy.", "The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a dipole.", "The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles.", "At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is , with a magnetic dipole moment of at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains stronger than its long time average).", "The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment.", "This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years.", "The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere.", "Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.", "Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.", "Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates.", "The ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere.During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the aurora." ], [ "Orbit and rotation", "=== Rotation ===time lapse imagery of Earth's rotation showing axis tiltEarth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is of mean solar time ().", "Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies between longer than the mean solar day.Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its ''stellar day'' by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is of mean solar time (UT1), or Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is of mean solar time (UT1) .", "Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min.", "For bodies near the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.=== Orbit ===Exaggerated illustration of Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun, marking that the orbital extreme points (apoapsis and periapsis) are not the same as the four seasonal extreme points, the equinox and solsticeEarth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System.", "Earth's average orbital distance is about , which is the basis for the Astronomical Unit and is equal to roughly 8.3 light minutes or 380 times Earth's distance to the Moon.Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year.", "With an apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours.", "Due to this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian.The orbital speed of Earth averages about , which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about , in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, , in about 3.5 hours.The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars.", "When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days.", "Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise.", "Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun.", "The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane.", "Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about in radius.", "This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets.", "Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.", "Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its center.", "It is about 20 light-years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm.=== Axial tilt and seasons ===Earth's axial tilt causing different angles of seasonal illumination at different orbital positions around the SunThe axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281° with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the Celestial Poles.", "Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year.", "This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the Northern Hemisphere occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, and in the Southern Hemisphere when the Tropic of Capricorn faces the Sun.", "In each instance, winter occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere.During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky.", "In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter.", "Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar night, and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves.", "These same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible all day.By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis.", "In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September.", "In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time.", "Its axial tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years.", "The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year.", "Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge.", "The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface.", "This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion.", "In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble.", "Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July.", "These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles.", "The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion.", "Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year.", "This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere." ], [ "Earth–Moon system", "=== Moon ===Earth and the Moon as seen from Mars by the Mars Reconnaissance OrbiterView of Earth from the Moon by the Lunar Reconnaissance OrbiterThe Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's.", "It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto.", "The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as \"moons\", after Earth's.", "The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant-impact hypothesis, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth.", "This hypothesis explains the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth.", "The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth.", "As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet.", "As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases.", "Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately .", "Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 µs/yr—add up to significant changes.", "During the Ediacaran period, for example, (approximately ) there were 400±7 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.9±0.4 hours.The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate.", "Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.", "Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the case for Mars, though this is disputed.Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun.", "The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.", "This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.On 1 November 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of a protoplanet, named Theia, could be inside the Earth, left over from a collision with the Earth in ancient times, and afterwards becoming the Moon.=== Asteroids and artificial satellites ===A computer-generated image mapping the prevalence of artificial satellites and space debris around Earth in geosynchronous and low Earth orbitEarth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans.", "There are at least five quasi-satellites, including 469219 Kamoʻoalewa.", "A trojan asteroid companion, , is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun.", "The tiny near-Earth asteroid makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years.", "During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time., there are 4,550 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth.", "There are also inoperative satellites, including Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked space debris.", "Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station." ], [ "Hydrosphere", "A view of Earth with its global ocean and cloud cover, which dominate Earth's surface and hydrosphere; at Earth's polar regions, its hydrosphere forms larger areas of ice cover.Earth's hydrosphere is the sum of Earth's water and its distribution.", "Most of Earth's hydrosphere consists of Earth's global ocean.", "Earth's hydrosphere also consists of water in the atmosphere and on land, including clouds, inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of .The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass.", "The oceans cover an area of with a mean depth of , resulting in an estimated volume of .", "If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be .", "About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water.", "Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers.", "The remaining 30% is ground water, 1% surface water (covering only 2.8% of Earth's land) and other small forms of fresh water deposits such as permafrost, water vapor in the atmosphere, biological binding, etc.", ".In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice.", "This accumulated snow and ice eventually forms into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow under the influence of their own gravity.", "Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas, whereas vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions.", "The flow of glaciers erodes the surface changing it dramatically, with the formation of U-shaped valleys and other landforms.", "Sea ice in the Arctic covers an area about as big as the United States, although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of climate change.The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt).", "Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.", "The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.", "Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir.", "Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation.The abundance of water, particularly liquid water, on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes it from other planets in the Solar System.", "Solar System planets with considerable atmospheres do partly host atmospheric water vapor, but they lack surface conditions for stable surface water.", "Despite some moons showing signs of large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick frozen surface layer." ], [ "Atmosphere", "A view of Earth with different layers of its atmosphere visible: the troposphere with its clouds casting shadows, a band of stratospheric blue sky at the horizon, and a line of green airglow of the lower thermosphere around an altitude of 100 km, at the edge of spaceThe atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages , with a scale height of about .", "A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules.", "Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but averages about 1%.", "Clouds cover around two-thirds of Earth's surface, more so over oceans than land.", "The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between at the poles to at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere.", "Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved , forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.", "This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric into .", "The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land.", "Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.", "This last phenomenon is the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the surface, thereby raising the average temperature.", "Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.", "Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be , in contrast to the current , and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.=== Weather and climate ===Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, gradually becoming thinner and fading into outer space.", "Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first of the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere.", "Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air.", "This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air.", "The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.", "Ocean heat content and currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.Earth receives 1361 W/m2 of solar irradiance.", "The amount of solar energy that reaches Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude.", "At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere.", "As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about per degree of latitude from the equator.", "Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate.", "Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates.Further factors that affect a location's climates are its proximity to oceans, the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, and topology.", "Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters, due to the fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat.", "The wind transports the cold or the heat of the ocean to the land.", "Atmospheric circulation also plays an important role: San Francisco and Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same latitude.", "San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land.", "Finally, temperatures decrease with height causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas.Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere.", "When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.", "Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes.", "This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods.", "Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter.", "Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.", "The Köppen system rates regions based on observed temperature and precipitation.", "Surface air temperature can rise to around in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as low as in Antarctica.=== Upper atmosphere ===Earth's atmosphere as it appears from space, as bands of different colours at the horizon.", "From the bottom, afterglow illuminates the troposphere in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the stratosphere in white and blue.", "Next the mesosphere (pink area) extends to just below the edge of space at one hundred kilometers and the pink line of airglow of the lower thermosphere (invisible), which hosts green and red aurorae over several hundred kilometers.The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the troposphere, is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.", "Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height.", "Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind.", "Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth.", "The Kármán line, defined as above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity.", "This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space.", "Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.", "The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one.", "Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.", "Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.", "In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape.", "Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere." ], [ "Life on Earth", "productive vegetation on land (low in brown; heavy in dark green) and phytoplankton at the ocean surface (low in purple; high in yellow)Earth is the only known place that has ever been habitable for life.", "Earth's life developed in Earth's early bodies of water some hundred million years after Earth formed.Earth's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere.", "Therefore, life has impacted Earth, significantly altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over long periods of time, causing changes like the Great Oxidation Event.Earth's life has over time greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals.", "The different biomes developed at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary temperature latitudes and on land also with different humidity.", "Earth's species diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with forests, particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions.", "While freezing polar regions and high altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life.Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain a metabolism.", "Plants and other organisms take up nutrients from water, soils and the atmosphere.", "These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species.Extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones (including hurricanes and typhoons), occurs over most of Earth's surface and has a large impact on life in those areas.", "From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.", "Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters.", "Human impact is felt in many areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and erosion.", "Human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global warming.", "This is driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas." ], [ "Human geography", "artificial light emissions at night on a map of EarthOriginating from earlier primates in Eastern Africa 300,000 years ago humans have since been migrating and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th millennium BC increasingly settling Earth's land.", "In the 20th century Antarctica had been the last continent to see a first and until today limited human presence.Human population has since the 19th century grown exponentially to seven billion in the early 2010s, and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the second half of the 21st century.", "Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan Africa.Distribution and density of human population varies greatly around the world with the majority living in south to eastern Asia and 90% inhabiting only the Northern Hemisphere of Earth, partly due to the hemispherical predominance of the world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the Northern Hemisphere.", "Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged into urban areas with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century.Beyond Earth's surface humans have lived on a temporary basis, with only special purpose deep underground and underwater presence, and a few space stations.", "Human population virtually completely remains on Earth's surface, fully depending on Earth and the environment it sustains.", "Since the second half of the 20th century, some hundreds of humans have temporarily stayed beyond Earth, a tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body, the Moon.Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement, and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures.", "Most of Earth's land has been territorially claimed since the 19th century by sovereign states (countries) separated by political borders, and 205 such states exist today, with only parts of Antarctica and a few small regions remaining unclaimed.", "Most of these states together form the United Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization, which extends human governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth.=== Natural resources and land use ===Earth's land use for human agricultureEarth has resources that have been exploited by humans.", "Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales.", "Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, and natural gas.", "These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.", "Mineral ore bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from actions of magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics.", "These metals and other elements are extracted by mining, a process which often brings environmental and health damage.Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic waste.", "The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.", "In 2019, of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, was shrub and grassland, were used for animal feed production and grazing, and were cultivated as croplands.", "Of the 1214% of ice-free land that is used for croplands, 2 percentage points were irrigated in 2015.Humans use building materials to construct shelters.=== Humans and the environment ===Change in average surface air temperature and drivers for that change.", "Human activity has caused increased temperatures, with natural forces adding some variability.Human activities have impacted Earth's environments.", "Through activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget and climate.", "It is estimated that global temperatures in the year 2020 were warmer than the preindustrial baseline.", "This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas.The concept of planetary boundaries was introduced to quantify humanity's impact on Earth.", "Of the nine identified boundaries, five have been crossed: Biosphere integrity, climate change, chemical pollution, destruction of wild habitats and the nitrogen cycle are thought to have passed the safe threshold.", "As of 2018, no country meets the basic needs of its population without transgressing planetary boundaries.", "It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use." ], [ "Cultural and historical viewpoint", "Tracy Caldwell Dyson, a NASA astronaut, observing Earth from the ''Cupola'' module at the International Space Station on 11 September 2010Human cultures have developed many views of the planet.", "The standard astronomical symbols of Earth are a quartered circle, 🜨, representing the four corners of the world, and a globus cruciger, ♁.", "Earth is sometimes personified as a deity.", "In many cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity.", "Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities.", "The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-20th century, compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.Images of Earth taken from space, particularly during the Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way that people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the overview effect, emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and apparent fragility.", "In particular, this caused a realization of the scope of effects from human activity on Earth's environment.", "Enabled by science, particularly Earth observation, humans have started to take action on environmental issues globally, acknowledging the impact of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments.Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet.", "Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides.", "Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first concluded that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System.It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of years.", "Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Earth – Profile – Solar System Exploration – NASA* Earth Observatory – NASA* Earth – Videos – International Space Station: Video (01:02) on YouTube – Earth (time-lapse) Video (00:27) on YouTube – Earth and auroras (time-lapse)* Google Earth 3D, interactive map* Interactive 3D visualization of the Sun, Earth and Moon system* GPlates Portal (University of Sydney)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "English Channel" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''English Channel''', also known as '''the Channel''', is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Southern England from northern France.", "It links to the southern part of the North Sea by the Strait of Dover at its northeastern end.", "It is the busiest shipping area in the world.It is about long and varies in width from at its widest to at its narrowest in the Strait of Dover.", "It is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some .The Channel was a key factor in Britain becoming a naval superpower and has been utilised by Britain as a natural defence mechanism to halt attempted invasions, such as in the Napoleonic Wars and in the Second World War.The population around the English Channel is predominantly located on the English coast and the major languages spoken in this region are English and French." ], [ "Names", "The Strait of Dover between England and France is the narrowest part of the English Channel, which separates Great Britain from continental Europe, and marks the boundary between the Channel and the North Sea.The name first appears in Roman sources as (or , meaning the British Ocean or British Sea).", "Variations of this term were used by influential writers such as Ptolemy, and remained popular with British and continental authors well into the modern era.", "Other Latin names for the sea include (the Gaulish Ocean) which was used by Isidore of Seville in the sixth century.The term ''British Sea'' is still used by speakers of Cornish and Breton, with the sea known to them as and respectively.", "While it is likely that these names derive from the Latin term, it is possible that they predate the arrival of the Romans in the area.", "The modern Welsh is often given as (the Lord's or Prince's Sea); however, this name originally described both the Channel and the North Sea combined.Anglo-Saxon texts make reference to the sea as (South Sea), but this term fell out of favour, as later English authors followed the same conventions as their Latin and Norman contemporaries.", "One English name that did persist was the ''Narrow Seas'', a collective term for the channel and North Sea.", "As England (followed by Great Britain and the United Kingdom) claimed sovereignty over the sea, a Royal Navy Admiral was appointed with maintaining duties in the two seas.", "The office was maintained until 1822, when several European nations (including the United Kingdom) adopted a limit to territorial waters.=== English Channel ===Osborne House, the summer retreat of Queen Victoria on the Isle of Wight.", "Starting from the late 18th century, settlements on and around the English Channel coastline in England grew rapidly into thriving seaside resorts, bolstered by their association with royalty and the middle and upper classes.The word ''channel'' was first recorded in Middle English in the 13th century and was borrowed from the Old French word (a variant form of 'canal').", "By the middle of the fifteenth century, an Italian map based on Ptolemy's description named the sea as ''Britanicus Oceanus nunc Canalites Anglie'' (British Ocean but now English Channel).", "The map is possibly the first recorded use of the term ''English Channel'' and the description suggests the name had recently been adopted.In the sixteenth century, Dutch maps referred to the sea as the (English Channel) and by the 1590s, William Shakespeare used the word ''Channel'' in his history plays of Henry VI, suggesting that by that time, the name was popularly understood by English people.By the eighteenth century, the name ''English Channel'' was in common usage in England.", "Following the Acts of Union 1707, this was replaced in official maps and documents with ''British Channel'' or ''British Sea'' for much of the next century.", "However, the term English Channel remained popular and was finally in official usage by the nineteenth century.=== ===Map of the channel area with French nomenclatureThe French name has been used since at least the 17th century.", "The name is usually said to refer to the sleeve () shape of the Channel.", "Folk etymology has derived it from a Celtic word meaning 'channel' that is also the source of the name for the Minch in Scotland, but this name is not attested before the 17th century, and French and British sources of that time are clear about its etymology.", "The name in French has been directly adapted in other languages as either a calque, such as in Italian, or a direct borrowing, such as in Spanish." ], [ "Nature", "=== Geography ===Map of the English Channel The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as:The Strait of Dover viewed from France, looking towards England.", "The white cliffs of Dover on the English coast are visible from France on a clear day.The Strait of Dover (), at the Channel's eastern end, is its narrowest point, while its widest point lies between Lyme Bay and the Gulf of Saint Malo, near its midpoint.", "Well on the continental shelf, it has an average depth of about at its widest; yet averages about between Dover and Calais, its notable sandbank hazard being Goodwin Sands.", "Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about across the Broad Fourteens (14 fathoms) where it lies over the southern cusp of the former land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries.", "The North Sea reaches much greater depths east of northern Britain.", "The Channel descends briefly to in the submerged valley of Hurd's Deep, west-northwest of Guernsey.Somme, the Authie and the CancheThere are several major islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast, and the Channel Islands, British Crown Dependencies off the coast of France.", "The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is deeply indented, with several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey and Mont Saint-Michel.", "The Cotentin Peninsula on the French coast juts out into the Channel, with the wide Bay of the Seine () to its east.", "On the English side there is a small parallel strait, the Solent, between the Isle of Wight and the mainland.", "The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel.The Channel acts as a funnel that amplifies the tidal range from less than a metre at sea in eastern places to more than 6 metres at in the Channel Islands the west coast of the Cotentin Peninsula and the north coast of Brittany in monthly spring tides.", "The time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance.", "Amphidromic points are the Bay of Biscay and varying more in precise location in the far south of the North Sea, meaning both those associated eastern coasts repel the tides effectively, leaving the Strait of Dover as every six hours the natural bottleneck short of its consequent gravity-induced repulsion of the southward tide (surge) of the North Sea (equally from the Atlantic).", "The Channel does not experience, but its existence is necessary to explain the extent of North Sea storm surges, such as necessitate the Thames Barrier, Delta Works, Zuiderzee works (Afsluitdijk and other dams).In the UK Shipping Forecast the Channel is divided into the following areas, from the east:* Dover* Wight* Portland* Plymouth=== Geological origins ===Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum ca.", "20,000 years agoThe Channel is of geologically recent origin, having been land for most of the Pleistocene period.", "Before the Devensian glaciation (the most recent glacial period, which ended around 10,000 years ago), Britain and Ireland were part of continental Europe, linked by an unbroken Weald–Artois anticline, a ridge that acted as a natural dam holding back a large freshwater pro-glacial lake in the Doggerland region, now submerged under the North Sea.", "During this period the North Sea and almost all of the British Isles were covered by ice.", "The lake was fed by meltwater from the Baltic and from the Caledonian and Scandinavian ice sheets that joined to the north, blocking its exit.", "The sea level was about lower than it is today.", "Then, between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago, at least two catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods breached the Weald–Artois anticline.", "These contributed to creating some of the deepest part's of the channel such as Hurd's Deep.The first flood of 450 thousand years ago would have lasted for several months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second.", "The flood started with large but localised waterfalls over the ridge, which excavated depressions now known as the ''Fosses Dangeard''.", "The flow eroded the retaining ridge, causing the rock dam to fail and releasing lake water into the Atlantic.", "After multiple episodes of changing sea level, during which the ''Fosses Dangeard'' were largely infilled by various layers of sediment, another catastrophic flood some 180,000 years ago carved a large bedrock-floored valley, the Lobourg Channel, some 500 m wide and 25 m deep, from the southern North Sea basin through the centre of the Straits of Dover and into the English Channel.", "It left streamlined islands, longitudinal erosional grooves, and other features characteristic of catastrophic megaflood events, still present on the sea floor and now revealed by high-resolution sonar.", "Through the scoured channel passed a river, the Channel River, which drained the combined Rhine and Thames westwards to the Atlantic.The flooding destroyed the ridge that connected Britain to continental Europe, although a land connection across the southern North Sea would have existed intermittently at later times when periods of glaciation resulted in lowering of sea levels.", "At the end of the last glacial period, rising sea levels finally severed the last land connection.=== Ecology ===As a busy shipping lane, the Channel experiences environmental problems following accidents involving ships with toxic cargo and oil spills.", "Indeed, over 40% of the UK incidents threatening pollution occur in or very near the Channel.", "One occurrence was the MSC ''Napoli'', which on 18 January 2007 was beached with nearly 1700 tonnes of dangerous cargo in Lyme Bay, a protected World Heritage Site coastline.", "The ship had been damaged and was en route to Portland Harbour.The English Channel, despite being a busy shipping lane, remains in part a haven for wildlife.", "Atlantic oceanic species are more common in the westernmost parts of the channel, particularly to the west of Start Point, Devon, but can sometimes be found further east towards Dorset and the Isle of Wight.", "Seal sightings are becoming more common along the English Channel, with both Grey Seal and Harbour Seal recorded frequently." ], [ "Human history", "The Channel, which delayed human reoccupation of Great Britain for more than 100,000 years, has in historic times been both an easy entry for seafaring people and a key natural defence, halting invading armies while in conjunction with control of the North Sea allowing Britain to blockade the continent.", "The most significant failed invasion threats came when the Dutch and Belgian ports were held by a major continental power, e.g.", "from the Spanish Armada in 1588, Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, and Nazi Germany during World War II.", "Successful invasions include the Roman conquest of Britain, the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the Glorious Revolution of 1688, while the concentration of excellent harbours in the Western Channel on Britain's south coast made possible the largest amphibious invasion in history, the Normandy Landings in 1944.Channel naval battles include the Battle of the Downs (1639), Battle of Dover (1652), the Battle of Portland (1653) and the Battle of La Hougue (1692).In more peaceful times the Channel served as a link joining shared cultures and political structures, particularly the huge Angevin Empire from 1135 to 1217.For nearly a thousand years, the Channel also provided a link between the Modern Celtic regions and languages of Cornwall and Brittany.", "Brittany was founded by Britons who fled Cornwall and Devon after Anglo-Saxon encroachment.", "In Brittany, there is a region known as \"Cornouaille\" (Cornwall) in French and \"Kernev\" in Breton.", "In ancient times there was also a \"Domnonia\" (Devon) in Brittany as well.In February 1684, ice formed on the sea in a belt wide off the coast of Kent and wide on the French side.=== Route to Britain ===The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century around the North Sea.", "Remnants of a mesolithic boatyard have been found on the Isle of Wight.", "Wheat was traded across the Channel about 8,000 years ago.", "\"... Sophisticated social networks linked the Neolithic front in southern Europe to the Mesolithic peoples of northern Europe.\"", "The Ferriby Boats, Hanson Log Boats and the later Dover Bronze Age Boat could carry a substantial cross-Channel cargo.Diodorus Siculus and Pliny both suggest trade between the rebel Celtic tribes of Armorica and Iron Age Britain flourished.", "In 55 BC Julius Caesar invaded, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year.", "He was more successful in 54 BC, but Britain was not fully established as part of the Roman Empire until completion of the invasion by Aulus Plautius in 43 AD.", "A brisk and regular trade began between ports in Roman Gaul and those in Britain.", "This traffic continued until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 410 AD, after which the early Anglo-Saxons left less clear historical records.In the power vacuum left by the retreating Romans, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea.", "Having already been used as mercenaries in Britain by the Romans, many people from these tribes crossed during the Migration Period, conquering and perhaps displacing the native Celtic populations.=== Norsemen and Normans ===St Helier lies in the bay off Saint Helier and is accessible on foot at low tide.The attack on Lindisfarne in 793 is generally considered the beginning of the Viking Age.", "For the next 250 years the Scandinavian raiders of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark dominated the North Sea, raiding monasteries, homes, and towns along the coast and along the rivers that ran inland.", "According to the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' they began to settle in Britain in 851.They continued to settle in the British Isles and the continent until around 1050, with some raids recorded along the channel coast of England, including at Wareham, Portland, near Weymouth and along the river Teign in Devon.The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo (also known as Robert of Normandy).", "Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks Charles the Simple through the Treaty of St.-Claire-sur-Epte.", "In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory he and his Viking allies had previously conquered.", "The name \"Normandy\" reflects Rollo's Viking (i.e.", "\"Northman\") origins.The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and intermarried with the area's inhabitants and became the Normans – a Norman French-speaking mixture of Scandinavians, Hiberno-Norse, Orcadians, Anglo-Danish, and indigenous Franks and Gauls.Landing in England scene from the Bayeux Tapestry, depicting ships coming in and horses landingRollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy became king of England in 1066 in the Norman Conquest beginning with the Battle of Hastings, while retaining the fiefdom of Normandy for himself and his descendants.", "In 1204, during the reign of King John, mainland Normandy was taken from England by France under Philip II, while insular Normandy (the Channel Islands) remained under English control.", "In 1259, Henry III of England recognised the legality of French possession of mainland Normandy under the Treaty of Paris.", "His successors, however, often fought to regain control of mainland Normandy.With the rise of William the Conqueror the North Sea and Channel began to lose some of their importance.", "The new order oriented most of England and Scandinavia's trade south, toward the Mediterranean and the Orient.Although the British surrendered claims to mainland Normandy and other French possessions in 1801, the monarch of the United Kingdom retains the title Duke of Normandy in respect to the Channel Islands.", "The Channel Islands (except for Chausey) are Crown Dependencies of the British Crown.", "Thus the Loyal toast in the Channel Islands is ''Le roi, notre Duc'' (\"The King, our Duke\").", "The British monarch is understood to ''not'' be the Duke of Normandy in regards of the French region of Normandy described herein, by virtue of the Treaty of Paris of 1259, the surrender of French possessions in 1801, and the belief that the rights of succession to that title are subject to Salic Law which excludes inheritance through female heirs.French Normandy was occupied by English forces during the Hundred Years' War in 1346–1360 and again in 1415–1450.=== England and Britain: Naval superpower ===The Spanish Armada off the English coast in 1588From the reign of Elizabeth I, English foreign policy concentrated on preventing invasion across the Channel by ensuring no major European power controlled the potential Dutch and Flemish invasion ports.", "Her climb to the pre-eminent sea power of the world began in 1588 as the attempted invasion of the Spanish Armada was defeated by the combination of outstanding naval tactics by the English and the Dutch under command of Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham with Sir Francis Drake second in command, and the following stormy weather.", "Over the centuries the Royal Navy slowly grew to be the most powerful in the world.The Battle of Quiberon Bay which ended the French invasion plans in 1759The building of the British Empire was possible only because the Royal Navy eventually managed to exercise unquestioned control over the seas around Europe, especially the Channel and the North Sea.", "During the Seven Years' War, France attempted to launch an invasion of Britain.", "To achieve this France needed to gain control of the Channel for several weeks, but was thwarted following the British naval victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759 and was unsuccessful (The last French landing on English soil being in 1690 with a raid on Teignmouth, although the last French raid on British soil was a raid on Fishguard, Wales in 1797).Another significant challenge to British domination of the seas came during the Napoleonic Wars.", "The Battle of Trafalgar took place off the coast of Spain against a combined French and Spanish fleet and was won by Admiral Horatio Nelson, ending Napoleon's plans for a cross-Channel invasion and securing British dominance of the seas for over a century.=== First World War ===The exceptional strategic importance of the Channel as a tool for blockading was recognised by the First Sea Lord Admiral Fisher in the years before World War I.", "\"Five keys lock up the world!", "Singapore, the Cape, Alexandria, Gibraltar, Dover.\"", "However, on 25 July 1909 Louis Blériot made the first Channel crossing from Calais to Dover in an aeroplane.", "Blériot's crossing signalled a change in the function of the Channel as a barrier-moat for England against foreign enemies.Because the ''Kaiserliche Marine'' surface fleet could not match the British Grand Fleet, the Germans developed submarine warfare, which was to become a far greater threat to Britain.", "The Dover Patrol, set up just before the war started, escorted cross-Channel troopships and prevented submarines from sailing in the Channel, obliging them to travel to the Atlantic via the much longer route around Scotland.On land, the German army attempted to capture French Channel ports in the Race to the Sea but although the trenches are often said to have stretched \"from the frontier of Switzerland to the English Channel\", they reached the coast at the North Sea.", "Much of the British war effort in Flanders was a bloody but successful strategy to prevent the Germans reaching the Channel coast.At the outset of the war, an attempt was made to block the path of U-boats through the Dover Strait with naval minefields.", "By February 1915, this had been augmented by a stretch of light steel netting called the Dover Barrage, which it was hoped would ensnare submerged submarines.", "After initial success, the Germans learned how to pass through the barrage, aided by the unreliability of British mines.", "On 31 January 1917, the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare leading to dire Admiralty predictions that submarines would defeat Britain by November, the most dangerous situation Britain faced in either world war.The Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 was fought to reduce the threat by capturing the submarine bases on the Belgian coast, though it was the introduction of convoys and not capture of the bases that averted defeat.", "In April 1918 the Dover Patrol carried out the Zeebrugge Raid against the U-boat bases.", "During 1917, the Dover Barrage was re-sited with improved mines and more effective nets, aided by regular patrols by small warships equipped with powerful searchlights.", "A German attack on these vessels resulted in the Battle of Dover Strait in 1917.A much more ambitious attempt to improve the barrage, by installing eight massive concrete towers across the strait was called the Admiralty M-N Scheme but only two towers were nearing completion at the end of the war and the project was abandoned.The naval blockade in the Channel and North Sea was one of the decisive factors in the German defeat in 1918.=== Second World War ===British radar facilities during the Battle of Britain 1940During the Second World War, naval activity in the European theatre was primarily limited to the Atlantic.", "During the Battle of France in May 1940, the German forces succeeded in capturing both Boulogne and Calais, thereby threatening the line of retreat for the British Expeditionary Force.", "By a combination of hard fighting and German indecision, the port of Dunkirk was kept open allowing 338,000 Allied troops to be evacuated in Operation Dynamo.", "More than 11,000 were evacuated from Le Havre during Operation Cycle and a further 192,000 were evacuated from ports further down the coast in Operation Aerial in June 1940.The early stages of the Battle of Britain featured German air attacks on Channel shipping and ports; despite these early successes against shipping the Germans did not win the air supremacy necessary for Operation Sealion, the projected cross-Channel invasion.The Channel subsequently became the stage for an intensive coastal war, featuring submarines, minesweepers, and Fast Attack Craft.The narrow waters of the Channel were considered too dangerous for major warships until the Normandy Landings with the exception, for the German Kriegsmarine, of the Channel Dash (Operation Cerberus) in February 1942, and this required the support of the Luftwaffe in Operation Thunderbolt.150 mm Second World War German gun emplacement in NormandyAs part of the Atlantic Wall, between 1940 and 1945 the occupying German forces and the Organisation Todt constructed fortifications round the coasts of the Channel Islands, such as this observation tower at Les Landes, Jersey.Dieppe was the site of an ill-fated Dieppe Raid by Canadian and British armed forces.", "More successful was the later Operation Overlord (D-Day), a massive invasion of German-occupied France by Allied troops.", "Caen, Cherbourg, Carentan, Falaise and other Norman towns endured many casualties in the fight for the province, which continued until the closing of the so-called Falaise gap between Chambois and Montormel, then liberation of Le Havre.The Channel Islands were the only part of the British Commonwealth occupied by Germany (excepting the part of Egypt occupied by the Afrika Korps at the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein, which was a protectorate and not part of the Commonwealth).", "The German occupation of 1940–1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for slave labour on the Continent; native Jews sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution; accusations of collaboration; and slave labour (primarily Russians and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build fortifications.", "The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the liberation of mainland Normandy in 1944.Intense negotiations resulted in some Red Cross humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the occupation, particularly in the final months, when the population was close to starvation.", "The German troops on the islands surrendered on 9 May 1945, a day after the final surrender in mainland Europe.=== English Channel migrant crossings (2018–present)===Arrivals by month each year on small boats via the English ChannelThere is significant public concern in the UK about illegal immigrants coming on small boats from France.", "Since 2018, the English Channel has seen a major increase in number of crossing." ], [ "Population", "The English Channel coast is far more densely populated on the English shore.", "The most significant towns and cities along both the English and French sides of the Channel (each with more than 20,000 inhabitants, ranked in descending order; populations are the urban area populations from the 1999 French census, 2001 UK census, and 2001 Jersey census) are as follows:=== England ===Spinnaker (observation) Tower, Portsmouth Harbour* Brighton–Worthing–Littlehampton: 461,181 inhabitants, made up of: Brighton: 155,919 Worthing: 96,964 Hove: 72,335 Littlehampton: 55,716** Lancing–Sompting: 30,360* Portsmouth: 442,252, including** Gosport: 79,200* Bournemouth & Poole: 383,713* Southampton: 304,400* Plymouth: 258,700* Torbay (Torquay): 129,702* Hastings–Bexhill: 126,386* Exeter: 119,600* Eastbourne: 106,562* Bognor Regis: 62,141* Folkestone–Hythe: 60,039* Weymouth: 56,043* Dover: 39,078* Walmer–Deal: 35,941* Exmouth: 32,972* Falmouth–Penryn: 28,801* Ryde: 22,806* St Austell: 22,658* Seaford: 21,851* Falmouth: 21,635* Penzance: 20,255=== France ===The walled city of Saint-Malo was a stronghold of corsairs.", "* Le Havre: 248,547 inhabitants* Calais: 104,852* Saint-Malo: 50,675* Lannion–Perros-Guirec: 48,990* Saint-Brieuc: 45,879* Boulogne-sur-Mer: 42,537* Cherbourg: 77,789* Dieppe: 42,202* Morlaix: 35,996* Dinard: 25,006* Étaples–Le Touquet-Paris-Plage: 23,994* Fécamp: 22,717* Eu–Le Tréport: 22,019* Trouville-sur-Mer–Deauville: 20,406=== Channel Islands ===* Saint Helier, Jersey: 28,310 inhabitants* Saint Peter Port, Guernsey: 16,488 inhabitants* Saint Anne, Alderney: 2,200 inhabitants* Sark: 600 inhabitants* Herm: 60 inhabitants=== Culture and languages ===Kelham's ''Dictionary of the Norman or Old French Language'' (1779), defining Law French, a language historically used in English law courtsThe two dominant cultures are English on the north shore of the Channel, French on the south.", "However, there are also a number of minority languages that are or were found on the shores and islands of the English Channel, which are listed here, with the Channel's name in the specific language following them.", ";Celtic Languages: , Sea of Brittany: : , Merciful Sea;Germanic languages: English: , the Channel.", "(Dutch previously had a larger range, and extended into parts of modern-day France as French Flemish.", ");Romance languages: : Gallo: ''Manche'', ''Grand-Mè'', ''Mè Bertone'': Norman, including the Channel Island vernaculars::* Anglo-Norman (extinct, but fossilised in certain English law phrases):* Auregnais (extinct):* Cotentinais: ''Maunche'':* Guernésiais: :* Jèrriais: :* Sercquais: PicardMost other languages tend towards variants of the French and English forms, but notably Welsh has ." ], [ "Economy", "=== Shipping ===The Channel has traffic on both the UK–Europe and North Sea–Atlantic routes, and is the world's busiest seaway, with over 500 ships per day.", "Following an accident in January 1971 and a series of disastrous collisions with wreckage in February, the Dover TSS, the world's first radar-controlled traffic separation scheme, was set up by the International Maritime Organization.", "The scheme mandates that vessels travelling north must use the French side, travelling south the English side.", "There is a separation zone between the two lanes.In December 2002 the MV ''Tricolor'', carrying £30m of luxury cars, sank northwest of Dunkirk after collision in fog with the container ship ''Kariba''.", "The cargo ship ''Nicola'' ran into the wreckage the next day.", "There was no loss of life.The beach of Le Havre and a part of the rebuilt cityThe shore-based long-range traffic control system was updated in 2003 and there is a series of traffic separation systems in operation.", "Though the system is inherently incapable of reaching the levels of safety obtained from aviation systems such as the traffic collision avoidance system, it has reduced accidents to one or two per year.Marine GPS systems allow ships to be preprogrammed to follow navigational channels accurately and automatically, further avoiding risk of running aground, but following the fatal collision between Dutch Aquamarine and Ash in October 2001, Britain's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) issued a safety bulletin saying it believed that in these most unusual circumstances GPS use had actually contributed to the collision.", "The ships were maintaining a very precise automated course, one directly behind the other, rather than making use of the full width of the traffic lanes as a human navigator would.A combination of radar difficulties in monitoring areas near cliffs, a failure of a CCTV system, incorrect operation of the anchor, the inability of the crew to follow standard procedures of using a GPS to provide early warning of the ship dragging the anchor and reluctance to admit the mistake and start the engine led to the MV ''Willy'' running aground in Cawsand Bay, Cornwall, in January 2002.The MAIB report makes it clear that the harbour controllers were informed of impending disaster by shore observers before the crew were themselves aware.", "The village of Kingsand was evacuated for three days because of the risk of explosion, and the ship was stranded for 11 days.=== Ferry ===Automatic identification system display showing traffic in the Channel in 2006The ferry routes crossing the English Channel, include (have included):-* Dover–Calais* Dover–Dunkirk* Newhaven–Dieppe* Plymouth–Roscoff* Poole–Cherbourg* Poole–Jersey and Guernsey* Poole–Saint Malo* Portsmouth–Cherbourg* Portsmouth–Jersey and Guernsey* Portsmouth–Le Havre* Portsmouth–Ouistreham* Portsmouth–Saint Malo* Rosslare–Cherbourg* Rosslare–Roscoff* Weymouth–Saint MaloBrighton Marina to Dieppe (using the SeaJet for a 100 minute crossing)=== Channel Tunnel ===Many travellers cross beneath the Channel using the Channel Tunnel, first proposed in the early 19th century and finally opened in 1994, connecting the UK and France by rail.", "It is now routine to travel between Paris or Brussels and London on the Eurostar train.", "Freight trains also use the tunnel.", "Cars, coaches and lorries are carried on Eurotunnel Shuttle trains between Folkestone and Calais.=== Tourism ===The Mont Saint-Michel is one of the most visited and recognisable landmarks on the English Channel.The coastal resorts of the Channel, such as Brighton and Deauville, inaugurated an era of aristocratic tourism in the early 19th century.", "Short trips across the Channel for leisure purposes are often referred to as Channel Hopping.=== Renewable energy ===The Rampion Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm located in the Channel, off the coast of West Sussex.", "Other offshore wind farms planned on the French side of the Channel." ], [ "History of Channel crossings", "As one of the narrowest and most well-known international waterways lacking dangerous currents, the Channel has been the first objective of numerous innovative sea, air, and human powered crossing technologies.Pre-historic people sailed from the mainland to England for millennia.", "At the end of the last Ice Age, lower sea levels even permitted walking across.=== By boat ===Date Crossing Participant(s) Notes March 1816 The French paddle steamer ''Élise'' (ex Scottish-built Margery or Margory) was the first steamer to cross the Channel.", "9 May 1816 Paddle steamer ''Defiance'', Captain William Wager, was the first steamer to cross the Channel to Holland 10 June 1821 Paddle steamer ''Rob Roy'', first passenger ferry to cross channel The steamer was purchased subsequently by the French postal administration and renamed ''Henri IV''.", "June 1843 First ferry connection through Folkestone-Boulogne Commanding officer Captain Hayward17 March 1864Race between a twin-screw steamer and a paddle steamer carrying mail.", "This race proved the superiority of screw over paddle.The ''Atalanta'' Twin-Screw Steamer and the Dover Mail-Packet ''Empress''The Atalanta newly built by Messrs. J. and W. Dudgeon, of Cubitt Town Yard, Millwall, made the trip from to Dover to Calais in 77 minutes; the Empress, owned by the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway Company took 107 minutes.", "25 July 1959 Hovercraft crossing (Calais to Dover, 2 hours 3 minutes) SR-N1 Sir Christopher Cockerell was on board1960sFirst crossing by water ski.The Varne Boat Club ran an annual cross-channel ski race from the 1960s onwards.", "The race was from the Varne club in Greatstone on Sea to Cap Gris Nez / Boulogne (latter years) and back.", "Many waterskiers have made this return crossing non-stop since this time.", "Youngest known waterskier to cross the Channel was John Clements aged 10, from the Varne Boat Club on 22 August 1974 who crossed from Littlestone to Boulogne and back without falling.", "22 August 1972 First solo hovercraft crossing (same route as SR-N1; 2 hours 20 minutes) Nigel Beale (UK) 1974 Coracle (13 and a half hours) Bernard Thomas (UK) As part of a publicity stunt, the journey was undertaken to demonstrate how the Bull Boats of the Mandan Indians of North Dakota could have been copied from Welsh coracles introduced by Prince Madog in the 12th century.", "August 1984 First crossing by pedalo (8hrs 6mins) Ric and Steve Cooper (UK) Charity event organized by Littlehampton Rotaract to raise funds for Leukaemia Research, the RNLI, and other charities in memory of Angie Jones.14 September 1995Fastest crossing by hovercraft, 22 minutes by ''Princess Anne''MCH SR-N4 MkIIICraft was designed as a ferry 1997 First vessel to complete a solar-powered crossing using photovoltaic cells SB ''Collinda'' — 14 June 2004 New record time for crossing in amphibious vehicle (the Gibbs Aquada, three-seater open-top sports car) Richard Branson (UK) Completed crossing in 1 hour 40 minutes 6 seconds – previous record was 6 hours.", "26 July 2006 New record time for crossing in hydrofoil car (the Rinspeed Splash, two-seater open-top sports car) Frank M. Rinderknecht (Switzerland) Completed crossing in 3 hours 14 minutes 25 September 2006 First crossing on a towed inflatable object (not a powered inflatable boat) Stephen Preston (UK) Completed crossing in 180 min July 2007 BBC ''Top Gear'' presenters \"drive\" to France in amphibious cars Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond, James May (UK) Completed the crossing in a 1996 Nissan D21 pick-up (the \"Nissank\"), fitted with a Honda outboard engine.20 August 2011First crossing by diver propulsion vehicle (sea scooters)A four-man relay team from Scarborough, headed by Heath Samples, crossed from Shakespeare Beach to Wissant.It took 12 hours 26 minutes 39 seconds and set a new Guinness World Record.Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the ''Élise'', ex the Scottish p.s.", "\"Margery\" in March 1816, one of the earliest seagoing voyages by steam ship.The paddle steamer ''Defiance'', Captain William Wager, was the first steamer to cross the Channel to Holland, arriving there on 9 May 1816.On 10 June 1821, English-built paddle steamer ''Rob Roy'' was the first passenger ferry to cross channel.", "The steamer was purchased subsequently by the French postal administration and renamed ''Henri IV'' and put into regular passenger service a year later.", "It was able to make the journey across the Straits of Dover in around three hours.In June 1843, because of difficulties with Dover harbour, the South Eastern Railway company developed the Boulogne-sur-Mer-Folkestone route as an alternative to Calais-Dover.", "The first ferry crossed under the command of Captain Hayward.In 1974 a Welsh coracle piloted by Bernard Thomas of Llechryd crossed the English Channel to France in 13 hours.", "The journey was undertaken to demonstrate how the Bull Boats of the Mandan Indians of North Dakota could have been copied from coracles introduced by Prince Madog in the 12th century.The Mountbatten class hovercraft (MCH) entered commercial service in August 1968, initially between Dover and Boulogne but later also Ramsgate (Pegwell Bay) to Calais.", "The journey time Dover to Boulogne was roughly 35 minutes, with six trips per day at peak times.", "The fastest crossing of the English Channel by a commercial car-carrying hovercraft was 22 minutes, recorded by the ''Princess Anne'' MCH SR-N4 Mk3 on 14 September 1995,=== By air ===The first aircraft to cross the Channel was a balloon in 1785, piloted by Jean Pierre François Blanchard (France) and John Jeffries (US).Louis Blériot (France) piloted the first aeroplane to cross in 1909.On 26 September 2008, Swiss Yves Rossy aka ''Jetman'' became the first person to cross the English Channel with a Jet Powered Wing,He jumped from a Pilatus Porter over Calais, France, Rossy crossed the English Channel where he deployed his parachute and landed in DoverThe first flying car to have crossed the English Channel is a Pégase designed by the French company Vaylon on 14 June 2017.It was piloted by a Franco-Italian pilot Bruno Vezzoli.", "This crossing was carried out as part of the first road and air trip from Paris to London in a flying car.", "Pegase is a 2 seats road approved dune buggy and a powered paraglider.", "The takeoff was at 8:03 a.m. from Ambleteuse in the North of France and landing was at East Studdal, near Dover.", "The flight was completed in 1 hour and 15 minutes for a total distance covered of including over the English Channel at an altitude of .On 12 June 1979, the first human-powered aircraft to cross the English Channel was the ''Gossamer Albatross'', built by American aeronautical engineer Dr. Paul B. MacCready's company AeroVironment, and piloted by Bryan Allen.", "The crossing was completed in 2 hours and 49 minutes.On 4 August 2019, Frenchman Franky Zapata became the first person to cross the English Channel on a jet-powered Flyboard Air.", "The board was powered by a kerosene-filled backpack.", "Zapata made the journey in 22 minutes, having landed on a boat half-way across to refuel.=== By swimming ===The sport of Channel swimming traces its origins to the latter part of the 19th century when Captain Matthew Webb made the first observed and unassisted swim across the Strait of Dover, swimming from England to France on 24–25 August 1875 in 21 hours 45 minutes.Up to 1927, fewer than ten swimmers (including the first woman, Gertrude Ederle in 1926) had managed to successfully swim the English Channel, and many dubious claims had been made.", "The Channel Swimming Association (CSA) was founded to authenticate and ratify swimmers' claims to have swum the Channel and to verify crossing times.", "The CSA was dissolved in 1999 and was succeeded by two separate organisations: CSA Ltd (CSA) and the Channel Swimming and Piloting Federation (CSPF), both observe and authenticate cross-Channel swims in the Strait of Dover.", "The Channel Crossing Association was also set up to cater for unorthodox crossings.The team with the most Channel swims to its credit is the Serpentine Swimming Club in London, followed by the international Sri Chinmoy Marathon Team.As of 2023, 1,881 people had completed 2,428 verified solo crossings under the rules of the CSA and the CSPF.", "This includes 24 two-way crossings and three three-way crossings.", "The Strait of Dover is the busiest stretch of water in the world.", "It is governed by International Law as described in ''Unorthodox Crossing of the Dover Strait Traffic Separation Scheme''.", "It states: \"In exceptional cases the French Maritime Authorities may grant authority for unorthodox craft to cross French territorial waters within the Traffic Separation Scheme when these craft set off from the British coast, on condition that the request for authorisation is sent to them with the opinion of the British Maritime Authorities.", "\"The fastest verified swim of the Channel was by the Australian Trent Grimsey on 8 September 2012, in 6 hours 55 minutes, beating a swim of 2007.The female record is held by Yvetta Hlavacova of Czechia, on 7 hours, 25 minutes on 5 August 2006.Both records were from England to France.There may have been some unreported swims of the Channel, by people intent on entering Britain in circumvention of immigration controls.", "A failed attempt to cross the Channel by two Syrian refugees in October 2014 came to light when their bodies were discovered on the shores of the North Sea in Norway and the Netherlands.=== By car ===On 16 September 1965, two Amphicars crossed from Dover to Calais.=== Other types === Date Crossing Participant(s) Notes 17 October 1851 First submarine cable for telegraph across the Channel in September laid from St. Margaret's Bay, England to Sangatte, France (commonly referred to as the Dover to Calais cable) Thomas Russell Crampton (engineer), financed by Charlton James Wollaston in a private partnership with others, entitled \"Wollaston et Compagnie\".", "The first international submarine cable in the world, in use until 1859.21 nautical miles distance needed 24 + 1 n. miles of cable spliced.", "27 March 1899 First radio transmission across the Channel (from Wimereux to South Foreland Lighthouse) Guglielmo Marconi (Italy)PLUTO was war-time fuel delivery project of \"pipelines under the ocean\" from England to France.", "Though plagued with technical difficulties during the Battle of Normandy, the pipelines delivered about 8% of the fuel requirements of the allied forces between D-Day and VE-Day." ], [ "See also", " English Channel migrant crossings (2018–present)* France–UK border* Anguilla Channel* Booze cruise* Guadeloupe Passage* Invasions of the British Isles* List of firsts in aviation* Phoenix breakwaters" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Full Channel swim lists and swimmer information* Oceanus Britannicus or British Sea* Channel swimmers website* Archives of long distance swimming* Channel Swimming and Piloting Federation* Channel Swimming Association* World War II Eye Witness Account – Audio Recording Air Battle over the English Channel (1940)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eiffel Tower" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Eiffel Tower''' ( ; ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France.", "It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.Locally nicknamed \"''La dame de fer''\" (French for \"Iron Lady\"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution.", "Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.", "The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world: 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015.It was designated a in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site (\"Paris, Banks of the Seine\") in 1991.The tower is tall, about the same height as an 81- building, and the tallest structure in Paris.", "Its base is square, measuring on each side.", "During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930.It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height.", "Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by .", "Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels.", "The top level's upper platform is above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union.", "Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels.", "The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb.", "Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift.", "On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use.", "He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison." ], [ "History", "===Origin===The design of the Eiffel Tower is attributed to Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel.", "It was envisioned after discussion about a suitable centerpiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution.", "In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as \"a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals\".", "Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of the company's architectural department, to contribute to the design.", "Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.First drawing of the Eiffel Tower by Maurice Koechlin including size comparison with other Parisian landmarks such as Notre Dame de Paris, the Statue of Liberty, and the Vendôme ColumnThe new version gained Eiffel's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was put on display at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name.", "On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the ; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade.", "A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars.", "(A 300-metre tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort.)", "On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or lacking in details.After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887.Eiffel signed it acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, the contract granting him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs.", "Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years.", "He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.A French bank, the ''Crédit Industriel et Commercial'' (CIC), helped finance the construction of the Eiffel Tower.", "During the period of the tower's construction, the CIC was acquiring funds from predatory loans to the National Bank of Haiti, some of which went towards the financing of the tower.", "These loans were connected to an indemnity controversy which saw France force Haiti's government to financially compensate French slaveowners for lost income as a result of the Haitian Revolution, and required Haiti to pay the CIC and its partner nearly half of all taxes collected on exports, \"effectively choking off the nation's primary source of income\".", "According to ''The New York Times'', \"at a time when the CIC was helping finance one of the world's best-known landmarks, the Eiffel Tower, as a monument to French liberty, it was choking Haiti's economy, taking much of the young nation's income back to Paris and impairing its ability to start schools, hospitals and the other building blocks of an independent country.", "\"===Artists' protest===Pyramids, published in ''Le Temps'', 14 February 1887The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds.", "Prior to the Eiffel Tower's construction, no structure had ever been constructed to a height of 300 m, or even 200 m for that matter, and many people believed it was impossible.", "These objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering.", "It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a \"Committee of Three Hundred\" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet.", "A petition called \"Artists against the Eiffel Tower\" was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Adolphe Alphand, and it was published by ''Le Temps'' on 14 February 1887:A calligram by Guillaume ApollinaireGustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: \"My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man.", "Will it not also be grandiose in its way?", "And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris?\"", "These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, sardonically saying, \"Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time\", and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection.", "Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: \"Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?", "\"Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced.", "Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany.", "Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.===Construction===Foundations of the Eiffel Tower, photographed in 1887Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887.Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg.", "The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons long and in diameter driven to a depth of to support the concrete slabs, which were thick.", "Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts in diameter and long.", "The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began.", "The visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed.", "The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within and angles worked out to one second of arc.", "The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed.", "No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration.", "In all, 18,038 pieces were joined using 2.5 million rivets.At first, the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level construction was paused to create a substantial timber scaffold.", "This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as \"Eiffel Suicide!\"", "and \"Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum\" appeared in the tabloid press.", "Multiple famous artists of that time, Charles Garnier and Alexander Dumas, thought poorly of the newly made tower.", "Charles Garnier thought it was a \"truly tragic street lamp\".", "Alexander Dumas said that it was like \"Odius shadow of the odious column built of rivets and iron plates extending like a black blot\".", "There were multiple protests over the style and the reasoning of placing it in the middle of Paris.", "At this stage, a small \"creeper\" crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg.", "They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs.", "The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888.Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold.", "Although construction involved 300 on-site employees, due to Eiffel's safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens, only one person died.File:Construction tour eiffel.JPG\|18 July 1887:The start of the erection of the metalworkFile:Construction tour eiffel2.JPG\|7 December 1887:Construction of the legs with scaffoldingFile:Construction tour eiffel3.JPG\|20 March 1888:Completion of the first levelFile:Construction tour eiffel4.JPG\|15 May 1888:Start of construction on the second stageFile:Construction tour eiffel5.JPG\|Completion of the second levelFile:Construction tour eiffel6.JPG\|26 December 1888:Construction of the upper stageFile:Construction tour eiffel7.JPG\|Construction of the cupola===Inauguration and the 1889 exposition===View of the 1889 World's FairThe main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower.", "Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features.", "Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from ''Le Figaro'' and ''Le Monde Illustré'', completed the ascent.", "At 2:35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired at the first level.There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed.", "The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710-step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May.Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light.", "Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition.", "The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.Illumination of the tower at night during the exposition; painted by , 1889On the second level, the French newspaper ''Le Figaro'' had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, ''Le Figaro de la Tour'', was made.", "There was also a pâtisserie.At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit.", "Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower.", "Gustave Eiffel described the collection of responses as \"truly curious\".Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison.", "Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition.", "Edison signed the guestbook with this message: Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.===Subsequent events===Lumière brothers, 1898Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years.", "It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris.", "The city had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for many innovations in the early 20th century, particularly radio telegraphy, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit, and from 1910 it also became part of the International Time Service.For the 1900 ''Exposition Universelle'', the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives-Lille.", "These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism as the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower.", "Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism.", "At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level.", "The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level.", "The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.Santos-Dumont No.", "5; 13 July 1901On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos-Dumont, flying his No.6 airship, won a 100,000-franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St.", "Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower.", "He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays.", "Two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 m) to demonstrate his parachute design.", "In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne.", "From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time.", "In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low-resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power.", "On 17 November, an improved 180-line transmitter was installed.cubist painting by Robert Delaunay (1911)On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig \"sold\" the tower for scrap metal.", "A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower.", "His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station.", "A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929.In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed.", "In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French.", "The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946.In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika-centered Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one.", "When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground.", "When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city.", "Von Choltitz disobeyed the order.", "On 25 August, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower.", "Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top.", "In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux.", "A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67.The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service.", "These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze.", "The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes.", "At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases.", "In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant.", "The Fives-Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986.The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts.", "The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil-filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system.", "A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984.In 1987, A. J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop.", "Hackett was arrested by the police.", "On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower.", "Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor.", "When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.The tower is the focal point for New Year's Eve and Bastille Day (as in this image from 2013) celebrations.For its \"Countdown to the Year 2000\" celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high-powered searchlights were installed on the tower.", "During the last three minutes of the year, the lights were turned on starting from the base of the tower and continuing to the top to welcome 2000 with a huge fireworks show.", "An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event.", "The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium on 31 December 2000.The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001.The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.The tower received its th guest on 28 November 2002.The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors per year since 2003.In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level.", "A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment." ], [ "Design", "===Material===The Eiffel Tower from belowThe puddle iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tonnes, and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tonnes.", "As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tonnes of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, on each side, to a depth of only assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic metre.", "Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 m × 125 m × 125 m) would contain tonnes of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself.", "Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.===Wind and weather considerations===Lightning striking the tower in 1902When it was built, many were shocked by the tower's daring form.", "Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering.", "However, Eiffel and his team – experienced bridge builders – understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them.", "In an interview with the newspaper ''Le Temps'' published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula.", "Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape.", "All parts of the tower were overdesigned to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces.", "The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework.", "In the years since it was completed, engineers have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design.", "The most recent, devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.The Eiffel Tower sways by up to in the wind.===Floors=======Ground floor====Base of the Eiffel TowerThe four columns of the tower each house access stairs and elevators to the first two floors, while at the south column only the elevator to the second floor restaurant is publicly accessible.====1st floor====Original restaurants at the 1st floor, as viewed from inside the towerThe first floor is publicly accessible by elevator or stairs.", "When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants – one French, one Russian and one Flemish — and an \"Anglo-American Bar\".", "After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250-seat theatre.", "Today there is the restaurant and other facilities.A promenade wide ran around the outside of the first level====2nd floor====The second floor is publicly accessible by elevator or stairs and has a restaurant called , a gourmet restaurant with its own lift going up from the south column to the second level.", "This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide.", "It was run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse from 2007 to 2017.As of May 2019, it is managed by three-star chef Frédéric Anton.", "It owes its name to the famous science-fiction writer Jules Verne.====3rd floor====The third floor is the top floor, publicly accessible by elevator.Originally there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.Gustave Eiffel's apartment at the third floorFrom 1937 until 1981, there was a restaurant near the top of the tower.", "It was removed due to structural considerations; engineers had determined it was too heavy and was causing the tower to sag.", "This restaurant was sold to an American restaurateur and transported to New York and then New Orleans.", "It was rebuilt on the edge of New Orleans' Garden District as a restaurant and later event hall.", "Today there is a champagne bar.===Lifts===The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower's history.", "Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level.", "The average journey time between levels is 1 minute.", "The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs.", "Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted.", "The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.The Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape lifts during construction.Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition.", "Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts clearly had to be the main means of ascent.Constructing lifts to reach the first level was relatively straightforward: the legs were wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs.", "Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached.", "Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car's weight.", "The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit.", "At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around diameter sprockets.", "Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.The Otis lifts originally fitted in the north and south legsInstalling lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible.", "No French company wanted to undertake the work.", "The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fair's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower.", "The deadline for bids was extended but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887.Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level.", "Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram long and in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of : this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves.", "Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated.", "The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level.", "After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg.", "This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux.", "A pair of hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level.", "One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car.", "Each car travelled only half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway.", "The 10-ton cars each held 65 passengers.===Engraved names===Names engraved on the towerGustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower.", "Eiffel chose this \"invocation of science\" because of his concern over the artists' protest.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986–87 by the , a company operating the tower.===Aesthetics===Some original architectural detailsThe tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky.", "It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as \"Eiffel Tower Brown\".", "In what is expected to be a temporary change, the tower is being painted gold in commemoration of the upcoming 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris.The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill-work arches, added in Sauvestre's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.A pop-culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower.", "In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.Eiffel Tower Drone===Maintenance===Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every seven years to prevent it from rusting.", "The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built.", "Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment." ], [ "Communications", "Top of the Eiffel Tower with antennasThe tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century.", "Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars.", "These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers.", "In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today.", "On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington County, Virginia.", "The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.===FM radio===FrequencykWService87.8 MHz10France Inter89.0 MHz10RFI Paris89.9 MHz6TSF Jazz90.4 MHz10Nostalgie90.9 MHz4Chante France===Digital television===A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by .", "Work carried out in 2000 added a further , giving the current height of .", "Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011.FrequencyVHFUHFkWService182.25 MHz6—100Canal+479.25 MHz—22500France 2503.25 MHz—25500TF1527.25 MHz—28500France 3543.25 MHz—30100France 5567.25 MHz—33100M6" ], [ "Dimensions", "Current dimensions of the tower===Height changes===The pinnacle height of the Eiffel Tower has changed multiple times over the years as described in the chart below.", "From To Height m Height ft Type of addition Remarks 1889 1956 312.27 1,025 Flagpole Architectural height of Tallest freestanding structure in the world until surpassed by the Chrysler Building in 1930.Tallest tower in the world until surpassed by the KCTV Broadcast Tower in 1956.1957 1991 320.75 1,052 Antenna Broadcast antenna added in 1957 which made it the tallest tower in the world until the Tokyo Tower was completed the following year in 1958.1991 1994 317.96 1,043 Antenna change 1994 2000 318.7 1,046 Antenna change 2000 2022 324 1,063 Antenna change 2022 Current 330 1,083 Antenna change Digital radio antenna hoisted on March 15, 2022." ], [ "Taller structures", "The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out.", "The tower also lost its standing as the world's tallest tower to the Tokyo Tower in 1958 but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.===Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower=== Name Pinnacle height Year Country Town Remarks Tokyo Skytree 2011 Japan Tokyo Kyiv TV Tower 1973 Ukraine Kyiv Dragon Tower 2000 China Harbin Tokyo Tower 1958 Japan Tokyo WITI TV Tower 1962 United States Shorewood, Wisconsin St. Petersburg TV Tower 1962 Russia Saint Petersburg ===Structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower=== Name Pinnacle height Year Structure type Town Remarks Longwave transmitter Allouis 1974 Guyed mast Allouis HWU transmitter 1971 Guyed mast Rosnay Military VLF transmitter; multiple masts Viaduc de Millau 2004 Bridge pillar Millau TV Mast Niort-Maisonnay 1978 Guyed mast Niort Transmitter Le Mans-Mayet 1993 Guyed mast Mayet La Regine transmitter 1973 Guyed mast Saissac Military VLF transmitter Transmitter Roumoules 1974 Guyed mast Roumoules Spare transmission mast for longwave; insulated against ground" ], [ "Tourism", "===Transport===The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir-Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars-Tour Eiffel.", "The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.Eiffel Tower seen from Branly Museum Garden===Popularity===Number of visitors per year between 1889 and 2004More than 300 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889.In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors.", "The tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world.", "An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day (which can result in long queues)." ], [ "Illumination copyright", "The Eiffel Tower illuminated in 2015The tower and its image have been in the public domain since 1993, 70 years after Eiffel's death.", "In June 1990 a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower's 100th anniversary was an \"original visual creation\" protected by copyright.", "The Court of Cassation, France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992.The (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright.", "As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use.", "For this reason, it is often rare to find images or videos of the lit tower at night on stock image sites, and media outlets rarely broadcast images or videos of it.The imposition of copyright has been controversial.", "The Director of Documentation for what was then called the (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: \"It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways of which we don't approve\".", "SNTE made over €1 million from copyright fees in 2002.However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.The copyright claim itself has never been tested in courts to date, according to a 2014 article in the ''Art Law Journal'', and there has never been an attempt to track down millions of people who have posted and shared their images of the illuminated tower on the Internet worldwide.", "It added, however, that permissive situation may arise on commercial use of such images, like in a magazine, on a film poster, or on product packaging.French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the ''de minimis'' rule.", "Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower." ], [ "Replicas", "Replica at the Paris Las Vegas Hotel, Nevada, United StatesAs one of the most famous landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers.", "An early example is Blackpool Tower in England.", "The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town.", "It opened in 1894 and is tall.", "Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower.There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half-scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1:3 scale models at Kings Island, located in Mason, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively.", "Two 1:3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.In 2011, the TV show ''Pricing the Priceless'' on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full-size replica of the tower would cost approximately US$480 million to build.", "This would be more than ten times the cost of the original (nearly 8 million in 1890 Francs; ~US$40 million in 2018 dollars)." ], [ "See also", "* List of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region* List of tallest buildings and structures* List of tourist attractions in Paris* List of tallest towers* List of tallest freestanding structures* List of tallest freestanding steel structures* List of tallest structures built before the 20th century* List of transmission sites* Lattice tower* ''Eiffel Tower'', 1909–1928 painting series by Robert Delaunay" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * List of radio services using today Eiffel Tower" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ethical egoism" ], [ "Introduction", "In ethical philosophy, '''ethical egoism''' is the normative position that moral agents ''ought'' to act in their own self-interest.", "It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people ''can only'' act in their self-interest.", "Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds that it is ''rational'' to act in one's self-interest.Ethical egoism holds, therefore, that actions whose consequences will benefit the doer are ethical.Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help others.", "Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and \"the self\" to a status not granted to others).", "But it also holds that one is not obligated to sacrifice one's own interests (as altruism does) to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e., one's own desires or well-being) are substantially equivalent to the others' interests and well-being, but they have the choice to do so.", "Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism, but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of consequentialism (i.e., subject-focused or subjective).", "However, utilitarianism is held to be agent-neutral (i.e., objective and impartial): it does not treat the subject's (i.e., the self's, i.e., the moral \"agent's\") own interests as being more or less important than the interests, desires, or well-being of others.Ethical egoism does not, however, require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation; e.g., what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others.", "Individualism allows for others' interest and well-being to be disregarded or not, as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent.", "Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that, in pursuing self-interest, one ought always to do what one wants to do; e.g., in the long term, the fulfillment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self.", "Fleeting pleasure, then, takes a back seat to protracted eudaimonia.", "In the words of James Rachels, \"Ethical egoism ... endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness.", "\"Ethical egoism is often used as the philosophical basis for support of right-libertarianism and individualist anarchism.", "These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action." ], [ "Forms", "Ethical egoism can be broadly divided into three categories: individual, personal, and universal.", "An ''individual ethical egoist'' would hold that all people should do whatever benefits \"my\" (''the individual's'')'' ''self-interest; a ''personal ethical egoist'' would hold that they should act in ''their'' self-interest, but would make no claims about what anyone else ought to do; a ''universal ethical egoist'' would argue that everyone should act in ways that are in their self-interest." ], [ "History", "Ethical egoism was introduced by the philosopher Henry Sidgwick in his book ''The Methods of Ethics'', written in 1874.Sidgwick compared egoism to the philosophy of utilitarianism, writing that whereas utilitarianism sought to maximize overall pleasure, egoism focused only on maximizing individual pleasure.Philosophers before Sidgwick have also retroactively been identified as ethical egoists.", "One ancient example is the philosophy of Yang Zhu (4th century BC), Yangism, who views ''wei wo'', or \"everything for myself\", as the only virtue necessary for self-cultivation.", "Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics were exponents of virtue ethics, and \"did not accept the formal principle that whatever the good is, we should seek only our own good, or prefer it to the good of others.\"", "However, the beliefs of the Cyrenaics have been referred to as a \"form of egoistic hedonism\", and while some refer to Epicurus' hedonism as a form of virtue ethics, others argue his ethics are more properly described as ethical egoism." ], [ "Justifications", "Philosopher James Rachels, in an essay that takes as its title the theory's name, outlines the three arguments most commonly touted in its favor:* \"The first argument,\" writes Rachels, \"has several variations, each suggesting the same general point: \"Each of us is intimately familiar with our own individual wants and needs.", "Moreover, each of us is uniquely placed to pursue those wants and needs effectively.", "At the same time, we know the desires and needs of others only imperfectly, and we are not well situated to pursue them.", "Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that if we set out to be 'our brother's keeper,' we would often bungle the job and end up doing more mischief than good.", "\" To give charity to someone is to degrade them, implying as it does that they are reliant on such munificence and quite unable to look out for themselves.", "\"That,\" reckons Rachels, \"is why the recipients of 'charity' are so often resentful rather than appreciative.", "\"* Altruism, ultimately, denies an individual's value and is therefore destructive both to society and its individual components, viewing life merely as a thing to be sacrificed.", "Philosopher Ayn Rand is quoted as writing that, \"if a man accepts the ethics of altruism, his first concern is not how to live his life but how to sacrifice it.\"", "Moreover, \"the basic principle of altruism is that man has no right to exist for his own sake, that service to others is the only justification for his existence, and that self-sacrifice is his highest moral duty, virtue or value.\"", "Rather, she writes, \"the purpose of morality is to teach you, not to suffer and die, but to enjoy yourself and live.", "\"* All of our commonly accepted moral duties, from doing no harm unto others to speaking always the truth to keeping promises, are rooted in the one fundamental principle of self-interest.", "* It has been observed, however, that the very act of eating (especially, when there are others starving in the world) is such an act of self-interested discrimination.", "Ethical egoists such as Rand who readily acknowledge the (conditional) value of others to an individual, and who readily endorse empathy for others, have argued the exact reverse from Rachels, that it is altruism which discriminates: \"If the sensation of eating a cake is a value, then why is it an immoral indulgence in your stomach, but a moral goal for you to achieve in the stomach of others?\"", "It is therefore altruism which is an arbitrary position, according to Rand." ], [ "Criticism", "It has been argued that extreme ethical egoism is self-defeating.", "Faced with a situation of limited resources, egoists would consume as much of the resource as they could, making the overall situation worse for everybody.", "Egoists may respond that if the situation becomes worse for everybody, that would include the egoist, so it is not, in fact, in their rational self-interest to take things to such extremes.", "However, the (unregulated) tragedy of the commons and the (one off) prisoner's dilemma are cases in which, on the one hand, it is rational for an individual to seek to take as much as possible ''even though'' that makes things worse for everybody, and on the other hand, those cases are not self-refuting since that behaviour remains rational ''even though'' it is ultimately self-defeating, i.e.", "self-defeating does not imply self-refuting.", "Egoists might respond that a tragedy of the commons, however, assumes some degree of public land.", "That is, a commons forbidding homesteading requires regulation.", "Thus, an argument against the tragedy of the commons, in this belief system, is fundamentally an argument for private property rights and the system that recognizes both property rights and rational self-interest—capitalism.", "More generally, egoists might say that an increasing respect for individual rights uniquely allows for increasing wealth creation and increasing usable resources despite a fixed amount of raw materials (e.g.", "the West pre-1776 versus post-1776, East versus West Germany, Hong Kong versus mainland China, North versus South Korea, etc.", ").It is not clear how to apply a private ownership model to many examples of \"commons\", however.", "Examples include large fisheries, the atmosphere and the ocean.Some perhaps decisive problems with ethical egoism have been pointed out.One is that an ethical egoist would not want ethical egoism to be universalized: as it would be in the egoist's best self-interest if others acted altruistically towards them, they wouldn't want them to act egoistically; however, that is what they consider to be morally binding.", "Their moral principles would demand of others not to follow them, which can be considered self-defeating and leads to the question: \"How can ethical egoism be considered morally binding if its advocates do not want it to be universally applied?", "\"Another objection (e.g.", "by James Rachels) states that the distinction ethical egoism makes between \"yourself\" and \"the rest\" – demanding to view the interests of \"yourself\" as more important – is arbitrary, as no justification for it can be offered; considering that the merits and desires of \"the rest\" are comparable to those of \"yourself\" while lacking a justifiable distinction, Rachels concludes that \"the rest\" should be given the same moral consideration as \"yourself\"." ], [ "Notable proponents", "The term ''ethical egoism'' has been applied retroactively to philosophers such as Bernard de Mandeville and to many other materialists of his generation, although none of them declared themselves to be egoists.", "Note that materialism does not necessarily imply egoism, as indicated by Karl Marx, and the many other materialists who espoused forms of collectivism.", "It has been argued that ethical egoism can lend itself to individualist anarchism such as that of Benjamin Tucker, or the combined anarcho-communism and egoism of Emma Goldman, both of whom were proponents of many egoist ideas put forward by Max Stirner.", "In this context, egoism is another way of describing the sense that the common good should be enjoyed by all.", "However, most notable anarchists in history have been less radical, retaining altruism and a sense of the importance of the individual that is appreciable but does not go as far as egoism.", "Recent trends to greater appreciation of egoism within anarchism tend to come from less classical directions such as post-left anarchy or Situationism (e.g.", "Raoul Vaneigem).", "Egoism has also been referenced by anarcho-capitalists, such as Murray Rothbard.Philosopher Max Stirner, in his book ''The Ego and Its Own'', was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, though his writing makes clear that he desired not a new idea of morality (ethical egoism), but rather a rejection of morality (amoralism), as a nonexistent and limiting \"spook\"; for this, Stirner has been described as the first individualist anarchist.", "Other philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes and David Gauthier, have argued that the conflicts which arise when people each pursue their own ends can be resolved for the best of each individual only if they all voluntarily forgo some of their aims—that is, one's self-interest is often best pursued by allowing others to pursue their self-interest as well so that liberty is equal among individuals.", "Sacrificing one's short-term self-interest to maximize one's long-term self-interest is one form of \"rational self-interest\" which is the idea behind most philosophers' advocacy of ethical egoism.", "Egoists have also argued that one's actual interests are not immediately obvious, and that the pursuit of self-interest involves more than merely the acquisition of some good, but the ''maximizing'' of one's chances of survival and/or happiness.Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that egoistic or \"life-affirming\" behavior stimulates jealousy or \"ressentiment\" in others, and that this is the psychological motive for the altruism in Christianity.", "Sociologist Helmut Schoeck similarly considered envy the motive of collective efforts by society to reduce the disproportionate gains of successful individuals through moral or legal constraints, with altruism being primary among these.", "In addition, Nietzsche (in ''Beyond Good and Evil'') and Alasdair MacIntyre (in ''After Virtue'') have pointed out that the ancient Greeks did not associate morality with altruism in the way that post-Christian Western civilization has done.Aristotle's view is that we have duties to ourselves as well as to other people (e.g.", "friends) and to the ''polis'' as a whole.", "The same is true for Thomas Aquinas, Christian Wolff and Immanuel Kant, who claim that there are duties to ourselves as Aristotle did, although it has been argued that, for Aristotle, the duty to one's self is primary.Ayn Rand argued that there is a positive harmony of interests among free, rational humans, such that no moral agent can rationally coerce another person consistently with their own long-term self-interest.", "Rand argued that other people are an enormous value to an individual's well-being (through education, trade and affection), but also that this value could be fully realized only under conditions of political and economic freedom.", "According to Rand, voluntary trade alone can assure that human interaction is ''mutually'' beneficial.", "Rand's student, Leonard Peikoff has argued that the identification of one's interests itself is impossible absent the use of principles, and that self-interest cannot be consistently pursued absent a consistent adherence to certain ethical principles.", "Recently, Rand's position has also been defended by such writers as Tara Smith, Tibor Machan, Allan Gotthelf, David Kelley, Douglas Rasmussen, Nathaniel Branden, Harry Binswanger, Andrew Bernstein, and Craig Biddle.Philosopher David L. Norton identified himself as an \"ethical individualist\", and, like Rand, saw a harmony between an individual's fidelity to their own self-actualization, or \"personal destiny\", and the achievement of society's well-being." ], [ "See also", "* Adam Smith and the invisible hand* Baruch Spinoza* Behavioral economics* Cārvāka, an egoistic Indian philosophy* Ethical solipsism* Helping behavior* Objectivism* Profit motive* Rational expectations" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* Aristotle, ''Nicomachean Ethics''.", "* Aristotle, ''Eudemian Ethics''.", "* * Baier, Kurt, 1990, \"Egoism\" in ''A Companion to Ethics'', Peter Singer (ed.", "), Blackwell: Oxford.", "* Biddle, Craig, ''Loving Life: The Morality of Self-Interest and the Facts that Support It'', 2002, Glen Allen.", "* Branden, Nathaniel, ''The Psychology of Self-Esteem'', 1969, Nash.", "* Hobbes, Thomas, 1968, ''Leviathan'', C. B. Macpherson (ed.", "), Harmondsworth: Penguin.", "* Machan, Tibor, ''Classical Individualism: The Supreme Importance of Each Human Being'', 1998, Routledge.", "* Nietzsche, Friedrich, 1886, ''Beyond Good and Evil''.", "* Norton, David, ''Personal Destinies: A Philosophy of Ethical Individualism'', 1976, Princeton University Press.", "* Paul, E. & F. Miller & J. Paul (1997).", "''Self-Interest''.", "Cambridge University Press* Peikoff, Leonard, \"Why Should One Act on Principle?,\" ''The Objectivist Forum'', 1988.", "* Rachels, James.", "2008, \"Ethical Egoism.\"", "In ''Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy'', edited by Joel Feinberg and Russ Shafer-Landau, 532–540.California: Thomson Wadsworth.", ".", "* Rand, Ayn, 1964, ''The Virtue of Selfishness''.", "Signet.", "* Rosenstand, Nina.", "2000.", "'Chapter 3: Myself or Others?'.", "In ''The Moral of the Story''.", "(3rd Edition).", "Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing: 127–167.", "* Schoeck, Helmut, ''Der Neid.", "Eine Theorie der Gesellschaft'' (''Envy: A Theory of Social Behaviour''), 1966, 1st English ed.", "1969.", "* Smith, Tara, ''Viable Values: A Study of Life as the Root and Reward of Morality'', 2000, Rowman & Littlefield.", ".", "* Smith, Tara, ''The Virtuous Egoist: Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics'', 2006, Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Waller, Bruce, N.", "2005.\"Egoism.\"", "In ''Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues''.", "New York: Pearson Longman: 79–83." ], [ "External links", "* * * Merriam-Webster Dictionary entry for ''egoism''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evolution" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Evolution''' is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.", "Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations.", "The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.The theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century as an explanation for why organisms are adapted to their physical and biological environments.", "The theory was first set out in detail in Darwin's book ''On the Origin of Species''.", "Evolution by natural selection is established by observable facts about living organisms: (1) more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive; (2) traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, physiology, and behaviour; (3) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness); and (4) traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).", "In successive generations, members of a population are therefore more likely to be replaced by the offspring of parents with favourable characteristics for that environment.In the early 20th century, competing ideas of evolution were refuted and evolution was combined with Mendelian inheritance and population genetics to give rise to modern evolutionary theory.", "In this synthesis the basis for heredity is in DNA molecules that pass information from generation to generation.", "The processes that change DNA in a population include natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow.All life on Earth—including humanity—shares a last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago.", "The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite to microbial mat fossils to fossilised multicellular organisms.", "Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species (speciation), changes within species (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth.", "Morphological and biochemical traits tend to be more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor, which historically was used to reconstruct phylogenetic trees, although direct comparison of genetic sequences is a more common method today.Evolutionary biologists have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing hypotheses as well as constructing theories based on evidence from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of mathematical and theoretical biology.", "Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of biology but also other fields including agriculture, medicine, and computer science." ], [ "Heredity", "DNA structure.", "Bases are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a double helix.Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable characteristics—the inherited characteristics of an organism.", "In humans, for example, eye colour is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the \"brown-eye trait\" from one of their parents.", "Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome (genetic material) is called its ''genotype''.The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its ''phenotype''.", "Some of these traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment while others are neutral.", "Some observable characteristics are not inherited.", "For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.", "The phenotype is the ability of the skin to tan when exposed to sunlight.", "However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.Heritable characteristics are passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information.", "DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.", "The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence.", "Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence.", "Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.", "Within cells, each long strand of DNA is called a chromosome.", "The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus.", "If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.", "DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles.", "If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.", "However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are influenced by multiple genes in a quantitative or epistatic manner." ], [ "Sources of variation", "Evolution can occur if there is genetic variation within a population.", "Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration between populations (gene flow).", "Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is very similar among all individuals of that species.", "However, discoveries in the field of evolutionary developmental biology have demonstrated that even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype both within and between species.An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the environment it has lived in.", "The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation.", "The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene.", "Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.=== Mutation ===Duplication of part of a chromosomeMutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are the ultimate source of genetic variation in all organisms.", "When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.", "About half of the mutations in the coding regions of protein-coding genes are deleterious — the other half are neutral.", "A small percentage of the total mutations in this region confer a fitness benefit.", "Some of the mutations in other parts of the genome are deleterious but the vast majority are neutral.", "A few are beneficial.Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming duplicated (usually by genetic recombination), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome.", "Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.", "This is important because most new genes evolve within gene families from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors.", "For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for colour vision and one for night vision; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene.New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.", "This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the redundancy of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function.", "Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed ''de novo'' gene birth.The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions (exon shuffling).", "When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, domains act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions.", "For example, polyketide synthases are large enzymes that make antibiotics; they contain up to 100 independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line.One example of mutation is wild boar piglets.", "They are camouflage coloured and show a characteristic pattern of dark and light longitudinal stripes.", "However, mutations in the ''melanocortin 1 receptor'' (''MC1R'') disrupt the pattern.", "The majority of pig breeds carry MC1R mutations disrupting wild-type colour and different mutations causing dominant black colouring.=== Sex and recombination ===In asexual organisms, genes are inherited together, or ''linked'', as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction.", "In contrast, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment.", "In a related process called homologous recombination, sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes.", "Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.", "Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.This diagram illustrates the ''twofold cost of sex''.", "If each individual were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two), ''(a)'' the sexual population remains the same size each generation, where the ''(b)'' Asexual reproduction population doubles in size each generation.The two-fold cost of sex was first described by John Maynard Smith.", "The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.", "This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many invertebrates.", "The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes.", "Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.", "The Red Queen hypothesis has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to coevolution with other species in an ever-changing environment.", "Another hypothesis is that sexual reproduction is primarily an adaptation for promoting accurate recombinational repair of damage in germline DNA, and that increased diversity is a byproduct of this process that may sometimes be adaptively beneficial.=== Gene flow ===Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species.", "It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species.", "Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of pollen between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations of grasses.Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.", "Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria.", "In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.", "Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' and the adzuki bean weevil ''Callosobruchus chinensis'' has occurred.", "An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi and plants.", "Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and bacteria, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.", "It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and archaea.=== Epigenetics ===Some heritable changes cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA.", "These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems.", "DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.", "Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalisation.", "Heritability may also occur at even larger scales.", "For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.", "This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations.", "Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and symbiogenesis." ], [ "Evolutionary forces", "Mutation followed by natural selection results in a population with darker colouration.From a neo-Darwinian perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms, for example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common.", "Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation bias.=== Natural selection ===Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population.", "It embodies three principles:* Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology, physiology and behaviour (phenotypic variation).", "* Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).", "* These traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction.", "Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.", "This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform.", "Consequences of selection include nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking.The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.", "Fitness is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation.", "However, fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism's genes.", "For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele has a higher probability of becoming common within the population.", "These traits are said to be \"selected ''for''.\"", "Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.", "Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele likely becoming rarer—they are \"selected ''against''.\"", "Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful.", "However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form.", "However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in dolphins, teeth in chickens, wings in wingless stick insects, tails and additional nipples in humans etc.", "\"Throwbacks\" such as these are known as atavisms.These charts depict the different types of genetic selection.", "On each graph, the x-axis variable is the type of phenotypic trait and the y-axis variable is the number of organisms.", "Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection.", "'''·''' Graph 1 shows directional selection, in which a single extreme phenotype is favoured.", "'''·''' Graph 2 depicts stabilizing selection, where the intermediate phenotype is favoured over the extreme traits.", "'''·''' Graph 3 shows disruptive selection, in which the extreme phenotypes are favoured over the intermediate.Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types.", "The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.", "Secondly, disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common, with selection against the average value.", "This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height.", "Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.", "This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive.", "\"Nature\" in this sense refers to an ecosystem, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, physical as well as biological, in their local environment.", "Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: \"Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system....\" Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct niche, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system.", "These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the food chain and its geographic range.", "This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation, such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species.", "Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously.", "An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called transposons, which can replicate and spread throughout a genome.", "Selection at a level above the individual, such as group selection, may allow the evolution of cooperation.=== Genetic drift ===fixation is more rapid in the smaller population.Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next.", "When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to ''drift'' upward or downward in each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error.", "This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or by replacing the other alleles entirely.", "Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone.", "Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.According to the neutral theory of molecular evolution most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift.", "In this model, most genetic changes in a population are thus the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift.", "This form of the neutral theory has been debated since it does not seem to fit some genetic variation seen in nature.", "A better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, according to which a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.", "Other theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft.", "Another concept is constructive neutral evolution (CNE), which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through neutral transitions due to the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting, and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the spliceosome to the complex interdependence of microbial communities.The time it takes a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size; fixation is more rapid in smaller populations.", "The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.", "The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest.", "The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift.", "The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research.=== Mutation bias ===Mutation bias is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias.", "This is related to the idea of developmental bias.", "Haldane and Fisher argued that, because mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation rates.", "This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.Noboru Sueoka and Ernst Freese proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species.", "The identification of a GC-biased ''E.", "coli'' mutator strain in 1967, along with the proposal of the neutral theory, established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature.For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.", "Such models also include effects of selection, following the mutation-selection-drift model, which allows both for mutation biases and differential selection based on effects on translation.", "Hypotheses of mutation bias have played an important role in the development of thinking about the evolution of genome composition, including isochores.", "Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.", "The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size.However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher.", "More recent work showed that the original \"pressures\" theory assumes that evolution is based on standing variation: when evolution depends on events of mutation that introduce new alleles, mutational and developmental biases in the introduction of variation (arrival biases) can impose biases on evolution without requiring neutral evolution or high mutation rates.Several studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common mutation biases though others dispute this interpretation.==== Genetic hitchhiking ====Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated.", "However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).", "As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as linkage.", "This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations, which is called their linkage disequilibrium.", "A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.", "This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft.", "Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size.==== Sexual selection ====Male moor frogs become blue during the height of mating season.", "Blue reflectance may be a form of intersexual communication.", "It is hypothesised that males with brighter blue coloration may signal greater sexual and genetic fitness.A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates.", "Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species.", "Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males.", "This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard-to-fake, sexually selected traits." ], [ "Natural outcomes", "A visual demonstration of rapid antibiotic resistance evolution by ''E.", "coli'' growing across a plate with increasing concentrations of trimethoprimEvolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms.", "Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection.", "These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding predators or attracting mates.", "Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis.", "In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed.", "These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as macroevolution versus microevolution.", "Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.", "Macroevolution the outcome of long periods of microevolution.", "Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one—the difference is simply the time involved.", "However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important.", "For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated.", "In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as species selection acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for \"progress\", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.", "Although complex species have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere.", "For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes, which form about half the world's biomass despite their small size, and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity.", "Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable.", "Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to evolutionary research, since their rapid reproduction allows the study of experimental evolution and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.=== Adaptation ===Homologous bones in the limbs of tetrapods.", "The bones of these animals have the same basic structure, but have been adapted for specific uses.Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat.", "Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.", "For example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass.", "By using the term ''adaptation'' for the evolutionary process and ''adaptive trait'' for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished.", "Adaptations are produced by natural selection.", "The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:# ''Adaptation'' is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.# ''Adaptedness'' is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.# An ''adaptive trait'' is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature.", "An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell.", "Other striking examples are the bacteria ''Escherichia coli'' evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, ''Flavobacterium'' evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium ''Sphingobium'' evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol.", "An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).A baleen whale skeleton.", "Letters ''a'' and ''b'' label flipper bones, which were adapted from front leg bones, while ''c'' indicates vestigial leg bones, both suggesting an adaptation from land to sea.Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures.", "Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms.", "This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways.", "The bones within bat wings, for example, are very similar to those in mice feet and primate hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor.", "However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures.", "Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species.", "Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.", "Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth, the coccyx, the vermiform appendix, and other behavioural vestiges such as goose bumps and primitive reflexes.However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process.", "One example is the African lizard ''Holaspis guentheri'', which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives.", "However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation.", "Within cells, molecular machines such as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions.", "Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations.", "This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features.", "These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.", "It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles.", "It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.=== Coevolution ===The common garter snake has evolved resistance to the defensive substance tetrodotoxin in its amphibian prey.Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation.", "When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a pathogen and a host, or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations.", "Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species.", "These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species.", "This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution.", "An example is the production of tetrodotoxin in the rough-skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the common garter snake.", "In this predator-prey pair, an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.=== Cooperation ===Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict.", "Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved.", "For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.", "This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis.", "Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system.Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved.", "An extreme case is the eusociality found in social insects, such as bees, termites and ants, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a colony that are able to reproduce.", "On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring.", "Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die.", "If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth causes cancer.Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of kin selection, which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring.", "This activity is selected for because if the ''helping'' individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will ''also'' contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on.", "Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.=== Speciation ===The four geographic modes of speciationSpeciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.There are multiple ways to define the concept of \"species.\"", "The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned.", "For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms.", "Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.", "The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach.", "Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that \"species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.\"", "Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like other species concepts is not without controversy, for example, because genetic recombination among prokaryotes is not an intrinsic aspect of reproduction; this is called the species problem.", "Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.Barriers to reproduction between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species.", "Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations.", "Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules.", "Such hybrids are generally infertile.", "In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.", "However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.", "The importance of hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature.", "In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence.", "There are four primary geographic modes of speciation.", "The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration.", "Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms.", "As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment.", "This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population.", "Here, the founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase in inbreeding increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.The third mode is parapatric speciation.", "This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations.", "Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations.", "Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat.", "One example is the grass ''Anthoxanthum odoratum'', which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines.", "Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil.", "Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation.", "Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause reinforcement, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as character displacement, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.Geographical isolation of finches on the Galápagos Islands produced over a dozen new species.Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat.", "This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.", "Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and nonrandom mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce a new hybrid species.", "This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.", "This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair.", "However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form polyploids.", "This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.", "An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' and ''Arabidopsis arenosa'' crossbred to give the new species ''Arabidopsis suecica''.", "This happened about 20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process.", "Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short \"bursts\" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged.", "In this theory, speciation and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations.", "As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.=== Extinction ===''Tyrannosaurus rex''.", "Non-avian dinosaurs died out in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period.Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species.", "Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction.", "Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.", "These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events.", "The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier Permian–Triassic extinction event was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction.", "The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years.", "Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century.", "Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event; global warming may further accelerate it in the future.", "Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of 1% described.The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered.", "The causes of the continuous \"low-level\" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the competitive exclusion principle).", "If one species can out-compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction.", "The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors." ], [ "Applications", "Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms.", "This has been used for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals.", "More recently, such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering, with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA.", "Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human genetic disorders.", "For example, the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution.", "Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.", "This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.Evolutionary theory has many applications in medicine.", "Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution.", "Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to pharmaceutical drugs.", "These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance.", "It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.In computer science, simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection.", "Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s.", "He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems.", "Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John Henry Holland.", "Practical applications also include automatic evolution of computer programmes.", "Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems." ], [ "Evolutionary history of life", "=== Origin of life ===The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.", "The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.", "Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia.", "Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as \"remains of biotic life\" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.", "Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote: \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe.\"", "In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.", "Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80% not yet described.Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed.", "The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions.", "The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.=== Common descent ===All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool.", "Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events.", "The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.", "Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities.", "Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits.", "Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.The hominoids are descendants of a common ancestor.Due to horizontal gene transfer, this \"tree of life\" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree, since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.", "To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the \"Coral of life\" as a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life.", "This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history.", "Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.", "By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species.", "However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth.", "Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms.", "For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids.", "The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations.", "For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.=== Evolution of life ===Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.", "No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years.", "The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.", "The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis.", "The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes.", "Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period.", "The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria.", "In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the Cambrian explosion.", "Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct.", "Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals.", "Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species.", "Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago (both from \"reptile\"-like lineages), mammals around 129 million years ago, Homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around 250,000 years ago.", "However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes." ], [ "History of evolutionary thought", "LucretiusAlfred Russel WallaceThomas Robert MalthusIn 1842, Charles Darwin penned his first sketch of ''On the Origin of Species''.=== Classical antiquity ===The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander and Empedocles.", "Such proposals survived into Roman times.", "The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork ''De rerum natura'' ().=== Middle Ages ===In contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism had considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms.", "This became part of a medieval teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order.", "Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the Middle Ages and were integrated into Christian learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one-for-one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.A number of Arab Muslim scholars wrote about evolution, most notably Ibn Khaldun, who wrote the book ''Muqaddimah'' in 1377 AD, in which he asserted that humans developed from \"the world of the monkeys\", in a process by which \"species become more numerous\".=== Pre-Darwinian ===The \"New Science\" of the 17th century rejected the Aristotelian approach.", "It sought to explain natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.", "However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences: the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types.", "John Ray applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, \"species\", to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation.", "The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.Other naturalists of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws.", "In 1751, Pierre Louis Maupertuis wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species.", "Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and Erasmus Darwin proposed that all warm-blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or \"filament\").", "The first full-fledged evolutionary scheme was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's \"transmutation\" theory of 1809, which envisaged spontaneous generation continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level, these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents.", "(The latter process was later called Lamarckism.)", "These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.", "In particular, Georges Cuvier insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs.", "In the meantime, Ray's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by William Paley into the ''Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity'' (1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin.=== Darwinian revolution ===The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in terms of variable populations.", "Darwin used the expression \"'''descent with modification'''\" rather than \"evolution\".", "Partly influenced by ''An Essay on the Principle of Population'' (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a \"struggle for existence\" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished.", "In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources.", "This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism.", "Darwin developed his theory of \"natural selection\" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his \"big book\" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858.Their separate papers were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the Linnean Society of London.", "At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his \"abstract\" as ''On the Origin of Species'' explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of Darwin's concepts of evolution at the expense of alternative theories.", "Thomas Henry Huxley applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using paleontology and comparative anatomy to provide strong evidence that humans and apes shared a common ancestry.", "Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the universe.=== Pangenesis and heredity ===The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery.", "Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.", "In 1865, Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements (later known as genes).", "Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory.", "August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) and the somatic cells of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only.", "Hugo de Vries connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cell's structure.", "De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline.", "To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.", "In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J.", "B. S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy.", "The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled.=== The 'modern synthesis' ===In the 1920s and 1930s, the modern synthesis connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that included random genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow.", "This new version of evolutionary theory focused on changes in allele frequencies in population.", "It explained patterns observed across species in populations, through fossil transitions in palaeontology.=== Further syntheses ===Since then, further syntheses have extended evolution's explanatory power in the light of numerous discoveries, to cover biological phenomena across the whole of the biological hierarchy from genes to populations.The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.", "Molecular biology improved understanding of the relationship between genotype and phenotype.", "Advances were also made in phylogenetic systematics, mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of evolutionary trees.", "In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that \"nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution\", because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.One extension, known as evolutionary developmental biology and informally called \"evo-devo,\" emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) act on patterns of change within individual organisms (development).", "Since the beginning of the 21st century, some biologists have argued for an extended evolutionary synthesis, which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes, such as epigenetics, parental effects, ecological inheritance and cultural inheritance, and evolvability." ], [ "Social and cultural responses", "As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s, caricatures of Charles Darwin with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution.In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution.", "Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists.", "However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some theists.While various religions and denominations have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as theistic evolution, there are creationists who believe that evolution is contradicted by the creation myths found in their religions and who raise various objections to evolution.", "As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of ''Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation'' in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of human evolution that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and moral faculties of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals.", "In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education.", "While other scientific fields such as cosmology and Earth science also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists.The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century.", "The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 ''Epperson v. Arkansas'' decision.", "Since then, the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in pseudoscientific form as intelligent design (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District'' case.", "The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China." ], [ "See also", "" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * * * * The notebook is available from The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online .", "Retrieved 2019-10-09.", "* The book is available from The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online .", "Retrieved 2014-11-21.", "* * * * * * * * * * \"Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, 2002.", "\"* * * * * * * * * * * .", "Retrieved 2014-11-29.", "* * * * * * \"Papers from the Symposium on the Limits of Reductionism in Biology, held at the Novartis Foundation, London, May 13–15, 1997.", "\"* * * * * * \"Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989\"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", ";Introductory reading * * * * ** American version.", "* * * ;Advanced reading* * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " ;General information * * * * Adobe Flash required.", "* \" History of Evolution in the United States\".", "Salon (Retrieved 2021-08-24)* ;Experiments* * ;Online lectures* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ernst Mayr" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernst Walter Mayr''' (; 5 July 1904 – 3 February 2005) was a German-American evolutionary biologist.", "He was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, philosopher of biology, and historian of science.", "His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept.Although Charles Darwin and others posited that multiple species could evolve from a single common ancestor, the mechanism by which this occurred was not understood, creating the ''species problem''.", "Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for species.", "In his book ''Systematics and the Origin of Species'' (1942) he wrote that a species is not just a group of morphologically similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others.", "When populations within a species become isolated by geography, feeding strategy, mate choice, or other means, they may start to differ from other populations through genetic drift and natural selection, and over time may evolve into new species.", "The most significant and rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated (as on islands).His theory of peripatric speciation (a more precise form of allopatric speciation which he advanced), based on his work on birds, is still considered a leading mode of speciation, and was the theoretical underpinning for the theory of punctuated equilibrium, proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould.", "Mayr is sometimes credited with inventing modern philosophy of biology, particularly the part related to evolutionary biology, which he distinguished from physics due to its introduction of (natural) history into science." ], [ "Biography", "Berlin's Natural History MuseumMayr was the second son of Helene Pusinelli and Otto Mayr.", "His father was a district prosecuting attorney at Würzburg but took an interest in natural history and took the children out on field trips.", "Mayr learnt all the local birds in Würzburg from his elder brother Otto.", "He also had access to a natural history magazine for amateurs, ''Kosmos''.", "His father died just before he was thirteen.", "The family then moved to Dresden, where he studied at the Staatsgymnasium in Dresden-Neustadt and completed his high school education.", "In April 1922, while still in high school, he joined the newly founded Saxony Ornithologists' Association.", "There he met Rudolf Zimmermann, who became his ornithological mentor.", "In February 1923, Mayr passed his high school examination (Abitur) and his mother rewarded him with a pair of binoculars.On 23 March 1923 on one of the lakes of Moritzburg, the Frauenteich, he spotted what he identified as a red-crested pochard.", "The species had not been seen in Saxony since 1845 and the local club argued about the identity.", "Raimund Schelcher (1891–1979) of the club then suggested that Mayr visit his classmate Erwin Stresemann on his way to Greifswald, where Mayr was to begin his medical studies.", "After a tough interrogation, Stresemann accepted and published the sighting as authentic.", "Stresemann was very impressed and suggested that, between semesters, Mayr could work as a volunteer in the ornithological section of the museum.", "Mayr wrote about this event, \"It was as if someone had given me the key to heaven.\"", "He entered the University of Greifswald in 1923 and, according to Mayr himself, \"took the medical curriculum (to satisfy a family tradition) but after only a year, he decided to leave medicine and enrolled at the Faculty of Biological Sciences.\"", "Mayr was endlessly interested in ornithology and \"chose Greifswald at the Baltic for my studies for no other reason than that ... it was situated in the ornithologically most interesting area.\"", "Although he ostensibly planned to become a physician, he was \"first and foremost an ornithologist.\"", "During the first semester break Stresemann gave him a test to identify treecreepers and Mayr was able to identify most of the specimens correctly.", "Stresemann declared that Mayr \"was a born systematist\".", "In 1925, Stresemann suggested that he give up his medical studies, in fact he should leave the faculty of medicine and enrol into the faculty of Biology and then join the Berlin Museum with the prospect of bird-collecting trips to the tropics, on the condition that he completed his doctoral studies in 16 months.", "Mayr completed his doctorate in ornithology at the University of Berlin under Dr. Carl Zimmer, who was a full professor (Ordentlicher Professor), on 24 June 1926 at the age of 21.On 1 July he accepted the position offered to him at the museum for a monthly salary of 330.54 Reichsmark.At the International Zoological Congress at Budapest in 1927, Mayr was introduced by Stresemann to banker and naturalist Walter Rothschild, who asked him to undertake an expedition to New Guinea on behalf of himself and the American Museum of Natural History in New York.", "In New Guinea, Mayr collected several thousand bird skins (he named 26 new bird species during his lifetime) and, in the process also named 38 new orchid species.", "During his stay in New Guinea, he was invited to accompany the Whitney South Sea Expedition to the Solomon Islands.", "Also, while in New Guinea, he visited the Lutheran missionaries Otto Thiele and Christian Keyser, in the Finschhafen district; there, while in conversation with his hosts, he uncovered the discrepancies in Hermann Detzner's popular book ''Four Years among Cannibals: New Guinea'', in which Detzner claimed to have seen the interior, discovered several species of flora and fauna, while remaining only steps ahead of the Australian patrols sent to capture him.", "He returned to Germany in 1930.Mayr moved to the United States in 1931 to take up a curatorial position at the American Museum of Natural History, where he played the important role of brokering and acquiring the Walter Rothschild collection of bird skins, which was being sold in order to pay off a blackmailer.", "During his time at the museum he produced numerous publications on bird taxonomy, and in 1942 his first book ''Systematics and the Origin of Species'', which completed the evolutionary synthesis started by Darwin.After Mayr was appointed at the American Museum of Natural History, he influenced American ornithological research by mentoring young birdwatchers.", "Mayr was surprised at the differences between American and German birding societies.", "He noted that the German society was \"far more scientific, far more interested in life histories and breeding bird species, as well as in reports on recent literature.", "\"Mayr organized a monthly seminar under the auspices of the Linnean Society of New York.", "Under the influence of J.A.", "Allen, Frank Chapman, and Jonathan Dwight, the society concentrated on taxonomy and later became a clearing house for bird banding and sight records.Mayr encouraged his Linnaean Society seminar participants to take up a specific research project of their own.", "Under Mayr's influence one of them, Joseph Hickey, went on to write ''A Guide to Birdwatching'' (1943).", "Hickey remembered later, \"Mayr was our age and invited on all our field trips.", "The heckling of this German foreigner was tremendous, but he gave tit for tat, and any modern picture of Dr E. Mayr as a very formal person does not square with my memory of the 1930s.", "He held his own.\"", "A group of eight young birdwatchers from The Bronx later became the Bronx County Bird Club, led by Ludlow Griscom.", "\"Everyone should have a problem\" was the way one Bronx County Bird Club member recalled Mayr's refrain.", "Mayr said of his own involvement with the local birdwatchers: \"In those early years in New York when I was a stranger in a big city, it was the companionship and later friendship which I was offered in the Linnean Society that was the most important thing in my life.", "\"Mayr also greatly influenced the American ornithologist Margaret Morse Nice.", "Mayr encouraged her to correspond with European ornithologists and helped her in her landmark study on song sparrows.", "Nice wrote to Joseph Grinnell in 1932, trying to get foreign literature reviewed in the ''Condor'': \"Too many American ornithologists have despised the study of the living bird; the magazines and books that deal with the subject abound in careless statements, anthropomorphic interpretations, repetition of ancient errors, and sweeping conclusions from a pitiful array of facts.", "... in Europe the study of the living bird is taken seriously.", "We could learn a great deal from their writing.\"", "Mayr ensured that Nice could publish her two-volume ''Studies in the Life History of the Song Sparrow''.", "He found her a publisher, and her book was reviewed by Aldo Leopold, Joseph Grinnell, and Jean Delacour.", "Nice dedicated her book to \"My Friend Ernst Mayr.", "\"Mayr joined the faculty of Harvard University in 1953, where he also served as director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1961 to 1970.He retired in 1975 as emeritus professor of zoology, showered with honors.", "Following his retirement, he went on to publish more than 200 articles, in a variety of journals—more than some reputable scientists publish in their entire careers; 14 of his 25 books were published after he was 65.Even as a centenarian, he continued to write books.", "On his 100th birthday, he was interviewed by ''Scientific American'' magazine.Mayr died on 3 February 2005 in his retirement home in Bedford, Massachusetts, after a short illness.", "He had married fellow German Margarete \"Gretel\" Simon in May 1935 (they had met at a party in Manhattan in 1932), and she assisted Mayr in some of his work.Margarete died in 1990.He was survived by two daughters (Christa Menzel and Susanne Harrison), five grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren.The awards that Mayr received include the National Medal of Science, the Balzan Prize, the Sarton Medal of the History of Science Society, the International Prize for Biology, the Loye and Alden Miller Research Award, and the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science.", "In 1939 he was elected a Corresponding Member of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union.", "He was awarded the 1946 Leidy Award from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.", "He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958 and the Linnaean Society of New York's inaugural Eisenmann Medal in 1983.For his work, ''Animal Species and Evolution'', he was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1967.Mayr was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1988.In 1995 he received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society, of which he was already a member.Mayr never won a Nobel Prize, but he noted that there is no prize for evolutionary biology and that Darwin would not have received one, either.", "(In fact, there is no Nobel Prize for biology.)", "Mayr did win a 1999 Crafoord Prize.", "It honors basic research in fields that do not qualify for Nobel Prizes and is administered by the same organization as the Nobel Prize.", "In 2001, Mayr received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.Mayr was co-author of six global reviews of bird species new to science (listed below).Mayr said he was an atheist in regards to \"the idea of a personal God\" because \"there is nothing that supports it\"." ], [ "Ideas", "As a traditionally-trained biologist, Mayr was often highly critical of early mathematical approaches to evolution, such as those of J.B.S.", "Haldane, and famously called such approaches \"beanbag genetics\" in 1959.He maintained that factors such as reproductive isolation had to be taken into account.", "In a similar fashion, Mayr was also quite critical of molecular evolution studies such as those of Carl Woese.", "Current molecular studies in evolution and speciation indicate that although allopatric speciation is the norm, there are numerous cases of sympatric speciation in groups with greater mobility, such as birds.", "The precise mechanisms of sympatric speciation, however, are usually a form of microallopatry enabled by variations in niche occupancy among individuals within a population.In many of his writings, Mayr rejected reductionism in evolutionary biology, arguing that evolutionary pressures act on the whole organism, not on single genes, and that genes can have different effects depending on the other genes present.", "He advocated a study of the whole genome, rather than of only isolated genes.", "After articulating the biological species concept in 1942, Mayr played a central role in the species problem debate over what was the best species concept.", "He staunchly defended the biological species concept against the many definitions of \"species\" that others proposed.Mayr was an outspoken defender of the scientific method and was known to critique sharply science on the edge.", "As a notable example, in 1995, he criticized the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI), as conducted by fellow Harvard professor Paul Horowitz, as being a waste of university and student resources for its inability to address and answer a scientific question.", "Over 60 eminent scientists, led by Carl Sagan, rebutted the criticism.Mayr rejected the idea of a gene-centered view of evolution and starkly but politely criticised Richard Dawkins's ideas:Mayr insisted that the entire genome should be considered as the target of selection, rather than individual genes:===Currently recognised taxa named in his honour===* '''Bismarck black myzomela''' (''Myzomela psammelaena ernstmayri'') Meise, 1929 - a subspecies of bird, a honeyeater, family Meliphagidae, confined to several small islands to the west of the Admiralty Islands, in western Oceania, northeast of New Guinea.", "* '''Mayr's forest rail''' (''Rallicula mayri'') (Hartert, 1930) - a species of bird found in New Guinea.", "* '''Mayr's honeyeater''' (''Ptiloprora mayri'') Hartert, 1930 - a species of bird found in New Guinea.", "* '''Mayr's swiftlet''' (''Aerodramus orientalis'') (Mayr, 1935) - a species of bird found in New Ireland and Guadalcanal.", "* '''Ernst Mayr's water rat''' (''Leptomys ernstmayri'') Rümmler, 1932 - a species of rodent, of the family Muridae, from the Foja Mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia, and Central Cordillera, Adelbert Range, and Huon Peninsula of Papua New Guinea.", "* a roundworm - ''Poikilolaimus ernstmayri'' Sudhaus & Koch, 2004 - a new species of nematode, family Rhabditidae, associated with termites of the genus Reticulitermes, on Corsica.", "* '''New Ireland rail''' (''Gallirallus ernstmayri'') † (Kirchman & Steadman, 2006) - a relatively large, probably flightless, extinct rail, family Rallidae, known from subfossil remains found on prehistoric archeological sites, in caves on New Ireland, in the Bismarck Archipelago, western Oceania.", ")* '''Star Mountains worm-eating snake''' (''Toxicocalamus ernstmayri'') O'Shea, Parker & Kaiser, 2015 - a 1.2 m, rare and secretive, venomous snake from the family Elapidae, believed to feed exclusively of earthworms, particularly the giant earthworms of the Megascolecidae.", "The etymology reads: The species name ''ernstmayri'' is a patronym honoring the German-American ornithologist, systematist, and evolutionary thinker Ernst Mayr (1904–2005).", "There are several connections linking Ernst Mayr to this new species of ''Toxicocalamus'', which make him, and this snake, the ideal candidates for a patronym.", "First, Mayr himself visited New Guinea, and during the late 1920s he spent over 2 years conducting fieldwork in an area now part of PNG, as a member of a joint Rothschild–AMNH expedition focusing on birds of paradise (Aves, Passeriformes, Paradisaeidae), during which he collected many new bird and orchid species.", "Second, the holotype of ''T.", "ernstmayri'' has been housed in the MCZ collection, mislabeled as ''Micropechis ikaheka'', after having arrived and been accessioned in June 1975, the month and year that Mayr retired.", "Third, the true identity of this specimen was recognized by one of us (MOS) during a visit to the MCZ in May 2014, undertaken with the financial support of an Ernst Mayr Travel Grant from Harvard University, awarded to enable examination of the ''Toxicocalamus'' holdings at the MCZ and the AMNH, the two U.S. institutions where Mayr worked.", "Finally, 2015, the publication year of this description, marks the decennial of Mayr's passing at age 100, and naming a New Guinea snake after him seems a suitable tribute.", "* an assassin bug - ''Bagauda ernstmayri'' Kulkarni & Ghate, 2016 - a species of cavernicolous, thread-legged assassin bug, known only from Satara, in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State, India.", "* a genus of pseudoscorpions - ''Ernstmayria'' Curcic et al., 2006* a species of spider - ''Cebrennus mayri'' Jäger, 2000* a species of damselfly - ''Palaiargia ernstmayri'' Lieftinck, 1972* a species of bird lice - ''Anaticola ernstmayri'' Eichler, 1954* a species of earwig - ''Irdex ernstmayri'' Günther, 1930" ], [ "Summary of Darwin's theory", "Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them, which Mayr summarised as follows::* Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce, the population would grow (fact).", ":* Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size (fact).", ":* Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time (fact).", ":* Struggle for survival ensues (inference).", ":* Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another (fact).", ":* Much of the variation is heritable (fact).", ":* Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of natural selection (fact).", ":* This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species (inference).In relation to the publication of Darwin's ''Origins of Species'', Mayr identified philosophical implications of evolution::* Evolving world, not a static one.", ":* Implausibility of creationism.", ":* Refutation that the universe has purpose.", ":* Defeating the justifications for a human-centric world.", ":* Materialistic processes explain the impression of design.", ":* Population thinking replaces essentialism." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Global reviews of species new to science===* * * * * * ===Other notable publications===1923 \" Die Kolbenente (''Nyroca rufina'') auf dem Durchzuge in Sachsen\".", "''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 31:135–1361923 \"Der Zwergfliegenschnäpper bei Greifswald\".", "''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 31:1361926 \"Die Ausbreitung des Girlitz (''Serinus canaria serinus'' L.) Ein Beitrag zur Tiergeographie\".", "''J.", "für Ornithologie'' 74:571–6711927 \"Die Schneefinken (Gattungen ''Montifringilla'' und ''Leucosticte'')\" ''J.", "für Ornithologie'' 75:596–6191929 with W Meise.", "''Zeitschriftenverzeichnis des Museums für Naturkunde Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin'' 14:1–1871930 (by Ernst Hartert) \"List of birds collected by Ernst Mayr\".", "''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 36:27–1281930 \"My Dutch New Guinea Expedition\".", "1928.", "''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 36:20–261931 ''Die Vögel des Saruwaged und Herzoggebirges (NO Neuginea) Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin'' 17:639–7231931 \"Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition.", "XII Notes on ''Halcyon chloris'' and some of its subspecies\".", "''American Museum Novitates'' no 4691932 \"A tenderfoot explorer in New Guinea\" ''Natural History'' 32:83–971935 \"Bernard Altum and the territory theory\".", "''Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New York'' 45, 46:24–38 1938 ''Birds of the Crane Pacific expedition'', Ernst Mayr and Sidney Camras, Zoological Series of the Field Museum of Natural History, Volume XX, No.", "34.", "1940 \"Speciation phenomena in birds\".", "''American Naturalist'' 74:249–2781941 \"Borders and subdivision of the Polynesian region as based on our knowledge of the distribution of birds\".", "''Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress'' 4:191–1951941 \"The origin and history of the bird fauna of Polynesia\".", "''Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress'' 4:197–2161943 \"A journey to the Solomons\".", "''Natural History'' 52:30–37,481944 \"Wallace's Line in the light of recent zoogeographics studies\".", "''Quarterly Review of Biology'' 19:1–141944 \"The birds of Timor and Sumba\".", "''Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History'' 83:123–1941944 \"Timor and the colonization of Australia by birds\".", "''Emu'' 44:113–1301946 \"History of the North American bird fauna\" ''Wilson Bulletin'' 58:3–411946 \"The naturalist in Leidy's time and today\".", "''Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia'' 98:271–2761947 \"Ecological factors in speciation\".", "''Evolution'' 1:263–2881948 \"The new Sanford Hall\".", "''Natural History'' 57:248–2541950 ''The role of the antennae in the mating behavior of female Drosophila''.", "Evolution 4:149–1541951 ''Introduction and Conclusion.", "Pages 85,255–258 in The problem of land connections across the South Atlantic with special reference to the Mesozoic''.", "Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 99:79–2581951 with Dean Amadon, \"A classification of recent birds\".", "''American Museum Novitates'' no.", "14961953 with E G Linsley and R L Usinger.", "''Methods and Principles of Systematica Zoology''.", "McGraw-Hill, New York.", "1954 \"Changes in genetic environment and evolution\".", "Pages 157–180 in ''Evolution as a Process'' (J Huxley, A C Hardy and E B Ford Eds) Allen and Unwin.", "London1955 \"Karl Jordan's contribution to current concepts in systematics and evolution\".", "''Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London'' 107:45–661956 with C B Rosen.", "\"Geographic variation and hybridization in populations of Bahama snails (''Cerion'')\".", "''American Museum Novitates'' no 1806.", "1957 \"Species concepts and definitions\".", "Pages 371–388 in ''The Species Problem'' (E. Mayr ed).", "AAAS, Washington DC.", "1959 \"The emergence of evolutionary novelties\".", "Pages 349–380 in ''The Evolution of Life: Evolution after Darwin, vol 1'' (S. Tax, ed) University of Chicago.", "1959 \"Darwin and the evolutionary theory in Biology\".", "Pages 1–10 in ''Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Appraisal'' (B J Meggers, Ed) The Anthropological Society of Washington, Washington DC.", "1959 \"Agassiz, Darwin, and Evolution\".", "''Harvard Library Bulletin''.", "13:165–1941961 \"Cause and effect in biology: Kinds of causes, predictability, and teleology are viewed by a practicing biologist\".", "''Science'' 134:1501–15061962 \"Accident or design: The paradox of evolution\".", "Pages 1–14 in ''The Evolution of Living Organisms'' (G W Leeper, Ed) Melbourne University Press.", "1964 Introduction, Bibliography and Subject Pages vii–xxviii, 491–513 in ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, by Charles Darwin''.", "A Facsimile of the First Edition.", "Harvard University Press.", "1965 ''Comments.", "In Proceedings of the Boston Colloguium for the Philosophy of Science, 1962–1964''.", "Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 2:151–1561969 ''Discussion: Footnotes on the philosophy of biology''.", "Philosophy of Science 36:197–2021972 ''Continental drift and the history of the Australian bird fauna''.", "Emu 72:26–281972 ''Geography and ecology as faunal determinants''.", "Pages 549–561 in Proceedings XVth International Ornithological Congress (K H Voous, Ed) E J Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.", "1972 ''Lamarck revisited''.", "Journal of the History of Biology.", "5:55–941974 '' Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis''.", "Boston studies in the Philosophy of Science 14:91–1171978 ''Tenure: A sacred cow?''", "Science 199:12931980 ''How I became a Darwinian, Pages 413–423 in The Evolutionary Synthesis'' (E Mayr and W Provine, Eds) Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "1980 with W B Provine, Eds.", "''The Evolutionary Synthesis''.", "Harvard University Press.", "1981 ''Evolutionary biology.", "Pages 147–162 in The Joys of Research'' (W. Shripshire Jr, Ed.)", "Smithsonian Institution Press.", "1984 ''Evolution and ethics.", "Pages 35–46 in Darwin, Mars and Freud: Their influence on Moral Theory'' (A L Caplan and B Jennings, Eds.)", "Plenum Press, New York.", "1985.Darwin's five theories of evolution.", "In D. Kohn, ed., ''The Darwinian Heritage'', Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 755–772.", "1985.How biology differs from the physical sciences.", "In D. J. Depew and B H Weber, eds., ''Evolution at a Crossroads: The New Biology and the New Philosophy of Science'', Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, pp. 43–63.", "1988.The why and how of species.", "''Biology and Philosophy'' 3:431–4411992.The idea of teleology.", "''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 53:117–1351994.with W.J.", "Bock.", "Provisional classifications v. standard avian sequences: heuristics and communication in ornithology.", "''Ibis'' 136:12–181996.What is a species, and what is not?", "''Philosophy of Science'' 63 (June): 262–277.", "1996.The autonomy of biology: the position of biology among the sciences.", "''Quarterly Review of Biology'' 71:97–1061997.The objects of selection ''Proc.", "Natl.", "Acad.", "Sci.", "USA'' 94 (March): 2091–94.", "1999.Darwin's influence on modern thought Crafoord Prize lecture, September 23, 1999.", "2000.Biology in the Twenty-First Century ''Bioscience'' 50 (Oct. 2000): 895–897.2001.", "2002.with Walter J Bock.", "Classifications and other ordering systems.", "''Zeitschrift Zool.", "Syst.", "Evolut-Forsch''.", "40:1–25" ], [ "See also", "* American philosophy* Biosemiotics* Evolution* List of American philosophers* List of centenarians (scientists and mathematicians)* Species Problem* Philosophy of biology* Proximate and ultimate causation" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===; Works cited* * Reprint of 1980 edition (Mayr and William B. Provine, eds.)", "with new preface." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Ernst Mayr Biography and Interview on American Academy of Achievement* Ernst Mayr telling his life story at Web of Stories* \"80 Years of Watching the Evolutionary Scenery\" – by Ernst Mayr, ''Science''.", "* Mayr on Eldredge and Gould's punctuated equilibria .", "* Ernst Mayr obituary in the Times* Ernst Mayr obituary in the Economist* Ernst Mayr and the Evolutionary Synthesis** Interview" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Europe''' is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere.", "It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east.", "Europe shares the landmass of Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Asia and Africa.", "Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the waterways of the Turkish straits.Europe covers about , or 2% of Earth's surface (6.8% of land area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the seven-continent model).", "Politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population.", "Europe had a total population of about million (about 10% of the world population) in ; the third-largest after Asia and Africa.", "The European climate is affected by warm Atlantic currents, such as the Gulf Stream, which produce a temperate climate, tempering winters and summers, on much of the continent.", "Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable producing more continental climates.European culture consists of a range of national and regional cultures, which form the central roots of the wider Western civilisation, and together commonly reference ancient Greece and ancient Rome, particularly through their Christian successors, as crucial and shared roots.", "Beginning with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Christian consolidation of Europe in the wake of the Migration Period marked the European post-classical Middle Ages.", "After a renewal of access to and interest in historic and non-Christian knowledge and views the Italian Renaissance, radiating from Florence, spread to the rest of the continent a new humanist interest in art and science.", "Since the Age of Discovery, led by Spain and Portugal, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with multiple explorations and conquests around the world.Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of Asia.The Age of Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century.", "The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural and social change in Western Europe and eventually the wider world.", "Both world wars began and were fought to a great extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence and competed over dominance in Europe and globally.", "The resulting Cold War divided Europe along the Iron Curtain, with NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East.", "This divide ended with the Revolutions of 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which allowed European integration to advance significantly.European integration is being advanced institutionally since 1948 with the founding of the Council of Europe, and significantly through the realization of the European Union (EU), which represents today the majority of Europe.", "The European Union is a supranational political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation and is based on a system of European treaties.", "The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.A majority of its members have adopted a common currency, the euro, and participate in the European single market and a customs union.", "A large bloc of countries, the Schengen Area, have also abolished internal border and immigration controls.", "Regular popular elections take place every five years within the EU; they are considered to be the second-largest democratic elections in the world after India's.", "The EU is the third largest economy in the world." ], [ "Name", "map of the world according to Anaximander (6th century BCE)The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their northernmost province, which bears the same name today.", "The principal river there – Evros (today's Maritsa) – flows through the fertile valleys of Thrace.In classical Greek mythology, Europa (, ) was a Phoenician princess.", "One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements () 'wide, broad', and (, , ) 'eye, face, countenance', hence their composite would mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad of aspect'.", "''Broad'' has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it.", "An alternative view is that of Robert Beekes, who has argued in favour of a Pre-Indo-European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from would yield a different toponym than Europa.", "Beekes has located toponyms related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in ancient Macedonia.There have been attempts to connect to a Semitic term for ''west'', this being either Akkadian meaning 'to go down, set' (said of the sun) or Phoenician 'evening, west', which is at the origin of Arabic and Hebrew .", "Martin Litchfield West stated that \"phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor\", while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages improbable.Most major world languages use words derived from or ''Europa'' to refer to the continent.", "Chinese, for example, uses the word (/), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name () ( means \"continent\"); a similar Chinese-derived term is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, , despite the katakana being more commonly used.", "In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name ('land of the Franks') is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as or ." ], [ "Definition", "===Contemporary definition===Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries '''Key:''' '''blue''': states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia;'''green''': countries not geographically in Europe, but closely associated with the continentThe prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century.Europe is taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-east are usually taken to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the south-east, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.Definitions used for the boundary between Asia and Europe in different periods of history.A medieval T and O map printed by Günther Zainer in 1472, showing the three continents as domains of the sons of Noah – Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth) and Africa to Cham (Ham)Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America, although politically belonging to Denmark.", "Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences.", "Cyprus is closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically and it is a member state of the EU.", "Malta was considered an island of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well.", "\"Europe\", as used specifically in British English, may also refer to Continental Europe exclusively.The term \"continent\" usually implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or almost completely surrounded by water at its borders.", "Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity, but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges.", "Cartographer Herman Moll suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly-joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits, and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the Arctic Ocean.", "In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term \"continent\".The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line.", "The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water.", "Turkey is generally considered a transcontinental country divided entirely by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly divided by waterways.", "France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other continents separated from Europe by large bodies of water.", "Spain, for example, has territories south of the Mediterranean Sea—namely, Ceuta and Melilla—which are parts of Africa and share a border with Morocco.", "According to the current convention, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents.===History of the concept=======Early history====Depiction of ''270x270pxThe first recorded usage of ''Eurṓpē'' as a geographic term is in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in reference to the western shore of the Aegean Sea.", "As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BCE by Anaximander and Hecataeus.", "Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni River on the territory of Georgia) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE.", "Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts—Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the Nile and the Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia.", "Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer Strabo at the River Don.", "The ''Book of Jubilees'' described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it from Northwest Africa, to the Don, separating it from Asia.The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy, who took the Tanais (the modern Don River) as the boundary.The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of continental divisions.", "However, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the culture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of \"Europe\".", "The term \"Europe\" is first used for a cultural sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.", "From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world.A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy.", "The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance: ''Europa'' often figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar, Alcuin.", "The transition of Europe to being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of Europe being affected by cultural considerations in the East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman, and Russian influence.", "Such questions were affected by the positive connotations associated with the term Europe by its users.", "Such cultural considerations were not applied to the Americas, despite their conquest and settlement by European states.", "Instead, the concept of \"Western civilization\" emerged as a way of grouping together Europe and these colonies.====Modern definitions====''A New Map of Europe According to the Newest Observations'' (1721) by Hermann Moll draws the eastern boundary of Europe along the Don River flowing south-west and the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers flowing north.1916 political map of Europe showing most of Moll's waterways replaced by von Strahlenberg's Ural Mountains and Freshfield's Caucasus Crest, land features of a type that normally defines a subcontinentThe question of defining a precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in the Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of Muscovy began to include North Asia.", "Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and the Don (ancient Tanais).", "But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers.Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern part of the Ob River and the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the Ob, as components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the boundary between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all the way to the Arctic Ocean.", "In 1721, he produced a more up to date map that was easier to read.", "However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers as the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who were beginning to move away from the idea of water boundaries as the only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia.Four years later, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary.", "He drew a new line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural Rivers), then north and east along the latter waterway to its source in the Ural Mountains.", "At this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways.", "Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along Ural Mountains rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers.", "This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted.", "However, this did not come without criticism.", "Voltaire, writing in 1760 about Peter the Great's efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole boundary question with his claim that neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part of Europe.", "Since then, many modern analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder have declared that they see little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents.The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century.", "The 1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg's prescription.", "To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified by a German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents.By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian.", "The question was still treated as a \"controversy\" in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the \"best possible\", citing support from various \"modern geographers\".In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906.In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych Depression, thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe.", "The ''Flora Europaea'' adopted a boundary along the Terek and Kuban rivers, so southwards from the Kuma and the Manych, but still with the Caucasus entirely in Asia.", "However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest, and this became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps.Some view the separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: \"In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country.", "....\"" ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Last Glacial Maximum refugia, c. 20,000 years agoPaleolithic cave paintings from Lascaux in France ( 15,000 BCE)Stonehenge in the United Kingdom (Late Neolithic from 3000 to 2000 BCE)During the 2.5 million years of the Pleistocene, numerous cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years.", "The long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years.", "The last cold episode of the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.", "Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene.", "''Homo erectus georgicus'', which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe.", "Other hominin remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain.", "Neanderthal man (named after the Neandertal valley in Germany) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of present-day Poland) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years ago, with their final refuge being the Iberian Peninsula.", "The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago.", "Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000 years earlier than previously thought.", "The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo Mochi (Italy), Geissenklösterle (Germany) and Isturitz (France).The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East.", "It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine (Linear Pottery culture), and along the Mediterranean coast (Cardial culture).", "Between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts.", "In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and megalithic tombs.", "The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic.", "During this period giant megalithic monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge, were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe.The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture; Neolithic Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago; and Yamnaya Steppe herders who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago.", "The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in Greece with the Minoan civilisation on Crete, the first advanced civilisation in Europe.", "The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age.", "Iron Age colonisation by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities.", "Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games.===Classical antiquity===The Parthenon in Athens (432 BCE)Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation.", "Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece.", "The Greek city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece.", "In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens.", "The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists.", "Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer; in drama with Sophocles and Euripides; in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in science with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes.", "In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a pivotal moment in world history, as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation.Animation showing the growth and division of Ancient Rome (years CE) Greece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics, language, engineering, architecture, government and many more key aspects in western civilisation.", "By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy and over the following two centuries it conquered Greece and Hispania (Spain and Portugal), the North African coast, much of the Middle East, Gaul (France and Belgium) and Britannia (England and Wales).Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean Basin and Western Europe by the turn of the millennium.", "The Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire.", "The two centuries that followed are known as the ''pax romana'', a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability in most of Europe.", "The empire continued to expand under emperors such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who spent time on the Empire's northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes.", "Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution.", "Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) which was renamed Constantinople in his honour in 330 CE.", "Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE and in 391–392 CE, the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions.", "This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 CE; or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century CE.", "During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.===Early Middle Ages===During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the \"Age of Migrations\".", "There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars and, later on, the Vikings, Pechenegs, Cumans and Magyars.", "Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as the \"Dark Ages\".Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature, philosophy, mathematics and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire.While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire.", "During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural and military force in Europe.", "Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the Christian church under state control.From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor.", "In the mid-7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region.", "Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily and parts of southern Italy.", "Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia was brought under Muslim rule—save for small areas in the north-west (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees.", "This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate.", "The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige.", "The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their northward advance.", "In the remote regions of north-western Iberia and the middle Pyrenees the power of the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt.", "It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias, Leon and Galicia were laid and from where the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start.", "However, no coordinated attempt would be made to drive the Moors out.", "The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power struggles.", "As a result, the Reconquista took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim invaders.Viking raids and division of the Frankish Empire at the Treaty of Verdun in 843During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes.", "The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe, respectively.", "Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I. Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed \"Holy Roman Emperor\" by the Pope in 800.This led in 962 to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe.East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption of Christianity (.", "The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed conflicts with East Francia.", "Further south, the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity: the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire) and the Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia).", "To the East, Kievan Rus' expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century.", "In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state.", "Further East, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later.===High and Late Middle Ages===The maritime republics of medieval Italy reestablished contacts between Europe, Asia and Africa with extensive trade networks and colonies across the Mediterranean, and had an essential role in the Crusades.The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages, followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500.During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century.", "Economic growth, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas.", "The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene.The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy.", "Feudalism developed in France in the Early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe.", "A struggle for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the ''Magna Carta'' and the establishment of a parliament.", "The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church.", "Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe.Tancred of Sicily and Philip II of France, during the Third Crusade (1189–1192)The Papacy reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages.", "An East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire.", "In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land.", "In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics.", "In the Iberian Peninsula, the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-western peninsula.In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans.", "Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000.The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert, and was weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade.", "Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire.The sacking of Suzdal by Batu Khan in 1238, during the Mongol invasion of Europe (1220s–1240s)In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus' state to the south and east.", "Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols.", "The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty.", "They established the state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries.", "After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged in the 14th century: Moldavia and Walachia.", "Previously, these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans.", "From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia.", "The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries.The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages.", "The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss.", "The population of France was reduced by half.", "Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines, and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period.", "Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at the time.The plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in ''The Decameron'' (1353).", "It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, beggars and lepers.", "The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 18th century.", "During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe.===Early modern period===''The School of Athens'' by Raphael (1511): Contemporaries, such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci (centre), are portrayed as classical scholars of the Renaissance.The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence, and later spreading to the rest of Europe.", "The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries, often translated from Arabic into Latin.", "The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music, and the sciences, under the joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church and an emerging merchant class.", "Patrons in Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome, funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the Western Schism.", "During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church.", "Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's spiritual authority had suffered greatly.", "In the 15th century, Europe started to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers.", "Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world.", "Exploration reached the Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic and the Southern tip of Africa.", "Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East linking the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in 1498.The Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached Asia westward across the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in a Spanish expedition, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the globe, completed by the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano (1519–1522).", "Soon after, the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing large global empires in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania.", "France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas and Asia.", "In 1588, a Spanish armada failed to invade England.", "A year later England tried unsuccessfully to invade Spain, allowing Philip II of Spain to maintain his dominant war capacity in Europe.", "This English disaster also allowed the Spanish fleet to retain its capability to wage war for the next decades.", "However, two more Spanish armadas failed to invade England (2nd Spanish Armada and 3rd Spanish Armada).Habsburg dominions in the centuries following their partition by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.", "The principal military base of Philip II in Europe was the Spanish road stretching from the Netherlands to the Duchy of Milan.The Church's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation in 1517 when German theologian Martin Luther nailed his ''Ninety-five Theses'' criticising the selling of indulgences to the church door.", "He was subsequently excommunicated in the papal bull ''Exsurge Domine'' in 1520 and his followers were condemned in the 1521 Diet of Worms, which divided German princes between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths.", "Religious fighting and warfare spread with Protestantism.", "The plunder of the empires of the Americas allowed Spain to finance religious persecution in Europe for over a century.", "The Thirty Years War (1618–1648) crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population.", "In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe.", "The defeat of the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 marked the historic end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.The 17th century in Central and parts of Eastern Europe was a period of general decline; the region experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700.From the Union of Krewo (1385) east-central Europe was dominated by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "The hegemony of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had ended with the devastation brought by the Second Northern War (Deluge) and subsequent conflicts; the state itself was partitioned and ceased to exist at the end of the 18th century.From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves.", "Further east, the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e.", "Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia).The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention and scientific development.", "Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Isaac Newton.", "According to Peter Barrett, \"It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world.", "\"===18th and 19th centuries===The national boundaries within Europe set by the Congress of ViennaThe Seven Years' War brought to an end the \"Old System\" of alliances in Europe.", "Consequently, when the American Revolutionary War turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the 18th century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts.", "Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in France resulted in the French Revolution, and the establishment of the First Republic as a result of which the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial reign of terror.", "Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution, and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo.", "Napoleonic rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution, including that of the nation state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French models of administration, law and education.", "The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon's downfall, established a new balance of power in Europe centred on the five \"Great Powers\": the UK, France, Prussia, Austria and Russia.", "This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK.", "These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative elements and few reforms resulted.", "The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation state, from smaller principalities.", "In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed; 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities.In parallel, the Eastern Question grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774).", "As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains.", "The Russian Empire stood to benefit from the decline, whereas the Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests.", "Meanwhile, the Serbian Revolution (1804) and Greek War of Independence (1821) marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913.Formal recognition of the ''de facto'' independent principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.Marshall's Temple Works (1840); the Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain.The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the 18th century and spread throughout Europe.", "The invention and implementation of new technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the rise of a new working class.", "Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labour, the legalisation of trade unions, and the abolition of slavery.", "In Britain, the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed, which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities.", "Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the Great Famine of Ireland, caused death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people.", "In the 19th century, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to various European colonies abroad and to the United States.", "The industrial revolution also led to large population growth, and the reached a peak of slightly above 25% around the year 1913.===20th century to the present===Map of European colonial empires throughout the world in 1914Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century.", "The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918.It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip.", "Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire).", "The war left more than 16 million civilians and military dead.", "Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.Map depicting the military alliances of the First World War in 1914–1918Russia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union, leading also to the independence of many former Russian governorates, such as Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as new European countries.", "Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn.", "The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended the First World War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions.", "Excess deaths in Russia over the course of the First World War and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million.", "In 1932–1933, under Stalin's leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the second Soviet famine which caused millions of deaths; surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour.", "Stalin was also responsible for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which the NKVD executed 681,692 people; millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.Serbian war efforts (1914–1918) cost the country one quarter of its population.Nazi Germany began the devastating Second World War in Europe by its leader, Adolf Hitler.", "Here Hitler, on the right, with his closest ally, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1940.The social revolutions sweeping through Russia also affected other European nations following The Great War: in 1919, with the Weimar Republic in Germany and the First Austrian Republic; in 1922, with Mussolini's one-party fascist government in the Kingdom of Italy and in Atatürk's Turkish Republic, adopting the Western alphabet and state secularism.Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s.", "This, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929, brought about the worldwide Great Depression.", "Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler in power of what became Nazi Germany.In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany.", "Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936.In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany following the Anschluss.", "Later that year, following the Munich Agreement signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, which was a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany and the Slovak Republic.", "At the time, the United Kingdom and France preferred a policy of appeasement.With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania.", "Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the European Theatre of the Second World War.", "The Soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter.", "On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and, on 30 November, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastating Winter War for the Red Army.", "The British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources.", "Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark.", "The Phoney War continued.In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries.", "France capitulated in June 1940.By August, Germany had begun a bombing offensive against the United Kingdom but failed to convince the Britons to give up.", "In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.", "On 7 December 1941 Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire, and other allied forces.", "Big Three\" at the Yalta Conference in 1945; seated (from the left): Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph StalinAfter the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback.", "The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank battle in history, was the last major German offensive on the Eastern Front.", "In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a new front against Germany.", "Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending the Second World War in Europe.", "The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world.", "More than 40 million people in Europe had died as a result of the Second World War, including between 11 and 17 million people who perished during the Holocaust.", "The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all Second World War casualties.", "By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees.", "Several post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20 million people.The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs.", "After the Second World War the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by Winston Churchill an \"Iron Curtain\".", "The United States and Western Europe established the NATO alliance and, later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw Pact.", "Particular hot spots after the Second World War were Berlin and Trieste, whereby the Free Territory of Trieste, founded in 1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively.", "The Berlin blockade in 1948 and 1949 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were one of the great international crises of the Cold War.The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation.", "At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after the First World War, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.Flag of Europe, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1955 as the flag for the whole of EuropeIn the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity movement in Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system.", "The opening of the Iron Curtain at the Pan-European Picnic then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the Eastern bloc, the Warsaw Pact and other communist states collapsed, and the Cold War ended.", "Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more.", "This made old previously interrupted cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest and Trieste were now again in the centre of Europe.European integration also grew after the Second World War.", "In 1949 the Council of Europe was founded, following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill, with the idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals.", "It includes all European states except for Belarus, Russia, and Vatican City.", "The Treaty of Rome in 1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market.", "In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community, and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union.", "The EU established a parliament, court and central bank, and introduced the euro as a unified currency.", "Between 2004 and 2013, more Central European countries began joining, expanding the EU to 28 European countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power.", "However, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a June 2016 referendum on EU membership.", "The Russo-Ukrainian conflict, which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated when Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War and the Yugoslav Wars." ], [ "Geography", "Map of populous Europe and surrounding regions showing physical, political and population characteristics, as per 2018Europe makes up the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.", "It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent.", "Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas.", "The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east.", "This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain and at its heart lies the North German Plain.", "An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway.This description is simplified.", "Subregions such as the Iberian Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend.", "Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain and Ireland are special cases.", "The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean that is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off.===Climate===Biomes of Europe and surrounding regions: Europe lies mainly in the temperate climate zone of the northern hemisphere, where the prevailing wind direction is from the west.", "The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, an ocean current which carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic ocean to Europe.", "The Gulf Stream is nicknamed \"Europe's central heating\", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be.", "The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean.Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of Aveiro is , while it is only in New York City which is almost on the same latitude, bordering the same ocean.", "Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around higher than those in Calgary and they are almost higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.The large water masses of the Mediterranean Sea, which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are also of particular importance.", "The water of the Mediterranean extends from the Sahara desert to the Alpine arc in its northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea near Trieste.In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards the east.", "The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east.", "This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th latitudes.", "None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea.Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for Europe+Temperatures in °C Location Latitude Longitude ColdestmonthHottestmonthAnnualaverage Reykjavík 64 N 22 W 0.1 11.2 4.7 Umeå 64 N 20 E −6.2 16.0 3.9 Oulu 65 N 25.5 E −9.6 16.5 2.7 Arkhangelsk 64.5 N 40.5 E −12.7 16.3 1.3 Lerwick 60 N 1 W 3.5 12.4 7.4 Stockholm 59.5 N 19 E −1.7 18.4 7.4 Helsinki 60 N 25 E −4.7 17.8 5.9 Saint Petersburg 60 N 30 E −5.8 18.8 5.8 Edinburgh 55.5 N 3 W 4.2 15.3 9.3 Copenhagen 55.5 N 12 E 1.4 18.1 9.1 Klaipėda 55.5 N 21 E −1.3 17.9 8.0 Moscow 55.5 N 30 E −6.5 19.2 5.8 Isles of Scilly 50 N 6 W 7.9 16.9 11.8 Brussels 50.5 N 4 E 3.3 18.4 10.5 Kraków 50 N 20 E −2.0 19.2 8.7 Kyiv 50.5 N 30 E −3.5 20.5 8.4 Bordeaux 45 N 0 6.6 21.4 13.8 Venice 45.5 N 12 E 3.3 23.0 13.0 Belgrade 45 N 20 E 1.4 23.0 12.5 Astrakhan 46 N 48 E −3.7 25.6 10.5 Coimbra 40 N 8 W 9.9 21.9 16.0 Valencia 39.5 N 0 11.9 26.1 18.3 Naples 40.5 N 14 E 8.7 24.9 15.9 Istanbul 41 N 29 E 5.5 23.4 13.9It is notable how the average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures, drop from the west to the east.", "For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south.===Climate change======Geology===Surficial geology of EuropeThe geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia.", "Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica.", "Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea.", "Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean.", "Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent.", "The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species.", "From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia.", "Europe's present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago.The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary.", "Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east.", "These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians.", "The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles.", "Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea.The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica and so may be regarded geologically as the \"main continent\", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents.", "Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient microcontinent Avalonia.===Flora===Land use map of Europe with arable farmland (yellow), forest (dark green), pasture (light green) and tundra, or bogs, in the north (dark yellow)Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of humans.", "With the exception of Fennoscandia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various national parks.The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest.", "The conditions for growth are very favourable.", "In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent.", "Southern Europe has a warm but mild climate.", "There are frequent summer droughts in this region.", "Mountain ridges also affect the conditions.", "Some of these, such as the Alps and the Pyrenees, are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior.", "Others are oriented south–north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable.", "Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.Floristic regions of Europe and neighbouring areas, according to Wolfgang Frey and Rainer LöschPossibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest.", "It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean.", "Although over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the broadleaf and mixed forests, taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean.", "During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted.", "However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker.", "The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure.", "The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, while in its Western Russia its 5–10%.", "The European country with the smallest percentage of forested area is Iceland (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%).In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate.", "The most important species in central and western Europe are beech and oak.", "In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce–pine–birch forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached.", "In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe.", "The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest.", "A narrow east–west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends westwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.===Fauna===Biogeographic regions of Europe and bordering regionsGlaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of humans affected the distribution of European fauna.", "As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction.", "The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the Neolithic period.", "Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered.", "Once they were found in most parts of Europe.", "However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further.", "By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover.", "Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.", "), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat.", "In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia.", "The wolf, the second-largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.", ").Once roaming the great temperate forests of Eurasia, European bison now live in nature preserves in Białowieża Forest, on the border between Poland and Belarus.Other carnivores include the European wildcat, red fox and arctic fox, the golden jackal, different species of martens, the European hedgehog, different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, as well as different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey).Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others.", "A number of insects, such as the small tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity.Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna.", "The sea flora is mainly phytoplankton.", "Important animals that live in European seas are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins and whales.Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's Bern Convention, which has also been signed by the European Community as well as non-European states." ], [ "Politics", "The political map of Europe is substantially derived from the re-organisation of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.The prevalent form of government in Europe is parliamentary democracy, in most cases in the form of Republic; in 1815, the prevalent form of government was still the Monarchy.", "Europe's remaining eleven monarchies are constitutional.European integration is the process of political, legal, economic (and in some cases social and cultural) integration of European states as it has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the Council of Europe since the end of the Second World War.", "The European Union has been the focus of economic integration on the continent since its foundation in 1993.More recently, the Eurasian Economic Union has been established as a counterpart comprising former Soviet states.27 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area and 20 of the monetary union Eurozone.", "Among the smaller European organisations are the Nordic Council, the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly and the Visegrád Group." ], [ "List of states and territories", "This list includes all internationally recognised sovereign countries falling even partially under any common geographical or political definitions of Europe.", "Arms Flag Name Area(km2) Population Populationdensity(per km2) Capital Name(s) in official language(s) Albania 28,748 2,876,591 98.5 Tirana Andorra 468 77,281 179.8 Andorra la Vella Armenia 29,743 2,924,816 101.5 Yerevan () Austria 83,858 8,823,054 104 Vienna Azerbaijan 86,600 9,911,646 113 Baku Belarus 207,560 9,504,700 45.8 Minsk () Belgium 30,528 11,358,357 372.06 Brussels // Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,129 3,531,159 68.97 Sarajevo / Bulgaria 110,910 7,101,859 64.9 Sofia () Croatia 56,594 3,871,833 68.4 Zagreb Cyprus 9,251 1,170,125 123.4 Nicosia ()/ Czech Republic 78,866 10,610,947 134 Prague Denmark 43,094 5,748,796 133.9 Copenhagen Estonia 45,226 1,328,439 30.5 Tallinn Finland 338,455 5,509,717 16 Helsinki / France 547,030 67,348,000 116 Paris Georgia 69,700 3,718,200 53.5 Tbilisi () Germany 357,168 82,800,000 232 Berlin Greece 131,957 10,297,760 82 Athens () Hungary 93,030 9,797,561 105.3 Budapest Iceland 103,000 350,710 3.2 Reykjavík Ireland 70,280 4,761,865 67.7 Dublin / Italy 301,338 60,589,445 201.3 Rome Kazakhstan 148,000 17,987,736 6.49 Astana / (/) Latvia 64,589 1,907,675 29 Riga Liechtenstein 160 38,111 227 Vaduz Lithuania 65,300 2,800,667 45.8 Vilnius Luxembourg 2,586 602,005 233.7 Luxembourg City // Malta 316 445,426 1,410 Valletta Moldova 33,846 3,434,547 101.5 Chișinău Monaco 2.020 38,400 18,713 Monaco Montenegro 13,812 642,550 45.0 Podgorica / Netherlands 41,543 17,271,990 414.9 Amsterdam North Macedonia 25,713 2,103,721 80.1 Skopje () Norway 385,203 5,295,619 15.8 Oslo // Poland 312,685 38,422,346 123.5 Warsaw Portugal 92,212 10,379,537 115 Lisbon Romania 238,397 18,999,642 84.4 Bucharest Russia 3,969,100 144,526,636 8.4 Moscow () San Marino 61.2 33,285 520 San Marino Serbia 88,361 7,040,272 91.1 Belgrade / Slovakia 49,035 5,435,343 111.0 Bratislava Slovenia 20,273 2,066,880 101.8 Ljubljana Spain 505,990 46,698,151 92 Madrid Sweden 450,295 10,151,588 22.5 Stockholm Switzerland 41,285 8,401,120 202 Bern /// Turkey 23,764 84,680,273 106.7 Ankara Ukraine 603,628 42,418,235 73.8 Kyiv () United Kingdom 244,820 66,040,229 270.7 London United Kingdom Vatican City 0.44 1,000 2,272 Vatican City / Total 50 10,180,000 743,000,000 73Within the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international recognition.", "None of them are members of the UN: Symbol Flag Name Area(km2) Population Population density(per km2) Capital Abkhazia 8,660 243,206 28 Sukhumi Kosovo 10,9081,920,079 159 Pristina Northern Cyprus 3,355 313,626 93 Nicosia (northern part) South Ossetia 3,900 53,532 13.7 Tskhinvali Transnistria 4,163 475,665 114 TiraspolSeveral dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or close to Europe.", "This includes Åland (an autonomous county of Finland), two autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark (other than Denmark proper), three Crown Dependencies and two British Overseas Territories.", "Svalbard is also included due to its unique status within Norway, although it is not autonomous.", "Not included are the three countries of the United Kingdom with devolved powers and the two Autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a unique degree of autonomy, are not largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs.", "Areas with little more than a unique tax status, such as the Canary Islands and Heligoland, are also not included for this reason.", "Symbol Flag NameSovereignstate Area(km2) Population Populationdensity(per km2) Capital ÅlandFinland 1,580 29,489 18.36 Mariehamn Bailiwick of GuernseyUK 78 65,849 844.0 St. Peter Port Bailiwick of JerseyUK 118.2 100,080 819 Saint Helier Faroe IslandsDenmark 1,399 50,778 35.2 Tórshavn GibraltarUK 6.7 32,194 4,328 Gibraltar Greenland Denmark 2,166,086 55,877 0.028 Nuuk Isle of ManUK 572 83,314 148 Douglas Svalbard Norway 61,022 2,667" ], [ "Economy", "As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under management with over $32.7 trillion compared to North America's $27.1 trillion in 2008.In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest region.", "Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-third of the world's wealth.", "It was one of several regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end peak.", "As with other continents, Europe has a large wealth gap among its countries.", "The richer states tend to be in the Northwest and West in general, followed by Central Europe, while most economies of Eastern and Southeastern Europe are still reemerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia.The model of the Blue Banana was designed as an economic geographic representation of the respective economic power of the regions, which was further developed into the Golden Banana or Blue Star.", "The trade between East and West, as well as towards Asia, which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars, new borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989.In addition, there is new impetus from the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative across the Suez Canal towards Africa and Asia.The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states, comprises the largest single economic area in the world.", "Nineteen EU countries share the euro as a common currency.Five European countries rank in the top ten of the world's largest national economies in GDP (PPP).", "This includes (ranks according to the CIA): Germany (6), Russia (7), the United Kingdom (10), France (11) and Italy (13).Some European countries are much richer than others.", "The richest in terms of nominal GDP is Monaco with its US$185,829 per capita (2018) and the poorest is Ukraine with its US$3,659 per capita (2019).As a whole, Europe's GDP per capita is US$21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund assessment.", "Rank Country GDP (nominal, Peak Year)millions of USD Peak Year ''''19,226,2352008 1 4,429,8382023 2 3,332,0592023 3 3,049,0162023 4 2,408,6552008 5 2,288,4282013 6 1,631,8632008 7 1,154,6002023 8 1,092,7482023 9 905,6842023 10 842,1722023 Rank Country GDP (PPP, Peak Year)millions of USD Peak Year ''''25,430,4092023 1 5,537,9922023 2 5,326,8552022 3 3,871,7902023 4 3,868,6192023 5 3,613,5402023 6 3,193,1802023 7 2,413,0662023 8 1,712,6292023 9 1,297,0242023 10 794,0552022===Economic history===;Industrial growth (1760–1945)Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism.", "From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe.", "The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th century, and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise.", "Economies were disrupted by the First World War, but by the beginning of the Second World War, they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States.", "The Second World War, again, damaged much of Europe's industries.", ";Cold War (1945–1991)Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 Eurozone (blue colour)After the Second World War the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin, and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades.", "Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s.", "West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s.", "France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of Franco, also recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle.", "The majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the control of the Soviet Union and thus were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).The states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount of aid by the United States under the Marshall Plan.", "The western states moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and increasing cross border trade.", "This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the Cold War.", "Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding members to 12.The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the UK as Europe's largest economy.", ";Reunification (1991–present)One of Kosovo's main economical sources is mining, because it has large reserves of lead, zinc, silver, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and bauxite.", "Miners at the Trepča Mines in Mitrovica, Kosovo in 2011.With the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist states underwent shock therapy measures to liberalise their economies and implement free market reforms.After East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany, while the latter experienced sudden mass unemployment and plummeting of industrial production.By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe, comprising the five largest European economies of the time: Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain.", "In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone, replacing their national currencies by the euro.Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recession in 2008.It impacted much of the region.", "In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed concerning some countries in Europe, especially Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.", "As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece, by the leading countries of the Eurozone.", "The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012.For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4%." ], [ "Demographics", "Population growth in and around Europe in 2021The population of Europe was about 742 million in 2023 according to UN estimates.", "This is slightly more than one ninth of the world's population.", "The population density of Europe (the number of people per area) is the second highest of any continent, behind Asia.", "The population of Europe is currently slowly decreasing, by about 0.2% per year, because there are fewer births than deaths.", "This natural decrease in population is reduced by the fact that more people migrate to Europe from other continents than vice versa.Southern Europe and Western Europe are the regions with the highest average number of elderly people in the world.", "In 2021, the percentage of people over 65 years old was 21% in Western Europe and Southern Europe, compared to 19% in all of Europe and 10% in the world.", "Projections suggest that by 2050 Europe will reach 30%.", "This is caused by the fact that the population has been having children below replacement level since the 1970s.", "The United Nations predicts that Europe will decline its population between 2022 and 2050 by −7 per cent, without changing immigration movements.According to a population projection of the UN Population Division, Europe's population may fall to between 680 and 720 million people by 2050, which would be 7% of the world population at that time.", "Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates.", "The average number of children per female of child-bearing age is 1.52, far below the replacement rate.", "The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of emigration and low birth rates.===Ethnic groups===Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct \"peoples of Europe\", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities.===Migration===222x222pxEurope is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at nearly 87 million people in 2020, according to the International Organisation for Migration.", "In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8 million people.", "This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth.", "In 2021, 827,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU member state, an increase of about 14% compared with 2020.2.3 million immigrants from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2021.Early modern emigration from Europe began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers in the 16th century, and French and English settlers in the 17th century.", "But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe.Today, large populations of European descent are found on every continent.", "European ancestry predominates in North America and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins).", "Australia and New Zealand have large European-derived populations.", "Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the White South Africans in South Africa.", "In Asia, European-derived populations, specifically Russians, predominate in North Asia and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan.===Languages===Distribution of major 222x222pxEurope has about 225 indigenous languages, mostly falling within three Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages, derived from the Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages.", "Slavic languages are mostly spoken in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe.", "Romance languages are spoken primarily in Western and Southern Europe, as well as in Switzerland in Central Europe and Romania and Moldova in Eastern Europe.", "Germanic languages are spoken in Western, Northern and Central Europe as well as in Gibraltar and Malta in Southern Europe.", "Languages in adjacent areas show significant overlaps (such as in English, for example).", "Other Indo-European languages outside the three main groups include the Baltic group (Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish and Breton), Greek, Armenian and Albanian.A distinct non-Indo-European family of Uralic languages (Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Erzya, Komi, Mari, Moksha and Udmurt) is spoken mainly in Estonia, Finland, Hungary and parts of Russia.", "Turkic languages include Azerbaijani, Kazakh and Turkish, in addition to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast Europe (Balkan Gagauz Turkish, Bashkir, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Nogai and Tatar).", "Kartvelian languages (Georgian, Mingrelian and Svan) are spoken primarily in Georgia.", "Two other language families reside in the North Caucasus (termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including Chechen, Avar and Lezgin; and Northwest Caucasian, most notably including Adyghe).", "Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official within the EU, while Basque is the only European language isolate.Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today.", "The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe.===Religion===The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christians, including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various Protestant denominations.", "Among Protestants, the most popular are Lutheranism, Anglicanism and the Reformed faith.", "Smaller Protestant denominations include Anabaptists as well as denominations centered in the United States such as Pentecostalism, Methodism, and Evangelicalism.", "Although Christianity originated in the Middle East, its centre of mass shifted to Europe when it became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century.", "Christianity played a prominent role in the development of the European culture and identity.", "Today, a bit over 25% of the world's Christians live in Europe.Islam is the second most popular religion in Europe.", "Over 25 million, or roughly 5% of the population, adhere to it.", "In Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, two countries in the Balkan peninsula in Southeastern Europe, Islam instead of Christianity is the majority religion.", "This is also the case in Turkey and in certain parts of Russia, as well as in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, all of which are at the border to Asia.", "Many countries in Europe are home to a sizeable Muslim minority, and immigration to Europe has increased the number of Muslim people in Europe in recent years.The Jewish population in Europe was about 1.4 million people in 2020 (about 0.2% of the population).", "There is a long history of Jewish life in Europe, beginning in antiquity.", "During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Russian Empire had the majority of the world's Jews living within its borders.", "In 1897, according to Russian census of 1897, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of total population.", "Of this total, the vast majority lived within the Pale of Settlement.", "In 1933, there were about 9.5 million Jewish people in Europe, representing 1.7% of the population, but most were killed, and most of the rest displaced, during The Holocaust.", "In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia.Other religions practiced in Europe include Hinduism and Buddhism, which are minority religions, except in Russia's Republic of Kalmykia, where Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion.A large and increasing number of people in Europe are irreligious, atheist and agnostic.", "They are estimated to make up about 18.3% of Europe's population currently.===Major cities and urban areas===The three largest urban areas of Europe are Moscow, London and Paris.", "All have over 10 million residents, and as such have been described as megacities.", "While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partly in Asia.", "64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side.The next largest cities in order of population are Madrid, Saint Petersburg, Milan, Barcelona, Berlin, and Rome each having over three million residents.When considering the commuter belts or metropolitan areas within Europe (for which comparable data is available), Moscow covers the largest population, followed in order by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan, Ruhr Area, Saint Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin." ], [ "Culture", "Map purportedly displaying the European continent split along cultural and state borders as proposed by the German organisation (StAGN)\"Europe\" as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared heritage of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and its cultures.", "The boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of Christendom (or more specifically Latin Christendom), as established or defended throughout the medieval and early modern history of Europe, especially against Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in Europe.This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping indigenous national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into Slavic, Latin (Romance) and Germanic, but with several components not part of either of these groups (notably Greek, Basque and Celtic).", "Historically, special examples with overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin (Romance) and Germanic, or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots.Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional cultures of Europe.", "Europe is often described as \"maximum cultural diversity with minimal geographical distances\".Different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the aim of bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their importance, such as the European Capital of Culture, the European Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the European Capital of Sport.=== Sport ====== Social dimension ===In Europe many people are unable to access basic social conditions, which makes it harder for them to thrive and flourish.", "Access to basic necessities can be compromised, for example 10% of Europeans spend at least 40% of household income on housing.", "75 million Europeans feel socially isolated.", "From the 1980s income inequality has been rising and wage shares have been falling.", "In 2016, the richest 20% of households earned over five times more than the poorest 20%.", "Many workers experience stagnant real wages and precarious work is common even for essential workers." ], [ "See also", "* Early modern Europe* Eurodistrict* European Games* European Union as a potential superpower* Euroregion* Financial and social rankings of sovereign states in Europe* Flags of Europe* Healthcare in Europe* List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)* List of European television stations* List of names of European cities in different languages* List of villages in Europe* Lists of cities in Europe* Modernity* OSCE countries statistics* Pan-European identity" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* National Geographic Society (2005).", "''National Geographic Visual History of the World''.", "Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.", ".", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * Europe: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society* * European Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress* * The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press'''Historical Maps'''* Borders in Europe 3000BC to the present Geacron Historical atlas* Online history of Europe in 21 maps" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Europa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Europa''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Europa (Roman province), a province within the Diocese of Thrace* Europa (Seville Metro), Seville, Spain; a station on the Seville Metro* Europa City, Paris, France; a planned development* Europa Cliffs, Alexander Island, Antarctica* Europa Island, a small island in the Mozambique Channel which is a possession of France* Europa Point, Gibraltar; the southernmost point of Gibraltar* Europa Road, Gibraltar* Plaça d'Europa, Barcelona, Spain; a square* Europa, Missouri, US; a community* Europe, known as Europa in many European languages.===Astronomical locations===* Europa (moon), a moon of Jupiter* 52 Europa, an asteroid===Buildings and structures===* Europa building, the seat of the European Council and Council of the European Union in Brussels, Belgium* Europa Hotel (disambiguation)* Europa Hut, a Swiss mountain hut* Europa Tower, Vilnius, Lithuania* Europa Park, A theme park in Rust, Germany===Fictional locations===* Europa, a fictional place in ''Valkyria Chronicles''" ], [ "People", "* Europa of Macedon, the daughter of Philip II by his last wife, Cleopatra* Madama Europa or Europa Rossi (fl.", "1600), sister of Salamone Rossi===Greek mythology===* Europa (consort of Zeus), a Phoenician princess in Greek mythology, from whom the name of the continent Europe is taken* Europa, one of the Oceanids, the daughters of the Titan Oceanus* Europa, daughter of the earth giant Tityos and mother of Poseidon's son Euphemus the Argonaut" ], [ "Businesses", "* Europa (oil company), a New Zealand company purchased by British Petroleum in 1989* EuropaCorp, a French film production company* CBS Europa, a European television channel* Europa Press, a Spanish news agency* Europa Press (publisher), a 1932–1939 publishing house founded by George Reavey" ], [ "Computing and technology", "* Europa (web portal), a web portal of the European Union* Europa, a line of small engines by Briggs & Stratton* Europa, a release of Eclipse" ], [ "Currency", "* Europa (currency), a federal European coinage issued in 1928* Europa Coins, coins with a common theme issued by European countries" ], [ "Film", "* ''Europa'' (1931 film), a short film by Stefan Themerson and Franciszka Themerson* ''Europa'' trilogy, a film trilogy by Lars von Trier** ''Europa'' (1991 film), the third film in the trilogy* ''Europa'' (2021 film), an Iraqi drama film* ''Europa: The Last Battle'', a 2017 neo-Nazi propaganda film" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Europa'' (novel), a 1997 novel by Tim Parks* ''Europa'', a 1972 novel by Romain Gary" ], [ "Music", "* Europa (musical duo), an electronic supergroup consisting of Jax Jones and Martin Solveig* Europa (record label), a German record label* Europa Philharmonie, a symphony orchestra based in Baden-Württemberg, Germany===Albums===* ''Europa'' (Covenant album), 1998* ''Europa'' (Holly Johnson album) or the title song, 2014* ''Europa'' (Ron Korb album) or the title song, 2013* Europa (Molly Nilsson album), 2009* ''Europa'' (EP), by Diplo, 2019===Songs===* \"Europa (Earth's Cry Heaven's Smile)\", by Carlos Santana, 1976* \"Europa\", by Blondie from ''Autoamerican'', 1980* \"Europa\", by Girls' Generation from ''Mr.Mr.", "'', 2014* \"Europa\", by Globus* \"Europa\", by Mónica Naranjo from ''Tarántula'', 2008* \"Europa\", by Prozzäk from ''Hot Show'', 1998* \"Europa\", by Rosetta from ''The Galilean Satellites'', 2005* \"Europa\", by Slapp Happy and Henry Cow from ''Desperate Straights'', 1975* \"Europa :(\", by Bad Bunny from ''Nadie Sabe Lo Que Va a Pasar Mañana'', 2023" ], [ "Radio stations", "* Europa FM (Romania)* Europa FM (Spain)* Europa Plus, a Russia-based group of stations operating in several countries" ], [ "Sports", "* CE Europa, a Spanish sports club based in Barcelona* NFL Europa (formerly NFL Europe and World League of American Football), an American football competition from 1991 until 2007* UEFA Europa League, the second most important European competition for UEFA-eligible football clubs* Europa F.C., a football club based in Gibraltar" ], [ "Transportation", "===Aerospace===* ''Europa'' (rocket), an early expendable launch system project of the European Launcher Development Organisation* Air Europa, the third largest airline in Spain* Europa Aircraft, a light-aircraft kitplane company based in the UK* Europa XS, a light-aircraft kitplane made in the UK===Automobiles===* Bizzarrini Europa, a small GT car produced by Bizzarrini between 1966 and 1969* Lotus Europa, a sports car manufactured by Lotus Cars* Europa, a Tata Motors luxury concept car shown in 2009===Rail===* Europa (Brescia Metro), a station in Brescia, Italy* Europa (Seville Metro), a station in Seville, Spain===Ships===* ''Europa'' (1781 EIC ship), a British East Indiaman* ''Bark Europa'', a Dutch tall ship, rigged as a bark (barque), built in 1911 and now used mainly for sail training* , five ships* SS ''Europa'' (1922) or SS ''Mongolia'', an immigrant ship on the Europe to North America route* SS ''Europa'' (1928), an ocean liner operated by the North German Lloyd" ], [ "Military", "* , six ships and a shore establishment* USS ''Europa'' (AP-177), a troop transport* ''Europa'' (AK-81), a US Army port repair ship (renamed ''Thomas F. Farrell Jr.'')* Europa Batteries, a group of artillery batteries in Gibraltar" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Europa'' (wargame), a series of board wargames launched in 1973* Europa postage stamp, issued annually since 1956, representing the founding six members of the European Coal and Steel Community* Prix Europa, Europe's largest annual tri-medial (television, radio and online) festival and competition* ''Europa'' (Italian newspaper)* ''Europa Magazine'', a Serbo-Croatian-language magazine in the United States" ], [ "See also", "* * * * ''Europa Europa'' (1990), a film by Agnieszka Holland* Evropa (disambiguation)* Europe (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euglenozoa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euglenozoa''' are a large group of flagellate Discoba.", "They include a variety of common free-living species, as well as a few important parasites, some of which infect humans.", "Euglenozoa are represented by four major groups, ''i.e.,'' Kinetoplastea, Diplonemea, Euglenida, and Symbiontida.", "Euglenozoa are unicellular, mostly around in size, although some euglenids get up to long." ], [ "Structure", "Most euglenozoa have two flagella, which are inserted parallel to one another in an apical or subapical pocket.", "In some these are associated with a cytostome or mouth, used to ingest bacteria or other small organisms.", "This is supported by one of three sets of microtubules that arise from the flagellar bases; the other two support the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the cell.Some other euglenozoa feed through absorption, and many euglenids possess chloroplasts, the only eukaryotes outside Diaphoretickes to do so without performing kleptoplasty, and so obtain energy through photosynthesis.", "These chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes and contain chlorophylls ''A'' and ''B'', along with other pigments, so are probably derived from a green alga, captured long ago in an endosymbiosis by a basal euglenozoan.", "Reproduction occurs exclusively through cell division.", "During mitosis, the nuclear membrane remains intact, and the spindle microtubules form inside of it.The group is characterized by the ultrastructure of the flagella.", "In addition to the normal supporting microtubules or axoneme, each contains a rod (called ''paraxonemal''), which has a tubular structure in one flagellum and a latticed structure in the other.", "Based on this, two smaller groups have been included here: the diplonemids and ''Postgaardi''." ], [ "Classification", "Historically, euglenozoans have been treated as either plants or animals, depending on whether they belong to largely photosynthetic groups or not.", "Hence they have names based on either the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) or the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).", "For example, one family has the name Euglenaceae under the ICNafp and the name Euglenidae under the ICZN.", "As another example, the genus name ''Dinema'' is acceptable under the ICZN, but illegitimate under the ICNafp, as it is a later homonym of an orchid genus, so that the synonym ''Dinematomonas'' must be used instead.The Euglenozoa are generally accepted as monophyletic.", "They are related to Percolozoa; the two share mitochondria with disk-shaped cristae, which only occurs in a few other groups.Both probably belong to a larger group of eukaryotes called the Excavata.", "This grouping, though, has been challenged.===Phylogeny===The phylogeny based on the work of Cavalier-Smith (2016): Euglenozoa phylogeny – Cavalier-Smith (2016)A consensus phylogeny following the review by Kostygov ''et al.''", "(2021): Euglenozoa phylogeny – Kostygov ''et al.''", "(2021)===Taxonomy=======Cavalier-Smith (2016/2017)====The following classification of Euglenozoa is as described by Cavalier-Smith in 2016, modified to include the new subphylum Plicomonada according to Cavalier-Smith ''et al'' (2017).Phylum '''Euglenozoa''' Cavalier-Smith 1981 emend.", "Simpson 1997 Euglenobionta* Subphylum '''Glycomonada''' Cavalier-Smith 2016 Class '''Diplonemea''' Cavalier-Smith 1993 emend.", "Simpson 1997 Diplosonematea; Diplonemia Cavalier-Smith 1993* Order Diplonemida Cavalier-Smith 1993 Hemistasiida** Family Hemistasiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016 Entomosigmaceae Family Diplonemidae Cavalier-Smith 1993 Rhynchopodaceae Skuja 1948 ex Cavalier-Smith 1993 Class '''Kinetoplastea''' Honigberg 1963 emend.", "Margulis 1974 Kinetoplastida Honigberg 1963; Kinetoplasta Honigberg 1963 stat.", "nov.* Subclass Prokinetoplastina Vickerman 2004 Order Prokinetoplastida Vickerman 2004* Family Ichthyobodonidae Isaksen et al., 2007* Subclass Metakinetoplastina Vickerman 2004**** Order Bodonida* Hollande 1952 em.", "Vickerman 1976, Kryov et al 1980*** Suborder Neobodonida Vickerman 2004** Family Rhynchomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2016** Family Neobodonidae Cavalier-Smith 2016* Suborder Parabodonida Vickerman 2004** Family Parabodonidae Cavalier-Smith 2016 **** Family Cryptobiidae* Vickerman 2004*** Suborder Eubodonida Vickerman 2004** Family Bodonidae Bütschli 1883 Bodonaceae Lemmermann 1914; Bodoninae Bütschli 1883; Pleuromonadidae Kent 1880 Order Trypanosomatida Kent 1880 stat.", "n. Hollande, 1952 emend.", "Vickerman 2004*** Family Trypanosomatidae Doflein 1901* Subphylum Plicomonada Cavalier-Smith 2017 Infraphylum '''Postgaardia''' Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat.", "nov. Cavalier-Smith 2017* Class '''Postgaardea''' Cavalier-Smith 1998 s.s. Symbiontida Yubuki et al., 2009** Order Bihospitida Cavalier-Smith 2016* Family Bihospitidae Cavalier-Smith 2016 Order Postgaardida Cavalier-Smith 2003* Family Calkinsiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016* Family Postgaardidae Cavalier-Smith 2016 Infraphylum '''Euglenoida''' Bütschli 1884 emend.", "Senn 1900 stat.", "nov. Cavalier-Smith, 2017 Euglenophyta; Euglenida Buetschli 1884; Euglenoidina Buetschli 1884* Parvphylum '''Entosiphona''' Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat.", "nov. Cavalier-Smith 2017 Class '''Entosiphonea''' Cavalier-Smith 2016* Order Entosiphonida Cavalier-Smith 2016** Family Entosiphonidae Cavalier-Smith 2016* Parvphylum '''Dipilida''' Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat.", "nov. Cavalier-Smith 2017**** Superclass Rigimonada* Cavalier-Smith 2016 *** Class '''Stavomonadea''' Cavalier-Smith 2016 Petalomonadea Cavalier-Smith 1993; Petalomonadophyceae** Subclass Heterostavia Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Order Heterostavida Cavalier-Smith 2016**** Family Serpenomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2016** Subclass Homostavia Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Order Decastavida Cavalier-Smith 2016a**** Family Decastavidae Cavalier-Smith 2016a**** Family Keelungiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016a*** Order Petalomonadida Cavalier-Smith 1993 Sphenomonadales Leedale 1967; Sphenomonadina Leedale 1967**** Family Sphenomonadidae Kent 1880**** Family Petalomonadidae Petalomonadaceae Buetschli 1884; Notosolenaceae Stokes 1888; Scytomonadaceae Ritter von Stein 1878* Class '''Ploeotarea''' Cavalier-Smith 2016** Order Ploeotiida Cavalier-Smith 1993*** Family Lentomonadidae Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Family Ploeotiidae Cavalier-Smith 2016 Superclass '''Spirocuta''' Cavalier-Smith 2016* Class '''Peranemea''' Cavalier-Smith 1993 emend.", "Cavalier-Smith 2016** Subclass Acroglissia Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Order Acroglissida Cavalier-Smith 2016**** Family Teloproctidae Cavalier-Smith 2016a** Subclass Peranemia Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Order Peranemida Bütschli 1884 stat.", "nov. Cavalier-Smith 1993**** Family Peranematidae Peranemataceae Dujardin 1841; Pseudoperanemataceae Christen 1962** Subclass Anisonemia Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Order Anisonemida Cavalier-Smith 2016 Heteronematales Leedale 1967**** Family Anisonemidae Saville Kent, 1880 em.", "Cavalier-Smith 2016 Heteronemidae Calkins 1926; Zygoselmidaceae Kent 188*** Order Natomonadida Cavalier-Smith 2016**** Suborder Metanemina Cavalier-Smith 2016***** Family Neometanemidae Cavalier-Smith 2016**** Suborder Rhabdomonadina Leedale 1967 emend.", "Cavalier-Smith 1993 Astasida Ehrenberg 1831; Rhabdomonadia Cavalier-Smith 1993; Rhabdomonadophyceae; Rhabdomonadales***** Family Distigmidae Hollande, 1942***** Family Astasiidae Saville Kent, 1884 Astasiaceae Ehrenberg orth.", "mut.", "Senn 1900; Rhabdomonadaceae Fott 1971; Menoidiaceae Buetschli 188; Menoidiidae Hollande, 1942* Class '''Euglenophyceae''' Schoenichen 1925 emend.", "Marin & Melkonian 2003 Euglenea Bütschli 1884 emend.", "Busse & Preisfeld 2002; Euglenoidea Bütschli 1884; Euglenida Bütschli 1884 (Photosynthetic clade)** Subclass Rapazia Cavalier-Smith 2016*** Order Rapazida Cavalier-Smith 2016**** Family Rapazidae Cavalier-Smith 2016** Subclass Euglenophycidae Busse and Preisfeld, 2003*** Order Eutreptiida Eutreptiales Leedale 1967 emend.", "Marin & Melkonian 2003; Eutreptiina Leedale 1967**** Family Eutreptiaceae Eutreptiaceae Hollande 1942*** Order Euglenida Ritter von Stein, 1878 stat.", "n. Calkins, 1926 Euglenales Engler 1898 emend.", "Marin & Melkonian 2003; Euglenina Buetschli 1884; Euglenomorphales Leedale 1967; Colaciales Smith 1938**** Family Euglenamorphidae Hollande, 1952 stat.", "n. Cavalier-Smith 2016 Euglenomorphaceae; Hegneriaceae Brumpt & Lavier 1924**** Family Phacidae Phacaceae Kim et al.", "2010****** Family Euglenidae Bütschli 1884 Euglenaceae Dujardin 1841 emend.", "Kim et al.", "2010; Colaciaceae Smith 1933 (Mucilaginous clade)==== Kostygov ''et al.''", "(2021)====Phylum '''Euglenozoa''' Cavalier-Smith 1981 emend.", "Simpson 1997* Class '''Kinetoplastea''' Honigberg, 1963 emend.", "Vickerman, 1976 Subclass Prokinetoplastia Vickerman, 2004 * Order Prokinetoplastida Vickerman, 2004 ** Family Ichthyobodonidae Isaksen et al., 2007 Family Perkinselidae Kostygov, 2021 Subclass Metakinetoplastia Vickerman, 2004 * Order Eubodonida Vickerman 2004 Family Bodonidae Bütschli, 1883 * Order Neobodonida Vickerman, 2004 ** Family Allobodonidae Goodwin et al., 2018 Family Neobodonidae Cavalier-Smith, 2016 Family Rhynchomonadinae Cavalier-Smith, 2016 * Order Parabodonida Vickerman, 2004 ** Family Cryptobiidae Poche, 1911 emend.", "Kostygov, 2021 Family Trypanoplasmatidae Hartmann and Chagas, 1910 emend.", "Kostygov, 2021 * Order Trypanosomatida Kent, 1880 **** Family Trypanosomatidae Doflein, 1901 * Class '''Diplonemea''' Cavalier-Smith, 1993* Order Diplonemida Cavalier-Smith, 1993 Family Diplonemidae Cavalier-Smith, 1993 Family Hemistasiidae Cavalier-Smith, 2016 ** Family Eupelagonemidae Okamoto and Keeling, 2019 * Class '''Euglenida''' Bütschli, 1884 emend.", "Simpson, 1997 Clade Olkaspira Lax and Simpson, 2020 * Clade Spirocuta Cavalier-Smith, 2016 ** Clade Euglenophyceae Schoenichen, 1925 emend.", "Marin and Melkonian, 2003 * Order Euglenales Leedale, 1967 emend.", "Marin and Melkonian, 2003 ** Family Euglenaceae Dujardin, 1841 emend.", "Kim et al., 2010 Euglenidae Dujardin, 1841** Family Phacaceae Kim, Triemer and Shin 2010 Phacidae Kim, Triemer and Shin 2010* Order Eutreptiales Leedale, 1967 emend.", "Marin and Melkonian, 2003 ** Family Eutreptiaceae Hollande, 1942 Eutreptiidae Hollande, 1942* Order Rapazida Cavalier-Smith, 2016 ** Family Rapazidae Cavalier-Smith, 2016 Clade Anisonemia Cavalier-Smith, 2016 * Order Anisonemida Cavalier-Smith, 2016 ** Family Anisonemidae Kent, 1880* Clade Aphagea Cavalier-Smith, 1993 emend.", "Busse and Preisfeld, 2002 Order Peranemida Cavalier-Smith, 1993 Clade Alistosa Lax et al., 2020 ** Order Petalomonadida Cavalier-Smith, 1993 * Class '''Symbiontida''' Yubuki, Edgcomb, Bernhard and Leander, 2009" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Tree of Life: Euglenozoa" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Epistemology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Epistemology''' (; ) is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge.", "Epistemologists study the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge, epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and various related issues.", "Debates in (contemporary) epistemology are generally clustered around four core areas:# The philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, such as truth and justification# Potential sources of knowledge and justified belief, such as perception, reason, memory, and testimony# The structure of a body of knowledge or justified belief, including whether all justified beliefs must be derived from justified foundational beliefs or whether justification requires only a coherent set of beliefs# Philosophical skepticism, which questions the possibility of knowledge, and related problems, such as whether skepticism poses a threat to our ordinary knowledge claims and whether it is possible to refute skeptical argumentsIn these debates and others, epistemology aims to answer questions such as \"What do people know?", "\", \"What does it mean to say that people know something?", "\", \"What makes justified beliefs justified?", "\", and \"How do people know that they know?\"", "Specialties in epistemology ask questions such as \"How can people create formal models about issues related to knowledge?\"", "(in formal epistemology), \"What are the historical conditions of changes in different kinds of knowledge?\"", "(in historical epistemology), \"What are the methods, aims, and subject matter of epistemological inquiry?\"", "(in metaepistemology), and \"How do people know together?\"", "(in social epistemology)." ], [ "Etymology", "The etymology of the word ''epistemology'' is derived from the ancient Greek ''epistēmē'', meaning \"knowledge, understanding, skill, scientific knowledge\", and the English suffix ''-ology'', meaning \"the study or discipline of (what is indicated by the first element)\".", "The word \"epistemology\" first appeared in 1847, in a review in New York's ''Eclectic Magazine'' :The word was first used to present a philosophy in English by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854.It was the title of the first section of his ''Institutes of Metaphysics'':" ], [ "Central concepts", "===Knowledge===Bertrand Russell famously brought attention to the distinction between propositional knowledge and knowledge by acquaintance.The entry \"Knowledge How\" of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy mentions that introductory classes to epistemology often start their analysis of knowledge by pointing out three different senses of \"knowing\" something: \"knowing that\" (knowing the truth of propositions), \"knowing how\" (understanding how to perform certain actions), and \"knowing by acquaintance\" (directly perceiving an object, being familiar with it, or otherwise coming into contact with it).", "Epistemology is primarily concerned with the first of these forms of knowledge, propositional knowledge.", "All three senses of \"knowing\" can be seen in our ordinary use of the word.", "In mathematics, you can know 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing to add two numbers, and knowing a (e.g., knowing other persons, or knowing oneself), (e.g., one's hometown), (e.g., cars), or (e.g., addition).", "While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are explicitly made in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, German and Dutch (although some languages closely related to English have been said to retain these verbs, such as Scots)..", "In French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, German, and Dutch 'to know (a person)' is translated using , , , and (both German and Dutch) respectively, whereas 'to know (how to do something)' is translated using , (both Portuguese and Spanish), , , and .", "Modern Greek has the verbs () and ().", "Italian has the verbs and and the nouns for 'knowledge' are and .", "German has the verbs and ; the former implies knowing a fact, the latter knowing in the sense of being acquainted with and having a working knowledge of; there is also a noun derived from , namely , which has been said to imply knowledge in the form of recognition or acknowledgment.", "The verb itself implies a process: you have to go from one state to another, from a state of \"not-\" to a state of true .", "This verb seems the most appropriate in terms of describing the \"episteme\" in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name \"\".", "The theoretical interpretation and significance of these linguistic issues remains controversial.", "The distinction is most pronounced in Polish, where means \"to know\", means \"to know how\" and means \"to be familiar with\" (to \"know\" a person).In his paper ''On Denoting'' and his later book ''Problems of Philosophy'', Bertrand Russell brought a great deal of attention to the distinction between \"knowledge by description\" and \"knowledge by acquaintance\".", "Gilbert Ryle is similarly credited with bringing more attention to the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in ''The Concept of Mind''.", "In ''Personal Knowledge'', Michael Polanyi argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded.", "This position is essentially Ryle's, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between \"knowledge that\" and \"knowledge how\" leads to infinite regress.====''A priori'' and ''a posteriori'' knowledge====One of the most important distinctions in epistemology is between what can be known ''a priori'' (independently of experience) and what can be known ''a posteriori'' (through experience).", "The terms originate from the Analytic methods of Aristotle's Organon, and may be roughly defined as follows:* ''A priori'' knowledge is knowledge that is independent of experience.", "This means that it can be known or justified prior to or independently of any specific empirical evidence or sensory observations.", "Such knowledge is obtained through reasoning, logical analysis, or introspection.", "Examples of a priori knowledge include mathematical truths, logical tautologies (e.g., \"All bachelors are unmarried\"), and certain fundamental principles of reason and logic.", "One of the key proponents of '' a priori '' knowledge was the rationalist philosopher Immanuel Kant.", "He argued that certain fundamental truths about the nature of reality, such as the concepts of space, time, causality, and the categories of understanding, are not derived from experience but are inherent in the structure of the mind itself.", "According to Kant, these a priori categories enable us to organize and interpret our sensory experiences, giving rise to our understanding of the world.", "* ''A posteriori'' knowledge is knowledge that is derived from experience.", "It is based on empirical evidence, sensory perception, and observations of the external world.", "A posteriori knowledge is contingent upon the information gained through our senses and relies on the collection and interpretation of data.", "Scientific observations and experimental results are typical examples of a posteriori knowledge.Views that emphasize the importance of ''a priori'' knowledge are generally classified as rationalist.", "Views that emphasize the importance of ''a posteriori'' knowledge are generally classified as empiricist.===Belief===One of the core concepts in epistemology is ''belief''.", "A belief is an attitude that a person holds regarding anything that they take to be true.", "For instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition \"snow is white\".", "Beliefs can be ''occurrent'' (e.g.", "a person actively thinking \"snow is white\"), or they can be ''dispositional'' (e.g.", "a person who if asked about the color of snow would assert \"snow is white\").", "While there is not universal agreement about the nature of belief, most contemporary philosophers hold the view that a disposition to express belief ''B'' qualifies as holding the belief ''B''.", "There are various different ways that contemporary philosophers have tried to describe beliefs, including as representations of ways that the world could be (Jerry Fodor), as dispositions to act as if certain things are true (Roderick Chisholm), as interpretive schemes for making sense of someone's actions (Daniel Dennett and Donald Davidson), or as mental states that fill a particular function (Hilary Putnam).", "Some have also attempted to offer significant revisions to our notion of belief, including eliminativists about belief who argue that there is no phenomenon in the natural world which corresponds to our folk psychological concept of belief (Paul Churchland) and formal epistemologists who aim to replace our bivalent notion of belief (\"either I have a belief or I don't have a belief\") with the more permissive, probabilistic notion of credence (\"there is an entire spectrum of degrees of belief, not a simple dichotomy between belief and non-belief\").While belief plays a significant role in epistemological debates surrounding knowledge and justification, it also has many other philosophical debates in its own right.", "Notable debates include: \"What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?", "\"; \"Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant facts have any bearing on our beliefs (e.g.", "if I believe that I'm holding a glass of water, is the non-mental fact that water is H2O part of the content of that belief)?", "\"; \"How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?", "\"; and \"Must it be possible for a belief to be expressible in language, or are there non-linguistic beliefs?", "\"===Truth===Truth is the property or state of being in accordance with facts or reality.", "On most views, truth is the correspondence of language or thought to a mind-independent world.", "This is called the correspondence theory of truth.", "Among philosophers who think that it is possible to analyze the conditions necessary for knowledge, virtually all of them accept that truth is such a condition.", "There is much less agreement about the extent to which a knower must know ''why'' something is true in order to know.", "On such views, something being known implies that it is true.", "However, this should not be confused for the more contentious view that one must know that one knows in order to know (the KK principle).Epistemologists disagree about whether belief is the only truth-bearer.", "Other common suggestions for things that can bear the property of being true include propositions, sentences, thoughts, utterances, and judgments.", "Plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer.Many of the debates regarding truth are at the crossroads of epistemology and logic.", "Some contemporary debates regarding truth include: How do we define truth?", "Is it even possible to give an informative definition of truth?", "What things are truth-bearers and are therefore capable of being true or false?", "Are truth and falsity bivalent, or are there other truth values?", "What are the criteria of truth that allow us to identify it and to distinguish it from falsity?", "What role does truth play in constituting knowledge?", "And is truth absolute, or is it merely relative to one's perspective?===Justification===As the term \"justification\" is used in epistemology, a belief is justified if one has good reason for holding it.", "Loosely speaking, justification is the ''reason'' that someone holds a rationally admissible belief, on the assumption that it is a ''good reason'' for holding it.", "Sources of justification might include perceptual experience (the evidence of the senses), reason, and authoritative testimony, among others.", "Importantly however, a belief being justified does ''not'' guarantee that the belief is true, since a person could be justified in forming beliefs based on very convincing evidence that was nonetheless deceiving.====Internalism and externalism====A central debate about the nature of justification is a debate between epistemological externalists on the one hand and epistemological internalists on the other.", "While epistemic externalism first arose in attempts to overcome the Gettier problem, it has flourished in the time since as an alternative way of conceiving of epistemic justification.", "The initial development of epistemic externalism is often attributed to Alvin Goldman, although numerous other philosophers have worked on the topic in the time since.Externalists hold that factors deemed \"external\", meaning outside of the psychological states of those who gain knowledge, can be conditions of justification.", "For example, an externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that for a justified true belief to count as knowledge, there must be a link or dependency between the belief and the state of the external world.", "Usually, this is understood to be a causal link.", "Such causation, to the extent that it is \"outside\" the mind, would count as an external, knowledge-yielding condition.", "Internalists, on the other hand, assert that all knowledge-yielding conditions are within the psychological states of those who gain knowledge.Though unfamiliar with the internalist/externalist debate himself, many point to René Descartes as an early example of the internalist path to justification.", "He wrote that because the only method by which we perceive the external world is through our senses, and that, because the senses are not infallible, we should not consider our concept of knowledge infallible.", "The only way to find anything that could be described as \"indubitably true\", he advocates, would be to see things \"clearly and distinctly\".", "He argued that if there is an omnipotent, good being who made the world, then it is reasonable to believe that people are made with the ability to know.", "However, this does not mean that man's ability to know is perfect.", "God gave man the ability to know but not with omniscience.", "Descartes said that man must use his capacities for knowledge correctly and carefully through methodological doubt.The dictum \"Cogito ergo sum\" (I think, therefore I am) is also commonly associated with Descartes's theory.", "In his own methodological doubt—doubting everything he previously knew so he could start from a blank slate—the first thing that he could not logically bring himself to doubt was his own existence: \"I do not exist\" would be a contradiction in terms.", "The act of saying that one does not exist assumes that someone must be making the statement in the first place.", "Descartes could doubt his senses, his body, and the world around him—but he could not deny his own existence, because he was able to doubt and must exist to manifest that doubt.", "Even if some \"evil genius\" were deceiving him, he would have to exist to be deceived.", "This one sure point provided him with what he called his Archimedean point, in order to further develop his foundation for knowledge.", "Simply put, Descartes's epistemological justification depended on his indubitable belief in his own existence and his clear and distinct knowledge of God." ], [ "Defining knowledge", "A central issue in epistemology is the question of what the nature of knowledge is or how to define it.", "Sometimes the expressions \"theory of knowledge\" and \"analysis of knowledge\" are used specifically for this form of inquiry.", "The term \"knowledge\" has various meanings in natural language.", "It can refer to an awareness of facts, as in knowing that Mars is a planet, to a possession of skills, as in knowing how to swim, or to an experiential acquaintance, as in knowing Daniel Craig personally.", "Factual knowledge, also referred to as ''propositional knowledge'' or ''descriptive knowledge'', plays a special role in epistemology.", "On the linguistic level, it is distinguished from the other forms of knowledge since it can be expressed through a that-clause, i.e.", "using a formulation like \"They know that...\" followed by the known proposition.Some features of factual knowledge are widely accepted: it is a form of cognitive success that establishes epistemic contact with reality.", "However, there are still various disagreements about its exact nature even though it has been studied intensely.", "Different factors are responsible for these disagreements.", "Some theorists try to furnish a practically useful definition by describing its most noteworthy and easily identifiable features.", "Others engage in an analysis of knowledge, which aims to provide a theoretically precise definition that identifies the set of essential features characteristic for all instances of knowledge and only for them.", "Differences in the methodology may also cause disagreements.", "In this regard, some epistemologists use abstract and general intuitions in order to arrive at their definitions.", "A different approach is to start from concrete individual cases of knowledge to determine what all of them have in common.", "Yet another method is to focus on linguistic evidence by studying how the term \"knowledge\" is commonly used.", "Different standards of knowledge are further sources of disagreement.", "A few theorists set these standards very high by demanding that absolute certainty or infallibility is necessary.", "On such a view, knowledge is a very rare thing.", "Theorists more in tune with ordinary language usually demand lower standards and see knowledge as something commonly found in everyday life.=== As justified true belief ===The historically most influential definition, discussed since ancient Greek philosophy, characterizes knowledge in relation to three essential features: as (1) a belief that is (2) true and (3) justified.", "There is still wide acceptance that the first two features are correct, i.e.", "that knowledge is a mental state that affirms a true proposition.", "However, there is a lot of dispute about the third feature: justification.", "This feature is usually included to distinguish knowledge from true beliefs that rest on superstition, lucky guesses, or faulty reasoning.", "This expresses the idea that knowledge is not the same as being right about something.", "Traditionally, justification is understood as the possession of evidence: a belief is justified if the believer has good evidence supporting it.", "Such evidence could be a perceptual experience, a memory, or a second belief.=== Gettier problem and alternative definitions ===An Euler diagram representing a version of the traditional definition of knowledge that is adapted to the Gettier problem.", "This problem gives us reason to think that not all justified true beliefs constitute knowledge.The justified-true-belief account of knowledge came under severe criticism in the second half of the 20th century, when Edmund Gettier proposed various counterexamples.", "In a famous example of what came to be known as a Gettier-case, a person is driving on a country road lined with multiple barn façades, only one of which is real barn, but it is not possible to tell the difference between them from the road.", "The person then stops by a fortuitous coincidence in front of the only real barn and forms the belief that it is a barn.", "The idea behind this thought experiment is that this is not knowledge even though the belief is both justified and true.", "The reason is that it is just a lucky accident since the person cannot tell the difference: They would have formed exactly the same justified belief if they had stopped at another site, in which case the belief would have been false.Various additional examples were proposed along similar lines.", "Most of them involve a justified true belief that apparently fails to amount to knowledge because the belief's justification is in some sense not relevant to its truth.", "These counterexamples have provoked very diverse responses.", "Some theorists think that one only needs to modify one's conception of justification to avoid them.", "But the more common approach is to search for an additional criterion.", "On this view, all cases of knowledge involve a justified true belief but some justified true beliefs do not amount to knowledge since they lack this additional feature.", "There are diverse suggestions for this fourth criterion.", "Some epistemologists require that no false belief is involved in the justification or that no defeater of the belief is present.", "A different approach is to require that the belief tracks truth, i.e.", "that the person would not have the belief if it was false.", "Some even require that the justification has to be infallible, i.e.", "that it necessitates the belief's truth.A quite different approach is to affirm that the justified-true-belief account of knowledge is deeply flawed and to seek a complete reconceptualization of knowledge.", "These reconceptualizations often do not require justification at all.", "One such approach is to require that the true belief was produced by a reliable process.", "Naturalized epistemologists often hold that the believed fact has to cause the belief.", "Virtue theorists are also interested in how the belief is produced.", "For them, the belief must be a manifestation of a cognitive virtue." ], [ "The value problem", "The primary value problem is to determine why knowledge should be more valuable than simply true belief.", "In Plato's ''Meno'', Socrates points out to Meno that a man who knew the way to Larissa could lead others there correctly.", "But so, too, could a man who had true beliefs about how to get there, even if he had not gone there or had any knowledge of Larissa.", "Socrates says that it seems that both knowledge and true opinion can guide action.", "Meno then wonders why knowledge is valued more than true belief and why knowledge and true belief are different.", "Socrates responds that knowledge, unlike belief, must be 'tied down' to the truth, like the mythical tethered statues of Daedalus.More generally, the problem is to identify what (if anything) makes knowledge more valuable than a minimal conjunction of its components such as mere true belief or justified true belief.", "Other components considered besides belief, truth and justification are safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and any anti-Gettier condition.", "This is done within analyses that conceive of knowledge as divided into components.", "Knowledge-first epistemological theories, which posit knowledge as fundamental, are notable exceptions to these kind of analyses.", "The value problem re-emerged in the philosophical literature on epistemology in the twenty-first century following the rise of virtue epistemology in the 1980s, partly because of the obvious link to the concept of value in ethics.=== Virtue epistemology ===In contemporary philosophy, epistemologists including Ernest Sosa, John Greco, Jonathan Kvanvig, Linda Zagzebski, and Duncan Pritchard have defended virtue epistemology as a solution to the value problem.", "They argue that epistemology should also evaluate the \"properties\" of people as epistemic agents (i.e.", "intellectual virtues), rather than merely the properties of propositions and propositional mental attitudes.The value problem has been presented as an argument against epistemic reliabilism by Linda Zagzebski, Wayne Riggs, and Richard Swinburne, among others.", "Zagzebski analogizes the value of knowledge to the value of espresso produced by an espresso maker: \"The liquid in this cup is not improved by the fact that it comes from a reliable espresso maker.", "If the espresso tastes good, it makes no difference if it comes from an unreliable machine.\"", "For Zagzebski, the value of knowledge deflates to the value of mere true belief.", "She assumes that reliability in itself has no value or disvalue, but Goldman and Olsson disagree.", "They point out that Zagzebski's conclusion rests on the assumption of veritism: all that matters is the acquisition of true belief.", "To the contrary, they argue that a reliable process for acquiring a true belief adds value to the mere true belief by making it more likely that future beliefs of a similar kind will be true.", "By analogy, having a reliable espresso maker that produced a good cup of espresso would be more valuable than having an unreliable one that luckily produced a good cup because the reliable one would more likely produce good future cups compared to the unreliable one.The value problem is important to assessing the adequacy of theories of knowledge that conceive of knowledge as consisting of true belief and other components.", "According to Kvanvig, an adequate account of knowledge should resist counterexamples and allow an explanation of the value of knowledge over mere true belief.", "Should a theory of knowledge fail to do so, it would prove inadequate.One of the more influential responses to the problem is that knowledge is not particularly valuable and is not what ought to be the main focus of epistemology.", "Instead, epistemologists ought to focus on other mental states, such as understanding.", "Advocates of virtue epistemology have argued that the value of knowledge comes from an internal relationship between the knower and the mental state of believing." ], [ "Acquiring knowledge", "===Sources of knowledge===There are many proposed sources of knowledge and justified belief which we take to be actual sources of knowledge in our everyday lives.", "Some of the most commonly discussed include perception, reason, memory, and testimony.===Important distinctions=======''A priori''–''a posteriori'' distinction====As mentioned above, epistemologists draw a distinction between what can be known ''a priori'' (independently of experience) and what can only be known ''a posteriori'' (through experience).", "Much of what we call ''a priori'' knowledge is thought to be attained through reason alone, as featured prominently in rationalism.", "This might also include a non-rational faculty of intuition, as defended by proponents of innatism.", "In contrast, ''a posteriori'' knowledge is derived entirely through experience or as a result of experience, as emphasized in empiricism.", "This also includes cases where knowledge can be traced back to an earlier experience, as in memory or testimony.A way to look at the difference between the two is through an example.", "Bruce Russell gives two propositions in which the reader decides which one he believes more.", "Option A: All crows are birds.", "Option B: All crows are black.", "If you believe option A, then you are a priori justified in believing it because you do not have to see a crow to know it is a bird.", "If you believe in option B, then you are posteriori justified to believe it because you have seen many crows therefore knowing they are black.", "He goes on to say that it does not matter if the statement is true or not, only that if you believe in one or the other that matters.The idea of ''a priori'' knowledge is that it is based on intuition or rational insights.", "Laurence BonJour says in his article \"The Structure of Empirical Knowledge\", that a \"rational insight is an immediate, non-inferential grasp, apprehension or 'seeing' that some proposition is necessarily true.\"", "(3) Going back to the crow example, by Laurence BonJour's definition the reason you would believe in option A is because you have an immediate knowledge that a crow is a bird, without ever experiencing one.Evolutionary psychology takes a novel approach to the problem.", "It says that there is an innate predisposition for certain types of learning.", "\"Only small parts of the brain resemble a tabula rasa; this is true even for human beings.", "The remainder is more like an exposed negative waiting to be dipped into a developer fluid\".====Analytic–synthetic distinction====The analytic–synthetic distinction was first proposed by Immanuel Kant.Immanuel Kant, in his ''Critique of Pure Reason'', drew a distinction between \"analytic\" and \"synthetic\" propositions.", "He contended that some propositions are such that we can know they are true just by understanding their meaning.", "For example, consider, \"My father's brother is my uncle.\"", "We can know it is true solely by virtue of our understanding in what its terms mean.", "Philosophers call such propositions \"analytic\".", "Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and predicates.", "An example would be, \"My father's brother has black hair.\"", "Kant stated that all mathematical and scientific statements are synthetic a priori propositions because they are necessarily true but our knowledge about the attributes of the mathematical or physical subjects we can only get by logical inference.While this distinction is first and foremost about meaning and is therefore most relevant to the philosophy of language, the distinction has significant epistemological consequences, seen most prominently in the works of the logical positivists.", "In particular, if the set of propositions which can only be known ''a posteriori'' is coextensive with the set of propositions which are synthetically true, and if the set of propositions which can be known ''a priori'' is coextensive with the set of propositions which are analytically true (or in other words, which are true by definition), then there can only be two kinds of successful inquiry: Logico-mathematical inquiry, which investigates what is true by definition, and empirical inquiry, which investigates what is true in the world.", "Most notably, this would exclude the possibility that branches of philosophy like metaphysics could ever provide informative accounts of what actually exists.The American philosopher W. V. O. Quine, in his paper \"Two Dogmas of Empiricism\", famously challenged the analytic-synthetic distinction, arguing that the boundary between the two is too blurry to provide a clear division between propositions that are true by definition and propositions that are not.", "While some contemporary philosophers take themselves to have offered more sustainable accounts of the distinction that are not vulnerable to Quine's objections, there is no consensus about whether or not these succeed.=== Science as knowledge acquisition ===Science is often considered to be a refined, formalized, systematic, institutionalized form of the pursuit and acquisition of empirical knowledge.", "As such, the philosophy of science may be viewed as an application of the principles of epistemology and as a foundation for epistemological inquiry." ], [ "The regress problem", "The regress problem (also known as Agrippa's Trilemma) is the problem of providing a complete logical foundation for human knowledge.", "The traditional way of supporting a rational argument is to appeal to other rational arguments, typically using chains of reason and rules of logic.", "A classic example that goes back to Aristotle is deducing that ''Socrates is mortal''.", "We have a logical rule that says ''All humans are mortal'' and an assertion that ''Socrates is human'' and we deduce that ''Socrates is mortal''.", "In this example how do we know that Socrates is human?", "Presumably we apply other rules such as: ''All born from human females are human''.", "Which then leaves open the question how do we know that all born from humans are human?", "This is the regress problem: how can we eventually terminate a logical argument with some statements that do not require further justification but can still be considered rational and justified?", "As John Pollock stated:... to justify a belief one must appeal to a further justified belief.", "This means that one of two things can be the case.", "Either there are some beliefs that we can be justified for holding, without being able to justify them on the basis of any other belief, or else for each justified belief there is an infinite regress of (potential) justification the nebula theory.", "On this theory there is no rock bottom of justification.", "Justification just meanders in and out through our network of beliefs, stopping nowhere.The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism.", "It is also the impetus for Descartes's famous dictum: ''I think, therefore I am''.", "Descartes was looking for some logical statement that could be true without appeal to other statements.===Responses to the regress problem===Many epistemologists studying justification have attempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning that can escape the regress problem.====Foundationalism====Foundationalists respond to the regress problem by asserting that certain \"foundations\" or \"basic beliefs\" support other beliefs but do not themselves require justification from other beliefs.", "These beliefs might be justified because they are self-evident, infallible, or derive from reliable cognitive mechanisms.", "Perception, memory, and a priori intuition are often considered possible examples of basic beliefs.The chief criticism of foundationalism is that if a belief is not supported by other beliefs, accepting it may be arbitrary or unjustified.====Coherentism====Another response to the regress problem is coherentism, which is the rejection of the assumption that the regress proceeds according to a pattern of linear justification.", "To avoid the charge of circularity, coherentists hold that an individual belief is justified circularly by the way it fits together (coheres) with the rest of the belief system of which it is a part.", "This theory has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without claiming special, possibly arbitrary status for some particular class of beliefs.", "Yet, since a system can be coherent while also being wrong, coherentists face the difficulty of ensuring that the whole system corresponds to reality.", "Additionally, most logicians agree that any argument that is circular is, at best, only trivially valid.", "That is, to be illuminating, arguments must operate with information from multiple premises, not simply conclude by reiterating a premise.Nigel Warburton writes in ''Thinking from A to Z'' that \"circular argument\|circular arguments are not invalid; in other words, from a logical point of view there is nothing intrinsically wrong with them.", "However, they are, when viciously circular, spectacularly uninformative.", "\"====Infinitism====An alternative resolution to the regress problem is known as \"infinitism\".", "Infinitists take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons available to them, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons when the need arises.", "This position is motivated in part by the desire to avoid what is seen as the arbitrariness and circularity of its chief competitors, foundationalism and coherentism.", "The most prominent defense of infinitism has been given by Peter Klein.====Foundherentism====An intermediate position, known as \"foundherentism\", is advanced by Susan Haack.", "Foundherentism is meant to unify foundationalism and coherentism.", "Haack explains the view by using a crossword puzzle as an analogy.", "Whereas, for example, infinitists regard the regress of reasons as taking the form of a single line that continues indefinitely, Haack has argued that chains of properly justified beliefs look more like a crossword puzzle, with various different lines mutually supporting each other.", "Thus, Haack's view leaves room for both chains of beliefs that are \"vertical\" (terminating in foundational beliefs) and chains that are \"horizontal\" (deriving their justification from coherence with beliefs that are also members of foundationalist chains of belief)." ], [ "Schools of thought", "===Empiricism===David Hume, one of the most staunch defenders of empiricismEmpiricism is a view in the theory of knowledge which focuses on the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the senses, in the generation of knowledge.", "Certain forms exempt disciplines such as mathematics and logic from these requirements.There are many variants of empiricism, including British empiricism, logical empiricism, phenomenalism, and some versions of common sense philosophy.", "Most forms of empiricism give epistemologically privileged status to sensory impressions or sense data, although this plays out very differently in different cases.", "Some of the most famous historical empiricists include John Locke, David Hume, George Berkeley, Francis Bacon, John Stuart Mill, Rudolf Carnap, and Bertrand Russell.===Rationalism===Rationalism is the epistemological view that reason is the chief source of knowledge and the main determinant of what constitutes knowledge.", "More broadly, it can also refer to any view which appeals to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.", "Rationalism is one of the two classical views in epistemology, the other being empiricism.", "Rationalists claim that the mind, through the use of reason, can directly grasp certain truths in various domains, including logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics.", "Rationalist views can range from modest views in mathematics and logic (such as that of Gottlob Frege) to ambitious metaphysical systems (such as that of Baruch Spinoza).Some of the most famous rationalists include Plato, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.===Skepticism===Skepticism is a position that questions the possibility of human knowledge, either in particular domains or on a general level.", "Skepticism does not refer to any one specific school of philosophy, but is rather a thread that runs through many epistemological debates.", "Ancient Greek skepticism began during the Hellenistic period in philosophy, which featured both Pyrrhonism (notably defended by Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus, and Aenesidemus) and Academic skepticism (notably defended by Arcesilaus and Carneades).", "Among ancient Indian philosophers, skepticism was notably defended by the Ajñana school and in the Buddhist Madhyamika tradition.", "In modern philosophy, René Descartes' famous inquiry into mind and body began as an exercise in skepticism, in which he started by trying to doubt all purported cases of knowledge in order to search for something that was known with absolute certainty.Epistemic skepticism questions whether knowledge is possible at all.", "Generally speaking, skeptics argue that knowledge requires certainty, and that most or all of our beliefs are fallible (meaning that our grounds for holding them always, or almost always, fall short of certainty), which would together entail that knowledge is always or almost always impossible for us.", "Characterizing knowledge as strong or weak is dependent on a person's viewpoint and their characterization of knowledge.", "Much of modern epistemology is derived from attempts to better understand and address philosophical skepticism.====Pyrrhonism====One of the oldest forms of epistemic skepticism can be found in Agrippa's trilemma (named after the Pyrrhonist philosopher Agrippa the Skeptic) which demonstrates that certainty can not be achieved with regard to beliefs.", "Pyrrhonism dates back to Pyrrho of Elis from the 4th century BCE, although most of what we know about Pyrrhonism today is from the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus.", "Pyrrhonists claim that for any argument for a non-evident proposition, an equally convincing argument for a contradictory proposition can be produced.", "Pyrrhonists do not dogmatically deny the possibility of knowledge, but instead point out that beliefs about non-evident matters cannot be substantiated.====Cartesian skepticism====The Cartesian evil demon problem, first raised by René Descartes, supposes that our sensory impressions may be controlled by some external power rather than the result of ordinary veridical perception.", "In such a scenario, nothing we sense would actually exist, but would instead be mere illusion.", "As a result, we would never be able to know anything about the world, since we would be systematically deceived about everything.", "The conclusion often drawn from evil demon skepticism is that even if we are not completely deceived, all of the information provided by our senses is still ''compatible'' with skeptical scenarios in which we are completely deceived, and that we must therefore either be able to exclude the possibility of deception or else must deny the possibility of ''infallible'' knowledge (that is, knowledge which is completely certain) beyond our immediate sensory impressions.", "While the view that no beliefs are beyond doubt other than our immediate sensory impressions is often ascribed to Descartes, he in fact thought that we ''can'' exclude the possibility that we are systematically deceived, although his reasons for thinking this are based on a highly contentious ontological argument for the existence of a benevolent God who would not allow such deception to occur.====Responses to philosophical skepticism====Epistemological skepticism can be classified as either \"mitigated\" or \"unmitigated\" skepticism.", "Mitigated skepticism rejects \"strong\" or \"strict\" knowledge claims but does approve weaker ones, which can be considered \"virtual knowledge\", but only with regard to justified beliefs.", "Unmitigated skepticism rejects claims of both virtual and strong knowledge.", "Characterizing knowledge as strong, weak, virtual or genuine can be determined differently depending on a person's viewpoint as well as their characterization of knowledge.", "Some of the most notable attempts to respond to unmitigated skepticism include direct realism, disjunctivism, common sense philosophy, pragmatism, fideism, and fictionalism.===Pragmatism===Pragmatism is a fallibilist epistemology that emphasizes the role of action in knowing.", "Different interpretations of pragmatism variously emphasize: truth as the final outcome of ideal scientific inquiry and experimentation, truth as closely related to usefulness, experience as transacting with (instead of representing) nature, and human practices as the foundation of language.", "Pragmatism's origins are often attributed to Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey.", "In 1878, Peirce formulated the maxim: \"Consider what effects, that might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have.", "Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object.", "\"William James suggested that through a pragmatist epistemology, theories \"become instruments, not answers to enigmas in which we can rest\".", "In James's pragmatic method, which he adapted from Peirce, metaphysical disputes can be settled by tracing the practical consequences of the different sides of the argument.", "If this process does not resolve the dispute, then \"the dispute is idle\".Contemporary versions of pragmatism have been developed by thinkers such as Richard Rorty and Hilary Putnam.", "Rorty proposed that values were historically contingent and dependent upon their utility within a given historical period.", "Contemporary philosophers working in pragmatism are called neopragmatists, and also include Nicholas Rescher, Robert Brandom, Susan Haack, and Cornel West.=== Naturalized epistemology ===In certain respects an intellectual descendant of pragmatism, naturalized epistemology considers the evolutionary role of knowledge for agents living and evolving in the world.", "It de-emphasizes the questions around justification and truth, and instead asks, empirically, how reliable beliefs are formed and the role that evolution played in the development of such processes.", "It suggests a more empirical approach to the subject as a whole, leaving behind philosophical definitions and consistency arguments, and instead using psychological methods to study and understand how \"knowledge\" is actually formed and is used in the natural world.", "As such, it does not attempt to answer the analytic questions of traditional epistemology, but rather replace them with new empirical ones.Naturalized epistemology was first proposed in \"Epistemology Naturalized\", a seminal paper by W.V.O.", "Quine.", "A less radical view has been defended by Hilary Kornblith in ''Knowledge and its Place in Nature'', in which he seeks to turn epistemology towards empirical investigation without completely abandoning traditional epistemic concepts.===Epistemic relativism===Epistemic relativism is the view that what is true, rational, or justified for one person need not be true, rational, or justified for another person.", "Epistemic relativists therefore assert that while there are ''relative'' facts about truth, rationality, justification, and so on, there is no ''perspective-independent'' fact of the matter.", "Note that this is distinct from epistemic contextualism, which holds that the ''meaning'' of epistemic terms vary across contexts (e.g.", "\"I know\" might mean something different in everyday contexts and skeptical contexts).", "In contrast, epistemic relativism holds that the relevant ''facts'' vary, not just linguistic meaning.", "Relativism about truth may also be a form of ontological relativism, insofar as relativists about truth hold that facts about what ''exists'' vary based on perspective.===Epistemic constructivism===Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all \"knowledge is a compilation of human-made constructions\", \"not the neutral discovery of an objective truth\".", "Whereas objectivism is concerned with the \"object of our knowledge\", constructivism emphasizes \"how we construct knowledge\".", "Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth, which emphasize intersubjectivity rather than objectivity, and viability rather than truth.", "The constructivist point of view is in many ways comparable to certain forms of pragmatism.===Bayesian epistemology===Bayesian epistemology is a formal approach to various topics in epistemology that has its roots in Thomas Bayes' work in the field of probability theory.", "One advantage of its formal method in contrast to traditional epistemology is that its concepts and theorems can be defined with a high degree of precision.", "It is based on the idea that beliefs can be interpreted as subjective probabilities.", "As such, they are subject to the laws of probability theory, which act as the norms of rationality.", "These norms can be divided into static constraints, governing the rationality of beliefs at any moment, and dynamic constraints, governing how rational agents should change their beliefs upon receiving new evidence.", "The most characteristic Bayesian expression of these principles is found in the form of Dutch books, which illustrate irrationality in agents through a series of bets that lead to a loss for the agent no matter which of the probabilistic events occurs.", "Bayesians have applied these fundamental principles to various epistemological topics but Bayesianism does not cover all topics of traditional epistemology.=== Feminist epistemology ===Feminist epistemology is a subfield of epistemology which applies feminist theory to epistemological questions.", "It began to emerge as a distinct subfield in the 20th century.", "Prominent feminist epistemologists include Miranda Fricker (who developed the concept of epistemic injustice), Donna Haraway (who first proposed the concept of situated knowledge), Sandra Harding, and Elizabeth Anderson.", "Harding proposes that feminist epistemology can be broken into three distinct categories: feminist empiricism, standpoint epistemology, and postmodern epistemology.Feminist epistemology has also played a significant role in the development of many debates in social epistemology.=== Decolonial epistemology ===Epistemicide is a term used in decolonisation studies that describes the killing of knowledge systems under systemic oppression such as colonisation and slavery.", "The term was coined by Boaventura de Sousa Santos, who presented the significance of such physical violence creating the centering of Western knowledge in the current world.", "This term challenges the thought of what is seen as knowledge in academia today.===Indian pramana===Indian schools of philosophy, such as the Hindu Nyaya and Carvaka schools, and the Jain and Buddhist philosophical schools, developed an epistemological tradition independently of the Western philosophical tradition called \"pramana\".", "Pramana can be translated as \"instrument of knowledge\" and refers to various means or sources of knowledge that Indian philosophers held to be reliable.", "Each school of Indian philosophy had their own theories about which pramanas were valid means to knowledge and which were unreliable (and why).", "A Vedic text, Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (–6th centuries BCE), lists \"four means of attaining correct knowledge\": ''smṛti'' (\"tradition\" or \"scripture\"), ''pratyakṣa'' (\"perception\"), ''aitihya'' (\"communication by one who is expert\", or \"tradition\"), and ''anumāna'' (\"reasoning\" or \"inference\").In the Indian traditions, the most widely discussed pramanas are: ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāṇa'' (inference), ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances), ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and ''Śabda'' (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).", "While the Nyaya school (beginning with the Nyāya Sūtras of Gotama, between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE) were a proponent of realism and supported four pramanas (perception, inference, comparison/analogy and testimony), the Buddhist epistemologists (Dignaga and Dharmakirti) generally accepted only perception and inference.", "The Carvaka school of materialists only accepted the pramana of perception, and hence were among the first empiricists in the Indian traditions.", "Another school, the Ajñana, included notable proponents of philosophical skepticism.The theory of knowledge of the Buddha in the early Buddhist texts has been interpreted as a form of pragmatism as well as a form of correspondence theory.", "Likewise, the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti has been interpreted both as holding a form of pragmatism or correspondence theory for his view that what is true is what has effective power (''arthakriya'').", "The Buddhist Madhyamika school's theory of emptiness (shunyata) meanwhile has been interpreted as a form of philosophical skepticism.The main contribution to epistemology by the Jains has been their theory of \"many sided-ness\" or \"multi-perspectivism\" (Anekantavada), which says that since the world is multifaceted, any single viewpoint is limited (''naya'' – a partial standpoint).", "This has been interpreted as a kind of pluralism or perspectivism.", "According to Jain epistemology, none of the pramanas gives absolute or perfect knowledge since they are each limited points of view." ], [ "Domains of inquiry", "===Formal epistemology===Formal epistemology uses formal tools and methods from decision theory, logic, probability theory and computability theory to model and reason about issues of epistemological interest.", "Work in this area spans several academic fields, including philosophy, computer science, economics, and statistics.", "The focus of formal epistemology has tended to differ somewhat from that of traditional epistemology, with topics like uncertainty, induction, and belief revision garnering more attention than the analysis of knowledge, skepticism, and issues with justification.===Historical epistemology===Historical epistemology is the study of the historical conditions of, and changes in, different kinds of knowledge.", "There are many versions of or approaches to historical epistemology, which is different from history of epistemology.", "Twentieth-century French historical epistemologists like Abel Rey, Gaston Bachelard, Jean Cavaillès, and Georges Canguilhem focused specifically on changes in scientific discourse.===Metaepistemology===Metaepistemology is the metaphilosophical study of the methods, aims, and subject matter of epistemology.", "In general, metaepistemology aims to better understand our first-order epistemological inquiry.", "Some goals of metaepistemology are identifying inaccurate assumptions made in epistemological debates and determining whether the questions asked in mainline epistemology are the ''right'' epistemological questions to be asking.===Social epistemology===Social epistemology deals with questions about knowledge in contexts where our knowledge attributions cannot be explained by simply examining individuals in isolation from one another, meaning that the scope of our knowledge attributions must be widened to include broader social contexts.", "It also explores the ways in which interpersonal beliefs can be justified in social contexts.", "The most common topics discussed in contemporary social epistemology are testimony, which deals with the conditions under which a belief \"x is true\" which resulted from being told \"x is true\" constitutes knowledge; peer disagreement, which deals with when and how I should revise my beliefs in light of other people holding beliefs that contradict mine; and group epistemology, which deals with what it means to attribute knowledge to groups rather than individuals, and when group knowledge attributions are appropriate." ], [ "Historical context", "Contemporary philosophers consider that epistemology is a major subfield of philosophy, along with ethics, logic, and metaphysics, which are more ancient subdivisions of philosophy.", "But in the early and mid 20th century, epistemology was not seen as an independent field on its own.", "Quine viewed epistemology as a chapter of psychology.Sect.1.1 Russell viewed it as a mix of psychology and logic.", "William Alston presents a similar contemporary perspective, but in a historically 'oriented' manner: for him, epistemology has historically always been a part of cognitive psychology.", "The claim that psychology is a background for epistemology is often called its naturalization.", "The epistemology of Russell and Quine in the 20th century were naturalised in that way.", "More recently, Laurence Bonjour rejects that there is a need for that kind of psychologism in contemporary epistemology.", "His argument is that, nowadays, the required part of psychology, which he refers as ''minimal psychologism'', ''conceptual psychologism'' and ''meliorative psychologism,'' are self evident within contemporary (traditional) epistemology, \"involves at most a quite minor departure from traditional, nonnaturalized epistemology\" or \"poses no real threat to traditional epistemology\".", "In this view point, epistemology has integrated all required psychological aspects, which are considered non controversial, and can be severed from psychologism.For Luciano Floridi, \"at the turn of the 20th century there had been a resurgence of interest in epistemology through an anti-metaphysical, naturalist, reaction against the nineteenth-century development of Neo-Kantian and Neo-Hegelian idealism.\"", "In that perspective, contemporary epistemology, which in Bonjour's perspective does not need to be \"naturalized\" anymore, emerged after a naturalisation that rejected meta-physical perspectives associated with Kant and Hegel.Historians of philosophy traditionally divide the modern period into a dispute between empiricists (including Francis Bacon, John Locke, David Hume, and George Berkeley) and rationalists (including René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz).", "The debate between them has often been framed using the question of whether knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience (empiricism), or whether a significant portion of our knowledge is derived entirely from our faculty of reason (rationalism).", "According to some scholars, this dispute was resolved in the late 18th century by Immanuel Kant, whose transcendental idealism famously made room for the view that \"though all our knowledge begins with experience, it by no means follows that all knowledge arises out of experience\"." ], [ "Epistemological concepts in past philosophies", "In ''Meno'', the definition of knowledge as justified true belief appears for the first time.", "In other words, belief is required to have an explanation in order to be correct, beyond just happening to be right.", "A number of important epistemological concerns also appeared in the works of Aristotle.René Descartes, who is often credited as the father of modern philosophy, was often preoccupied with epistemological questions in his work.During the subsequent Hellenistic period, philosophical schools began to appear which had a greater focus on epistemological questions, often in the form of philosophical skepticism.", "For instance, the Hellenistic Sceptics, especially Sextus Empiricus of the Pyrrhonian school rejected justification on the basis of Agrippa's trilemma and so, in the view of , rejected the possibility of knowledge as well.", "The Pyrrhonian school of Pyrrho and Sextus Empiricus held that eudaimonia (flourishing, happiness, or \"the good life\") could be attained through the application of epoché (suspension of judgment) regarding all non-evident matters.", "Pyrrhonism was particularly concerned with undermining the epistemological dogmas of Stoicism and Epicureanism.", "The other major school of Hellenistic skepticism was Academic skepticism, most notably defended by Carneades and Arcesilaus, which predominated in the Platonic Academy for almost two centuries.In ancient India the Ajñana school of ancient Indian philosophy promoted skepticism.", "Ajñana was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism, Jainism and the Ājīvika school.", "They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or to ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation.", "They were specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.During the Islamic Golden Age, one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, logicians and mystics in Islamic epistemology was Al-Ghazali.", "During his life, he wrote over 70 books on science, Islamic reasoning and Sufism.", "Al-Ghazali distributed his book ''The Incoherence of Philosophers'', set apart as a defining moment in Islamic epistemology.", "He shaped a conviction that all occasions and connections are not the result of material conjunctions but are the present and prompt will of God.After the ancient philosophical era but before the modern philosophical era, a number of (non Islamic) medieval philosophers also engaged with epistemological questions at length.", "Most notable among the Medievals for their contributions to epistemology were Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham.", "According to historian of philosophy Jan Woleński, the development of philosophy divides, with some exceptions, into the pre-Cartesian ''ontologically oriented'' and the post-Cartesian ''epistemologically oriented''.", "=== Contemporary historiography ===There are a number of different methods that contemporary scholars use when trying to understand the relationship between past epistemology and contemporary epistemology.", "One of the most contentious questions is this: \"Should we assume that the problems of epistemology are perennial, and that trying to reconstruct and evaluate Plato's or Hume's or Kant's arguments is meaningful for current debates, too?\"", "Similarly, there is also a question of whether contemporary philosophers should aim to ''rationally reconstruct and evaluate'' historical views in epistemology, or to ''merely describe'' them." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References======References specific to notes======Further reading === * Ayer, Alfred Jules.", "1936.", "''Language, Truth, and Logic''.", "* BonJour, Laurence.", "2002.", "''Epistemology: Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses''.", "Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.", "* Bovens, Luc & Hartmann, Stephan.", "2003.", "''Bayesian Epistemology''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Butchvarov, Panayot.", "1970.", "''The Concept of Knowledge''.", "Evanston, Northwestern University Press.", "* * Cohen, Stewart.", "1999.", "\"Contextualism, Skepticism, and Reasons\", in Tomberlin 1999.", "* Dancy, Jonathan.", "1991.", "''An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology'' (Second Edition).", "John Wiley & Sons.", "* * DeRose, Keith.", "1999.\"", "Contextualism: An Explanation and Defense \", in Greco and Sosa 1999.", "* Descartes, Rene.", "1641.", "''Meditations on First Philosophy''* Feldman, Richard.", "1999.", "\"Contextualism and Skepticism\", in Tomberlin 1999, pp. 91–114.", "* Gettier, Edmund.", "1963.", "\"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", "\", ''Analysis'', Vol.", "23, pp.", "121–123.Online text .", "* Greco, J.", "& Sosa, E.", "1999.", "''Blackwell Guide to Epistemology'', Blackwell Publishing.", "* Harris, Errol E.", "1970.", "''Hypothesis And Perception'', George Allen and Unwin, London, Reprinted 2002 Routledge, London.", "* * Hay, Clare.", "2008.", "''The Theory of Knowledge: A Coursebook'', The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge.", "* Hawthorne, John.", "2005.", "\"The Case for Closure\", ''Contemporary Debates in Epistemology'', Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (ed.", "): 26–43.", "* Hendricks, Vincent F.", "2006.", "''Mainstream and Formal Epistemology'', New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Kant, Immanuel.", "1781.", "''Critique of Pure Reason''.", "* Keeton, Morris T.", "1962.", "\"Empiricism\", in ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Dagobert D. Runes (ed.", "), Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, pp. 89–90.", "* Kirkham, Richard.", "1984.", "\"Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?\"", "''Mind'', 93.", "* Klein, Peter.", "1981.", "''Certainty: a Refutation of Skepticism'', Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.", "* Kyburg, H.E.", "1961.", "''Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief'', Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.", "* Korzybski, Alfred.", "1994 (1933).", "''Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics'', Fifth Edition.", "Ft. Worth, TX: Institute of General Semantics.", "* * * Morin, Edgar.", "1986.", "''La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance'' (Method, 3rd volume : The knowledge of knowledge)* Morton, Adam.", "2002.", "''A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge'' (Third Edition) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.", "* Nelson, Quee.", "2007.", "''The Slightest Philosophy'', Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing, 296 pages.", "* Niiniluoto, Ilkka.", "2002.", "''Critical Scientific Realism'', Oxford: Oxford Univ.", "Press.", "* Plato.", "''Meno''.", "* Popper, Karl R.", "1972.", "''Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach'', Oxford: Oxford Univ.", "Press.", "* Preyer, G./Siebelt, F./Ulfig, A.", "1994.", "''Language, Mind and Epistemology'', Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.", "* Russell, Bertrand.", "1912.", "''The Problems of Philosophy'', New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Russell, Bertrand.", "1940.", "''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth'', Nottingham: Spokesman Books.", "* Santayana, George.", "1923.", "''Scepticism and Animal Faith'', New York: Charles Scribner's Sons – London: Constable and Co.* Spir, African.", "1877.", "''Denken und Wirklichkeit: Versuch einer Erneuerung der kritischen Philosophie'' (Thought and Reality: Attempt at a Renewal of Critical Philosophy), (Second Edition) Leipzig: J.G.", "Findel.", "* * Steup, Matthias.", "2005.", "\"Knowledge and Skepticism\", ''Contemporary Debates in Epistemology'', Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (eds.", "): 1–13.", "* Tomberlin, James (ed.).", "1999.", "''Philosophical Perspectives 13, Epistemology'', Blackwell Publishing.", "* * * Wittgenstein, Ludwig.", "1922.", "''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'', Frank P. Ramsey and C.K.", "Ogden (trns.", "), Dover.", "Online text ." ], [ "External links", "'''''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' articles'''* * * * * * * * '''''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' articles'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''''Encyclopædia Britannica'''''* Epistemology by Avrum Stroll and A.P.", "Martinich'''Other links'''* The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Epistemology & Methodology * * Knowledge-How at Philpapers* * What Is Epistemology?", "– a brief introduction to the topic by Keith DeRose.", "* Epistemology Introduction, Part 1 and Part 2 by Paul Newall at the Galilean Library.", "* ''Teaching Theory of Knowledge'' (1986) – Marjorie Clay (ed.", "), an electronic publication from The Council for Philosophical Studies.", "* An Introduction to Epistemology by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.", "* A Summary of Sunni Epistemology A concise and accessible introduction to epistemology in the Muslim world for laymen" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Esperanto" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Esperanto''' (, ) is the world's most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language.", "Created by the Warsaw-based ophthalmologist L. L. Zamenhof in 1887, it is intended to be a universal second language for international communication, or \"the international language\" ().", "Zamenhof first described the language in ''Dr.", "Esperanto's International Language'' (), which he published under the pseudonym .", "Early adopters of the language liked the name ''Esperanto'' and soon used it to describe his language.", "The word translates into English as \"one who hopes\".Within the range of constructed languages, Esperanto occupies a middle ground between \"naturalistic\" (imitating existing natural languages) and ''a''''priori'' (where features are not based on existing languages).", "Esperanto's vocabulary, syntax and semantics derive predominantly from languages of the Indo-European group.", "A substantial majority of its vocabulary (approximately 80%) derives from Romance languages, but it also contains elements derived from Germanic, Greek, and Slavic languages.", "One of the language's most notable features is its extensive system of derivation, where prefixes and suffixes may be freely combined with roots to generate words, making it possible to communicate effectively with a smaller set of words.Esperanto is the most successful constructed international auxiliary language, and the only such language with a sizeable population of native speakers, of which there are perhaps several thousand.", "Usage estimates are difficult, but two estimates put the number of people who know how to speak Esperanto at around 100,000.Concentration of speakers is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America.", "Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, (\"Esperanto-land\") is used as a name for the collection of places where it is spoken.", "The language has also gained a noticeable presence on the internet in recent years, as it became increasingly accessible on platforms such as Duolingo, Wikipedia, Amikumu and Google Translate.", "Esperanto speakers are often called \"Esperantists\" ()." ], [ "Official use", "In 1908, Wilhelm Molly proposed making Neutral Moresnet the world's first Esperanto‑speaking state.Esperanto has not been a secondary official language of any recognized country, but it entered the education systems of several countries, such as Hungary and China.There were plans at the beginning of the 20th century to establish Neutral Moresnet, in central-western Europe, as the world's first Esperanto state; any such plans came to an end when the Treaty of Versailles awarded the disputed territory to Belgium, effective January 10, 1920.In addition, the self-proclaimed artificial island micronation of Rose Island, near Italy in the Adriatic Sea, used Esperanto as its official language in 1968, and another micronation, the extant Republic of Molossia, near Dayton, Nevada, uses Esperanto as an official language alongside English.The Chinese government has used Esperanto since 2001 for daily news on china.org.cn.", "China also uses Esperanto in China Radio International, and for the internet magazine ''El Popola Ĉinio''.The Vatican Radio has an Esperanto version of its podcasts and its website.The United States Army has published military phrase books in Esperanto, to be used from the 1950s until the 1970s in war games by mock enemy forces.", "A field reference manual, FM 30-101-1 Feb. 1962, contained the grammar, English-Esperanto-English dictionary, and common phrases.", "In the 1970s Esperanto was used as the basis for Defense Language Aptitude Tests.Esperanto is the working language of several non-profit international organizations such as the , a left-wing cultural association which had 724 members in over 85 countries in 2006.There is also Education@Internet, which has developed from an Esperanto organization; most others are specifically Esperanto organizations.", "The largest of these, the Universal Esperanto Association, has an official consultative relationship with the United Nations and UNESCO, which recognized Esperanto as a medium for international understanding in 1954.The Universal Esperanto Association collaborated in 2017 with UNESCO to deliver an Esperanto translation of its magazine ''UNESCO Courier'' (''Unesko Kuriero en Esperanto'').", "The World Health Organization offers an Esperanto version of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19, ) occupational safety and health education course.Esperanto was also the first language of teaching and administration of the International Academy of Sciences San Marino.The League of Nations made attempts to promote teaching Esperanto in member countries, but the resolutions were defeated mainly by French delegates, who did not feel there was a need for it.In the summer of 1924, the American Radio Relay League adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.All the personal documents sold by the World Service Authority, including the World Passport, are written in Esperanto, together with English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, and Chinese (the official languages of the United Nations)." ], [ "History", "=== Creation ===Russian.", "The title translates to: ''International Language: Preface and Complete Tutorial''.Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by L. L. Zamenhof, a Polish-Jewish ophthalmologist from Białystok, then part of the Russian Empire, but now part of Poland.", "In the 1870s, just a few years before Zamenhof created Esperanto, Polish was banned in public places in Białystok.According to Zamenhof, he created the language to reduce the \"time and labor we spend in learning foreign tongues\", and to foster harmony between people from different countries: \"Were there but an international language, all translations would be made into it alone ... and all nations would be united in a common brotherhood.\"", "His feelings and the situation in Białystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal second language, to foster world peace and international understanding, and to build a \"community of speakers\".His original title for the language was simply \"the international language\" (), but early speakers grew fond of the name ''Esperanto,'' and began to use it as the name for the language just two years after its creation.", "The name quickly gained prominence, and has been used as an official name ever since.In 1905, Zamenhof published the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' as a definitive guide to the language.", "Later that year, French Esperantists organized with his participation the first World Esperanto Congress, an ongoing annual conference, in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France.", "Zamenhof also proposed to the first congress that an independent body of linguistic scholars should steward the future evolution of Esperanto, foreshadowing the founding of the Akademio de Esperanto (in part modeled after the Académie Française), which was established soon thereafter.", "Since then, world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars, and the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic (when it was moved to an online-only event).", "Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of more than 2,000 people, and up to 6,000 people at the most.Zamenhof wrote that he wanted mankind to \"learn and use ... en masse ... the proposed language as a living one\".", "The goal for Esperanto to become a global auxiliary language was not Zamenhof's only goal; he also wanted to \"enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not; in other words, the language is to be directly a means of international communication\".After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into Esperanto, as well as writing original prose and verse, the first book of Esperanto grammar was published in Warsaw on July 26, 1887.The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades; at first, primarily in the Russian Empire and Central Europe, then in other parts of Europe, the Americas, China, and Japan.", "In the early years before the world congresses, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and periodicals.Zamenhof's name for the language was simply (\"International Language\").", "December 15, Zamenhof's birthday, is now regarded as Zamenhof Day or Esperanto Book Day.===20th century===Map of Esperanto groups in Europe in 1905The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between what is today Belgium and Germany, had a sizable proportion of Esperanto-speaking citizens among its small, diverse population.", "There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.However, neither Belgium nor Germany had surrendered their claims to the region, with the latter having adopted a more aggressive stance towards pursuing its claim around the turn of the century, even being accused of sabotage and administrative obstruction to force the issue.", "The outbreak of World War I would bring about the end of neutrality, with Moresnet initially left as \"an oasis in a desert of destruction\" following the German invasion of Belgium.", "The territory was formally annexed by Prussia in 1915, though without international recognition.After the war, a great opportunity for Esperanto seemingly presented itself, when the Iranian delegation to the League of Nations proposed that the language be adopted for use in international relations following a report by a Japanese delegate to the League named Nitobe Inazō, in the context of the 13th World Congress of Esperanto, held in Prague.", "Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux.", "Hanotaux opposed all recognition of Esperanto at the League, from the first resolution on December 18, 1920, and subsequently through all efforts during the next three years.", "Hanotaux did not approve of how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat, effectively wielding his veto power to block the decision.", "However, two years later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula.", "The French government retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in France's schools and universities.", "The French Ministry of Public Instruction said that \"French and English would perish and the literary standard of the world would be debased\".", "Nonetheless, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement.", "During this time, Anarchism as a political movement was very supportive of both anationalism and the Esperanto language.Fran Novljan was one of the chief promoters of Esperanto in the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "He was among the founders of the Croatian (Educational Alliance), of which he was the first secretary, and organized Esperanto institutions in Zagreb.", "Novljan collaborated with Esperanto newspapers and magazines, and was the author of the Esperanto textbook ''Internacia lingvo esperanto i Esperanto en tridek lecionoj''.In 1920s Korea, socialist thinkers pushed for the use of Esperanto through a series of columns in The Dong-a Ilbo as resistance to both Japanese occupation as well as a counter to the growing nationalist movement for Korean language standardization.", "This lasted until the Mukden Incident in 1931, when changing colonial policy led to an outright ban on Esperanto education in Korea.=== Official repression ===7th Esperanto congress, Antwerp, August 1911Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many states.", "Repression was especially pronounced in Nazi Germany, Francoist Spain up until the 1950s, and the Soviet Union under Stalin, from 1937 to 1956.In Nazi Germany, there was a motivation to ban Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish, and due to the internationalist nature of Esperanto, which was perceived as \"Bolshevist\".", "In his work, ''Mein Kampf'', Adolf Hitler specifically mentioned Esperanto as an example of a language that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy once they achieved world domination.", "Esperantists were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out to be killed.", "The efforts of a minority of German Esperantists to expel their Jewish colleagues and overtly align themselves with the Reich were futile, and Esperanto was legally forbidden in 1935.Esperantists in German concentration camps did, however, teach Esperanto to fellow prisoners, telling guards they were teaching Italian, the language of one of Germany's Axis allies.In Imperial Japan, the left wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was forbidden, but its leaders were careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were socialist revolutionaries, which proved a successful strategy.After the October Revolution of 1917, Esperanto was given a measure of government support by the new communist states in the former Russian Empire and later by the Soviet Union government, with the Soviet Esperantist Union being established as an organization that, temporarily, was officially recognized.", "In his biography on Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky mentions that Stalin had studied Esperanto.", "However, in 1937, at the height of the Great Purge, Stalin completely reversed the Soviet government's policies on Esperanto; many Esperanto speakers were executed, exiled or held in captivity in the Gulag labour camps.", "Quite often the accusation was: \"You are an active member of an international spy organization which hides itself under the name of 'Association of Soviet Esperantists' on the territory of the Soviet Union.\"", "Until the end of the Stalin era, it was dangerous to use Esperanto in the Soviet Union, even though it was never officially forbidden to speak Esperanto.Fascist Italy allowed the use of Esperanto, finding its phonology similar to that of Italian and publishing some tourist material in the language.During and after the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain suppressed anarchists, socialists and Catalan nationalists for many years, among whom the use of Esperanto was extensive, but in the 1950s the Esperanto movement was again tolerated.=== Modern history ===In 1954, the United Nations — through UNESCO — granted official support to Esperanto as an international auxiliary language in the Montevideo Resolution.", "However, Esperanto is still not one of the official languages of the UN.The development of Esperanto has continued unabated into the 21st century.", "The advent of the Internet has had a significant impact on the language, as learning it has become increasingly accessible on platforms such as Duolingo, and as speakers have increasingly networked on platforms such as Amikumu.", "With up to two million speakers, it is the most widely spoken constructed language in the world.", "Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, ''Esperantujo'' (\"Esperanto-land\") is the name given to the collection of places where it is spoken.While many of its advocates continue to hope for the day that Esperanto becomes officially recognized as the international auxiliary language, some (including raŭmistoj) have stopped focusing on this goal and instead view the Esperanto community as a stateless diasporic linguistic group based on freedom of association." ], [ "Internet", "On May 28, 2015, the language learning platform Duolingo launched a free Esperanto course for English speakers On March 25, 2016, when the first Duolingo Esperanto course completed its beta-testing phase, that course had 350,000 people registered to learn Esperanto through the medium of English.", "By July 2018, the number of learners had risen to 1.36 million.", "On July 20, 2018, Duolingo changed from recording users cumulatively to reporting only the number of \"active learners\" (i.e., those who are studying at the time and have not yet completed the course), which as of October 2022 stands at 299,000 learners.On October 26, 2016, a second Duolingo Esperanto course, for which the language of instruction is Spanish, appeared on the same platform and which as of April 2021 has a further 176,000 students.", "A third Esperanto course, taught in Brazilian Portuguese, began its beta-testing phase on May 14, 2018, and as of April 2021, 220,000 people are using this course and 155,000 people in May 2022.A fourth Esperanto course, taught in French, began its beta-testing phase in July 2020, and as of March 2021 has 72,500 students and 101,000 students in May 2022.As of October 2018, , another online learning platform for Esperanto, has 320,000 registered users, and nearly 75,000 monthly visits.", "50,000 users possess at least a basic understanding of Esperanto.On February 22, 2012, Google Translate added Esperanto as its 64th language.", "On July 25, 2016, Yandex Translate added Esperanto as a language.Variant logo for the Esperanto Wikipedia's 200,000-article milestoneWith about articles, Esperanto Wikipedia (Vikipedio) is the 36th-largest Wikipedia, as measured by the number of articles, and is the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language.", "About 150,000 users consult the Vikipedio regularly, as attested by Wikipedia's automatically aggregated log-in data, which showed that in October 2019 the website has 117,366 unique individual visitors per month, plus 33,572 who view the site on a mobile device instead." ], [ "Linguistic properties", "=== Classification ===Esperanto has been described as \"a language lexically predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensively agglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in character\".", "Approximately 80% of Esperanto's vocabulary is derived from Romance languages.", "Typologically, Esperanto has prepositions and a pragmatic word order that by default is ''subject–verb–object'' (SVO).", "Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though placing them before the noun is more common.", "New words are formed through extensive use of affixes and compounds.Esperanto's phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and semantics are based on the Indo-European languages spoken in Europe.", "Some evidence has shown that Zamenhof studied German, English, Spanish, Lithuanian, Italian and French and knew 13 different languages, which had an influence on Esperanto's linguistic properties.", "Esperantist and linguist Ilona Koutny notes that Esperanto's vocabulary, phrase structure, agreement systems, and semantic typology are considered to be similar to Indo-European languages spoken in Europe.", "However, Koutny and Esperantist Humphrey Tonkin also note that Esperanto has features that are atypical of Indo-European languages spoken in Europe, such as its agglutinative morphology.=== Phonology ===Esperanto typically has 22 to 24 consonants (depending on the phonemic analysis and individual speaker), five vowels, and two semivowels that combine with the vowels to form six diphthongs.", "(The consonant and semivowel are both written ⟨j⟩, and the uncommon consonant is written with the digraph ⟨dz⟩, which is the only consonant that does not have its own letter.)", "Tone is not used to distinguish meanings of words.", "Stress is always on the second-to-last vowel in proper Esperanto words, unless a final vowel is elided, a phenomenon mostly occurring in poetry.", "For example, '''' \"family\" is , with the stress on the second ''i'', but when the word is used without the final '' (),'' the stress remains on the second : .==== Consonants ====The 23 consonants are: Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Stop Affricate () Fricative Approximant Trill There is some degree of allophony:* The sound is usually rendered as an alveolar trill , but can also be a uvular trill , a uvular fricative , and an alveolar approximant .", "Many other forms such as an alveolar tap are done and accepted in practice.", "* The is normally pronounced like English ''v,'' but may be pronounced (between English ''v'' and ''w'') or , depending on the language background of the speaker.", "* A semivowel normally occurs only in diphthongs after the vowels and , not as a consonant .", "* Common, if debated, assimilation includes the pronunciation of as and as .A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position (as in '''', \"strange\") and five in medial position (as in ''ekssklavo'', \"former slave\").", "Final clusters are uncommon except in unassimilated names, poetic elision of final '','' and a very few basic words such as '''' \"hundred\" and '''' \"after\".==== Vowels ====Esperanto has the five vowels found in such languages as Spanish, Modern Hebrew, and Modern Greek.+Monophthongs Front Back Close Mid Open +Diphthongs Front Back Close Mid Open Since there are only five vowels, a good deal of variation in pronunciation is tolerated.", "For instance, ''e'' commonly ranges from (French ) to (French ).", "These details often depend on the speaker's native language.", "A glottal stop may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in '''' \"hero\" ( or ) and '''' \"great-grandfather\" ( or ).=== Orthography ======= Alphabet ====The Esperanto alphabet is based on the Latin script, using a one-sound-one-letter principle, with the exception of d͡z.", "It includes six letters with diacritics: five with circumflexes (⟨ĉ⟩, ⟨ĝ⟩, ⟨ĥ⟩, ⟨ĵ⟩, and ⟨ŝ⟩), and one with a breve (⟨ŭ⟩).", "The alphabet does not include the letters ⟨q⟩, ⟨w⟩, ⟨x⟩, or ⟨y⟩, which are only used in the writing of proper names and unassimilated borrowings.The 28-letter alphabet is:+ Esperanto alphabet Number 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728 Upper caseABCĈDEFGĜHĤIJĴKLMNOPRSŜTUŬVZ Lower caseabcĉdefgĝhĥijĵklmnoprsŝtuŭvz IPA phoneme==== Phonology ====All letters lacking diacritics are pronounced approximately as their respective IPA symbols, with the exception of ⟨c⟩.The letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨c⟩ are used in a way that is familiar to speakers of many Central and Eastern European languages, but may be unfamiliar to English speakers.", "⟨j⟩ has the sound of English ⟨y⟩, as in '''''y'''ellow'' and ''bo'''y''''' (Esperanto ''jes'' has the same pronunciation as its English cognate ''yes''), and ⟨c⟩ has a \"''ts''\" sound, as in ''hi'''ts''''' or the ⟨zz⟩ in ''pi'''zz'''a''.", "In addition, the ⟨g⟩ in Esperanto is always 'hard', as in '''''g'''ift''.", "Esperanto makes use of the five-vowel system, essentially identical to the vowels of Spanish and Modern Greek.The accented letters are:* ⟨ĉ⟩ is pronounced like English ''ch'' in '''''ch'''atting''* ⟨ĝ⟩ is pronounced like English ''g'' in '''''g'''em''* ⟨ĥ⟩ is pronounced like the ''ch'' in German or Scottish English ''lo'''ch'''''.", "* ⟨ĵ⟩ is pronounced like the ''s'' in English ''fu'''s'''ion'' or the ''j'' in French '''''J'''acques''⟨ŝ⟩ is pronounced like English ''sh''.", "⟨ŭ⟩ in ⟨aŭ⟩ is pronounced like English ''ow'' in ''c'''ow'''''.According to one of Zamenhof's entries in the ''Lingvaj respondoj'', the letter ⟨n⟩ ought to be pronounced as n in all cases, but a rendering as ŋ is admissible before ⟨g⟩, ⟨k⟩, and ⟨ĥ⟩.==== Diacritics and Substitutions ====Even with the widespread adoption of Unicode, the letters with diacritics (found in the \"Latin-Extended A\" section of the Unicode Standard) can cause problems with printing and computing, because they are not found on most physical keyboards and are left out of certain fonts.There are two principal workarounds to this problem, which substitute digraphs for the accented letters.", "Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an \"h-convention\", which replaces ⟨ĉ⟩, ⟨ĝ⟩, ⟨ĥ⟩, ⟨ĵ⟩, ⟨ŝ⟩, and ⟨ŭ⟩ with ⟨ch⟩, ⟨gh⟩, ⟨hh⟩, ⟨jh⟩, ⟨sh⟩, and ⟨u⟩, respectively.", "The main issue with this convention is its ambiguity: If used in a database, a program could not easily determine whether to render, for example, ⟨ch⟩ as /c/ followed by /h/ or as /ĉ/.", "Such words do exist in Esperanto: could not be rendered unambiguously, unless its component parts were intentionally separated, as in ''senc·hava''.", "A more recent \"x-convention''\"'' has also gained prominence with the advent of computing, utilizing an otherwise absent ⟨x⟩ to produce the digraphs ⟨cx⟩, ⟨gx⟩, ⟨hx⟩, ⟨jx⟩, ⟨sx⟩, and ⟨ux⟩; this has the incidental advantage of alphabetizing correctly in most cases, since the only letter after ⟨x⟩ is ⟨z⟩.There are computer keyboard layouts that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically replaces x- or h-convention digraphs with the corresponding diacritic letters (for example, for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, for Windows Phone, and Gboard and AnySoftKeyboard for Android).On Linux, the GNOME, Cinnamon, and KDE desktop environments support the entry of characters with Esperanto diacritics.Criticisms are levied against the letters with circumflex diacritics, which some find odd or cumbersome, along with their being invented specifically for Esperanto rather than borrowed from existing languages.", "Additionally, some of them are arguably unnecessary — for example, the use of ''ĥ'' instead of ''x'' and ''ŭ'' instead of ''w''.", "However, Zamenhof did not choose these letters arbitrarily: In fact, they were inspired by Czech letters with the caron diacritic but replaced the caron with a circumflex for the ease of those who had access to a French typewriter (with a circumflex dead-key).", "The Czech letter ''ž'' was replaced with ''ĵ'' to match the French letter ''j'' with the same sound.", "The letter ''ŭ'' on the other hand comes from the u-breve used in Latin prosody, and is also speculated to be inspired by the Belarusian Cyrillic letter ''ў''; French typewriters can render it approximately as the French letter ''ù''.=== Grammar ===Esperanto words are mostly derived by stringing together roots, grammatical endings, and at times prefixes and suffixes.", "This process is regular so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood.", "Compound words are formed with a modifier-first, head-final order, as in English (compare \"birdsong\" and \"songbird\", and likewise, and ).", "Speakers may optionally insert an ''o'' between the words in a compound noun if placing them together directly without the ''o'' would make the resulting word hard to say or understand.The different parts of speech are marked by their own suffixes: all common nouns are marked with the suffix , all adjectives with , all derived adverbs with , and all verbs except the jussive (or imperative) and infinitive end in , specifically in one of six tense and mood suffixes, such as the present tense ; the jussive mood, which is tenseless, ends in .", "Nouns and adjectives have two cases: nominative for grammatical subjects and in general, and accusative for direct objects and (after a preposition) to indicate direction of movement.Singular nouns used as grammatical subjects end in , plural subject nouns in (pronounced oi̯ like English \"oy\").", "Singular direct object forms end in , and plural direct objects with the combination (oi̯n; rhymes with \"coin\"): indicates that the word is a noun, indicates the plural, and indicates the accusative (direct object) case.", "Adjectives agree with their nouns; their endings are singular subject (a; rhymes with \"ha!", "\"), plural subject (ai̯, pronounced \"eye\"), singular object , and plural object (ai̯n; rhymes with \"fine\").", "Noun Subject Object Singular -'''''' -'''''' Plural -'''''' -'''''' Adjective Subject Object Singular -'''''' -'''''' Plural -'''''' -''''''The suffix , besides indicating the direct object, is used to indicate movement and a few other things as well.The six verb inflections consist of three tenses and three moods.", "They are present tense , future tense , past tense , infinitive mood , conditional mood and jussive mood (used for wishes and commands).", "Verbs are not marked for person or number.", "Thus, means \"to sing\", means \"I sing\", means \"you sing\", and means \"they sing\".", "Verbal tense Suffix Present Past Future Verbal mood Suffix Infinitive Jussive Conditional Word order is comparatively free.", "Adjectives may precede or follow nouns; subjects, verbs and objects may occur in any order.", "However, the article \"the\", demonstratives such as \"that\" and prepositions (such as \"at\") must come before their related nouns.", "Similarly, the negative \"not\" and conjunctions such as \"and\" and \"that\" must precede the phrase or clause that they introduce.", "In copular (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as in English: \"people are animals\" is distinguished from \"animals are people\".=== Vocabulary ===The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by , published by Zamenhof in 1887.This book listed 917 roots; these could be expanded into tens of thousands of words using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding.", "In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, , which had a larger set of roots.", "The rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recommended, however, that speakers use most international forms and then derive related meanings from these.Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily (but not solely) from the European languages.", "Not all proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do, especially technical and scientific terms.", "Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots; \"computer\", for instance, is formed from the verb \"compute\" and the suffix \"tool\".", "Words are also calqued; that is, words acquire new meanings based on usage in other languages.", "For example, the word \"mouse\" has acquired the meaning of a computer mouse from its usage in many languages (English ''mouse'', French ''souris'', Dutch ''muis'', Spanish ''ratón'', etc.).", "Esperanto speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether meaning can be expressed by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are not entirely straightforward; for example, , literally \"give out\", means \"publish\", paralleling the usage of certain European languages (such as German , Dutch , Russian ).", "In addition, the suffix ''-um-'' has no defined meaning; words using the suffix must be learned separately (such as \"to the right\" and \"clockwise\").There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto, as these forms of speech tend to make international communication difficult—working against Esperanto's main goal.", "The language contains several calques of Polish expressions.Instead of derivations of Esperanto roots, new roots are taken from European languages in the endeavor to create an international language.=== Sample texts ===The following short extract gives an idea of the character of Esperanto.", "* Esperanto::«»* English translation::''In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king.", "During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world.", "At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural creature.", "Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolized the absolute authority of a feudal emperor.", "The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon.", "All of his personal possessions carried the name \"dragon\" and were decorated with various dragon figures.", "Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China and legends about dragons circulate.", "''=== Simple phrases ===Listed below are some useful Esperanto words and phrases along with IPA transcriptions:English Esperanto IPAHello Yes No Good morning Good day Bonan tagon Good evening Good night Goodbye What is your name?", "/Kiel vi nomiĝas?", "/My name is Marco.", "/Mi nomiĝas Marko /How are you?", "I am well.", "Do you speak Esperanto?", "I don't understand you All right / En ordo / Okay Thank you You're welcome / Nedankinde Please / Mi petas / Forgive me/Excuse me Bless you!", "Congratulations!", "I love you One beer, please Where is the toilet?", "What is that?", "That is a dog We will love!", "Peace!", "I am a beginner in Esperanto." ], [ "Education", "Esperanto speakers learn the language through self-directed study, online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers.", "More recently, free teaching websites like and have become available.Esperanto instruction is rarely available at schools, including four primary schools in a pilot project under the supervision of the University of Manchester, and by one count at a few universities.", "However, outside China and Hungary, these mostly involve informal arrangements, rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship.", "Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest had a department of Interlinguistics and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors.", "Additionally, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poland offers a diploma in Interlinguistics.", "The Senate of Brazil passed a bill in 2009 that would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in public schools, although mandatory if there is demand for it.", ", the bill is still under consideration by the Chamber of Deputies.In the United States, Esperanto is notably offered as a weekly evening course at Stanford University's Bechtel International Center.", "''Conversational Esperanto, The International Language'', is a free drop-in class that is open to Stanford students and the general public on campus during the academic year.", "With administrative permission, Stanford Students can take the class for two credits a quarter through the Linguistics Department.", "\"Even four lessons are enough to get more than just the basics,\" the Esperanto at Stanford website reads.Esperanto-USA suggests that Esperanto can be learned in, at most, one quarter of the amount of time required for other languages.=== The Zagreb method ===The Zagreb method is an Esperanto teaching method that was developed in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (present-day capital city of Croatia), in the late 1970s to early 1980s as a response to the unsatisfactory learning outcomes of traditional natural-language teaching techniques when used for Esperanto.", "Its goal was to streamline the material in order to equip learners with practical knowledge that could be put to use in a short of a time frame as possible.", "It is now implemented and available on some of the well-known learning websites in the community.=== Third-language acquisition ===From 2006 to 2011, four primary schools in Britain, with 230 pupils, followed a course in \"propaedeutic Esperanto\"—that is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness, and to accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages—under the supervision of the University of Manchester.", "As they put it,Many schools used to teach children the recorder, not to produce a nation of recorder players, but as a preparation for learning other instruments.", "We teach Esperanto, not to produce a nation of Esperanto-speakers, but as a preparation for learning other languages.The results showed that the pupils achieved enhanced metalinguistic awareness, though the study did not indicate whether a course in a language other than Esperanto would have led to similar results.", "Similar studies have been conducted in New Zealand, the United States, and Germany.", "The results of these studies were favorable, and demonstrated that studying Esperanto before another foreign language expedites the acquisition of the other, natural language.", "In one study in England, a group of European secondary school students studied Esperanto for one year, then French for three years, and ended up with a better command of French than a control group, who had studied French for a four-year period." ], [ "Community", "=== Geography and demography ===Location map of hosts of , the Esperanto homestay community, by 2015Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken constructed language in the world.", "Speakers are most numerous in Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas, where they often form Esperanto clubs.", "Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and central countries of Europe; in China, Korea, Japan, and Iran within Asia; in Brazil, and the United States in the Americas; and in Togo in Africa.Countering a common criticism against Esperanto, the statistician Svend Nielsen has found no significant correlation between the number of Esperanto speakers and the similarity of a given national native language to Esperanto.", "He concludes that Esperanto tends to be more popular in rich countries with widespread Internet access and a tendency to contribute more to science and culture.", "Linguistic diversity within a country was found to have no, or perhaps a slightly reductive, correlation with Esperanto popularity.==== Number of speakers ====An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by Sidney S. Culbert, a retired psychology professor at the University of Washington and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years.", "Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at Foreign Service Level 3, \"professionally proficient\" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).", "Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of more than one million speakers, published annually in the World Almanac and Book of Facts.", "Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff.", "Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number of Esperanto speakers is shown as two million.", "This latter figure appears in ''Ethnologue''.", "Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language.", "Although it does not meet Zamenhof's goal of a universal language, it still represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language.Marcus Sikosek (now Ziko van Dijk) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated.", "He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of Cologne.", "Van Dijk finds only 30 fluent speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers.", "He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher).", "Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members.In 1996, Finnish linguist Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:* 1,000 have Esperanto as their native family language.", "* 10,000 speak it fluently.", "* 100,000 can use it actively.", "* One million understand a large amount passively.", "* Ten million have studied it to some extent at some time.In 2017, doctoral student Svend Nielsen estimated around 63,000 Esperanto speakers worldwide, taking into account association memberships, user-generated data from Esperanto websites and census statistics.", "This number, however, was disputed by statistician Sten Johansson, who questioned the reliability of the source data and highlighted a wide margin of error, the latter point with which Nielsen agrees.", "Both have stated, however, that this new number is likely more realistic than some earlier projections.In the absence of Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty.", "According to the website of the Universal Esperanto Association:Numbers of textbooks sold and membership of local societies put \"the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions\".==== Native speakers ====Native Esperanto speakers, , have learned the language from birth from Esperanto-speaking parents.", "This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes occurs in a family of Esperanto speakers who often use the language.", "As of 1996, according to Corsetti, there were approximately 350 attested cases of families with native Esperanto speakers (which means there were around 700 Esperanto speaking natives in these families, not accounting for older native speakers).", "The 2022 edition of ''Ethnologue'' gives 1,000 L1 users citing Corsetti et al 2004.However, native speakers do not occupy an authoritative position in the Esperanto community, as they would in other language communities.", "This presents a challenge to linguists, whose usual source of grammaticality and meanings are native speakers.=== Culture ===World Esperanto Congress, Rotterdam 2008Esperantists can access an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature.", "There are more than 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed Esperanto magazines.", "In 2013 a museum about Esperanto opened in China.", "Esperantists use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the or to develop pen pals through ''''.Every year, Esperantists meet for the World Congress of Esperanto ''()''.Historically, much music has been written in the language such as , has been in various folk traditions.", "There is also a variety of classical and semi-classical choral music, both original and translated, as well as large ensemble music that includes voices singing Esperanto texts.", "Lou Harrison, who incorporated styles and instruments from many world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works, most notably (1973).", "David Gaines used Esperanto poems as well as an excerpt from a speech by Zamenhof for his ''Symphony No.", "One (Esperanto)'' for mezzo-soprano and orchestra (1994–98).", "He wrote original Esperanto text for his (''I Can Cry No Longer'') for unaccompanied SATB choir (1994).There are also shared traditions, such as Zamenhof Day, celebrated on December 15.Esperantists speak primarily in Esperanto at special conventions, such as the World Esperanto Congress.Proponents of Esperanto, such a Humphrey Tonkin, a professor at the University of Hartford, argue that Esperanto is \"culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture\".", "The late Scottish Esperanto author William Auld wrote extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is \"the expression of a common human culture, unencumbered by national frontiers.", "Thus it is considered a culture on its own.\"", "Critics have argued that the language is eurocentric, as it draws much of its vocabulary from European languages." ], [ "Esperanto heritage", "Several Esperanto associations also advance Esperanto education, and aim to preserve its culture and heritage.", "Poland added Esperanto to its list of intangible cultural heritage in 2014.=== Notable authors in Esperanto ===* Muztar Abbasi (translated the Quran into Esperanto)* William Auld* Julio Baghy* Kazimierz Bein ()* Marjorie Boulton* Jorge Camacho* Fernando de Diego (mainly translations)* Vasili Eroshenko* Jean Forge* Antoni Grabowski* Kalman Kalocsay* Anna Löwenstein* Kenji Miyazawa (translated his pre-existing works into Esperanto)* Nikolai Nekrasov* István Nemere* Claude Piron* Edmond Privat* Frederic Pujulà i Vallès* Baldur Ragnarsson* Reto Rossetti* Raymond Schwartz* Tibor Sekelj* Tivadar Soros* Spomenka Štimec* Éva Tófalvy* Vladimir Varankin* Gaston Waringhien* L. L. Zamenhof* Þórbergur Þórðarson=== Popular culture ===In the futuristic novel ''Lord of the World'' by Robert Hugh Benson, Esperanto is presented as the predominant language of the world, much as Latin is the language of the Church.", "A reference to Esperanto appears in the science-fiction story ''War with the Newts'' by Karel Čapek, published in 1936.As part of a passage on what language the salamander-looking creatures with human cognitive ability should learn, it is noted that \"...in the Reform schools, Esperanto was taught as the medium of communication.\"", "(P. 206).Esperanto has been used in many films and novels.", "Typically, this is done either to add the exotic flavour of a foreign language without representing any particular ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language.", "The Charlie Chaplin film ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) showed Jewish ghetto shop signs in Esperanto.", "Two full-length feature films have been produced with dialogue entirely in Esperanto: '','' in 1964, and ''Incubus,'' a 1965 B-movie horror film which is also notable for starring William Shatner shortly before he began working on ''Star Trek''.", "In ''Captain Fantastic'' (2016) there is a dialogue in Esperanto.", "The 1994 film ''Street Fighter'' contains Esperanto dialogue spoken by the character Sagat.", "Finally, Mexican film director Alfonso Cuarón has publicly shown his fascination for Esperanto, going as far as naming his film production company Esperanto Filmoj (\"Esperanto Films\").=== Science ===Hungarian Cosmonaut Bertalan Farkas, the first Esperantist in spaceIn 1921 the French Academy of Sciences recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication.", "A few scientists and mathematicians, such as Maurice Fréchet (mathematics), John C. Wells (linguistics), Helmar Frank (pedagogy and cybernetics), and Nobel laureate Reinhard Selten (economics) have published part of their work in Esperanto.", "Frank and Selten were among the founders of the International Academy of Sciences in San Marino, sometimes called the \"Esperanto University\", where Esperanto is the primary language of teaching and administration.A message in Esperanto was recorded and included in ''Voyager 1''s Golden Record.=== Commerce and trade ===Esperanto business groups have been active for many years.", "Research conducted in the 1920s by the French Chamber of Commerce and reported in ''The New York Times'' suggested that Esperanto seemed to be the best business language.The privacy-oriented cryptocurrency, Monero, takes its name from the Esperanto word for ''coin''.=== Goals of the movement ===Zamenhof had three goals, as he wrote already in 1887: to create an easy language, to create a language ready to use \"whether the language be universally accepted or not\" and to find some means to get many people to learn the language.", "So Zamenhof's intention was not only to create an easy-to-learn language to foster peace and international understanding as a general language, but also to create a language for immediate use by a (small) language community.", "Esperanto was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages.", "This goal was shared by Zamenhof among Esperanto speakers at the beginning of the movement.", "Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations.Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called , from , meaning \"final victory\".There are two kinds of ''finvenkismo'': ''desubismo'' aims to spread Esperanto between ordinary people (''desube'', from below) to form a steadily growing community of Esperanto speakers, while ''desuprismo'' aims to act from above (''desupre''), beginning with politicians.Zamenhof considered the first way more plausible, as \"for such affairs as ours, governments come with their approval and help usually only when everything is completely ready\".Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called , from Rauma, Finland, where a declaration on the short-term improbability of the and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980.However the \"Manifesto de Raŭmo\" clearly mentions the intention to further spread the language: \"We want to spread Esperanto to put into effect its positive values more and more, step by step\".In 1996 the Prague Manifesto was adopted at the annual congress of the Universal Esperanto Association (UEA); it was subscribed by individual participants and later by other Esperanto speakers.", "More recently, language-learning apps like Duolingo and Amikumu have helped to increase the amount of fluent speakers of Esperanto, and find others in their area to speak the language with.=== Symbols and flags ===The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white canton, upon a field of green.", "It was proposed to Zamenhof by Richard Geoghegan, author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887.The flag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer.The green star on white ('''') is also used by itself as a round (buttonhole, etc.)", "emblem by many esperantists, among other reasons to enhance their visibility outside the Esperanto world.A version with an ''E'' superimposed over the green star is sometimes seen.Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white Christian cross superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with the color of the field changed from green to red.In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language.It featured a white background with two stylised curved \"E\"s facing each other.Dubbed the (jubilee symbol), it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the (melon) for its elliptical shape.It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the (green star).=== Politics ===Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political situations.The most popular of these is the Europe–Democracy–Esperanto, which aims to establish Esperanto as the official language of the European Union.Grin's Report, published in 2005 by François Grin, found that the use of English as the lingua franca within the European Union costs billions annually and significantly benefits English-speaking countries financially.The report considered a scenario where Esperanto would be the lingua franca, and found that it would have many advantages, particularly economically speaking, as well as ideologically.Left-wing currents exist in the wider Esperanto world, mostly organized through the Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda founded by French theorist Eugène Lanti.Other notable Esperanto socialists include Nikolai Nekrasov and Vladimir Varankin, both of whom were put to death in October 1938 during the Stalinist repressions.", "Nekrasov was accused of being \"an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists.", "\"=== Religion ======= Oomoto ====The Oomoto religion encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits.==== Baháʼí Faith ====The Baháʼí Faith encourages the use of an auxiliary international language.", "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá praised the ideal of Esperanto, and there was an affinity between Esperantists and Baháʼís during the late 19th century and early 20th century.On February 12, 1913, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá gave a talk to the Paris Esperanto Society, stating:Now, praise be to God that Dr. Zamenhof has invented the Esperanto language.", "It has all the potential qualities of becoming the international means of communication.", "All of us must be grateful and thankful to him for this noble effort; for in this way he has served his fellowmen well.", "With untiring effort and self-sacrifice on the part of its devotees Esperanto will become universal.", "Therefore every one of us must study this language and spread it as far as possible so that day by day it may receive a broader recognition, be accepted by all nations and governments of the world, and become a part of the curriculum in all the public schools.", "I hope that Esperanto will be adopted as the language of all the future international conferences and congresses, so that all people need acquire only two languages—one their own tongue and the other the international language.", "Then perfect union will be established between all the people of the world.", "Consider how difficult it is today to communicate with various nations.", "If one studies fifty languages one may yet travel through a country and not know the language.", "Therefore I hope that you will make the utmost effort, so that this language of Esperanto may be widely spread.Lidia Zamenhof, daughter of L. L. Zamenhof, became a Baháʼí around 1925.James Ferdinand Morton Jr., an early member of the Baháʼí Faith in Greater Boston, was vice-president of the Esperanto League for North America.", "Ehsan Yarshater, the founding editor of ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', notes how as a child in Iran he learned Esperanto and that when his mother was visiting Haifa on a Baháʼí pilgrimage he wrote her a letter in Persian as well as Esperanto.", "At the request of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Agnes Baldwin Alexander became an early advocate of Esperanto and used it to spread the Baháʼí teachings at meetings and conferences in Japan.Today there exists an active sub-community of Baháʼí Esperantists and various volumes of Baháʼí literature have been translated into Esperanto.", "In 1973, the Baháʼí Esperanto-League for active Baháʼí supporters of Esperanto was founded.==== Spiritism ====In 1908, spiritist Camilo Chaigneau wrote an article named \"Spiritism and Esperanto\" in the periodic ''La Vie d'Outre-Tombe'' recommending the use of Esperanto in a \"central magazine\" for all spiritists and Esperantists.", "Esperanto then became actively promoted by spiritists, at least in Brazil, initially by Ismael Gomes Braga and František Lorenz; the latter is known in Brazil as Francisco Valdomiro Lorenz, and was a pioneer of both spiritist and Esperantist movements in this country.", "The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of Spiritism's basic books, and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.William T. Stead, a famous spiritualist and occultist in the United Kingdom, co-founded the first Esperanto club in the U.K.==== Theosophy ====The Teozofia Esperanta Ligo (Theosophical Esperantist League) was formed in 1911, and the organization's journal, ''Espero Teozofia'', was published from 1913 to 1928.==== Bible translations ====The first translation of the Bible into Esperanto was a translation of the Tanakh (or Old Testament) done by L. L. Zamenhof.", "The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages' translations by a group of British clergy and scholars before its publication at the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1910.In 1926 this was published along with a New Testament translation, in an edition commonly called the \"\".", "In the 1960s, the tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto Bible version.", "Since then, the Dutch Remonstrant pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the Deuterocanonical or apocryphal books, in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh.", "These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in , but the Deuterocanonical books have appeared in recent editions of the ''Londona Biblio''.==== Christianity ====Mass in Esperanto during the 95th World Congress of Esperanto in Havana, 2010Christian Esperanto organizations and publications include:* After a failed attempt to start a Catholic Esperanto organization, Emile Peltier, a parish priest near Tours, France, published the first issue of ''Espero Katolika'' (Catholic Hope) in 1902''.''", "A year after Peltier's death, the International Union of Catholic Esperantists (Internacia Katolika Unuiĝo Esperantista, '''IKUE''') was formed in 1910.Father Max Metzger founded the World Peace League of the White Cross in 1916 and the German Catholics' Peace Association in 1919, both of which used Esperanto as their working language.", "Two Roman Catholic popes, John Paul II and Benedict XVI, have regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994.", "* In 1911, The International League of Christian Esperantists (''Kristana Esperantista Ligo Internacia'', '''KELI''') was founded during the Universal Congress of Esperanto in Antwerp.", "The founder, Paul Hübner (1881-1970), was an early supporter of the Nazi movement, a fact which disenfranchised liberal and Jewish members, thus severely limiting the growth of the KELI during the first half of the 20th century.", "KELI's bimonthly interdenominational magazine, ''Dia Regno'', continues to be published and is reportedly made available to readers in 48 countries.", "They have also published several Esperanto hymnals including the 1971 ''Adoru Kantante'' (Worship by Singing) and ''Tero kaj Ĉielo Kantu'' (Earth and Heaven Sing).", "* The Quaker Esperanto Society (''Kvakera Esperanto-Societo'', '''KES''') was established in 1921 and described in multiple issues of \"The Friend\" Advices and Queries (''Konsiloj kaj Demandoj)'' and several other Quaker texts have been translated.", "Well-known Esperantists who were also Quakers include authors and historians, Edmond Privat and Montagu Christie Butler.", "* The first Christadelphian publications in Esperanto were published in 1910.", "* Chick Publications, a publisher of Protestant fundamentalist-themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of comic book–style tracts by Jack T. Chick translated into Esperanto, including \"This Was Your Life!\"", "(\"\")* The Book of Mormon has been partially translated into Esperanto, although the translation has not been officially endorsed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "There exists a group of Latter-day Saint Esperantists who distribute church literature in the language.", "* There are instances of Christian apologists and teachers using Esperanto as a medium.", "Nigerian pastor Bayo Afolaranmi's \"Spirita nutraĵo\" (\"spiritual food\") Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted weekly messages since 2003.==== Islam ====Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds.", "After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international ''lingua franca'', it began to be used in the seminaries of Qom.", "An Esperanto translation of the Qur'an was published by the state shortly thereafter." ], [ "Modifications", "Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of (''Foundation of Esperanto''), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with Zamenhof's proposals in 1894 and in 1907.Several later constructed languages, such as Universal, Saussure, Romániço, Internasia, Esperanto sen Fleksio, and Mundolingvo, were all based on Esperanto.In modern times, conscious attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language, such as Riism.", "Many words with now have alternative spellings with and occasionally , so that may also be spelled ; see Esperanto phonology for further details of replacement.", "Reforms aimed at altering country names have also resulted in a number of different options, either due to disputes over suffixes or Eurocentrism in naming various countries.=== Criticism of modification ===J.", "R. R. Tolkien wrote in support of the language in a 1932 ''British Esperantist'' article, but criticised those who sought to adapt or \"tinker\" with the language, which, in his opinion, harmed unanimity and the goal of achieving wide acceptance." ], [ "Criticism <!--This section linked from [[Esperantido]]-->", "There have been numerous objections to Esperanto over the years.", "For example, there has been criticism that Esperanto is not neutral enough, but also that it should convey a specific culture, which would make it less neutral; that Esperanto does not draw on a wide enough selection of the world's languages, but also that it should be more narrowly European.===Language-neutrality===Esperantists often argue for Esperanto as a culturally neutral means of communication.", "However, it is often accused of being Eurocentric.", "This is most often noted in regard to the vocabulary.", "The vocabulary, for example, draws about three-quarters from Romance languages, and the remainder primarily from German, Greek and Slavic languages.", "Supporters have argued that the agglutinative grammar and verb regularity of Esperanto has more in common with Asian languages than with European ones.", "A 2010 linguistic typological study concluded that \"Esperanto is indeed somewhat European in character, but considerably less so than the European languages themselves.", "\"===Gender-neutrality===Esperanto is sometimes accused of being inherently sexist, because the default form of some nouns is used for descriptions of men while a derived form is used for the women.", "This is said to retain traces of the male-dominated society of late 19th-century Europe of which Esperanto is a product.", "These nouns are primarily titles, such as ''baron/baroness'', and kinship terms, such as ''sinjoro'' \"Mr, sir\" vs. ''sinjorino'' \"Ms, lady\" and ''patro'' \"father\" vs. ''patrino'' \"mother\".", "Before the movement toward equal rights for women, this also applied to professional roles assumed to be predominantly male, such as ''doktoro,'' a PhD doctor (male or unspecified), versus ''doktorino,'' a female PhD.", "This was analogous to the situation with the English suffix ''-ess,'' as in the words ''waiter/waitress'', etc.On the other hand, the pronoun ''ĝi'' (\"it\") may be used generically to mean he/she/they; the pronoun ''li'' (\"he\") is always masculine and ''ŝi'' (\"she\") is always female, despite some authors' arguments.", "A gender-neutral singular pronoun ''ri'' has gradually become more widely used in recent years, although it is not currently universal.The plural pronoun ''ili'' (\"they\") is always neutral, as are nouns with the prefix ''ge–'' such as ''gesinjoroj'' (equivalent to ''sinjoro kaj sinjorino'' \"Mr.and Ms.\"), ''gepatroj'' \"parents\" (equivalent to ''patro kaj patrino'' \"mother and father\").===Case and number agreement===Speakers of languages without grammatical case or adjectival agreement frequently criticise these aspects of Esperanto.", "In addition, in the past some people found the Classical Greek forms of the plural (nouns in ''-oj,'' adjectives in ''-aj)'' to be awkward, proposing instead that Italian ''-i'' be used for nouns, and that no plural be used for adjectives.", "These suggestions were adopted by the Ido reform.", "A reply to that criticism is that the presence of an accusative case allows much freedom in word order, e.g.", "for emphasis (\"Johano batis Petron\", John hit Peter; \"Petron batis Johano\", it is Peter whom John hit), that its absence in the \"predicate of the object\" avoids ambiguity (\"Mi vidis la blankan domon\", I saw the white house; \"Mi vidis la domon blanka\", the house seemed white to me) and that adjective agreement allows, among others, the use of hyperbaton in poetry (as in Latin, cf.", "Virgil's Eclogue 1:1 ''Tityre, tu patulæ recubans sub tegmine fagi...'' where \"patulæ\" (spread out) is epithet to \"fagi\" (beech) and their agreement in the genitive feminine binds them notwithstanding their distance in the verse).=== Alphabet ===The Esperanto alphabet uses two diacritics: the circumflex and the breve.", "The alphabet was designed with a French typewriter in mind, and although modern computers support Unicode, entering the letters with diacritic marks can be more or less problematic with certain operating systems or hardware.", "One of the first reform proposals (for Esperanto 1894) sought to do away with these marks and the language Ido went back to the basic Latin alphabet.===Achievement of its creator's goals===One common criticism is that Esperanto has failed to live up to the hopes of its creator, who dreamed of it becoming a universal second language.", "Because people were reluctant to learn a new language which hardly anyone spoke, Zamenhof asked people to sign a promise to start learning Esperanto once ten million people made the same promise.", "He \"was disappointed to receive only a thousand responses\".However, Zamenhof had the goal to \"enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not\", as he wrote in 1887.The language is currently spoken by people living in more than 100 countries; there are about 2,000 native Esperanto speakers and probably up to 100,000 people who use the language regularly.In this regard, Zamenhof was well aware that it might take much time for Esperanto to achieve his desired goals.", "In his speech at the 1907 World Esperanto Congress in Cambridge he said, \"we hope that earlier or later, maybe after many centuries, on a neutral language foundation, understanding one another, the nations will build ... a big family circle.", "\"The poet Wisława Szymborska expressed doubt that Esperanto could \"produce works of lasting value\", saying it is \"an artificial language without variety or dialects\".", "Esperantists have replied that \"lasting value\" is a statement of opinion, and that Esperanto grew \"naturally\" by the actions of its speakers on Zamenhof's intentionally elementary ''Fundamento''." ], [ "Eponymous entities", "There are some geographical and astronomical features named after Esperanto, or after its creator L. L. Zamenhof.", "These include Esperanto Island in Antarctica, and the asteroids 1421 Esperanto and 1462 Zamenhof discovered by Finnish astronomer and Esperantist Yrjö Väisälä." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fians, Guilherme, \"Esperanto Revolutionaries and Geeks - Language Politics, Digital Media and the Making of an International Community\", 2021, Palgrave Macmillan, (e-book) and (hardcover).", "* Auld, William.", "''La Fenomeno Esperanto'' (\"The Esperanto Phenomenon\").", "Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.", "* Butler, Montagu C. ''Step by Step in Esperanto''.", "ELNA 1965/1991..* DeSoto, Clinton (1936).", "''200 Meters and Down''.", "West Hartford, Connecticut, US: American Radio Relay League, p. 92.", "* Crystal, David, article \"Esperanto\" in ''The New Penguin Encyclopedia'', Penguin Books, 2002.", "* Crystal, David, ''How Language Works'' (pages 424–5), Penguin Books, 2006..* Esperanto at the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Everson, Michael.", ".", "Evertype, 2001.", "* Garvia, Roberto.", "''Esperanto and Its Rivals: The Struggle for an International Language''.", "University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015..* Gledhill, Christopher. ''", "The Grammar of Esperanto: A Corpus-Based Description.''", "Second edition.", "Lincom Europa, 2000..* Harlow, Don.", "The Esperanto Book .", "Self-published on the web (1995–96).", "* Esperanto Lessons .", "LEARN101.ORG.", "Including the alphabet, adjectives, nouns, plural, gender, numbers, phrases, grammar, vocabulary, verbs, exam, audio, and translation.", "* ''Ludovikologia dokumentaro I'' Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991.Facsimile reprints of the ''Unua Libro'' in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages.", "* * Okrent, Arika.", "In the Land of Invented Languages .", "* * Perlin, Ross \"Nostalgia for World Culture: A New History of Esperanto\", review of \"Bridge of Words\" by Esther Schor * van Someren, Emily.", "Republication of the thesis 'The EU Language Regime, Lingual and Translational Problems'.", "* Wells, John.", "''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'' (\"Linguistic Aspects of Esperanto\").", "Second edition.", "Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.", "* Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus, '' Dr. Esperanto's International Language: Introduction & Complete Grammar '' The original 1887 ''Unua Libro'', English translation by Richard H. Geoghegan; HTML online version 2006.Print edition (2007) also available from ELNA or UEA .", "* Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus.", "''Fundamento de Esperanto'' .", "HTML reprint of 1905 ''Fundamento'', from the Academy of Esperanto.", "* FM 30-101-1 (1962) Esperanto The Aggressor Language https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FM_30-101-1_(1962)_Esperanto_The_Aggressor_Language.pdf" ], [ "External links", "* UEA.org – Website of the Universal Esperanto Association* * ''Esperanto Bookshelf'' at Project Gutenberg* Esperanto dictionary * The invented language that found a second life online, a BBC Future article by Jose Luis Penarredonda, 10 January 2018* Esperanto.events, an overview of worldwide Esperanto events by Eventa Servo (in Esperanto)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "The steam engine, the major driver in the Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance of engineering in modern history.", "This beam engine is on display in the Technical University of Madrid.", "'''Engineering''' is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems.", "Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure, machinery, vehicles, electronics, materials, and energy systems.The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application.", "See glossary of engineering.The term ''engineering'' is derived from the Latin , meaning \"cleverness\" and ''ingeniare'', meaning \"to contrive, devise\"." ], [ "Definition", "The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET) has defined \"engineering\" as:" ], [ "History", "Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his ageEngineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc.The term ''engineering'' is derived from the word ''engineer'', which itself dates back to the 14th century when an ''engine'er'' (literally, one who builds or operates a ''siege engine'') referred to \"a constructor of military engines\".", "In this context, now obsolete, an \"engine\" referred to a military machine, ''i.e.", "'', a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).", "Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, ''e.g.", "'', the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.The word \"engine\" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin (), meaning \"innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.", "\"Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering.===Ancient era===aqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.The pyramids in ancient Egypt, ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán, and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers.", "Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria, were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.", "The wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.", "The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.", "The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.", "The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia , and then in ancient Egyptian technology .", "The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC).", "The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC.", "The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza.The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.", "As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.", "The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy.Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation.", "Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns.", "Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains.", "The Antikythera mechanism, an early known mechanical analog computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering.", "Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, the trireme, the ballista and the catapult.", "In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed.===Middle Ages===The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.", "The earliest practical steam-powered machine was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD, and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century, both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry.", "The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world.", "A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine.", "The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their ''Book of Ingenious Devices'', in the 9th century.", "In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata/robots.", "He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.A water-powered mine hoist used for raising ore, Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clockmakers, instrument makers and surveyors.", "Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise ''De re metallica'' (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry.", "''De re metallica'' was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.===Modern era===The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in iron making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges.", "This bridge was made of cast iron, which was soon displaced by less brittle wrought iron as a structural material.The science of classical mechanics, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.", "With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends.", "Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the \"father\" of civil engineering.", "He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses.", "He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.", "Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.", "Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.", "Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine.", "Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse.", "He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain \"hydraulicity\" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement.Applied science led to the development of the steam engine.", "The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin, who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707.Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator.", "Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read.", "In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called \"The Miner's Friend\".", "It employed both vacuum and pressure.", "Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.Jumbo JetThe application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century.", "The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces, which enabled the transition from charcoal to coke.", "These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical.", "The puddling process, patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron.", "Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron.", "With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.", "New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century.One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who built railroads, dockyards and steamships.Offshore platform, Gulf of MexicoThe Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools.", "Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine, which is considered the first machine tool.", "Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe, milling machine, turret lathe and the metal planer.", "Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century.", "These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position.", "Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century.The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of \"engineer\" for the first time with a count of 2,000.There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865.In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875.In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907.Germany established technical universities earlier.The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics.", "The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century.", "Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.", "The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.solar furnace at Odeillo in the Pyrénées-Orientales in France can reach temperatures up to .Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design.", "Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century.", "Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.The first PhD in engineering (technically, ''applied science and engineering'') awarded in the United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I.", "Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments." ], [ "Main branches of engineering", "Hoover DamEngineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines.", "Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience.", "Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering.===Chemical engineering===Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.===Civil engineering===Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.", "), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings.", "Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying.", "It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering.===Electrical engineering===Electric motorElectrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering, electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, control systems, and electronics.===Mechanical engineering===Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics.===Bioengineering===Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose.", "Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs." ], [ "Interdisciplinary engineering", "Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice.", "Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.", "Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical, geological, textile, industrial, materials, and nuclear engineering.", "These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering." ], [ "Other branches of engineering", "=== Aerospace engineering ===The ''InSight'' lander with solar panels deployed in a cleanroomAerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft, satellites and rockets.=== Marine engineering ===Marine engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports.=== Computer engineering ===Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software.", "Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering.=== Geological engineering ===Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth.", "This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering, environmental engineering, and mining engineering.", "Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g.", "tunnels), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation, mining excavations, and natural resource exploration." ], [ "Practice", "One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated Engineering Representative." ], [ "Methodology", "Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes.", "The blades, rotor and stator as well as the steam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized.In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions.", "Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects.", "As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements.", "The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result.", "It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity, and serviceability.", "By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.===Problem solving===A drawing for a steam locomotive.", "Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a particular problem.", "Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the different design choices have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen.", "Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of \"low-level\" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production.", "They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests.", "Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service.", "For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of the arms industry, will not harm people.", "Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure.The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering.", "It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence.", "Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product.", "The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.===Computer use===A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a Space Shuttle orbiter during re-entry.", "Solutions to the flow require modelling of the combined effects of fluid flow and the heat equations.As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role.", "As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.", "Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinksOne of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software.", "It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.", "CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics.", "Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering.In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management (PLM)." ], [ "Social context", "Robotic Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.The engineering profession engages in a range of activities, from collaboration at the societal level, and smaller individual projects.", "Almost all engineering projects are obligated to a funding source: a company, a set of investors, or a government.", "The types of engineering that are less constrained by such a funding source, are ''pro bono'', and open-design engineering.Engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.", "Most products and constructions used by modern society, are influenced by engineering.", "Engineering activities have an impact on the environment, society, economies, and public safety.Engineering projects can be controversial.", "Examples from different engineering disciplines include: the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil.", "In response, some engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.", "Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, has a small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid.", "The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.Radar, GPS, lidar, etc.", "are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge).Overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers, to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios.", "Some charitable organizations use engineering directly for development:* Engineers Without Borders* Engineers Against Poverty* Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief* Engineers for a Sustainable World* Engineering for Change* Engineering Ministries InternationalEngineering companies in more developed economies face challenges with regard to the number of engineers being trained, compared with those retiring.", "This problem is prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.", "There are negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.", "It is agreed the engineering profession faces an \"image crisis\".", "The UK holds the most engineering companies compared to other European countries, together with the United States.===Code of ethics===Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large.", "The National Society of Professional Engineers code of ethics states:In Canada, engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession." ], [ "Relationships with other disciplines", "===Science===Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner inside National Ignition Facility (NIF) target chamberThere exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science.", "Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena.", "Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.", "Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely \"engineering scientists\".The International Space Station is used to conduct science experiments in space.In the book ''What Engineers Know and How They Know It'', Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research.", "First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.There is a \"real and important\" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.", "Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles.", "The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.", "For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics.", "Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job.", "A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.", "Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.", "But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of engineering physics and applied physics are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components.", "Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.As stated by Fung ''et al.''", "in the revision to the classic engineering text ''Foundations of Solid Mechanics'':Engineering is quite different from science.", "Scientists try to understand nature.", "Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature.", "Engineers stress innovation and invention.", "To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use.", "That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists.", "Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined.", "In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions.", "Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge.", "Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics.", "Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession.", "Thus engineering sciences were born.Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.===Medicine and biology===A 3 tesla clinical MRI scannerThe study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines.", "Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.Genetically engineered mice expressing green fluorescent protein, which glows green under blue light.", "The central mouse is wild-type.Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.", "The fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology.", "This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics.", "There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.Both fields provide solutions to real world problems.", "This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body.", "The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.The heart for example functions much like a pump, the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers, the brain produces electrical signals etc.", "These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.===Art===Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.", "He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.There are connections between engineering and art, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university's Faculty of Engineering).The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design.", "Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.", "At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.===Business===Business engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and change management.", "Engineering management or \"Management engineering\" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector.", "The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles.", "During an engineering management course, students will develop industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking.", "Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.", "Professional engineers often train as certified management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector.", "This work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical and electronics, power distribution and generation, utilities and transportation systems.", "This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives.", "These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives.===Other fields===In political science, the term ''engineering'' has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles.", "Marketing engineering and financial engineering have similarly borrowed the term." ], [ "See also", ";Lists* List of aerospace engineering topics* List of basic chemical engineering topics* List of electrical engineering topics* List of engineering societies* List of engineering topics* List of engineers* List of genetic engineering topics* List of mechanical engineering topics* List of nanoengineering topics* List of software engineering topics;Glossaries* Glossary of areas of mathematics* Glossary of biology* Glossary of chemistry* Glossary of engineering* Glossary of physics;Related subjects* Controversies over the term Engineer* Design* Earthquake engineering* Ecotechnology* Engineer* Engineering economics* Engineering education* Engineering education research* Engineers Without Borders* Environmental engineering science* Environmental technology* Forensic engineering* Global Engineering Education* Green engineering* Green building* Industrial design* Infrastructure* Mathematics* Open-source hardware* Planned obsolescence* Reverse engineering* Science* Structural failure* Sustainable engineering* Technology* Women in engineering" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Education" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Education''' is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits and comes in many forms.", "Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework, like public schools.", "Non-formal education is also structured but takes place outside the formal schooling system, while informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences.", "Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels that include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education.", "Other classifications focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education, and on the subject, like science education, language education, and physical education.", "The term \"education\" can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people and the academic field studying educational phenomena.The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about what the aims of education are and to what extent education is different from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking.", "These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education.", "Fundamentally, education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms.", "It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society.", "This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems.", "Organized institutions affect many aspects of education.", "For example, governments set education policies to determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend.", "International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.Many factors influence whether education is successful.", "Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.", "Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often linked to discrimination.", "Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.The main academic field investigating education is called education studies.", "It examines what education is, what aims and effects it has, and how to improve it.", "Education studies has many subfields, like philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education.", "It also discusses comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education.In prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation.", "With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented, and the amount of knowledge grew.", "This caused a shift from informal to formal education.", "Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups.", "The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available.", "This increased general literacy.", "Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important.", "This development led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age.", "Today, over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school." ], [ "Definitions", "The term \"education\" is derived from the Latin words , meaning \"to bring up\" and , meaning \"to bring forth\".", "The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields.", "Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits.", "Extensive debate surrounds its exact nature beyond these general features.", "One approach views education as a process that occurs during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning.", "Another outlook understands education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated persons that result from this process.", "Additionally, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning.", "Having a clear idea of what the term means matters when trying to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices.Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the specific features that are exclusive to all forms of education.", "Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education, which include that knowledge and understanding are imparted to the student and that this process is beneficial and done in a morally appropriate manner.", "Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education.", "However, they often face criticism because less common types of education occasionally fall outside their parameters.", "The difficulty of dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be avoided by offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead.", "This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other, but they need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common.", "Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, hold that the term \"education\" is context-dependent.Evaluative or thick conceptions of education state that it is part of the nature of education to lead to some kind of improvement.", "They contrast with thin conceptions, which provide a value-neutral explanation.", "Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language.", "Prescriptive conceptions, by contrast, define what good education is or how education should be practiced.", "Many thick and prescriptive conceptions see education as an activity that tries to achieve certain aims, which may range from acquiring knowledge and learning to think rationally to nurturing character traits like kindness and honesty.Various scholars stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination.", "They state that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student, independent of whether the beliefs are rational; whereas education also fosters the rational ability to critically reflect on and question those beliefs.", "It is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished since some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education while the child's mind is not yet sufficiently developed.", "This applies to cases in which young children need to learn something without being able to understand the underlying reasons, like certain safety rules and hygiene practices.Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective.", "Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher in the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate way.", "Student-centered definitions analyze education from the student's involvement in the learning process and hold that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences.", "Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible.", "This can take the form of describing education as a process of a shared experience of discovering a common world and solving problems." ], [ "Types", "There are many classifications of education.", "One of them depends on the institutional framework and distinguishes between formal, non-formal, and informal education.", "Another classification includes distinct levels of education based on factors like the student's age and the complexity of the content.", "Further categories focus on the topic, the teaching method, the medium used, and the funding.=== Formal, non-formal, and informal ===The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.", "Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework.", "Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order: the modern schooling system has classes based on the student's age and progress, extending from primary school to university.", "Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government.", "It tends to be compulsory up to a certain age.Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system.", "Non-formal education is a middle ground.", "Like formal education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose, as in the case of tutoring, fitness classes, and the scouting movement.", "Informal education happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment.", "Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.", "Informal education takes place in many different settings and situations throughout one's life, usually in a spontaneous way.", "This is how children learn their first language from their parents and how people learn to prepare a dish by cooking together.Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning: formal education takes place in school, non-formal education happens in places that are not regularly visited, like museums, and informal education occurs in places of everyday routines.", "There are also differences in the source of motivation.", "Formal education tends to be driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards.", "In non-formal and informal education, enjoyment of the learning process usually provides intrinsic motivation.", "The distinction between the three types is normally clear, but some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.In primitive cultures, most education happened on the informal level and there was mostly no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities.", "Instead, the whole environment acted as a form of school, and most adults acted as teachers.", "Informal education is often not efficient enough to teach large quantities of knowledge.", "To do so, a formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually required.", "This was one of the reasons why in the course of history, formal education became more and more important.", "In this process, the experience of education and the discussed topics became more abstract and removed from daily life while more emphasis was put on grasping general patterns and concepts instead of observing and imitating particular forms of behavior.=== Levels ===Young children in a kindergarten in JapanTypes of education are often divided into levels or stages.", "The most influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education, maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).", "It covers both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on the student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the discussed content.", "Further criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion.", "The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).Early childhood education, also known as preschool education or nursery education, begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school.", "It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical, mental, and social levels.", "It plays a key role in socialization and personality development and includes various basic skills in the areas of communication, learning, and problem-solving.", "This way, it aims to prepare children for their entry into primary education.", "Preschool education is usually optional, but in some countries, such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.Primary school classroom in EthiopiaPrimary (or elementary) education usually starts within the ages of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years.", "It does not have any further entry requirements, and its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading, writing, and mathematics.", "It also covers the core knowledge in other fields, like history, geography, the sciences, music, and art.", "A further aim is to foster personal development.", "Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all countries, and over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.Secondary education follows primary education and usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years.", "It is commonly divided into lower secondary education (middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, or college depending on the country).", "Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement.", "It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes and is more focused on subject-specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects.", "One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in the different subjects.", "This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning.", "In some cases, it also includes basic forms of vocational training.", "Lower secondary education is compulsory in many countries in Central and East Asia, Europe, and America.", "In some countries, it is the last stage of compulsory education.", "Mandatory lower secondary education is not as prevalent in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia.A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in the United StatesUpper secondary education starts roughly at the age of 15 and aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education.", "Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education.", "Its subjects are more varied and complex and students can often choose between a few subjects.", "Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma.", "Some types of education after secondary education do not belong to tertiary education and are categorized as post-secondary non-tertiary education.", "They are similar in complexity to secondary education but tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market.Students in a laboratory in the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University in RussiaIn some countries, tertiary education is used as a synonym of higher education, while in others, tertiary education is the wider term.", "Tertiary education expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject.", "Its completion leads to an academic degree.", "It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary, Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral level education.", "These levels often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels.", "Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters.", "It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions.", "Bachelor's level education, also referred to as undergraduate education, tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education.", "It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a bachelor's degree.", "Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education.", "Many programs require independent research in the form of a master's thesis as a requirement for successful completion.", "Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).", "It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation.", "More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.Successful participation in formal education usually results in a form of certification that is required for higher levels of education and certain professions.", "Undetected cheating in exams, for example, by using a cheat sheet, threatens to undermine this system if unqualified students are certified.In most countries, primary and secondary education are free of charge.", "There are significant global differences in the cost of tertiary education.", "A few countries, like Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost.", "In some countries, like the United States and Singapore, tertiary school tuition fees are high and students often have to take substantial loans to afford their studies.", "High costs of education can constitute a significant barrier to students in developing countries whose families may be unable to afford school fees, uniforms, and textbooks.=== Others ===The academic literature discusses many other types of education and distinguishes between traditional and alternative education.", "Traditional education concerns long-established and mainstream schooling practices.", "It uses teacher-centered education and takes place in a well-regulated school environment.", "Regulations cover many aspects of education, such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end.Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach.", "Differences may include learning environment, subjects, or the teacher-student relationship.", "Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and personalized instruction.", "This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere.", "Alternative education encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children.", "It also includes homeschooling and unschooling.", "There are many alternative schooling traditions, like Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools.", "Alternative education also includes indigenous education, which focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage and employs methods like narration and storytelling.", "Further types of alternative schools include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.Some distinctions focus on who receives education.", "Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education.", "Categories by biological sex of the students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education.", "Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities.", "It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels.", "It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments.", "This way, it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure.", "When understood in the broadest sense, special education also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, in which the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information, and student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities.", "For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind.", "Unconscious education occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided.", "This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults, which can have indirect effects on the development of the student's personality.", "Evidence-based education uses scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best.", "Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence.", "It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.Autodidacticism, or self-education, happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions.", "It mainly occurs in adult education and is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study, which is why it can be a more fulfilling learning experience.", "The lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning, and the absence of external feedback may lead autodidacts to develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress.", "Autodidacticism is closely related to lifelong education, which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person's entire life.Categories of education based on the subject include science education, language education, art education, religious education, physical education, and sex education.", "Special mediums, such as radio or websites, are used in distance education.", "Examples include e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education.", "They often take the form of open education, in which the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers.", "They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education.", "Some forms of online education are not open education, such as full online degree programs offered by some universities.State education, also referred to as public education, is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public.", "It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education.", "Private education, by contrast, is funded and managed by private institutions.", "Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees.", "A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education, like family, school, civil society, state, and church.Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive.", "It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age.", "It contrasts with voluntary education, which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement." ], [ "Role in society", "Highly specialized professionals, like medical researchers, often require extensive education to master their fields and contribute to society.Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields.", "On a social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society.", "It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires.", "In modern society, this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak, read, write, solve arithmetic problems, and handle information and communications technology.", "Socialization also includes learning the dominant social and cultural norms and what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts.", "Education enables the social cohesion, stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in daily business.", "Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education.", "Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing, and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.On an economic level, people become productive members of society through education by acquiring the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others.", "In early societies, there was little specialization, and each child would generally learn most of the skills that the community required to function.", "Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education.", "Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other, and their value depends on the context of their usage.", "For example, cultivating the tendency to be inquisitive and question established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, but in some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.By helping people become productive members of society, education stimulates economic growth and reduces poverty.", "It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness.", "Public education is often understood as a long-term investment to benefit society as a whole.", "The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education.", "Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity.", "Increased education is associated with lower birth rates, in part because education augments the awareness of family planning, creates new opportunities for women, and tends to raise the age of marriage.Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges.", "It can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems, such as climate change, sustainability, and the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor.", "By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world.", "This way, education serves not just the purpose of maintaining the societal status quo, but can also be an instrument of social development.", "That applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector.", "For example, technological advances, particularly increased automation, are accompanied by new demands on the workforce, which education can help address.", "Changing circumstances may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas.", "Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum, introducing subjects like digital literacy, promoting skills in handling new technologies, and including new forms of education such as massive open online courses.On a more individual level, education promotes personal development.", "This can include factors such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing self-knowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities.", "Education also has positive effects on health and well-being.", "Key factors responsible for these effects are that educated individuals tend to be better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, have a better social support network and coping strategies, and have a higher income, which allows them access to high-quality healthcare services.", "The social importance of education is recognized by the annual International Day of Education on January 24.The United Nations declared the year 1970 the ''International Education Year''." ], [ "Role of institutions", "Chinese Ministry of Education, affect many aspects of public education.Organized institutions play a key role in various aspects of education.", "Institutions like schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector.", "They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations, professionals in healthcare, law enforcement, media platforms, and political leaders.", "Many people are directly involved in the education sector, like students, teachers, and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions.", "These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure.", "Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill.", "An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities.", "A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals.", "The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school.", "The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field.", "The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress.", "By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students.", "Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.International organizations also play a key role in education.", "For instance, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways.", "One of its activities is to advocate education policies, like the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child, which states that education is a human right of all children and young people.", "The Education for All initiative aimed to offer basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by the year 2015 and was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4.Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental, but non-governmental.", "For example, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and the exchange of knowledge between colleges and universities around the world, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs.", "Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide a similar service for teachers." ], [ "Factors of educational success", "Educational success, also called student and academic achievement, refers to the extent to which educational aims are reached, for example, the amount of knowledge and abilities that students acquire.", "For practical purposes, it is often measured primarily in terms of official exam scores, but there are many additional indicators, such as attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators like later income and incarceration rates.", "Several factors influence educational achievement, including psychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment.", "Further factors are access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.", "Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.=== Psychological ===On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.", "Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.", "Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, which often results in a deeper understanding of the subject.", "Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks.", "An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.", "Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself.", "Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards like good grades and recognition from peers.", "Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment.", "Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation.", "This can be achieved, for instance, by encouraging some competition among students while ensuring a balance of positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.Intelligence influences how people respond to education.", "It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems.", "Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.", "Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-called IQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence by focusing on mathematical-logical and verbal skills.", "However, it has been argued that there are more types of intelligence.", "According to the psychologist Howard Gardner, there are distinct forms of intelligence belonging to fields like mathematics, logic, spatial cognition, language, and music.", "Further types affect how a person interacts with other people and with themselves.", "These types of intelligence are largely independent of each other, meaning that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another.A closely related factor concerns learning styles, which are preferred forms of acquiring knowledge and skills.", "According to proponents of learning style theory, students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions, while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos.", "For efficient learning, it may be beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities.", "The learner's personality may also affect educational achievement.", "For example, the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success.", "Further mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.=== Sociological ===Sociological factors focus not on psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and position in society.", "They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and gender.", "They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination.", "For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors, such as financial security, social status, social class, and quality of life attributes.", "Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways.", "It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates.", "Poor families may not have enough money to meet basic the nutritional needs of their children, causing poor development.", "They may also lack the means to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers.", "Additionally, they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas.", "Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries.", "Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children fall behind.", "In some cases, students from an economically disadvantaged background are forced to dropout from school to provide income to their families.", "They also have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans.", "Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects by being linked to lower physical and mental health.", "Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes.", "Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities.", "This may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities.", "For example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of men and women were defined differently in many societies.", "Education tended to strongly favor men, who were expected to provide for the family.", "Women, by contrast, were expected to manage the household and rear children, which barred most educational opportunities available to them.", "While these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are still gender differences in education.", "Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education.", "They affect subjects like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, which are often presented as male fields.", "This discourages female students from following them.", "In various cases, discrimination based on gender and social factors happens openly as part of official educational policy, such as the severe restrictions on female education instituted by the Taliban in Afghanistan and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system.One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes.", "They work both on an external level, based on how other people react to a person belonging to a certain group, and on an internal level, based on how the person internalizes them and acts accordingly.", "In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate.", "This can happen both for positive and negative stereotypes.=== Technology and others ===Technology plays another significant role in educational success.", "Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers.", "But understood in the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.A One Laptop per Child device being introduced to children in HaitiEducational technology can benefit learning in various ways.", "In the form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom.", "This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance.", "Educational technology can also make information easier to understand by presenting it using graphics, audio, and video rather than through mere text.", "In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging in the form of educational games.", "Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources.", "It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers.", "The use of artificial intelligence in education holds various potentials, such as providing new learning experiences to students and assisting teachers in their work, but also poses new risks associated with data privacy, false information, and manipulation.", "Various organizations promote student access to educational technologies, such as the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.School infrastructure also influences educational success.", "It includes physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment.", "A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success.", "The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on student achievement.", "Skilled teachers know how to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and needs.", "Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and training as well as their past teaching experience.", "A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al.", "concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on educational success.Parent involvement also boosts achievement and can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts.", "This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school.", "Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.", "Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects." ], [ "Education studies", "John Locke's book ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education'' from 1693 is one of the foundational works of education studies.The main discipline investigating education is called education studies, also referred to as education sciences.", "It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education.", "It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that shape education.", "Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations.", "Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined.", "Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher.", "It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education.Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena.", "They roughly divide into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches.", "Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it.", "It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding.", "Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal factors, like how different actors experience the process of education.", "Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding.", "Data can be collected in various ways, like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires.", "Some research projects study basic factors affecting all forms of education, while others concentrate on one specific application, look for solutions to concrete problems, or examine the effectiveness of educational projects and policies.=== Subfields ===Education studies encompasses various subfields like pedagogy, comparative education, and the philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, and history of education.", "The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education.", "It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena.", "It further examines the purpose of education, its different types, and how to conceptualize teachers, students, and their relation.", "It includes educational ethics, which investigates the moral implications of education; for example, what ethical principles direct it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases.", "The philosophy of education has a long history and was discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.The term \"pedagogy\" is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies, but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods.", "It studies how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized.", "It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools.", "Some definitions restrict it to this domain, but in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools.", "In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place.", "It examines what factors influence educational success, how they may differ between individuals, and to what extent nature or nurture is responsible.", "Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.", "Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience, which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.The sociology of education is concerned with how education leads to socialization.", "It examines how social factors and ideologies affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are.", "Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone's personal identity.", "The sociology of education is specifically interested in the causes of inequalities, and its insights are relevant to education policy by trying to identify and mitigate factors that cause inequality.", "Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory.", "Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles.", "Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda.The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced, distributed, and consumed.", "It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education, for example, by examining to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary.", "Other questions are how smaller class sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies.", "This way, the economics of education helps policy-makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole.", "It also tries to understand what long-term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness.", "A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education.Comparative education uses tools like the Education Index to compare educational systems in different countries.", "Countries with a high score are shown in green, while red indicates a low score.Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education.", "Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors, like social, political, or economic aspects.", "Comparative education is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches.", "It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one's own system of education may be improved.", "This practice is known as policy borrowing and comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers.", "A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries.", "Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions.", "It discusses various key processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to each other.=== Aims and ideologies ===Authoritarian regimes often use education to indoctrinate students.A central topic in education studies concerns the question of how people should be educated and what goals should guide this process.", "Many aims of education have been suggested, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as personal development and fostering of character traits.", "Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think, feel, and act morally.", "Some scholars focus on liberal values linked to freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness, while others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.", "Some education theorists focus a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end.", "On a personal level, this purpose is often identified with helping the student lead a good life.", "On a societal level, education makes people productive members of society.", "It is controversial whether the primary aim of education is to benefit the educated person or society as a whole.", "Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles that can be used to interpret, understand, and evaluate existing educational practicies and policies.", "They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured.", "Other themes include the role of the teacher, how educational progress should be assessed, and how institutional frameworks and policies should be structured.", "There are many ideologies, and they often overlap in various ways.", "Teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students, while student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process.", "Process-based ideologies focus on what the processes of teaching and learning should be like and contrast with product-based ideologies, which discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved.", "Conservative ideologies rely on traditional and well-established practices while Progressive ideologies emphasize innovation and creativity.", "Further categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, and pragmatism as well as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.=== Learning theories and teaching methods ===Learning theories try to explain how learning happens.", "Influential theories are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.", "Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli.", "This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with the desired response, and solidifying this stimulus-response pair.", "Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and processing information.", "Constructivism holds that learning is based on the personal experience of each individual and puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner.", "These theories have important implications for how to teach.", "For example, behaviorists tend to focus on drills, while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics, and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies.Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience.", "An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts.", "An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget, who outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage.", "They correspond to different levels of abstraction with early stages focusing more on simple sensory and motor activities, while later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning.The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning.", "There are many teaching methods available and which one is most efficient in a case depends on factors like the subject matter and the learner's age and competence level.", "This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process.", "Different subjects frequently use different approaches; for instance, language education often focuses on verbal learning, while mathematical education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning.", "One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.Teaching method also encompasses the use of instructional media used, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress.", "An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus, which often covers several months or years.", "According to Herbartianism, teaching is divided into phases.", "The initial phase consists of preparing the student's mind for new information.", "Next, new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar.", "In later phases, the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances, and the ideas are then put into concrete practice." ], [ "History", "The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning.", "It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.", "Education in prehistory took place as a form of enculturation and focused on practical knowledge and skills relevant to everyday concerns, for example, in relation to food, clothing, shelter, and protection.", "There were no formal schools or specialized teachers, and most adults in the community performed that role and learning happened informally during everyday activities, for example, when children observed and imitated their elders.", "For these oral societies, storytelling played a key role in transferring cultural and religious ideas from one generation to the next.", "Beginning with the emergence of agriculture around 9000 BCE, a slow educational change towards more specialization began to occur as people formed larger groups and more complex artisanal and technical skills were needed.Starting in the 4th millennium BCE and continuing through the following millennia, a major shift in educational practices started to take place with the invention of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China.", "This development had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole.", "Through writing, it was possible to store, preserve, and communicate information.", "This facilitated various subsequent developments; for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and the formation of institutions, like schools.Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning.", "(Mosaic from Pompeii).Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education.", "This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved, and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all requisite knowledge between generations.", "Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge, and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life.", "Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites.", "It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated with specific professions.", "Formal education introduced a new way of teaching that gave more emphasis to discipline and drills than the earlier informal modes of education.", "Two often-discussed achievements of ancient education are the establishment of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, which is sometimes considered the first institute of higher learning, and the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt as one of the most prestigious libraries of the ancient world.Many aspects of education in the medieval period were shaped by religious traditions.", "In Europe, the Catholic Church wielded a significant influence over formal education.", "In the Arab world, the newly founded religion of Islam spread rapidly and led to various educational developments during the Islamic Golden Age, for example, by integrating classical and religious knowledge and by establishing madrasa schools.", "In Jewish communities, yeshivas were established as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law.", "In China, an expansive state educational and exam system influenced by Confucian teachings was established.", "New complex societies began to evolve in other regions, such as Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan.", "Some incorporated preexisting educational practices, while others developed new traditions.", "Additionally, this period saw the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research.", "The first universities in Europe were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and Oxford University.", "Other influential centers of higher learning were the Al-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco, the Al-Azhar University in Egypt, and the House of Wisdom in Iraq.", "Another key development was the creation of guilds, which were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades.", "They were responsible for vocational education, and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one which was more secular.", "This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs.", "The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences.", "European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives.", "In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-Confucianism.", "In the Islamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion.", "A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on general education.", "It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets.", "The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population.These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all.", "This contrasts with earlier periods when formal education was primarily provided by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors.", "Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.", "Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.", "Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN.", "Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.", "These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular.", "In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school; by 2015, this number dropped to 9%.The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the student's progress.", "Contemporary examples include the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess English language proficiency of non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment, which evaluates education systems worldwide based on how 15-year-old students perform in the fields of reading, mathematics, and science.", "Similar changes also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, like certification requirements for teaching at public schools.Emerging educational technologies have shaped contemporary education.", "The widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education.", "This was of particular relevance during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools globally closed for extended periods and many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to continue instruction.", "Contemporary education is also shaped by the increased globalization and internationalization of education." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * " ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Education – OECD* Education – UNESCO* Education – World Bank" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Encyclopedia" ], [ "Introduction", "The volumes of the 15th edition of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (and the volume for the year 2002) span two bookshelves in a library.Title page of ''Lucubrationes'', 1541 edition, one of the first books to use a variant of the word ''encyclopedia'' in the titleAn '''encyclopedia''' (American English) or '''encyclopaedia''' (British English) is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, to a particular field or discipline.", "Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries that are arranged alphabetically by article name or by thematic categories, or else are hyperlinked and searchable.", "Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries.", "Generally speaking, encyclopedia articles focus on ''factual information'' concerning the subject named in the article's title; this is unlike dictionary entries, which focus on linguistic information about words, such as their etymology, meaning, pronunciation, use, and grammatical forms.Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years and have evolved considerably during that time as regards language (written in a major international or a vernacular language), size (few or many volumes), intent (presentation of a global or a limited range of knowledge), cultural perspective (authoritative, ideological, didactic, utilitarian), authorship (qualifications, style), readership (education level, background, interests, capabilities), and the technologies available for their production and distribution (hand-written manuscripts, small or large print runs, Internet).", "As a valued source of reliable information compiled by experts, printed versions found a prominent place in libraries, schools and other educational institutions.The appearance of digital and open-source versions in the 21st century, such as Wikipedia, has vastly expanded the accessibility, authorship, readership, and variety of encyclopedia entries." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''encyclopedia'' (''encyclo''\|''pedia'') comes from the Koine Greek , transliterated , meaning 'general education' from (), meaning 'circular, recurrent, required regularly, general' and (), meaning 'education, rearing of a child'; together, the phrase literally translates as 'complete instruction' or 'complete knowledge'.", "However, the two separate words were reduced to a single word due to a scribal error by copyists of a Latin manuscript edition of Quintillian in 1470.The copyists took this phrase to be a single Greek word, , with the same meaning, and this spurious Greek word became the Neo-Latin word , which in turn came into English.", "Because of this compounded word, fifteenth-century readers and since have often, and incorrectly, thought that the Roman authors Quintillian and Pliny described an ancient genre." ], [ "Characteristics", "The modern encyclopedia evolved from the dictionary in the 18th century; this lineage can be seen in the alphabetical order of print encyclopedias.", "Historically, both encyclopedias and dictionaries have been compiled by well-educated, well-informed content experts, but they are significantly different in structure.", "A dictionary is a linguistic work which primarily focuses on alphabetical listing of words and their definitions.", "Synonymous words and those related by the subject matter are to be found scattered around the dictionary, giving no obvious place for in-depth treatment.", "Thus, a dictionary typically provides limited information, analysis or background for the word defined.", "While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader lacking in understanding the meaning, significance or limitations of a term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge.To address those needs, an encyclopedia article is typically not limited to simple definitions, and is not limited to defining an individual word, but provides a more extensive meaning for a ''subject or discipline''.", "In addition to defining and listing synonymous terms for the topic, the article is able to treat the topic's more extensive meaning in more depth and convey the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject.", "An encyclopedia article also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography and statistics.", "An encyclopedia is, theoretically, not written in order to convince, although one of its goals is indeed to convince its reader of its own veracity.Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has said that the goal of an encyclopedia should be to provide \"the sum of all human knowledge, but sum meaning summary.", "\"In addition, sometimes books or reading lists are compiled from a compendium of articles (either wholly or partially taken) from a specific encyclopedia.=== Four major elements ===There are four major elements that define an encyclopedia: its subject matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its method of production:# Encyclopedias can be general, containing articles on topics in every field (the English-language ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and German ''Brockhaus'' are well-known examples).", "General encyclopedias may contain guides on how to do a variety of things, as well as embedded dictionaries and gazetteers.", "There are also encyclopedias that cover a wide variety of topics from a particular cultural, ethnic, or national perspective, such as the ''Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' or ''Encyclopaedia Judaica''.# Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their subject domain, such as an encyclopedia of medicine, philosophy or law.", "Works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of discussion, depending on the target audience.# Some systematic method of organization is essential to making an encyclopedia usable for reference.", "There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopedias: the alphabetical method (consisting of a number of separate articles, organized in alphabetical order) and organization by hierarchical categories.", "The former method is today the more common, especially for general works.", "The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of the same content.", "Further, electronic media offer new capabilities for search, indexing and cross reference.", "The epigraph from Horace on the title page of the 18th century ''Encyclopédie'' suggests the importance of the structure of an encyclopedia: \"What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection.", "\"# As modern multimedia and the information age have evolved, new methods have emerged for the collection, verification, summation, and presentation of information of all kinds.", "Projects such as Everything2, Encarta, h2g2, and Wikipedia are examples of new forms of the encyclopedia as information retrieval becomes simpler.", "The method of production for an encyclopedia historically has been supported in both for-profit and non-profit contexts, such was the case of the ''Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' mentioned above which was entirely state sponsored, while the ''Britannica'' was supported as a for-profit institution.=== Encyclopedic dictionaries ===Some works entitled \"dictionaries\" are actually similar to encyclopedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'', the ''Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships'', and ''Black's Law Dictionary'').", "The ''Macquarie Dictionary,'' Australia's national dictionary, became an encyclopedic dictionary after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns.=== Differences between encyclopedias and dictionaries ===There are some broad differences between encyclopedias and dictionaries.", "Most noticeably, encyclopedia articles are longer, fuller and more thorough than entries in most general-purpose dictionaries.", "There are differences in content as well.", "Generally speaking, dictionaries provide linguistic information about words themselves, while encyclopedias focus more on the things for which those words stand.", "Thus, while dictionary entries are inextricably fixed to the word described, encyclopedia articles can be given a different entry name.", "As such, dictionary entries are not fully translatable into other languages, but encyclopedia articles can be.In practice, however, the distinction is not concrete, as there is no clear-cut difference between factual, \"encyclopedic\" information and linguistic information such as appears in dictionaries.", "Thus encyclopedias may contain material that is also found in dictionaries, and vice versa.", "In particular, dictionary entries often contain factual information about the thing named by the word." ], [ "Pre-modern encyclopedias", "''Naturalis Historiæ'', 1669 edition, title pageThe earliest encyclopedic work to have survived to modern times is the of Pliny the Elder, a Roman statesman living in the 1st century AD.", "He compiled a work of 37 chapters covering natural history, architecture, medicine, geography, geology, and all aspects of the world around him.", "This work became very popular in Antiquity, was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed in 1470, and has remained popular ever since as a source of information on the Roman world, and especially Roman art, Roman technology and Roman engineering.Ottonian manuscript)The Spanish scholar Isidore of Seville was the first Christian writer to try to compile a ''summa'' of universal knowledge, the ''Etymologiae'' (), also known by classicists as the ''Origines'' (abbreviated ''Orig''.).", "This encyclopedia—the first such Christian epitome—formed a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 books based on hundreds of classical sources, including the .", "Of the ''Etymologiae'' in its time it was said ''quaecunque fere sciri debentur'', \"practically everything that it is necessary to know\".", "Among the areas covered were: grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, geometry, music, astronomy, medicine, law, the Catholic Church and heretical sects, pagan philosophers, languages, cities, animals and birds, the physical world, geography, public buildings, roads, metals, rocks, agriculture, ships, clothes, food, and tools.Another Christian encyclopedia was the ''Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum'' of Cassiodorus (543–560) dedicated to the Christian divinity and to the seven liberal arts.", "The encyclopedia of Suda, a massive 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, had 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often derived from medieval Christian compilers.", "The text was arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations from common vowel order and place in the Greek alphabet.The ''Yongle Encyclopedia''From India, the Siribhoovalaya (Kannada: ಸಿರಿಭೂವಲಯ), dated between 800 A.D. to 15th century, is a work of Kannada literature written by Kumudendu Muni, a Jain monk.", "It is unique because rather than employing alphabets, it is composed entirely in Kannada numerals.", "Many philosophies which existed in the Jain classics are eloquently and skillfully interpreted in the work.The enormous encyclopedic work in China of the ''Four Great Books of Song'', compiled by the 11th century during the early Song dynasty (960–1279), was a massive literary undertaking for the time.", "The last encyclopedia of the four, the ''Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau'', amounted to 9.4 million Chinese characters in 1,000 written volumes.There were many great encyclopedists throughout Chinese history, including the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) with his ''Dream Pool Essays'' of 1088; the statesman, inventor, and agronomist Wang Zhen (active 1290–1333) with his ''Nong Shu'' of 1313; and Song Yingxing (1587–1666) with his ''Tiangong Kaiwu''.", "Song Yingxing was termed the \"Diderot of China\" by British historian Joseph Needham." ], [ "Printed encyclopedias", "Before the advent of the printing press, encyclopedic works were all hand copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it.During the Renaissance, the creation of printing allowed a wider diffusion of encyclopedias and every scholar could have his or her own copy.", "The ''De expetendis et fugiendis rebus'' by Giorgio Valla was posthumously printed in 1501 by Aldo Manuzio in Venice.", "This work followed the traditional scheme of liberal arts.", "However, Valla added the translation of ancient Greek works on mathematics (firstly by Archimedes), newly discovered and translated.", "The ''Margarita Philosophica'' by Gregor Reisch, printed in 1503, was a complete encyclopedia explaining the seven liberal arts.Financial, commercial, legal, and intellectual factors changed the size of encyclopedias.", "Middle classes had more time to read and encyclopedias helped them to learn more.", "Publishers wanted to increase their output so some countries like Germany started selling books missing alphabetical sections, to publish faster.", "Also, publishers could not afford all the resources by themselves, so multiple publishers would come together with their resources to create better encyclopedias.", "Later, rivalry grew, causing copyright to occur due to weak underdeveloped laws.John Harris is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English ''Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves'' – to give its full title.", "Organized alphabetically, its content does indeed contain explanation not merely of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but of the arts and sciences themselves.", "Sir Isaac Newton contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710.=== ''Encyclopédie'' ====== ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' ====== ''Brockhaus Enzyklopädie'' ======Encyclopedias in the United States===In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the introduction of several large popular encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans.", "The best known of these were ''World Book'' and ''Funk and Wagnalls''.", "As many as 90% were sold door to door.", "Jack Lynch says in his book ''You Could Look It Up'' that encyclopedia salespeople were so common that they became the butt of jokes.", "He describes their sales pitch saying, \"They were selling not books but a lifestyle, a future, a promise of social mobility.\"", "A 1961 ''World Book'' ad said, \"You are holding your family's future in your hands right now,\" while showing a feminine hand holding an order form.", "As of the 1990s, two of the most prominent encyclopedias published in the United States were ''Collier's Encyclopedia'' and ''Encyclopedia Americana''." ], [ "Digital encyclopedias<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Digital\"></span>", "=== Physical media ===By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers.", "This was the usual way computer users accessed encyclopedic knowledge from the 1980s and 1990s.", "Later, DVD discs replaced CD-ROMs, and by the mid-2000s, internet encyclopedias were dominant and replaced disc-based software encyclopedias.", "CD-ROM encyclopedias were usually a macOS or Microsoft Windows (3.0, 3.1 or 95/98) application on a CD-ROM disc.", "The user would execute the encyclopedia's software program to see a menu that allowed them to start browsing the encyclopedia's articles, and most encyclopedias also supported a way to search the contents of the encyclopedia.", "The article text was usually hyperlinked and also included photographs, audio clips (for example in articles about historical speeches or musical instruments), and video clips.", "In the CD-ROM age the video clips had usually a low resolution, often 160x120 or 320x240 pixels.", "Such encyclopedias which made use of photos, audio and video were also called multimedia encyclopedias.", "However, because of the online encyclopedia, CD-ROM encyclopedias have been declared obsolete.Microsoft's ''Encarta'', launched in 1993, was a landmark example as it had no printed equivalent.", "Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images.", "After sixteen years, Microsoft discontinued the Encarta line of products in 2009.Other examples of CD-ROM encyclopedia are Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia and ''Britannica''.Digital encyclopedias enable \"Encyclopedia Services\" (such as Wikimedia Enterprise) to facilitate programatic access to the content.=== Online ======= Free encyclopedias ====List of other free encyclopedias, from Enciclopedia Libre.The concept of a free encyclopedia began with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet in 1993, which outlined an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content that would be freely accessible.", "Early projects in this vein included Everything2 and Open Site.", "In 1999, Richard Stallman proposed the GNUPedia, an online encyclopedia which, similar to the GNU operating system, would be a \"generic\" resource.", "The concept was very similar to Interpedia, but more in line with Stallman's GNU philosophy.It was not until Nupedia and later Wikipedia that a stable free encyclopedia project was able to be established on the Internet.The English Wikipedia, which was started in 2001, became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage.", "By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License.", "Wikipedia had over 3 million articles in English and well over 10 million combined articles in over 250 languages.", "Today, Wikipedia has articles in English, over 60 million combined articles in over 300 languages, and over 250 million combined pages including project and discussion pages.Since 2002, other free encyclopedias appeared, including Hudong (2005–) and Baidu Baike (2006–) in Chinese, and Google's Knol (2008–2012) in English.", "Some MediaWiki-based encyclopedias have appeared, usually under a license compatible with Wikipedia, including Enciclopedia Libre (2002–2021) in Spanish and Conservapedia (2006–), Scholarpedia (2006–), and Citizendium (2007–) in English, the latter of which had become inactive by 2014." ], [ "See also", "* Bibliography of encyclopedias* Biographical dictionary* Encyclopedic knowledge* Encyclopedism* Fictitious entry* History of science and technology* Lexicography* Library science* Lists of encyclopedias* Thesaurus* Speculum literature" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * C. Codoner, S. Louis, M. Paulmier-Foucart, D. Hüe, M. Salvat, A. Llinares, ''L'Encyclopédisme.", "Actes du Colloque de Caen'', A. Becq (dir.", "), Paris, 1991.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Encyclopaedia and Hypertext * Internet Accuracy Project – Biographical errors in encyclopedias and almanacs* \"Encyclopedia\" – Diderot's article on the Encyclopedia from the original ''Encyclopédie''.", "* ''De expetendis et fugiendis rebus'' – First Renaissance encyclopedia* Errors and inconsistencies in several printed reference books and encyclopedias; * \"Digital encyclopedias put the world at your fingertips\" CNET article* Encyclopedias online University of Wisconsin Stout listing by category* Chambers' ''Cyclopaedia'', 1728, with the 1753 supplement* ''Encyclopædia Americana'', 1851, Francis Lieber ed.", "(Boston: Mussey & Co.) at the University of Michigan Making of America site* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', articles and illustrations from 9th ed., 1875–89, and 10th ed., 1902–03." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enigma machine" ], [ "Introduction", "Military Model Enigma I, in use from 1930The '''Enigma machine''' is a cipher device developed and used in the early- to mid-20th century to protect commercial, diplomatic, and military communication.", "It was employed extensively by Nazi Germany during World War II, in all branches of the German military.", "The Enigma machine was considered so secure that it was used to encipher the most top-secret messages.The Enigma has an electromechanical rotor mechanism that scrambles the 26 letters of the alphabet.", "In typical use, one person enters text on the Enigma's keyboard and another person writes down which of the 26 lights above the keyboard illuminated at each key press.", "If plain text is entered, the illuminated letters are the ciphertext.", "Entering ciphertext transforms it back into readable plaintext.", "The rotor mechanism changes the electrical connections between the keys and the lights with each keypress.The security of the system depends on machine settings that were generally changed daily, based on secret key lists distributed in advance, and on other settings that were changed for each message.", "The receiving station would have to know and use the exact settings employed by the transmitting station to successfully decrypt a message.While Nazi Germany introduced a series of improvements to the Enigma over the years, and these hampered decryption efforts, they did not prevent Poland from cracking the machine as early as December 1932 and reading messages prior to and into the war.", "Poland's sharing of their achievements enabled the Allies to exploit Enigma-enciphered messages as a major source of intelligence.", "Many commentators say the flow of Ultra communications intelligence from the decrypting of Enigma, Lorenz, and other ciphers shortened the war substantially and may even have altered its outcome." ], [ "History", "The Enigma machine was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I.", "The German firm Scherbius & Ritter, co-founded by Scherbius, patented ideas for a cipher machine in 1918 and began marketing the finished product under the brand name ''Enigma'' in 1923, initially targeted at commercial markets.", "Early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II.Several different Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, having a plugboard, were the most complex.", "Japanese and Italian models were also in use.", "With its adoption (in slightly modified form) by the German Navy in 1926 and the German Army and Air Force soon after, the name ''Enigma'' became widely known in military circles.", "Pre-war German military planning emphasized fast, mobile forces and tactics, later known as blitzkrieg, which depend on radio communication for command and coordination.", "Since adversaries would likely intercept radio signals, messages had to be protected with secure encipherment.", "Compact and easily portable, the Enigma machine filled that need.=== Breaking Enigma ===A memorial in Bydgoszcz, Poland, to Marian Rejewski, the mathematician who, in 1932, first broke Enigma and, in July 1939, helped educate the French and British about Polish methods of Enigma decryptionAround December 1932 Marian Rejewski, a Polish mathematician and cryptologist at the Polish Cipher Bureau, used the theory of permutations, and flaws in the German military-message encipherment procedures, to break message keys of the plugboard Enigma machine.", "France's spy Hans-Thilo Schmidt obtained access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932.Those keys included the plugboard settings.", "The French passed the material to the Poles, and Rejewski used some of that material and the message traffic in September and October to solve for the unknown rotor wiring.", "Consequently the Polish mathematicians were able to build their own Enigma machines, dubbed \"Enigma doubles\".", "Rejewski was aided by fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, both of whom had been recruited with Rejewski from Poznań University, which had been selected for its students' knowledge of the German language, since that area was held by Germany prior to World War I.", "The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, which enabled the Cipher Bureau to read German Enigma messages starting from January 1933.Over time, the German cryptographic procedures improved, and the Cipher Bureau developed techniques and designed mechanical devices to continue reading Enigma traffic.", "As part of that effort, the Poles exploited quirks of the rotors, compiled catalogues, built a cyclometer (invented by Rejewski) to help make a catalogue with 100,000 entries, invented and produced Zygalski sheets, and built the electromechanical cryptologic ''bomba'' (invented by Rejewski) to search for rotor settings.", "In 1938 the Poles had six ''bomby'' (plural of ''bomba''), but when that year the Germans added two more rotors, ten times as many ''bomby'' would have been needed to read the traffic.On 26 and 27 July 1939, in Pyry, just south of Warsaw, the Poles initiated French and British military intelligence representatives into the Polish Enigma-decryption techniques and equipment, including Zygalski sheets and the cryptologic bomb, and promised each delegation a Polish-reconstructed Enigma (the devices were soon delivered).In September 1939, British Military Mission 4, which included Colin Gubbins and Vera Atkins, went to Poland, intending to evacuate cipher-breakers Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki, and Henryk Zygalski from the country.", "The cryptologists, however, had been evacuated by their own superiors into Romania, at the time a Polish-allied country.", "On the way, for security reasons, the Polish Cipher Bureau personnel had deliberately destroyed their records and equipment.", "From Romania they traveled on to France, where they resumed their cryptological work, collaborating by teletype with the British, who began work on decrypting German Enigma messages, using the Polish equipment and techniques.Gordon Welchman, who became head of Hut 6 at Bletchley Park, wrote: \"Hut 6 Ultra would never have got off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use.\"", "The Polish transfer of theory and technology at Pyry formed the crucial basis for the subsequent World War II British Enigma-decryption effort at Bletchley Park, where Welchman worked.During the war, British cryptologists decrypted a vast number of messages enciphered on Enigma.", "The intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed \"Ultra\" by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort.Though Enigma had some cryptographic weaknesses, in practice it was German procedural flaws, operator mistakes, failure to systematically introduce changes in encipherment procedures, and Allied capture of key tables and hardware that, during the war, enabled Allied cryptologists to succeed.The Abwehr used a different version of Enigma machines.", "In November 1942, during Operation Torch, a machine was captured which had no plugboard and the three rotors had been changed to rotate 11, 15, and 19 times rather than once every 26 letters, plus a plate on the left acted as a fourth rotor.", "From October 1944, the German Abwehr used the Schlüsselgerät 41.The Abwehr code had been broken on 8 December 1941 by Dilly Knox.", "Agents sent messages to the Abwehr in a simple code which was then sent on using an Enigma machine.", "The simple codes were broken and helped break the daily Enigma cipher.", "This breaking of the code enabled the Double-Cross System to operate." ], [ "Design", "Enigma in use, 1943Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical subsystems.", "The mechanical subsystem consists of a keyboard; a set of rotating disks called ''rotors'' arranged adjacently along a spindle; one of various stepping components to turn at least one rotor with each key press, and a series of lamps, one for each letter.", "These design features are the reason that the Enigma machine was originally referred to as the rotor-based cipher machine during its intellectual inception in 1915.=== Electrical pathway ===Enigma wiring diagram with arrows and the numbers 1 to 9 showing how current flows from key depression to a lamp being lit.", "The ''A'' key is encoded to the ''D'' lamp.", "D yields A, but A never yields A; this property was due to a patented feature unique to the Enigmas, and could be exploited by cryptanalysts in some situations.An electrical pathway is a route for current to travel.", "By manipulating this phenomenon the Enigma machine was able to scramble messages.", "The mechanical parts act by forming a varying electrical circuit.", "When a key is pressed, one or more rotors rotate on the spindle.", "On the sides of the rotors are a series of electrical contacts that, after rotation, line up with contacts on the other rotors or fixed wiring on either end of the spindle.", "When the rotors are properly aligned, each key on the keyboard is connected to a unique electrical pathway through the series of contacts and internal wiring.", "Current, typically from a battery, flows through the pressed key, into the newly configured set of circuits and back out again, ultimately lighting one display lamp, which shows the output letter.", "For example, when encrypting a message starting ''ANX...'', the operator would first press the ''A'' key, and the ''Z'' lamp might light, so ''Z'' would be the first letter of the ciphertext.", "The operator would next press ''N'', and then ''X'' in the same fashion, and so on.The scrambling action of Enigma's rotors is shown for two consecutive letters with the right-hand rotor moving one position between them.Current flows from the battery (1) through a depressed bi-directional keyboard switch (2) to the plugboard (3).", "Next, it passes through the (unused in this instance, so shown closed) plug \"A\" (3) via the entry wheel (4), through the wiring of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four (''Kriegsmarine'' M4 and ''Abwehr'' variants) installed rotors (5), and enters the reflector (6).", "The reflector returns the current, via an entirely different path, back through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), proceeding through plug \"S\" (7) connected with a cable (8) to plug \"D\", and another bi-directional switch (9) to light the appropriate lamp.The repeated changes of electrical path through an Enigma scrambler implement a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that provides Enigma's security.", "The diagram on the right shows how the electrical pathway changes with each key depression, which causes rotation of at least the right-hand rotor.", "Current passes into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, and out through the rotors again.", "The greyed-out lines are other possible paths within each rotor; these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other.", "The letter ''A'' encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to ''G'', and then to ''C''.", "This is because the right-hand rotor steps (rotates one position) on each key press, sending the signal on a completely different route.", "Eventually other rotors step with a key press.=== Rotors ===Enigma rotor assembly.", "In the Enigma I, three movable rotors are sandwiched between two fixed wheels: the entry wheel, on the right, and the reflector on the left.The rotors (alternatively ''wheels'' or ''drums'', ''Walzen'' in German) form the heart of an Enigma machine.", "Each rotor is a disc approximately in diameter made from Ebonite or Bakelite with 26 brass, spring-loaded, electrical contact pins arranged in a circle on one face, with the other face housing 26 corresponding electrical contacts in the form of circular plates.", "The pins and contacts represent the alphabet — typically the 26 letters A–Z, as will be assumed for the rest of this description.", "When the rotors are mounted side by side on the spindle, the pins of one rotor rest against the plate contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection.", "Inside the body of the rotor, 26 wires connect each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern.", "Most of the rotors are identified by Roman numerals, and each issued copy of rotor I, for instance, is wired identically to all others.", "The same is true for the special thin beta and gamma rotors used in the M4 naval variant.Three Enigma rotors and the shaft, on which they are placed when in use.By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of encryption, a simple substitution cipher.", "For example, the pin corresponding to the letter ''E'' might be wired to the contact for letter ''T'' on the opposite face, and so on.", "Enigma's security comes from using several rotors in series (usually three or four) and the regular stepping movement of the rotors, thus implementing a polyalphabetic substitution cipher.Each rotor can be set to one of 26 possible starting positions when placed in an Enigma machine.", "After insertion, a rotor can be turned to the correct position by hand, using the grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal Enigma cover when closed.", "In order for the operator to know the rotor's position, each has an ''alphabet tyre'' (or letter ring) attached to the outside of the rotor disc, with 26 characters (typically letters); one of these is visible through the window for that slot in the cover, thus indicating the rotational position of the rotor.", "In early models, the alphabet ring was fixed to the rotor disc.", "A later improvement was the ability to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the rotor disc.", "The position of the ring was known as the ''Ringstellung'' (\"ring setting\"), and that setting was a part of the initial setup needed prior to an operating session.", "In modern terms it was a part of the initialization vector.Two Enigma rotors showing electrical contacts, stepping ratchet (on the left) and notch (on the right-hand rotor opposite '''D''').Each rotor contains one or more notches that control rotor stepping.", "In the military variants, the notches are located on the alphabet ring.The Army and Air Force Enigmas were used with several rotors, initially three.", "On 15 December 1938, this changed to five, from which three were chosen for a given session.", "Rotors were marked with Roman numerals to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single turnover notches located at different points on the alphabet ring.", "This variation was probably intended as a security measure, but ultimately allowed the Polish Clock Method and British Banburismus attacks.The Naval version of the ''Wehrmacht'' Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: At first six, then seven, and finally eight.", "The additional rotors were marked VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches, resulting in more frequent turnover.", "The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) machine accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version.", "This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner one and by adding a thin fourth rotor.", "That fourth rotor was one of two types, ''Beta'' or ''Gamma'', and never stepped, but could be manually set to any of 26 positions.", "One of the 26 made the machine perform identically to the three-rotor machine.=== Stepping ===To avoid merely implementing a simple (solvable) substitution cipher, every key press caused one or more rotors to step by one twenty-sixth of a full rotation, before the electrical connections were made.", "This changed the substitution alphabet used for encryption, ensuring that the cryptographic substitution was different at each new rotor position, producing a more formidable polyalphabetic substitution cipher.", "The stepping mechanism varied slightly from model to model.", "The right-hand rotor stepped once with each keystroke, and other rotors stepped less frequently.=== Turnover ===The Enigma stepping motion seen from the side away from the operator.", "All three ratchet pawls (green) push in unison as a key is depressed.", "For the first rotor (1), which to the operator is the right-hand rotor, the ratchet (red) is always engaged, and steps with each keypress.", "Here, the middle rotor (2) is engaged, because the notch in the first rotor is aligned with the pawl; it will step (''turn over'') with the first rotor.", "The third rotor (3) is not engaged, because the notch in the second rotor is not aligned to the pawl, so it will not engage with the rachet.The advancement of a rotor other than the left-hand one was called a ''turnover'' by the British.", "This was achieved by a ratchet and pawl mechanism.", "Each rotor had a ratchet with 26 teeth and every time a key was pressed, the set of spring-loaded pawls moved forward in unison, trying to engage with a ratchet.", "The alphabet ring of the rotor to the right normally prevented this.", "As this ring rotated with its rotor, a notch machined into it would eventually align itself with the pawl, allowing it to engage with the ratchet, and advance the rotor on its left.", "The right-hand pawl, having no rotor and ring to its right, stepped its rotor with every key depression.", "For a single-notch rotor in the right-hand position, the middle rotor stepped once for every 26 steps of the right-hand rotor.", "Similarly for rotors two and three.", "For a two-notch rotor, the rotor to its left would turn over twice for each rotation.The first five rotors to be introduced (I–V) contained one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII each had two notches.", "The position of the notch on each rotor was determined by the letter ring which could be adjusted in relation to the core containing the interconnections.", "The points on the rings at which they caused the next wheel to move were as follows.+Position of turnover notches Rotor Turnover position(s) BP mnemonicIRRoyalIIFFlagsIIIWWaveIVKKingsVAAboveVI, VII and VIIIThe design also included a feature known as ''double-stepping''.", "This occurred when each pawl aligned with both the ratchet of its rotor and the rotating notched ring of the neighbouring rotor.", "If a pawl engaged with a ratchet through alignment with a notch, as it moved forward it pushed against both the ratchet and the notch, advancing both rotors.", "In a three-rotor machine, double-stepping affected rotor two only.", "If, in moving forward, the ratchet of rotor three was engaged, rotor two would move again on the subsequent keystroke, resulting in two consecutive steps.", "Rotor two also pushes rotor one forward after 26 steps, but since rotor one moves forward with every keystroke anyway, there is no double-stepping.", "This double-stepping caused the rotors to deviate from odometer-style regular motion.With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine had a period of 26×25×26 = 16,900 (not 26×26×26, because of double-stepping).", "Historically, messages were limited to a few hundred letters, and so there was no chance of repeating any combined rotor position during a single session, denying cryptanalysts valuable clues.To make room for the Naval fourth rotors, the reflector was made much thinner.", "The fourth rotor fitted into the space made available.", "No other changes were made, which eased the changeover.", "Since there were only three pawls, the fourth rotor never stepped, but could be manually set into one of 26 possible positions.A device that was designed, but not implemented before the war's end, was the ''Lückenfüllerwalze'' (gap-fill wheel) that implemented irregular stepping.", "It allowed field configuration of notches in all 26 positions.", "If the number of notches was a relative prime of 26 and the number of notches were different for each wheel, the stepping would be more unpredictable.", "Like the Umkehrwalze-D it also allowed the internal wiring to be reconfigured.=== Entry wheel ===The current entry wheel (''Eintrittswalze'' in German), or entry stator, connects the plugboard to the rotor assembly.", "If the plugboard is not present, the entry wheel instead connects the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly.", "While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to security, it proved an obstacle to Rejewski's progress during his study of the rotor wirings.", "The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on a QWERTZ keyboard: ''Q''→''A'', ''W''→''B'', ''E''→''C'' and so on.", "The military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: ''A''→''A'', ''B''→''B'', ''C''→''C'', and so on.", "It took inspired guesswork for Rejewski to penetrate the modification.=== Reflector ===Internal mechanism of an Enigma machine showing the type B reflector and rotor stack.With the exception of models ''A'' and ''B'', the last rotor came before a 'reflector' (German: ''Umkehrwalze'', meaning 'reversal rotor'), a patented feature unique to Enigma among the period's various rotor machines.", "The reflector connected outputs of the last rotor in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route.", "The reflector ensured that Enigma would be self-reciprocal; thus, with two identically configured machines, a message could be encrypted on one and decrypted on the other, without the need for a bulky mechanism to switch between encryption and decryption modes.", "The reflector allowed a more compact design, but it also gave Enigma the property that no letter ever encrypted to itself.", "This was a severe cryptological flaw that was subsequently exploited by codebreakers.In Model 'C', the reflector could be inserted in one of two different positions.", "In Model 'D', the reflector could be set in 26 possible positions, although it did not move during encryption.", "In the ''Abwehr'' Enigma, the reflector stepped during encryption in a manner similar to the other wheels.In the German Army and Air Force Enigma, the reflector was fixed and did not rotate; there were four versions.", "The original version was marked 'A', and was replaced by ''Umkehrwalze B'' on 1 November 1937.A third version, ''Umkehrwalze C'' was used briefly in 1940, possibly by mistake, and was solved by Hut 6.The fourth version, first observed on 2 January 1944, had a rewireable reflector, called ''Umkehrwalze D'', nick-named Uncle Dick by the British, allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings.=== Plugboard ===The plugboard (''Steckerbrett'') was positioned at the front of the machine, below the keys.", "When in use during World War II, there were ten connections.", "In this photograph, just two pairs of letters have been swapped (A↔J and S↔O).The plugboard (''Steckerbrett'' in German) permitted variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid).", "It was introduced on German Army versions in 1928, and was soon adopted by the ''Reichsmarine'' (German Navy).", "The plugboard contributed more cryptographic strength than an extra rotor, as it had 150 trillion possible settings (see below).", "Enigma without a plugboard (known as ''unsteckered Enigma'') could be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques were generally defeated by the plugboard, driving Allied cryptanalysts to develop special machines to solve it.A cable placed onto the plugboard connected letters in pairs; for example, ''E'' and ''Q'' might be a steckered pair.", "The effect was to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit.", "For example, when an operator pressed ''E'', the signal was diverted to ''Q'' before entering the rotors.", "Up to 13 steckered pairs might be used at one time, although only 10 were normally used.Current flowed from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeded to the entry-rotor or ''Eintrittswalze''.", "Each letter on the plugboard had two jacks.", "Inserting a plug disconnected the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter.", "The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable was inserted into another letter's jacks, thus switching the connections of the two letters.=== Accessories ===The ''Schreibmax'' was a printing unit which could be attached to the Enigma, removing the need for laboriously writing down the letters indicated on the light panel.Other features made various Enigma machines more secure or more convenient.==== ''Schreibmax'' ====Some M4 Enigmas used the ''Schreibmax'', a small printer that could print the 26 letters on a narrow paper ribbon.", "This eliminated the need for a second operator to read the lamps and transcribe the letters.", "The ''Schreibmax'' was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel.", "To install the printer, the lamp cover and light bulbs had to be removed.", "It improved both convenience and operational security; the printer could be installed remotely such that the signal officer operating the machine no longer had to see the decrypted plaintext.==== ''Fernlesegerät'' ====Another accessory was the remote lamp panel ''Fernlesegerät''.", "For machines equipped with the extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel.", "A lamp panel version could be connected afterwards, but that required, as with the ''Schreibmax'', that the lamp panel and light bulbs be removed.", "The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted plaintext without the operator seeing it.==== ''Uhr'' ====The Enigma Uhr attachmentIn 1944, the ''Luftwaffe'' introduced a plugboard switch, called the ''Uhr'' (clock), a small box containing a switch with 40 positions.", "It replaced the standard plugs.", "After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator turned the switch into one of the 40 positions, each producing a different combination of plug wiring.", "Most of these plug connections were, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise.", "In one switch position, the ''Uhr'' did not swap letters, but simply emulated the 13 stecker wires with plugs.=== Mathematical analysis ===The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of permutations.", "Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let denote the plugboard transformation, denote that of the reflector (), and , , denote those of the left, middle and right rotors respectively.", "Then the encryption can be expressed as:After each key press, the rotors turn, changing the transformation.", "For example, if the right-hand rotor is rotated positions, the transformation becomes:where is the cyclic permutation mapping A to B, B to C, and so forth.", "Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as and rotations of and .", "The encryption transformation can then be described as:Combining three rotors from a set of five, each of the 3 rotor settings with 26 positions, and the plugboard with ten pairs of letters connected, the military Enigma has 158,962,555,217,826,360,000 different settings (nearly 159 quintillion or about 67 bits)." ], [ "Operation", "=== Basic operation ===Enciphering and deciphering using an Enigma machineA German Enigma operator would be given a plaintext message to encrypt.", "After setting up his machine, he would type the message on the Enigma keyboard.", "For each letter pressed, one lamp lit indicating a different letter according to a pseudo-random substitution determined by the electrical pathways inside the machine.", "The letter indicated by the lamp would be recorded, typically by a second operator, as the cyphertext letter.", "The action of pressing a key also moved one or more rotors so that the next key press used a different electrical pathway, and thus a different substitution would occur even if the same plaintext letter were entered again.", "For each key press there was rotation of at least the right hand rotor and less often the other two, resulting in a different substitution alphabet being used for every letter in the message.", "This process continued until the message was completed.", "The cyphertext recorded by the second operator would then be transmitted, usually by radio in Morse code, to an operator of another Enigma machine.", "This operator would type in the cyphertext and — as long as all the settings of the deciphering machine were identical to those of the enciphering machine — for every key press the reverse substitution would occur and the plaintext message would emerge.=== Details ===German Kenngruppenheft (a U-boat codebook with grouped key codes).Monthly key list number 649 for the German Air Force Enigma, including settings for the reconfigurable reflector (which only change once every eight days).In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings and auxiliary documents.", "In German military practice, communications were divided into separate networks, each using different settings.", "These communication nets were termed ''keys'' at Bletchley Park, and were assigned code names, such as ''Red'', ''Chaffinch'', and ''Shark''.", "Each unit operating in a network was given the same settings list for its Enigma, valid for a period of time.", "The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate and more secure than those in other services and employed auxiliary codebooks.", "Navy codebooks were printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were endangered or if the vessel was sunk.An Enigma machine's setting (its cryptographic key in modern terms; ''Schlüssel'' in German) specified each operator-adjustable aspect of the machine:* Wheel order (''Walzenlage'') – the choice of rotors and the order in which they are fitted.", "* Ring settings (''Ringstellung'') – the position of each alphabet ring relative to its rotor wiring.", "* Plug connections (''Steckerverbindungen'') – the pairs of letters in the plugboard that are connected together.", "* In very late versions, the wiring of the reconfigurable reflector.", "* Starting position of the rotors (''Grundstellung'') – chosen by the operator, should be different for each message.For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver had to configure their Enigma in the same way; rotor selection and order, ring positions, plugboard connections and starting rotor positions must be identical.", "Except for the starting positions, these settings were established beforehand, distributed in key lists and changed daily.", "For example, the settings for the 18th day of the month in the German Luftwaffe Enigma key list number 649 (see image) were as follows:* Wheel order: IV, II, V* Ring settings: 15, 23, 26* Plugboard connections: EJ OY IV AQ KW FX MT PS LU BD* Reconfigurable reflector wiring: IU AS DV GL FT OX EZ CH MR KN BQ PW* Indicator groups: lsa zbw vcj rxnEnigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an opponent, although in practice considerable effort protected the wiring configuration.", "If the wiring is secret, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around (approximately 380 bits); with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around (76 bits).", "Because of the large number of possibilities, users of Enigma were confident of its security; it was not then feasible for an adversary to even begin to try a brute-force attack.=== Indicator ===Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day.", "A different initial rotor position was used for each message, a concept similar to an initialisation vector in modern cryptography.", "The reason is that encrypting many messages with identical or near-identical settings (termed in cryptanalysis as being ''in depth''), would enable an attack using a statistical procedure such as Friedman's Index of coincidence.", "The starting position for the rotors was transmitted just before the ciphertext, usually after having been enciphered.", "The exact method used was termed the ''indicator procedure''.", "Design weakness and operator sloppiness in these indicator procedures were two of the main weaknesses that made cracking Enigma possible.Figure 2.With the inner lid down, the Enigma was ready for use.", "The finger wheels of the rotors protruded through the lid, allowing the operator to set the rotors, and their current position, here ''RDKP'', was visible to the operator through a set of windows.One of the earliest ''indicator procedures'' for the Enigma was cryptographically flawed and allowed Polish cryptanalysts to make the initial breaks into the plugboard Enigma.", "The procedure had the operator set his machine in accordance with the secret settings that all operators on the net shared.", "The settings included an initial position for the rotors (the ''Grundstellung''), say, ''AOH''.", "The operator turned his rotors until ''AOH'' was visible through the rotor windows.", "At that point, the operator chose his own arbitrary starting position for the message he would send.", "An operator might select ''EIN'', and that became the ''message setting'' for that encryption session.", "The operator then typed ''EIN'' into the machine twice, this producing the encrypted indicator, for example ''XHTLOA''.", "This was then transmitted, at which point the operator would turn the rotors to his message settings, ''EIN'' in this example, and then type the plaintext of the message.At the receiving end, the operator set the machine to the initial settings (''AOH'') and typed in the first six letters of the message (''XHTLOA'').", "In this example, ''EINEIN'' emerged on the lamps, so the operator would learn the ''message setting'' that the sender used to encrypt this message.", "The receiving operator would set his rotors to ''EIN'', type in the rest of the ciphertext, and get the deciphered message.This indicator scheme had two weaknesses.", "First, the use of a global initial position (''Grundstellung'') meant all message keys used the same polyalphabetic substitution.", "In later indicator procedures, the operator selected his initial position for encrypting the indicator and sent that initial position in the clear.", "The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was a serious security flaw.", "The message setting was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character.", "These security flaws enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break into the pre-war Enigma system as early as 1932.The early indicator procedure was subsequently described by German cryptanalysts as the \"faulty indicator technique\".During World War II, codebooks were only used each day to set up the rotors, their ring settings and the plugboard.", "For each message, the operator selected a random start position, let's say ''WZA'', and a random message key, perhaps ''SXT''.", "He moved the rotors to the ''WZA'' start position and encoded the message key ''SXT''.", "Assume the result was ''UHL''.", "He then set up the message key, ''SXT'', as the start position and encrypted the message.", "Next, he transmitted the start position, ''WZA'', the encoded message key, ''UHL'', and then the ciphertext.", "The receiver set up the start position according to the first trigram, ''WZA'', and decoded the second trigram, ''UHL'', to obtain the ''SXT'' message setting.", "Next, he used this ''SXT'' message setting as the start position to decrypt the message.", "This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message settings.This procedure was used by ''Wehrmacht'' and ''Luftwaffe'' only.", "The ''Kriegsmarine'' procedures on sending messages with the Enigma were far more complex and elaborate.", "Prior to encryption the message was encoded using the ''Kurzsignalheft'' code book.", "The ''Kurzsignalheft'' contained tables to convert sentences into four-letter groups.", "A great many choices were included, for example, logistic matters such as refuelling and rendezvous with supply ships, positions and grid lists, harbour names, countries, weapons, weather conditions, enemy positions and ships, date and time tables.", "Another codebook contained the ''Kenngruppen'' and ''Spruchschlüssel'': the key identification and message key.=== Additional details ===The Army Enigma machine used only the 26 alphabet characters.", "Punctuation was replaced with rare character combinations.", "A space was omitted or replaced with an X.", "The X was generally used as full-stop.Some punctuation marks were different in other parts of the armed forces.", "The ''Wehrmacht'' replaced a comma with ZZ and the question mark with FRAGE or FRAQ.The ''Kriegsmarine'' replaced the comma with Y and the question mark with UD.", "The combination CH, as in \"''Acht''\" (eight) or \"''Richtung''\" (direction), was replaced with Q (AQT, RIQTUNG).", "Two, three and four zeros were replaced with CENTA, MILLE and MYRIA.The ''Wehrmacht'' and the ''Luftwaffe'' transmitted messages in groups of five characters and counted the letters.The ''Kriegsmarine'' used four-character groups and counted those groups.", "Frequently used names or words were varied as much as possible.", "Words like ''Minensuchboot'' (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT or MMMBOOT.", "To make cryptanalysis harder, messages were limited to 250 characters.", "Longer messages were divided into several parts, each using a different message key.=== Example enciphering process ===The character substitutions by the Enigma machine as a whole can be expressed as a string of letters with each position occupied by the character that will replace the character at the corresponding position in the alphabet.", "For example, a given machine configuration that enciphered A to L, B to U, C to S, ..., and Z to J could be represented compactly as LUSHQOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJand the enciphering of a particular character by that configuration could be represented by highlighting the enciphered character as in D > LUS(H)QOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJSince the operation of an Enigma machine enciphering a message is a series of such configurations, each associated with a single character being enciphered, a sequence of such representations can be used to represent the operation of the machine as it enciphers a message.", "For example, the process of enciphering the first sentence of the main body of the famous \"Dönitz message\" to RBBF PMHP HGCZ XTDY GAHG UFXG EWKB LKGJcan be represented as 0001 F > KGWNT(R)BLQPAHYDVJIFXEZOCSMU CDTK 25 15 16 26 0002 O > UORYTQSLWXZHNM(B)VFCGEAPIJDK CDTL 25 15 16 01 0003 L > HLNRSKJAMGF(B)ICUQPDEYOZXWTV CDTM 25 15 16 02 0004 G > KPTXIG(F)MESAUHYQBOVJCLRZDNW CDUN 25 15 17 03 0005 E > XDYB(P)WOSMUZRIQGENLHVJTFACK CDUO 25 15 17 04 0006 N > DLIAJUOVCEXBN(M)GQPWZYFHRKTS CDUP 25 15 17 05 0007 D > LUS(H)QOXDMZNAIKFREPCYBWVGTJ CDUQ 25 15 17 06 0008 E > JKGO(P)TCIHABRNMDEYLZFXWVUQS CDUR 25 15 17 07 0009 S > GCBUZRASYXVMLPQNOF(H)WDKTJIE CDUS 25 15 17 08 0010 I > XPJUOWIY(G)CVRTQEBNLZMDKFAHS CDUT 25 15 17 09 0011 S > DISAUYOMBPNTHKGJRQ(C)LEZXWFV CDUU 25 15 17 10 0012 T > FJLVQAKXNBGCPIRMEOY(Z)WDUHST CDUV 25 15 17 11 0013 S > KTJUQONPZCAMLGFHEW(X)BDYRSVI CDUW 25 15 17 12 0014 O > ZQXUVGFNWRLKPH(T)MBJYODEICSA CDUX 25 15 17 13 0015 F > XJWFR(D)ZSQBLKTVPOIEHMYNCAUG CDUY 25 15 17 14 0016 O > FSKTJARXPECNUL(Y)IZGBDMWVHOQ CDUZ 25 15 17 15 0017 R > CEAKBMRYUVDNFLTXW(G)ZOIJQPHS CDVA 25 15 18 16 0018 T > TLJRVQHGUCXBZYSWFDO(A)IEPKNM CDVB 25 15 18 17 0019 B > Y(H)LPGTEBKWICSVUDRQMFONJZAX CDVC 25 15 18 18 0020 E > KRUL(G)JEWNFADVIPOYBXZCMHSQT CDVD 25 15 18 19 0021 K > RCBPQMVZXY(U)OFSLDEANWKGTIJH CDVE 25 15 18 20 0022 A > (F)CBJQAWTVDYNXLUSEZPHOIGMKR CDVF 25 15 18 21 0023 N > VFTQSBPORUZWY(X)HGDIECJALNMK CDVG 25 15 18 22 0024 N > JSRHFENDUAZYQ(G)XTMCBPIWVOLK CDVH 25 15 18 23 0025 T > RCBUTXVZJINQPKWMLAY(E)DGOFSH CDVI 25 15 18 24 0026 Z > URFXNCMYLVPIGESKTBOQAJZDH(W) CDVJ 25 15 18 25 0027 U > JIOZFEWMBAUSHPCNRQLV(K)TGYXD CDVK 25 15 18 26 0028 G > ZGVRKO(B)XLNEIWJFUSDQYPCMHTA CDVL 25 15 18 01 0029 E > RMJV(L)YQZKCIEBONUGAWXPDSTFH CDVM 25 15 18 02 0030 B > G(K)QRFEANZPBMLHVJCDUXSOYTWI CDWN 25 15 19 03 0031 E > YMZT(G)VEKQOHPBSJLIUNDRFXWAC CDWO 25 15 19 04 0032 N > PDSBTIUQFNOVW(J)KAHZCEGLMYXR CDWP 25 15 19 05where the letters following each mapping are the letters that appear at the windows at that stage (the only state changes visible to the operator) and the numbers show the underlying physical position of each rotor.The character mappings for a given configuration of the machine are in turn the result of a series of such mappings applied by each pass through a component of the machine: the enciphering of a character resulting from the application of a given component's mapping serves as the input to the mapping of the subsequent component.", "For example, the 4th step in the enciphering above can be expanded to show each of these stages using the same representation of mappings and highlighting for the enciphered character: Here the enciphering begins trivially with the first \"mapping\" representing the keyboard (which has no effect), followed by the plugboard, configured as AE.BF.CM.DQ.HU.JN.LX.PR.SZ.VW which has no effect on 'G', followed by the VIII rotor in the 03 position, which maps G to A, then the VI rotor in the 17 position, which maps A to N, ..., and finally the plugboard again, which maps B to F, producing the overall mapping indicated at the final step: G to F.Note that this model has 4 rotors (lines 1 through 4) and that the reflector (line R) also permutes (garbles) letters." ], [ "Models", "The Enigma family included multiple designs.", "The earliest were commercial models dating from the early 1920s.", "Starting in the mid-1920s, the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of security-related changes.", "Various nations either adopted or adapted the design for their own cipher machines.", "A selection of seven Enigma machines and paraphernalia exhibited at the U.S. National Cryptologic Museum.", "From left to right, the models are: 1) Commercial Enigma; 2) Enigma T; 3) Enigma G; 4) Unidentified; 5) ''Luftwaffe'' (Air Force) Enigma; 6) ''Heer'' (Army) Enigma; 7) ''Kriegsmarine'' (Naval) Enigma — M4.An estimated 40,000 Enigma machines were constructed.", "After the end of World War II, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to developing countries.=== Commercial Enigma ===Scherbius Enigma patent, , granted in 1928.On 23 February 1918, Arthur Scherbius applied for a patent for a ciphering machine that used rotors.", "Scherbius and E. Richard Ritter founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter.", "They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither agency was interested.", "Scherbius & Ritter then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the ''Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft'' (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on 9 July 1923; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.==== Enigma Handelsmaschine (1923) ====Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine, ''Enigma Handelsmaschine'', which was exhibited at the Congress of the International Postal Union in 1924.The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a typewriter.", "It measured 65×45×38 cm and weighed about .==== Schreibende Enigma (1924) ====This was also a model with a type writer.", "There were a number of problems associated with the printer and the construction was not stable until 1926.Both early versions of Enigma lacked the reflector and had to be switched between enciphering and deciphering.==== Glühlampenmaschine, Enigma A (1924) ====The reflector, suggested by Scherbius' colleague Willi Korn, was introduced with the glow lamp version.The machine was also known as the military Enigma.", "It had two rotors and a manually rotatable reflector.", "The typewriter was omitted and glow lamps were used for output.", "The operation was somewhat different from later models.", "Before the next key pressure, the operator had to press a button to advance the right rotor one step.==== Enigma B (1924) ====Typical glowlamps (with flat tops), as used for Enigma.Enigma ''model B'' was introduced late in 1924, and was of a similar construction.", "While bearing the Enigma name, both models ''A'' and ''B'' were quite unlike later versions: They differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector.", "This model of Enigma machine was referred to as the Glowlamp Enigma or ''Glühlampenmaschine'' since it produced its output on a lamp panel rather than paper.", "This method of output was much more reliable and cost effective.", "Hence this machine was 1/8th the price of its predecessor.==== Enigma C (1926) ====''Model C'' was the third model of the so-called ″glowlamp Enigmas″ (after A and B) and it again lacked a typewriter.==== Enigma D (1927) ====The ''Enigma C'' quickly gave way to ''Enigma D'' (1927).", "This version was widely used, with shipments to Sweden, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Japan, Italy, Spain, United States and Poland.", "In 1927 Hugh Foss at the British Government Code and Cypher School was able to show that commercial Enigma machines could be broken, provided suitable cribs were available.", "Soon, the Enigma D would pioneer the use of a standard keyboard layout to be used in German computing.", "This \"QWERTZ\" layout is very similar to the American QWERTY keyboard format used in many languages.===== \"Navy Cipher D\" =====Other countries used Enigma machines.", "The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as \"Navy Cipher D\".", "The Spanish also used commercial Enigma machines during their Civil War.", "British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard.", "Enigma machines were also used by diplomatic services.==== Enigma H (1929) ====A rare 8-rotor printing Enigma model H (1929).There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the ''Enigma H'', called ''Enigma II'' by the ''Reichswehr''.", "In 1933 the Polish Cipher Bureau detected that it was in use for high-level military communication, but it was soon withdrawn, as it was unreliable and jammed frequently.==== Enigma K ====The Swiss used a version of Enigma called ''Model K'' or ''Swiss K'' for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to commercial Enigma D. The machine's code was cracked by Poland, France, the United Kingdom and the United States; the latter code-named it INDIGO.", "An ''Enigma T'' model, code-named ''Tirpitz'', was used by Japan.=== Military Enigma ===The various services of the Wehrmacht used various Enigma versions, and replaced them frequently, sometimes with ones adapted from other services.", "Enigma seldom carried high-level strategic messages, which when not urgent went by courier, and when urgent went by other cryptographic systems including the Geheimschreiber.==== Funkschlüssel C ====The Reichsmarine was the first military branch to adopt Enigma.", "This version, named ''Funkschlüssel C'' (\"Radio cipher C\"), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926.The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters — A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü — that were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZUI ordering.", "The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter ''X'' wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted.", "Three rotors were chosen from a set of five and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ.", "The machine was revised slightly in July 1933.==== Enigma G (1928–1930) ====By 15 July 1928, the German Army (''Reichswehr'') had introduced their own exclusive version of the Enigma machine, the ''Enigma G''.The ''Abwehr'' used the ''Enigma G'' (the ''Abwehr'' Enigma).", "This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors.", "This model was equipped with a counter that incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the \"counter machine\" or the ''Zählwerk'' Enigma.==== Wehrmacht Enigma I (1930–1938) ====Enigma machine G was modified to the ''Enigma I'' by June 1930.Enigma I is also known as the ''Wehrmacht'', or \"Services\" Enigma, and was used extensively by German military services and other government organisations (such as the railways) before and during World War II.Heinz Guderian in the Battle of France, with an Enigma machine.", "Note one soldier is keying in text while another writes down the results.The major difference between ''Enigma I'' (German Army version from 1930), and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing cryptographic strength.Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings.", "The machine measured and weighed around .In August 1935, the Air Force introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications.==== M3 (1934) ====By 1930, the Reichswehr had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing the benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications.", "The Reichsmarine eventually agreed and in 1934 brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated ''Funkschlüssel'' ' or ''M3''.", "While the Army used only three rotors at that time, the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five.Enigma in use on the Russian front==== Two extra rotors (1938) ====In December 1938, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five.", "In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight.==== M4 (1942) ====A four-rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on 1 February 1942, called ''M4'' (the network was known as ''Triton'', or ''Shark'' to the Allies).", "The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.File:Enigma-G.jpg\|Enigma G, used by the ''Abwehr'', had four rotors, no plugboard, and multiple notches on the rotors.File:Enigma-IMG 0484-black.jpg\|The German-made Enigma-K used by the Swiss Army had three rotors and a reflector, but no plugboard.", "It had locally re-wired rotors and an additional lamp panel.File:Four-rotor-enigma.jpg\|An Enigma model T (Tirpitz), a modified commercial Enigma K manufactured for use by the Japanese.File:Enigma Decoder Machine.jpg\|An Enigma machine in the UK's Imperial War MuseumFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-241-2173-06, Russland, Verschlüsselungsgerät Enigma.jpg\|Enigma in use in RussiaFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2006-0188, Verschlüsselungsgerät \"Enigma\".jpg\|Enigma in radio car of the 7th Panzer Div.", "staff, August 1941A three-rotor Enigma machine on display at Computer Museum of America and its two additional rotors." ], [ "Surviving machines", "Surviving three-rotor Enigma on display at Discovery Park of America in Union City, Tennessee, U.S.The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s.", "Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown.", "Enigmas are on public display in museums around the world, and several are in the hands of private collectors and computer history enthusiasts.The ''Deutsches Museum'' in Munich has both the three- and four-rotor German military variants, as well as several civilian versions.", "The ''Deutsches Spionagemuseum'' in Berlin also showcases two military variants.", "Enigma machines are also exhibited at the National Codes Centre in Bletchley Park, the Government Communications Headquarters, the Science Museum in London, Discovery Park of America in Tennessee, the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, the Swedish Army Museum (''Armémuseum'') in Stockholm, the Military Museum of A Coruña in Spain, the Nordland Red Cross War Memorial Museum in Narvik, Norway, The Artillery, Engineers and Signals Museum in Hämeenlinna, Finland the Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, in Skanderborg Bunkerne at Skanderborg, Denmark, and at the Australian War Memorial and in the foyer of the Australian Signals Directorate, both in Canberra, Australia.", "The Jozef Pilsudski Institute in London exhibited a rare Polish Enigma double assembled in France in 1940.In 2020, thanks to the support of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, it became the property of the Polish History Museum.A four-rotor ''Kriegsmarine'' (German Navy, 1.February 1942 to 1945) Enigma machine on display at the U.S. National Cryptologic MuseumIn the United States, Enigma machines can be seen at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, and at the National Security Agency's National Cryptologic Museum in Fort Meade, Maryland, where visitors can try their hand at enciphering and deciphering messages.", "Two machines that were acquired after the capture of during World War II are on display alongside the submarine at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.", "A three-rotor Enigma is on display at Discovery Park of America in Union City, Tennessee.", "A four-rotor device is on display in the ANZUS Corridor of the Pentagon on the second floor, A ring, between corridors 8 and 9.This machine is on loan from Australia.", "The United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs has a machine on display in the Computer Science Department.", "There is also a machine located at The National WWII Museum in New Orleans.", "The International Museum of World War II near Boston has seven Enigma machines on display, including a U-boat four-rotor model, one of three surviving examples of an Enigma machine with a printer, one of fewer than ten surviving ten-rotor code machines, an example blown up by a retreating German Army unit, and two three-rotor Enigmas that visitors can operate to encode and decode messages.", "Computer Museum of America in Roswell, Georgia has a three-rotor model with two additional rotors.", "The machine is fully restored and CMoA has the original paperwork for the purchase on 7 March 1936 by the German Army.", "The National Museum of Computing also contains surviving Enigma machines in Bletchley, England.A four-rotor ''Kriegsmarine'' Enigma machine on display at the Museum of the Second World War, Gdańsk, PolandIn Canada, a Swiss Army issue Enigma-K, is in Calgary, Alberta.", "It is on permanent display at the Naval Museum of Alberta inside the Military Museums of Calgary.", "A four-rotor Enigma machine is on display at the Military Communications and Electronics Museum at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Kingston in Kingston, Ontario.Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices have in recent years ranged from US$40,000 to US$547,500 in 2017.Replicas are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.A rare ''Abwehr'' Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on 1 April 2000.In September, a man identifying himself as \"The Master\" sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatening to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid.", "In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom, but the stated deadline passed with no word from the blackmailer.", "Shortly afterward, the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist Jeremy Paxman, missing three rotors.In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning ''The Sunday Times'' to arrange the return of the missing parts.", "The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley Park after the incident.", "In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison and served three months.In October 2008, the Spanish daily newspaper ''El País'' reported that 28 Enigma machines had been discovered by chance in an attic of Army headquarters in Madrid.", "These four-rotor commercial machines had helped Franco's Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War, because, though the British cryptologist Alfred Dilwyn Knox in 1937 broke the cipher generated by Franco's Enigma machines, this was not disclosed to the Republicans, who failed to break the cipher.", "The Nationalist government continued using its 50 Enigmas into the 1950s.", "Some machines have gone on display in Spanish military museums, including one at the National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) in La Coruña and one at the Spanish Army Museum.", "Two have been given to Britain's GCHQ.The Bulgarian military used Enigma machines with a Cyrillic keyboard; one is on display in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia.On 3 December 2020, German divers working on behalf of the World Wide Fund for Nature discovered a destroyed Enigma machine in Flensburg Firth (part of the Baltic Sea) which is believed to be from a scuttled U-boat.", "This Enigma machine will be restored by and be the property of the Archaeology Museum of Schleswig Holstein.An M4 Enigma was salvaged in the 1980s from the German minesweeper R15, which was sunk off the Istrian coast in 1945.The machine was put on display in the Pivka Park of Military History in Slovenia on 13 April 2023." ], [ "Derivatives", "The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, spinning off other rotor machines.", "Once the British discovered Enigma's principle of operation, they created the Typex rotor cipher, which the Germans believed to be unsolvable.", "Typex was originally derived from the Enigma patents; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine.", "The British paid no royalties for the use of the patents.", "In the United States, cryptologist William Friedman designed the M-325 machine, starting in 1936, that is logically similar.Machines like the SIGABA, NEMA, Typex, and so forth, are not considered to be Enigma derivatives as their internal ciphering functions are not mathematically identical to the Enigma transform.A unique rotor machine called Cryptograph was constructed in 2002 by Netherlands-based Tatjana van Vark.", "This device makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation to be used; each rotor contains 509 parts.File:Japanese secure teletype 2.jpg\|A Japanese Enigma clone, codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers.File:Tatjavanavark-machine.jpg\|Tatjana van Vark's Enigma-inspired rotor machine.File:Enigma simulator-IMG 0515-black.jpg\|Electronic implementation of an Enigma machine, sold at the Bletchley Park souvenir shop" ], [ "Simulators" ], [ "See also", "* Alastair Denniston* Arlington Hall* Arne Beurling* Beaumanor Hall, a stately home used during the Second World War for military intelligence* Cryptanalysis of the Enigma * Erhard Maertens—investigated Enigma security * Erich Fellgiebel* Fritz Thiele* Gisbert Hasenjaeger—responsible for Enigma security* United States Naval Computing Machine Laboratory" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * Heath, Nick, Hacking the Nazis: The secret story of the women who broke Hitler's codes TechRepublic, 27 March 2015* * * * Marks, Philip.", "\"Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part I\", ''Cryptologia'' 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101–141.", "* Marks, Philip.", "\"Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part II\", ''Cryptologia'' 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177–212.", "* Marks, Philip.", "\"Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector — Part III\", ''Cryptologia'' 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296–310.", "* * * Perera, Tom.", "''The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering'', 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, sample pages* Rebecca Ratcliffe: Searching for Security.", "The German Investigations into Enigma's security.", "In: Intelligence and National Security 14 (1999) Issue 1 (Special Issue) S.", "146–167.", "* * Rejewski, Marian.", "\"How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the Enigma\" , ''Annals of the History of Computing 3'', 1981.This article is regarded by Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing's biographer, as \"the definitive account\" (see Hodges' ''Alan Turing: The Enigma'', Walker and Company, 2000 paperback edition, p. 548, footnote 4.5).", "* * * Ulbricht, Heinz.", "Enigma Uhr, ''Cryptologia'', 23(3), April 1999, pp. 194–205.", "* * * Untold Story of Enigma Code-Breaker — The Ministry of Defence (U.K.)" ], [ "External links", "* Gordon Corera, Poland's overlooked Enigma codebreakers, BBC News Magazine, 4 July 2014* Long-running list of places with Enigma machines on display* Bletchley Park National Code Centre Home of the British codebreakers during the Second World War * Enigma machines on the Crypto Museum Web site* Pictures of a four-rotor naval enigma, including Flash (SWF) views of the machine * Enigma Pictures and Demonstration by NSA Employee at RSA* * Kenngruppenheft* Process of building an Enigma M4 replica * Breaking German Navy Ciphers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enzyme" ], [ "Introduction", "The enzyme glucosidase converts the sugar maltose into two glucose sugars.", "Active site residues in red, maltose substrate in black, and NAD cofactor in yellow.", "()\|alt=Ribbon diagram of glycosidase with an arrow showing the cleavage of the maltose sugar substrate into two glucose products.", "'''Enzymes''' () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions.", "The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products.", "Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.", "Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze individual steps.", "The study of enzymes is called ''enzymology'' and the field of pseudoenzyme analysis recognizes that during evolution, some enzymes have lost the ability to carry out biological catalysis, which is often reflected in their amino acid sequences and unusual 'pseudocatalytic' properties.Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types.", "Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes.", "An enzyme's specificity comes from its unique three-dimensional structure.IUPAC definition for enzymesLike all catalysts, enzymes increase the reaction rate by lowering its activation energy.", "Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster.", "An extreme example is orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds.", "Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction.", "Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific.", "Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity.", "Many therapeutic drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors.", "An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, and many enzymes are (permanently) denatured when exposed to excessive heat, losing their structure and catalytic properties.Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics.", "Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions: enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein, starch or fat stains on clothes, and enzymes in meat tenderizer break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew." ], [ "Etymology and history", "Eduard BuchnerBy the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known but the mechanisms by which these occurred had not been identified.French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase, in 1833.A few decades later, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that this fermentation was caused by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called \"ferments\", which were thought to function only within living organisms.", "He wrote that \"alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells.", "\"In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne (1837–1900) first used the term ''enzyme'', which comes , to describe this process.", "The word ''enzyme'' was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ''ferment'' was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms.Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897.In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture.", "He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose \"zymase\".", "In 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for \"his discovery of cell-free fermentation\".", "Following Buchner's example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out: the suffix ''-ase'' is combined with the name of the substrate (e.g., lactase is the enzyme that cleaves lactose) or to the type of reaction (e.g., DNA polymerase forms DNA polymers).The biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s.", "Many scientists observed that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins, but others (such as Nobel laureate Richard Willstätter) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins ''per se'' were incapable of catalysis.", "In 1926, James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a pure protein and crystallized it; he did likewise for the enzyme catalase in 1937.The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively demonstrated by John Howard Northrop and Wendell Meredith Stanley, who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin (1930), trypsin and chymotrypsin.", "These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.The discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography.", "This was first done for lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965.This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail." ], [ "Classification and nomenclature", "Enzymes can be classified by two main criteria: either amino acid sequence similarity (and thus evolutionary relationship) or enzymatic activity.", "'''Enzyme activity'''.", "An enzyme's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in ''-ase''.", "Examples are lactase, alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA polymerase.", "Different enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction are called isozymes.The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology have developed a nomenclature for enzymes, the EC numbers (for \"Enzyme Commission\").", "Each enzyme is described by \"EC\" followed by a sequence of four numbers which represent the hierarchy of enzymatic activity (from very general to very specific).", "That is, the first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism while the other digits add more and more specificity.The top-level classification is:EC 1, Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactionsEC 2, Transferases: transfer a functional group (''e.g.''", "a methyl or phosphate group)EC 3, Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bondsEC 4, Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidationEC 5, Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single moleculeEC 6, Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds.", "EC 7, Translocases: catalyze the movement of ions or molecules across membranes, or their separation within membranes.These sections are subdivided by other features such as the substrate, products, and chemical mechanism.", "An enzyme is fully specified by four numerical designations.", "For example, hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) is a transferase (EC 2) that adds a phosphate group (EC 2.7) to a hexose sugar, a molecule containing an alcohol group (EC 2.7.1).", "'''Sequence similarity'''.", "EC categories do '''not''' reflect sequence similarity.", "For instance, two ligases of the same EC number that catalyze exactly the same reaction can have completely different sequences.", "Independent of their function, enzymes, like any other proteins, have been classified by their sequence similarity into numerous families.", "These families have been documented in dozens of different protein and protein family databases such as Pfam.", "'''Non-homologous isofunctional enzymes'''.", "Unrelated enzymes that have the same enzymatic activity have been called ''non-homologous isofunctional enzymes''.", "Horizontal gene transfer may spread these genes to unrelated species, especially bacteria where they can replace endogenous genes of the same function, leading to hon-homologous gene displacement." ], [ "Structure", "Q10 coefficient) until the enzyme's structure unfolds (denaturation), leading to an optimal rate of reaction at an intermediate temperature.\|alt=A graph showing that reaction rate increases exponentially with temperature until denaturation causes it to decrease again.Enzymes are generally globular proteins, acting alone or in larger complexes.", "The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme.", "Although structure determines function, a novel enzymatic activity cannot yet be predicted from structure alone.", "Enzyme structures unfold (denature) when heated or exposed to chemical denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of activity.", "Enzyme denaturation is normally linked to temperatures above a species' normal level; as a result, enzymes from bacteria living in volcanic environments such as hot springs are prized by industrial users for their ability to function at high temperatures, allowing enzyme-catalysed reactions to be operated at a very high rate.Enzymes are usually much larger than their substrates.", "Sizes range from just 62 amino acid residues, for the monomer of 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase, to over 2,500 residues in the animal fatty acid synthase.", "Only a small portion of their structure (around 2–4 amino acids) is directly involved in catalysis: the catalytic site.", "This catalytic site is located next to one or more binding sites where residues orient the substrates.", "The catalytic site and binding site together compose the enzyme's active site.", "The remaining majority of the enzyme structure serves to maintain the precise orientation and dynamics of the active site.In some enzymes, no amino acids are directly involved in catalysis; instead, the enzyme contains sites to bind and orient catalytic cofactors.", "Enzyme structures may also contain allosteric sites where the binding of a small molecule causes a conformational change that increases or decreases activity.A small number of RNA-based biological catalysts called ribozymes exist, which again can act alone or in complex with proteins.", "The most common of these is the ribosome which is a complex of protein and catalytic RNA components." ], [ "Mechanism", "enzyme structure and lysozyme example.", "Binding sites in blue, catalytic site in red and peptidoglycan substrate in black.", "()\|alt=Lysozyme displayed as an opaque globular surface with a pronounced cleft which the substrate depicted as a stick diagram snuggly fits into.=== Substrate binding ===Enzymes must bind their substrates before they can catalyse any chemical reaction.", "Enzymes are usually very specific as to what substrates they bind and then the chemical reaction catalysed.", "Specificity is achieved by binding pockets with complementary shape, charge and hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics to the substrates.", "Enzymes can therefore distinguish between very similar substrate molecules to be chemoselective, regioselective and stereospecific.Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying and expression of the genome.", "Some of these enzymes have \"proof-reading\" mechanisms.", "Here, an enzyme such as DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks that the product is correct in a second step.", "This two-step process results in average error rates of less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high-fidelity mammalian polymerases.", "Similar proofreading mechanisms are also found in RNA polymerase, aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and ribosomes.Conversely, some enzymes display enzyme promiscuity, having broad specificity and acting on a range of different physiologically relevant substrates.", "Many enzymes possess small side activities which arose fortuitously (i.e.", "neutrally), which may be the starting point for the evolutionary selection of a new function.Enzyme changes shape by induced fit upon substrate binding to form enzyme-substrate complex.", "Hexokinase has a large induced fit motion that closes over the substrates adenosine triphosphate and xylose.", "Binding sites in blue, substrates in black and Mg2+ cofactor in yellow.", "(, )==== \"Lock and key\" model ====To explain the observed specificity of enzymes, in 1894 Emil Fischer proposed that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.", "This is often referred to as \"the lock and key\" model.", "This early model explains enzyme specificity, but fails to explain the stabilization of the transition state that enzymes achieve.==== Induced fit model ====In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continuously reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme.", "As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site; the amino acid side-chains that make up the active site are molded into the precise positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function.", "In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.", "The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound, at which point the final shape and charge distribution is determined.Induced fit may enhance the fidelity of molecular recognition in the presence of competition and noise via the conformational proofreading mechanism.=== Catalysis ===Enzymes can accelerate reactions in several ways, all of which lower the activation energy (ΔG‡, Gibbs free energy)# By stabilizing the transition state:# Creating an environment with a charge distribution complementary to that of the transition state to lower its energy# By providing an alternative reaction pathway:#* Temporarily reacting with the substrate, forming a covalent intermediate to provide a lower energy transition state# By destabilising the substrate ground state:#* Distorting bound substrate(s) into their transition state form to reduce the energy required to reach the transition state#* By orienting the substrates into a productive arrangement to reduce the reaction entropy change (the contribution of this mechanism to catalysis is relatively small)Enzymes may use several of these mechanisms simultaneously.", "For example, proteases such as trypsin perform covalent catalysis using a catalytic triad, stabilise charge build-up on the transition states using an oxyanion hole, complete hydrolysis using an oriented water substrate.=== Dynamics ===Enzymes are not rigid, static structures; instead they have complex internal dynamic motions – that is, movements of parts of the enzyme's structure such as individual amino acid residues, groups of residues forming a protein loop or unit of secondary structure, or even an entire protein domain.", "These motions give rise to a conformational ensemble of slightly different structures that interconvert with one another at equilibrium.", "Different states within this ensemble may be associated with different aspects of an enzyme's function.", "For example, different conformations of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase are associated with the substrate binding, catalysis, cofactor release, and product release steps of the catalytic cycle, consistent with catalytic resonance theory.=== Substrate presentation ===Substrate presentation is a process where the enzyme is sequestered away from its substrate.", "Enzymes can be sequestered to the plasma membrane away from a substrate in the nucleus or cytosol.", "Or within the membrane, an enzyme can be sequestered into lipid rafts away from its substrate in the disordered region.", "When the enzyme is released it mixes with its substrate.", "Alternatively, the enzyme can be sequestered near its substrate to activate the enzyme.", "For example, the enzyme can be soluble and upon activation bind to a lipid in the plasma membrane and then act upon molecules in the plasma membrane.=== Allosteric modulation ===Allosteric sites are pockets on the enzyme, distinct from the active site, that bind to molecules in the cellular environment.", "These molecules then cause a change in the conformation or dynamics of the enzyme that is transduced to the active site and thus affects the reaction rate of the enzyme.", "In this way, allosteric interactions can either inhibit or activate enzymes.", "Allosteric interactions with metabolites upstream or downstream in an enzyme's metabolic pathway cause feedback regulation, altering the activity of the enzyme according to the flux through the rest of the pathway." ], [ "Cofactors", "Chemical structure for thiamine pyrophosphate and protein structure of transketolase.", "Thiamine pyrophosphate cofactor in yellow and xylulose 5-phosphate substrate in black.", "()Some enzymes do not need additional components to show full activity.", "Others require non-protein molecules called cofactors to be bound for activity.", "Cofactors can be either inorganic (e.g., metal ions and iron–sulfur clusters) or organic compounds (e.g., flavin and heme).", "These cofactors serve many purposes; for instance, metal ions can help in stabilizing nucleophilic species within the active site.", "Organic cofactors can be either coenzymes, which are released from the enzyme's active site during the reaction, or prosthetic groups, which are tightly bound to an enzyme.", "Organic prosthetic groups can be covalently bound (e.g., biotin in enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase).An example of an enzyme that contains a cofactor is carbonic anhydrase, which uses a zinc cofactor bound as part of its active site.", "These tightly bound ions or molecules are usually found in the active site and are involved in catalysis.", "For example, flavin and heme cofactors are often involved in redox reactions.Enzymes that require a cofactor but do not have one bound are called ''apoenzymes'' or ''apoproteins''.", "An enzyme together with the cofactor(s) required for activity is called a ''holoenzyme'' (or haloenzyme).", "The term ''holoenzyme'' can also be applied to enzymes that contain multiple protein subunits, such as the DNA polymerases; here the holoenzyme is the complete complex containing all the subunits needed for activity.===Coenzymes===Coenzymes are small organic molecules that can be loosely or tightly bound to an enzyme.", "Coenzymes transport chemical groups from one enzyme to another.", "Examples include NADH, NADPH and adenosine triphosphate (ATP).", "Some coenzymes, such as flavin mononucleotide (FMN), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), and tetrahydrofolate (THF), are derived from vitamins.", "These coenzymes cannot be synthesized by the body ''de novo'' and closely related compounds (vitamins) must be acquired from the diet.", "The chemical groups carried include: * the hydride ion (H−), carried by NAD or NADP+ * the phosphate group, carried by adenosine triphosphate * the acetyl group, carried by coenzyme A * formyl, methenyl or methyl groups, carried by folic acid and * the methyl group, carried by S-adenosylmethionine Since coenzymes are chemically changed as a consequence of enzyme action, it is useful to consider coenzymes to be a special class of substrates, or second substrates, which are common to many different enzymes.", "For example, about 1000 enzymes are known to use the coenzyme NADH.Coenzymes are usually continuously regenerated and their concentrations maintained at a steady level inside the cell.", "For example, NADPH is regenerated through the pentose phosphate pathway and ''S''-adenosylmethionine by methionine adenosyltransferase.", "This continuous regeneration means that small amounts of coenzymes can be used very intensively.", "For example, the human body turns over its own weight in ATP each day." ], [ "Thermodynamics", "The energies of the stages of a chemical reaction.", "Uncatalysed (dashed line), substrates need a lot of activation energy to reach a transition state, which then decays into lower-energy products.", "When enzyme catalysed (solid line), the enzyme binds the substrates (ES), then stabilizes the transition state (ES‡) to reduce the activation energy required to produce products (EP) which are finally released.As with all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction.", "In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly.", "For example, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants:The rate of a reaction is dependent on the activation energy needed to form the transition state which then decays into products.", "Enzymes increase reaction rates by lowering the energy of the transition state.", "First, binding forms a low energy enzyme-substrate complex (ES).", "Second, the enzyme stabilises the transition state such that it requires less energy to achieve compared to the uncatalyzed reaction (ES‡).", "Finally the enzyme-product complex (EP) dissociates to release the products.Enzymes can couple two or more reactions, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to \"drive\" a thermodynamically unfavourable one so that the combined energy of the products is lower than the substrates.", "For example, the hydrolysis of ATP is often used to drive other chemical reactions." ], [ "Kinetics", " Enzyme kinetics is the investigation of how enzymes bind substrates and turn them into products.", "The rate data used in kinetic analyses are commonly obtained from enzyme assays.", "In 1913 Leonor Michaelis and Maud Leonora Menten proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics, which is referred to as Michaelis–Menten kinetics.", "The major contribution of Michaelis and Menten was to think of enzyme reactions in two stages.", "In the first, the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate complex.", "This is sometimes called the Michaelis–Menten complex in their honor.", "The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical step in the reaction and releases the product.", "This work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and J. B. S.", "Haldane, who derived kinetic equations that are still widely used today.Enzyme rates depend on solution conditions and substrate concentration.", "To find the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is seen.", "This is shown in the saturation curve on the right.", "Saturation happens because, as substrate concentration increases, more and more of the free enzyme is converted into the substrate-bound ES complex.", "At the maximum reaction rate (''V''max) of the enzyme, all the enzyme active sites are bound to substrate, and the amount of ES complex is the same as the total amount of enzyme.", "''V''max is only one of several important kinetic parameters.", "The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also important.", "This is given by the Michaelis–Menten constant (''K''m), which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one-half its maximum reaction rate; generally, each enzyme has a characteristic ''K''M for a given substrate.", "Another useful constant is ''k''cat, also called the ''turnover number'', which is the number of substrate molecules handled by one active site per second.The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of ''k''cat/''K''m.", "This is also called the specificity constant and incorporates the rate constants for all steps in the reaction up to and including the first irreversible step.", "Because the specificity constant reflects both affinity and catalytic ability, it is useful for comparing different enzymes against each other, or the same enzyme with different substrates.", "The theoretical maximum for the specificity constant is called the diffusion limit and is about 108 to 109 (M−1 s−1).", "At this point every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis, and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate.", "Enzymes with this property are called ''catalytically perfect'' or ''kinetically perfect''.", "Example of such enzymes are triose-phosphate isomerase, carbonic anhydrase, acetylcholinesterase, catalase, fumarase, β-lactamase, and superoxide dismutase.", "The turnover of such enzymes can reach several million reactions per second.", "But most enzymes are far from perfect: the average values of and are about and , respectively.Michaelis–Menten kinetics relies on the law of mass action, which is derived from the assumptions of free diffusion and thermodynamically driven random collision.", "Many biochemical or cellular processes deviate significantly from these conditions, because of macromolecular crowding and constrained molecular movement.", "More recent, complex extensions of the model attempt to correct for these effects." ], [ "Inhibition", " Enzyme reaction rates can be decreased by various types of enzyme inhibitors.===Types of inhibition=======Competitive====A competitive inhibitor and substrate cannot bind to the enzyme at the same time.", "Often competitive inhibitors strongly resemble the real substrate of the enzyme.", "For example, the drug methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate.", "The similarity between the structures of dihydrofolate and this drug are shown in the accompanying figure.", "This type of inhibition can be overcome with high substrate concentration.", "In some cases, the inhibitor can bind to a site other than the binding-site of the usual substrate and exert an allosteric effect to change the shape of the usual binding-site.====Non-competitive====A non-competitive inhibitor binds to a site other than where the substrate binds.", "The substrate still binds with its usual affinity and hence Km remains the same.", "However the inhibitor reduces the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme so that Vmax is reduced.", "In contrast to competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition cannot be overcome with high substrate concentration.====Uncompetitive====An uncompetitive inhibitor cannot bind to the free enzyme, only to the enzyme-substrate complex; hence, these types of inhibitors are most effective at high substrate concentration.", "In the presence of the inhibitor, the enzyme-substrate complex is inactive.", "This type of inhibition is rare.====Mixed====A mixed inhibitor binds to an allosteric site and the binding of the substrate and the inhibitor affect each other.", "The enzyme's function is reduced but not eliminated when bound to the inhibitor.", "This type of inhibitor does not follow the Michaelis–Menten equation.====Irreversible====An irreversible inhibitor permanently inactivates the enzyme, usually by forming a covalent bond to the protein.", "Penicillin and aspirin are common drugs that act in this manner.===Functions of inhibitors===In many organisms, inhibitors may act as part of a feedback mechanism.", "If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism, that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme at the beginning of the pathway that produces it, causing production of the substance to slow down or stop when there is sufficient amount.", "This is a form of negative feedback.", "Major metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle make use of this mechanism.Since inhibitors modulate the function of enzymes they are often used as drugs.", "Many such drugs are reversible competitive inhibitors that resemble the enzyme's native substrate, similar to methotrexate above; other well-known examples include statins used to treat high cholesterol, and protease inhibitors used to treat retroviral infections such as HIV.", "A common example of an irreversible inhibitor that is used as a drug is aspirin, which inhibits the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes that produce the inflammation messenger prostaglandin.", "Other enzyme inhibitors are poisons.", "For example, the poison cyanide is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor that combines with the copper and iron in the active site of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase and blocks cellular respiration." ], [ "Factors affecting enzyme activity", "As enzymes are made up of proteins, their actions are sensitive to change in many physio chemical factors such as pH, temperature, substrate concentration, etc.The following table shows pH optima for various enzymes.+EnzymeOptimum pHpH descriptionPepsin1.5–1.6Highly acidicInvertase4.5AcidicLipase (stomach)4.0–5.0AcidicLipase (castor oil)4.7AcidicLipase (pancreas)8.0AlkalineAmylase (malt)4.6–5.2AcidicAmylase (pancreas)6.7–7.0Acidic-neutralCellobiase5.0AcidicMaltase6.1–6.8AcidicSucrase6.2AcidicCatalase7.0NeutralUrease7.0NeutralCholinesterase7.0NeutralRibonuclease7.0–7.5NeutralFumarase7.8AlkalineTrypsin7.8–8.7AlkalineAdenosine triphosphate9.0AlkalineArginase10.0Highly alkaline" ], [ "Biological function", "Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms.", "They are indispensable for signal transduction and cell regulation, often via kinases and phosphatases.", "They also generate movement, with myosin hydrolyzing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to generate muscle contraction, and also transport cargo around the cell as part of the cytoskeleton.", "Other ATPases in the cell membrane are ion pumps involved in active transport.", "Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions, such as luciferase generating light in fireflies.", "Viruses can also contain enzymes for infecting cells, such as the HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase, or for viral release from cells, like the influenza virus neuraminidase.An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals.", "Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines.", "Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose, which can then be absorbed.", "Different enzymes digest different food substances.", "In ruminants, which have herbivorous diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, cellulase, to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.===Metabolism===The metabolic pathway of glycolysis releases energy by converting glucose to pyruvate via a series of intermediate metabolites.", "Each chemical modification (red box) is performed by a different enzyme.Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways.", "In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate.", "After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme.", "Sometimes more than one enzyme can catalyze the same reaction in parallel; this can allow more complex regulation: with, for example, a low constant activity provided by one enzyme but an inducible high activity from a second enzyme.Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways.", "Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps and could not be regulated to serve the needs of the cell.", "Most central metabolic pathways are regulated at a few key steps, typically through enzymes whose activity involves the hydrolysis of ATP.", "Because this reaction releases so much energy, other reactions that are thermodynamically unfavorable can be coupled to ATP hydrolysis, driving the overall series of linked metabolic reactions.=== Control of activity ===There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.====Regulation====Enzymes can be either activated or inhibited by other molecules.", "For example, the end product(s) of a metabolic pathway are often inhibitors for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called committed step), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways.", "Such a regulatory mechanism is called a negative feedback mechanism, because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration.", "Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells.", "This helps with effective allocations of materials and energy economy, and it prevents the excess manufacture of end products.", "Like other homeostatic devices, the control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms.====Post-translational modification====Examples of post-translational modification include phosphorylation, myristoylation and glycosylation.", "For example, in the response to insulin, the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes, including glycogen synthase, helps control the synthesis or degradation of glycogen and allows the cell to respond to changes in blood sugar.", "Another example of post-translational modification is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain.", "Chymotrypsin, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form as chymotrypsinogen in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated.", "This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut.", "This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen or proenzyme.====Quantity====Enzyme production (transcription and translation of enzyme genes) can be enhanced or diminished by a cell in response to changes in the cell's environment.", "This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction.", "For example, bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin because enzymes called beta-lactamases are induced that hydrolyse the crucial beta-lactam ring within the penicillin molecule.", "Another example comes from enzymes in the liver called cytochrome P450 oxidases, which are important in drug metabolism.", "Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause drug interactions.", "Enzyme levels can also be regulated by changing the rate of enzyme degradation.", "The opposite of enzyme induction is enzyme repression.====Subcellular distribution====Enzymes can be compartmentalized, with different metabolic pathways occurring in different cellular compartments.", "For example, fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi and used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondrion, through β-oxidation.", "In addition, trafficking of the enzyme to different compartments may change the degree of protonation (e.g., the neutral cytoplasm and the acidic lysosome) or oxidative state (e.g., oxidizing periplasm or reducing cytoplasm) which in turn affects enzyme activity.", "In contrast to partitioning into membrane bound organelles, enzyme subcellular localisation may also be altered through polymerisation of enzymes into macromolecular cytoplasmic filaments.====Organ specialization====In multicellular eukaryotes, cells in different organs and tissues have different patterns of gene expression and therefore have different sets of enzymes (known as isozymes) available for metabolic reactions.", "This provides a mechanism for regulating the overall metabolism of the organism.", "For example, hexokinase, the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway, has a specialized form called glucokinase expressed in the liver and pancreas that has a lower affinity for glucose yet is more sensitive to glucose concentration.", "This enzyme is involved in sensing blood sugar and regulating insulin production.=== Involvement in disease ===In phenylalanine hydroxylase over 300 different mutations throughout the structure cause phenylketonuria.", "Phenylalanine substrate and tetrahydrobiopterin coenzyme in black, and Fe2+ cofactor in yellow.", "()autosomal fashion because there are more non-X chromosomes than X-chromosomes, and a recessive fashion because the enzymes from the unaffected genes are generally sufficient to prevent symptoms in carriers.Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for homeostasis, any malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease.", "The malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in the human body can be fatal.", "An example of a fatal genetic disease due to enzyme insufficiency is Tay–Sachs disease, in which patients lack the enzyme hexosaminidase.One example of enzyme deficiency is the most common type of phenylketonuria.", "Many different single amino acid mutations in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of phenylalanine, result in build-up of phenylalanine and related products.", "Some mutations are in the active site, directly disrupting binding and catalysis, but many are far from the active site and reduce activity by destabilising the protein structure, or affecting correct oligomerisation.", "This can lead to intellectual disability if the disease is untreated.", "Another example is pseudocholinesterase deficiency, in which the body's ability to break down choline ester drugs is impaired.Oral administration of enzymes can be used to treat some functional enzyme deficiencies, such as pancreatic insufficiency and lactose intolerance.Another way enzyme malfunctions can cause disease comes from germline mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes.", "Defects in these enzymes cause cancer because cells are less able to repair mutations in their genomes.", "This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the development of cancers.", "An example of such a hereditary cancer syndrome is xeroderma pigmentosum, which causes the development of skin cancers in response to even minimal exposure to ultraviolet light." ], [ "Evolution", "Similar to any other protein, enzymes change over time through mutations and sequence divergence.", "Given their central role in metabolism, enzyme evolution plays a critical role in adaptation.", "A key question is therefore whether and how enzymes can change their enzymatic activities alongside.", "It is generally accepted that many new enzyme activities have evolved through gene duplication and mutation of the duplicate copies although evolution can also happen without duplication.", "One example of an enzyme that has changed its activity is the ancestor of methionyl aminopeptidase (MAP) and creatine amidinohydrolase (creatinase) which are clearly homologous but catalyze very different reactions (MAP removes the amino-terminal methionine in new proteins while creatinase hydrolyses creatine to sarcosine and urea).", "In addition, MAP is metal-ion dependent while creatinase is not, hence this property was also lost over time.", "Small changes of enzymatic activity are extremely common among enzymes.", "In particular, substrate binding specificity (see above) can easily and quickly change with single amino acid changes in their substrate binding pockets.", "This is frequently seen in the main enzyme classes such as kinases.Artificial (in vitro) evolution is now commonly used to modify enzyme activity or specificity for industrial applications (see below)." ], [ "Industrial applications", "Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required.", "Enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in organic solvents and at high temperatures.", "As a consequence, protein engineering is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties, either through rational design or ''in vitro'' evolution.", "These efforts have begun to be successful, and a few enzymes have now been designed \"from scratch\" to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature.ApplicationEnzymes usedUses'''Biofuel industry'''CellulasesBreak down cellulose into sugars that can be fermented to produce cellulosic ethanol.", "Ligninases Pretreatment of biomass for biofuel production.", "'''Biological detergent'''Proteases, amylases, lipasesRemove protein, starch, and fat or oil stains from laundry and dishware.", "Mannanases Remove food stains from the common food additive guar gum.", "'''Brewing industry'''Amylase, glucanases, proteasesSplit polysaccharides and proteins in the malt.", "Betaglucanases Improve the wort and beer filtration characteristics.", "Amyloglucosidase and pullulanases Make low-calorie beer and adjust fermentability.", "Acetolactate decarboxylase (ALDC) Increase fermentation efficiency by reducing diacetyl formation.", "'''Culinary uses'''PapainTenderize meat for cooking.", "'''Dairy industry'''RenninHydrolyze protein in the manufacture of cheese.", "Lipases Produce Camembert cheese and blue cheeses such as Roquefort.", "'''Food processing'''AmylasesProduce sugars from starch, such as in making high-fructose corn syrup.", "Proteases Lower the protein level of flour, as in biscuit-making.TrypsinManufacture hypoallergenic baby foods.", "Cellulases, pectinases Clarify fruit juices.", "'''Molecular biology'''Nucleases, DNA ligase and polymerasesUse restriction digestion and the polymerase chain reaction to create recombinant DNA.", "'''Paper industry'''Xylanases, hemicellulases and lignin peroxidasesRemove lignin from kraft pulp.", "'''Personal care'''ProteasesRemove proteins on contact lenses to prevent infections.", "'''Starch industry''' Amylases Convert starch into glucose and various syrups." ], [ "See also", "* Industrial enzymes* List of enzymes* Molecular machine=== Enzyme databases ===* BRENDA* ExPASy* IntEnz* KEGG* MetaCyc" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", ";General* , A biochemistry textbook available free online through NCBI Bookshelf.", ";Etymology and history* , A history of early enzymology.", ";Enzyme structure and mechanism* ;Kinetics and inhibition" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ethics" ], [ "Introduction", "obligatory or prohibited.", "'''Ethics''' or '''moral philosophy''' is the philosophical study of moral phenomena.", "It investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right.", "It is usually divided into three major fields: normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.Normative ethics tries to discover and justify universal principles that govern how people should act in any situation.", "According to consequentialists, an act is right if it leads to the best consequences.", "Deontologists hold that morality consists in fulfilling duties, like telling the truth and keeping promises.", "Virtue theorists see the manifestation of virtues, like courage and compassion, as the fundamental principle of morality.", "Applied ethics examines concrete ethical problems in real-life situations, for example, by exploring the moral implications of the universal principles discovered in normative ethics within a specific domain.", "Bioethics studies moral issues associated with living organisms including humans, animals, and plants.", "Business ethics investigates how ethical principles apply to corporations, while professional ethics focuses on what is morally required of members of different professions.", "Metaethics is a metatheory that examines the underlying assumptions and concepts of ethics.", "It asks whether moral facts have mind-independent existence, whether moral statements can be true, how it is possible to acquire moral knowledge, and how moral judgments motivate people.Ethics is closely connected to value theory, which studies what value is and what types of value there are.", "Two related empirical fields are moral psychology, which investigates psychological moral processes, and descriptive ethics, which provides value-neutral descriptions of the dominant moral codes and beliefs in different societies.The history of ethics started in the ancient period with the development of ethical principles and theories in ancient Egypt, India, China, and Greece.", "During the medieval period, ethical thought was strongly influenced by religious teachings.", "In the modern period, this focus shifted to a more secular approach concerned with moral experience, practical reason, and the consequences of actions.", "An influential development in the 20th century was the emergence of metaethics." ], [ "Definition {{anchor\|Defining ethics}}", "According to Aristotle, how to lead a good life is one of the central questions of ethics.Ethics, also referred to as moral philosophy, is the study of moral phenomena.", "It is one of the main branches of philosophy and investigates the nature of morality and the principles that govern the moral evaluation of conduct, character traits, and institutions.", "It examines what obligations people have, what behavior is right and wrong, and how to lead a good life.", "Some of its key questions are \"How should one live?\"", "and \"What gives meaning to life?", "\".The domain of morality is a normative field governing what people ought to do rather than what they actually do, what they want to do, or what social conventions require.", "As a rational and systematic field of inquiry, ethics studies practical reasons why people should act one way rather than another.", "Most ethical theories seek universal principles that express a general standpoint of what is objectively right and wrong.", "In a slightly different sense, the term \"ethics\" can also refer to individual ethical theories in the form of a rational system of moral principles, such as Aristotelian ethics, and to a moral code that certain societies, social groups, or professions follow, as in Protestant work ethic and medical ethics.The terms \"ethics\" and \"morality\" are usually used interchangeably but some philosophers draw a distinction between the two.", "According to one view, morality is restricted to the question of what moral obligations people have while ethics is a wider term that takes additional considerations into account, such as what is good or how to lead a meaningful life.", "Another difference is that codes of conduct pertaining to specific areas, such as the business and environment, are usually termed \"ethics\" rather than morality, as in business ethics and environmental ethics.As a philosophical discipline, ethics is usually divided into normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.", "Normative ethics tries to find and justify universal principles of moral conduct.", "Applied ethics examines the consequences of those principles in specific domains of practical life.", "Metaethics is a metatheory that studies underlying assumptions and concepts, such as what the nature of morality is and whether moral judgments can be objectively true.The English word ''ethics'' has its roots in the Ancient Greek word () meaning \"character, personal disposition\".", "This word gave rise to the Ancient Greek word (), which was translated into Latin as and entered the English language in the 15th century through the Old French term ." ], [ "Normative ethics", "Normative ethics is the philosophical study of ethical conduct and investigates the fundamental principles of morality.", "It asks questions like \"How should one live?\"", "and \"How should people act?\".", "Its main goal is to discover and justify general answers to these questions.", "To do so, it usually seeks universal or domain-independent principles that determine whether an act is right or wrong.", "For example, given the particular impression that it is wrong to set a child on fire for fun, normative ethics aims to find more general principles that explain why this is the case, like the principle that one should not cause extreme suffering to the innocent, which may itself be explained in terms of a more general principle.", "Many theories of normative ethics try not only to provide principles to assess the moral value of actions but aim additionally to guide behavior by helping people make moral decisions.Theories in normative ethics state how people should act or what kind of behavior is correct.", "They do not aim to describe how people normally act, what moral beliefs ordinary people have, how these beliefs change over time, or what ethical codes are upheld in certain social groups.", "These topics belong to descriptive ethics and are studied in fields like anthropology, sociology, and history rather than normative ethics.", "Another contrast is with applied ethics, which investigates right moral conduct within a specific domain rather than general moral principles studied by normative ethics.Some systems of normative ethics arrive at a single principle that covers all possible cases while others encompass a small set of basic rules that address all or at least the most important moral considerations.", "One difficulty for systems with several basic principles is that these principles may in some cases conflict with each other and lead to ethical dilemmas.Different theories in normative ethics suggest different principles as the foundation of morality.", "The three most influential schools of thought are consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics.", "These schools are usually presented as exclusive alternatives but depending on how they are defined, they can overlap and do not necessarily exclude one another.", "In some cases, they differ concerning which acts they see as right or wrong.", "In other cases, they recommend the same course of action but provide different justifications for why it is right.=== Consequentialism ===Consequentialism, also referred to as teleological ethics, holds that morality depends on consequences.", "According to the most common view, an act is right if it brings about the best future.", "This means that there is no alternative course of action that has better consequences.", "A key aspect of consequentialist theories is that they provide a characterization of what is good and then define what is right in terms of what is good.Consequentialists usually understand the consequences of an action in a very wide sense that includes the totality of its effects.", "This is based on the idea that actions make a difference to the world by bringing about a causal chain of events that would not have existed otherwise.", "A core intuition behind consequentialism is that what matters is not the past but the future and that it should be shaped to result in the best possible outcome.The act itself is usually not seen as part of the consequences.", "This means that if an act has intrinsic value and disvalue, it is not included as a relevant factor.", "Some consequentialists try to avoid this complication by including the act itself as part of the consequences.", "A related approach is to characterize consequentialism not in terms of consequences but in terms of outcomes with outcome being defined as the act together with its consequences.Most forms of consequentialism are agent-neutral.", "This means that the value of consequences is assessed from a neutral perspective, i.e., acts should have consequences that are good in general and not just good for the agent.", "It is controversial whether agent-relative moral theories, like ethical egoism, should be considered as types of consequentialism.==== Types ====There are many different types of consequentialism.", "They differ from each other based on what type of entity they evaluate, how they determine whether a consequence is good, and what consequences they take into consideration.", "Most theories assess the moral value of acts.", "But consequentialism can also be used to evaluate motives, character traits, rules, and policies.Many consequentialists assess the value of consequences based on whether they promote happiness or suffering.", "But there are also alternative evaluative principles, such as desire satisfaction, autonomy, freedom, knowledge, friendship, beauty, and self-perfection.", "Some forms of consequentialism hold that there is only a single source of value.", "The most prominent among them is utilitarianism, which states that the moral value of acts only depends on the pleasure they cause.", "An alternative approach is to hold that there are many different sources of value.", "According to this view, all sources of value contribute to one overall value.", "Traditionally, consequentialists were only concerned with the sum total of value or the aggregate good.", "A more recently developed view is that the distribution of value also matters.", "It states, for example, that an equal distribution of goods is overall better than an unequal distribution even if the aggregate good is the same.There are various disagreements about what consequences should be assessed.", "An important distinction is between act and rule consequentialism.", "According to act consequentialism, the consequences of an act determine the moral value of this act.", "This means that there is a direct relation between the consequences of an act and its moral value.", "Rule consequentialism, by contrast, holds that an act is right if it follows a certain set of rules.", "Rule consequentialism uses considerations of consequences to determine which rules should be followed: people should follow the rules that have the best consequences in a community that accepts them.", "This implies that the relation between act and consequences is indirect.", "For example, if a prohibition to lie is part of the best rules then, according to rule consequentialism, a person should not lie even in a particular case where lying would result in the best possible consequences.Another disagreement on the level of consequences is between actual and expected consequentialism.", "According to the traditional view, only the actual consequences of an act affect its moral value.", "One difficulty of this view is that many consequences cannot be known in advance.", "This means that in some cases, even well-planned and intentioned acts are morally wrong if they inadvertently lead to negative outcomes.", "An alternative perspective states that what matters are not the actual consequences but the expected consequences.", "This view takes into account that when deciding what to do, people have to rely on their very limited knowledge of the total consequences of their actions.", "According to this view, a course of action has positive moral value despite leading to an overall negative outcome if it had the highest expected value, for example, because the negative outcome could not be anticipated or was very unlikely.Another difference is between maximizing and satisficing consequentialism.", "According to maximizing consequentialism, only the best possible act is morally permitted.", "This means that acts with positive consequences are wrong if there are alternatives with even better consequences.", "One criticism of maximizing consequentialism is that it demands too much by requiring that people do significantly more than they are socially expected to.", "For example, if the best action for someone with a good salary would be to donate 70% of their income to charity, it would be morally wrong for them to only donate 65%.", "Satisficing consequentialism, by contrast, only requires that an act is \"good enough\" even if it is not the best possible alternative.", "According to this view, it is possible to do more than one is morally required to do, a state known as supererogation.One of the earliest forms of consequentialism is found in ancient Chinese philosophy where Mohists argued that political action should promote justice as a means to increase the welfare of the people.==== Utilitarianism ====The most well-known form of consequentialism is utilitarianism.", "In its classical form, it is an act consequentialism that sees happiness as the only source of intrinsic value.", "This means that an act is morally right if it produces \"the greatest good for the greatest number\" by increasing happiness and reducing suffering.", "Utilitarians do not deny that other things also have value, like health, friendship, and knowledge.", "However, they deny that these things have intrinsic value.", "Instead, they hold that they have extrinsic value because they affect happiness and suffering.", "In this regard, they are desirable as a means but, unlike happiness, not desirable as an end.", "The view that pleasure is the only thing with intrinsic value is called ethical or evaluative hedonism.Utilitarianism was initially formulated by Jeremy Bentham and further developed by John Stuart Mill.", "Bentham introduced the hedonic calculus to assess the value of consequences.", "Two key aspects of the hedonic calculus are the intensity and the duration of pleasure.", "According to this view, a pleasurable experience has a high value if it has a high intensity and lasts for a long time.", "Some critics of Bentham's utilitarianism argued that it is a \"philosophy of swine\" whose focus on the intensity of pleasure promotes an immoral lifestyle centered around indulgence in sensory pleasures.", "Mill responded to this criticism by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures.", "He stated that higher pleasures, like the intellectual pleasure of reading a book, are more valuable than lower pleasures, like the sensory pleasure of food and drink, even if their intensity and duration are the same.", "Today, there are many variations of utilitarianism, including the difference between act and rule utilitarianism and between maximizing and satisficing utilitarianism.=== Deontology ===Deontology assesses the moral rightness of actions based on a set of norms or principles.", "These norms describe certain requirements or duties that all actions need to follow.", "Examples are that one should tell the truth, keep promises, and not intentionally harm others.", "Unlike consequentialists, deontologists hold that the validity of general moral principles does not depend on their consequences.", "They state that these principles should be followed in every case since they express how actions are inherently right or wrong.", "For example, according to David Ross, it is wrong to break a promise even if no harm comes from it.", "In this regard, deontologists often allow that there is a gap between what is right and what is good.", "Many tend to follow a negative approach by holding that certain acts are forbidden under any circumstances.==== Agent-centered and patient-centered ====Agent-centered deontological theories focus on the role of moral agency and following one's duties.", "They are often interested in the motives and intentions for which people act and emphasize the importance of doing something for the right reasons.", "They are often agent-relative, meaning that the reasons for which people should act depend on personal circumstances.", "For example, a parent has a special obligation to their child while a stranger does not have this kind of obligation toward a child they do not know.", "Patient-centered theories, by contrast, emphasize the rights of the people affected by the action.", "An example is the requirement to treat other people as ends and not merely as a means to an end.", "This requirement can be used to argue, for example, that it is wrong to kill a person against their will even if this act would save the life of several others.", "Patient-centered deontological theories are usually agent-neutral, meaning that they apply equally to everyone in a situation, regardless of their specific role or position.==== Kantianism ====Immanuel Kant is one of the most well-known deontologists.", "He insists that moral action should not be guided by situation-dependent means-end reasoning to achieve some kind of fixed good, such as happiness.", "Instead, he argues that there are certain moral principles that apply to every situation independent of means-end relations.", "Kant uses the term categorical imperative for these principles and holds that they are non-empirical and universal laws that have their source in the structure of practical reason and apply to all rational agents.", "For Kant, to act morally is to act in accordance with reason as expressed by these principles.", "He sees immoral actions as irrational by going against the fundamental principles of practical reason.Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative.", "One emphasizes the universal nature of reason and states that people should only follow maxims that could become universal laws applicable to everyone.", "This means that the person would want everyone else also to follow this maxim.", "Another formulation states that one should treat other people always as ends in themselves and never as mere means to an end.", "This formulation focuses on respecting and valuing other people for their own sake rather than using them in the pursuit of personal goals.In either case, Kant holds that what matters is to have a good will.", "A person has a good will if they respect the moral law and form their intentions and motives in accordance with it.", "For Kant, actions motivated in such a way are unconditionally good, meaning that they are good even in cases where they result in undesirable consequences.==== Divine command theory, contractualism, and discourse ethics ====Divine command theory sees God as the source of morality.", "It states that moral laws are divine commands and that to act morally is to obey and follow God's will.", "While all divine command theorists agree that morality depends on God, there are disagreements about the precise content of the divine commands, and theorists belonging to different religions tend to propose different moral laws.", "For example, Christian and Jewish divine command theorists may argue that the Ten Commandments express God's will while Muslims may reserve this role for the teachings of the Quran.Contractualists reject the reference to God as the source of morality and argue instead that morality is based on an explicit or implicit social contract between humans.", "They state that actual or hypothetical consent to this contract is the source of moral norms and duties.", "To determine which duties people have, contractualists often rely on a thought experiment about what rational people under ideal circumstances would agree on.", "For example, if they would agree that people should not lie then there is a moral obligation to refrain from lying.", "Because of its reliance on consent, contractualism is often understood as a patient-centered form of deontology.According to discourse ethics, as formulated by Jürgen Habermas, moral norms are justified by a rational discourse within society.", "Discourse ethics also focuses on social agreement on moral norms but holds that this agreement is based on communicative rationality.", "It aims to arrive at moral norms for pluralistic modern societies that encompass a diversity of viewpoints.", "A universal moral norm is seen as valid if all rational discourse participants do or would approve.", "This way, morality is not imposed by a single moral authority but arises from the moral discourse within society.", "This discourse should follow certain requirements characteristic of an ideal speech situation.", "One of its key aspects is that discourse participants are free to voice their different opinions without coercion but are at the same time required to justify them using rational argumentation.=== Virtue ethics ===The main concern of virtue ethics is how virtues are expressed in actions.", "As such, it is neither directly interested in the consequences of actions nor in universal moral duties.", "Virtues are positive character traits, like honesty, courage, kindness, and compassion.", "They are usually understood as dispositions to feel, decide, and act in a certain manner by being wholeheartedly committed to this manner.", "Virtues contrast with vices, which are their harmful counterparts.Virtue theorists usually hold that the mere possession of virtues by itself is not sufficient.", "Instead, people should manifest virtues in their actions.", "An important factor in this regard is the practical wisdom, also referred to as phronesis, of knowing, when, how, and which virtue to express.", "For example, a lack of practical wisdom may lead courageous people to perform morally wrong actions by taking unnecessary risks that should better be avoided.Different types of virtue ethics differ concerning how they understand virtues and their role in practical life.", "Eudaimonism is the classical view and draws a close relation between virtuous behavior and happiness.", "It states that people flourish by living a virtuous life.", "Eudaimonist theories often hold that virtues are positive potentials residing in human nature and that actualizing these potentials results in leading a good and happy life.", "Agent-based theories, by contrast, see happiness only as a side effect and focus instead on the motivational and dispositional characteristics that are expressed while acting.", "This is often combined with the idea that one can learn from exceptional individuals what those characteristics are.", "Feminist ethics of care constitute another form of virtue ethics.", "They emphasize the importance of interpersonal relationships and hold that benevolence by caring for the well-being of others is one of the key virtues.Philippa Foot was one of the philosophers responsible for the revival of virtue ethics in the 20th century.Influential schools of virtue ethics in ancient philosophy were Aristotelianism and Stoicism.", "According to Aristotle, each virtue is a golden mean between two types of vices: excess and deficiency.", "For example, courage is a virtue that lies between the deficient state of cowardice and the excessive state of recklessness.", "Aristotle held that virtuous action leads to happiness and makes people flourish in life.", "The Stoics believed that people can achieve happiness through virtue alone.", "They stated that people are happy if they are in a peaceful state of mind that is free from emotional disturbances.", "They advocated rationality and self-mastery to achieve this state.", "In the 20th century, virtue ethics experienced a resurgence thanks to philosophers such as Elizabeth Anscombe, Philippa Foot, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Martha Nussbaum.=== Others ===There are many other schools of normative ethics in addition to the three main traditions.", "Pragmatist ethics focuses on the role of practice and holds that one of the key tasks of ethics is to solve practical problems in concrete situations.", "It has certain similarities to utilitarianism and its focus on consequences but concentrates more on how morality is embedded in and relative to social and cultural contexts.", "Pragmatists tend to give more importance to habits than to conscious deliberation and understand morality as a habit that should be shaped in the right way.Postmodern ethics agrees with pragmatist ethics about the cultural relativity of morality.", "It rejects the idea that there are objective moral principles that apply universally to all cultures and traditions.", "It asserts that there is no one coherent ethical code since morality itself is irrational and humans are morally ambivalent beings.compassion and loving-kindness are key elements of Buddhist ethics.Ethical egoism is the view that people should act in their self-interest or that an action is morally right if the person acts for their own benefit.", "It differs from psychological egoism, which states that people actually follow their self-interest without claiming that they should do so.", "Ethical egoists may act in accordance with commonly accepted moral expectations and benefit other people, for example, by keeping promises, helping friends, and cooperating with others.", "However, they do so only as a means to promote their self-interest.", "Ethical egoism is often criticized as an immoral and contradictory position.Normative ethics has a central place in most religions.", "Key aspects of Jewish ethics are to follow the 613 commandments of God according to the ''Mitzvah'' duty found in the Torah and to take responsibility for societal welfare.", "Christian ethics puts less emphasis on following precise laws and teaches instead the practice of self-less love, such as the Great Commandment to \"love your neighbor as yourself\".", "The Five Pillars of Islam constitute a basic framework of Muslim ethics and focus on the practice of faith, prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca.", "Buddhists emphasize the importance of compassion and loving-kindness towards all sentient entities.", "A similar outlook is found in Jainism, which has non-violence as its principal virtue.", "Duty is a central aspect of Hindu ethics and is about fulfilling social obligations, which may vary depending on a person's social class and stage of life.", "Confucianism places great emphasis on harmony in society and sees benevolence as a key virtue.", "Taoism extends the importance of living in harmony to the whole world and teaches that people should practice effortless action by following the natural flow of the universe." ], [ "Applied ethics", "Applied ethics, also known as practical ethics, is the branch of ethics and applied philosophy that examines concrete moral problems encountered in real-life situations.", "Unlike normative ethics, it is not concerned with discovering or justifying universal ethical principles.", "Instead, it studies how those principles can be applied to specific domains of practical life, what consequences they have in these fields, and whether other considerations are relevant.One of the difficulties of applied ethics is to determine how to apply general ethical principles to concrete practical situations, like medical procedures.One of the main challenges of applied ethics is to breach the gap between abstract universal theories and their application to concrete situations.", "For example, an in-depth understanding of Kantianism or utilitarianism is usually not sufficient to decide how to analyze the moral implications of a medical procedure.", "One reason is that it may not be clear how the procedure affects the Kantian requirement of respecting everyone's personhood and what the consequences of the procedure are in terms of the greatest good for the greatest number.", "This difficulty is particularly relevant to applied ethicists who employ a top-down methodology by starting from universal ethical principles and applying them to particular cases within a specific domain.", "A different approach is to use a bottom-up methodology, which relies on many observations of particular cases to arrive at an understanding of the moral principles relevant to this particular domain.", "In either case, inquiry into applied ethics is often triggered by ethical dilemmas to solve cases in which a person is subject to conflicting moral requirements.Applied ethics covers issues pertaining to both the private sphere, like right conduct in the family and close relationships, and the public sphere, like moral problems posed by new technologies and international duties toward future generations.", "Major branches include bioethics, business ethics, and professional ethics.", "There are many other branches and their domains of inquiry often overlap.=== Bioethics ===Bioethics is a wide field that covers moral problems associated with living organisms and biological disciplines.", "A key problem in bioethics concerns the moral status of entities and to what extent this status depends on features such as consciousness, being able to feel pleasure and pain, rationality, and personhood.", "These differences concern, for example, how to treat non-living entities like rocks and non-sentient entities like plants in contrast to animals and whether humans have a different moral status than other animals.", "According to anthropocentrism, only humans have a basic moral status.", "This implies that all other entities only have a derivative moral status to the extent that they affect human life.", "Sentientism, by contrast, extends an inherent moral status to all sentient beings.", "Further positions include biocentrism, which also covers non-sentient lifeforms, and ecocentrism, which states that all of nature has a basic moral status.Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and to many professions.", "It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like abortion, cloning, stem cell research, euthanasia, suicide, animal testing, intensive animal farming, nuclear waste, and air pollution.Bioethics can be divided into medical ethics, animal ethics, and environmental ethics based on whether the ethical problems relate to humans, other animals, or nature in general.", "Medical ethics is the oldest branch of bioethics and has its origins in the Hippocratic Oath, which establishes ethical guidelines for medical practitioners like a prohibition to harm the patient.", "A central topic in medical ethics concerns issues associated with the beginning and the end of life.", "One debate focuses on the question of whether a fetus is a full-fledged person with all the rights associated with this status.", "For example, some proponents of this view argue that abortion is a form of murder.", "In relation to the end of life, there are ethical dilemmas concerning whether a person has a right to end their own life in cases of terminal illness and whether a medical practitioner may assist them in doing so.", "Other topics in medical ethics include medical confidentiality, informed consent, research on human beings, organ transplantation, and access to healthcare.Harm done to animals is a particular concern in animal ethics, for example, as a result of intensive animal farming.Animal ethics examines how humans should treat other animals.", "An influential consideration in this field emphasizes the importance of animal welfare while arguing that humans should avoid or minimize the harm done to animals.", "There is wide agreement that it is wrong to torture animals for fun.", "The situation is more complicated in cases where harm is inflicted on animals as a side effect of the pursuit of human interests.", "This happens, for example, during factory farming, when using animals as food, and for research experiments on animals.", "A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of animal rights.", "Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans have an obligation to respect this status when interacting with them.", "Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants, natural resources, and ecosystems.", "In its widest sense, it also covers the whole biosphere and the cosmos.", "In the domain of agriculture, this concerns questions like under what circumstances it is acceptable to clear the vegetation of an area to use it for farming and the implications of using genetically modified crops.", "On a wider scale, environmental ethics addresses the problem of global warming and how people are responsible for this both on an individual and a collective level.", "Environmental ethicists often promote sustainable practices and policies directed at protecting and conserving ecosystems and biodiversity.=== Business and professional ethics ===Business ethics examines the moral implications of business conduct and investigates how ethical principles apply to corporations and organizations.", "A key topic is corporate social responsibility, which is the responsibility of corporations to act in a manner that benefits society at large.", "Corporate social responsibility is a complex issue since many stakeholders are directly and indirectly involved in corporate decisions, such as the CEO, the board of directors, and the shareholders.", "A closely related topic concerns the question of whether corporations themselves, and not just their stakeholders, have moral agency.", "Business ethics further examines the role of truthfulness, honesty, and fairness in business practices as well as the moral implications of bribery, conflict of interest, protection of investors and consumers, worker's rights, ethical leadership, and corporate philanthropy.Professional ethics is a closely related field that studies ethical principles applying to members of a specific profession, like engineers, medical doctors, lawyers, and teachers.", "It is a diverse field since different professions often have different responsibilities.", "Principles applying to many professions include that the professional has the required expertise for the intended work and that they have personal integrity and are trustworthy.", "Further principles are to serve the interest of their target group, follow client confidentiality, and respect and uphold the client's rights, such as informed consent.", "More precise requirements often vary between professions.", "A cornerstone of engineering ethics is to protect the public's safety, health, and well-being.", "Legal ethics emphasizes the importance of respect for justice, personal integrity, and confidentiality.", "Key factors in journalism ethics include accuracy, truthfulness, independence, and impartiality as well as proper attribution to avoid plagiarism.=== Others ===Many other fields of applied ethics are discussed in the academic literature.", "Communication ethics covers moral principles in relation to communicative conduct.", "Two key issues in it are freedom of speech and speech responsibility.", "Freedom of speech concerns the ability to articulate one's opinions and ideas without the threats of punishment and censorship.", "Speech responsibility is about being accountable for the consequences of communicative action and inaction.", "A closely related field is information ethics, which focuses on the moral implications of creating, controlling, disseminating, and using information.Nuclear ethics address the moral implications of nuclear technology, such as atom bombs.The ethics of technology has implications for both communication ethics and information ethics in regard to communication and information technologies.", "In its widest sense, it examines the moral issues associated with any artifacts created and used for instrumental means, from simple artifacts like spears to high-tech computers and nanotechnology.", "Central topics in the ethics of technology include the risks associated with creating new technologies, their responsible use, and questions surrounding the issue of human enhancement through technological means, such as prosthetic limbs, performance-enhancing drugs, and genetic enhancement.", "Important subfields include computer ethics, ethics of artificial intelligence, machine ethics, ethics of nanotechnology, and nuclear ethics.The ethics of war investigates moral problems in relation to war and violent conflicts.", "According to just war theory, waging war is morally justified if it fulfills certain conditions.", "They are commonly divided into requirements concerning the cause to initiate violent activities, such as self-defense, and the way those violent activities are conducted, such as avoiding excessive harm to civilians in the pursuit of legitimate military targets.", "'''Military ethics''' is a closely related field that is interested in the conduct of military personnel.", "It governs questions of the circumstances under which they are permitted to kill enemies, destroy infrastructure, and put the lives of their own troops at risk.", "Additional topics are recruitment, training, and discharge of military personnel as well as the procurement of military equipment.Further fields of applied ethics include political ethics, which examines the moral dimensions of political decisions, educational ethics, which covers ethical issues related to proper teaching practices, and sexual ethics, which addresses the moral implications of sexual behavior." ], [ "Metaethics", "Metaethics is the branch of ethics that examines the nature, foundations, and scope of moral judgments, concepts, and values.", "It is not interested in what actions are right or wrong but in what it means for an action to be right or wrong and whether moral judgments are objective and can be true at all.", "It further examines the meaning of morality and moral terms.", "Metaethics is a metatheory that operates on a higher level of abstraction than normative ethics by investigating its underlying background assumptions.", "Metaethical theories usually do not directly take substantive positions regarding normative ethical theories but they can influence them nonetheless by questioning the foundational principles on which they rest.Metaethics overlaps with various branches of philosophy.", "On the level of ontology, it is concerned with the metaphysical status of moral values and principles.", "In relation to semantics, it asks what the meaning of moral terms is and whether moral statements have a truth value.", "The epistemological side of metaethics discusses whether and how people can acquire moral knowledge.", "Metaethics further covers psychological and anthropological considerations in regard to how moral judgments motivate people to act and how to explain cross-cultural differences in moral assessments.=== Basic concepts ===Metaethics examines basic ethical concepts and their relations.", "Ethics is concerned with normative statements about what ought to be the case, in contrast to descriptive statements, which are about what is the case.", "Duties and obligations express requirements of what people ought to do.", "Duties are sometimes defined as counterparts of the rights that always accompany them.", "According to this view, someone has a duty to benefit another person if this other person has the right to receive that benefit.", "Obligation and permission are contrasting terms that can be defined through each other: to be obligated to do something means that one is not permitted not to do it and to be permitted to do something means that one is not obligated not to do it.", "Some theorists define obligations in terms of values, such as the good.", "When used in a general sense, good contrasts with bad.", "In relation to people and their intentions, the term evil rather than bad is often employed.Obligations are used to assess the moral status of actions, motives, and character traits.", "An action is morally right if it is in tune with the obligations and morally wrong if it violates the obligations.", "Supererogation is a special moral status that applies to cases in which the agent does more than is morally required of them.", "To be morally responsible for an action usually means that the person possessed and exercised certain capacities or some form of control.", "People who are morally responsible deserve evaluative attitudes from others, such as praise or blame.=== Realism, relativism, and nihilism ===A key debate in metaethics concerns the ontological status of morality and encompasses the question of whether ethical values and principles form part of reality.", "It examines whether moral properties exist as objective features independent of the human mind and culture rather than as subjective constructs or expressions of personal preferences and cultural norms.Moral realists accept the claim that there are objective moral facts.", "This view implies that moral values are mind-independent aspects of reality and that there is an absolute fact about whether a given action is right or wrong.", "A consequence of this view is that moral requirements have the same ontological status as non-moral facts: it is an objective fact whether there is an obligation to keep a promise just as there is an objective fact whether a thing has a black color.", "Moral realism is often associated with the claim that there are universal ethical principles that apply equally to everyone.", "It implies that if two people disagree about a moral evaluation then at least one of them is wrong.", "This observation is sometimes taken as an argument against moral realism since moral disagreement is widespread and concerns most fields.Moral relativists reject the idea that morality is an objective feature of reality.", "They argue instead that moral principles are human inventions.", "This means that a behavior is not objectively right or wrong but only subjectively right or wrong relative to a certain standpoint.", "Moral standpoints may differ between persons, cultures, and historical periods.", "For example, moral statements like \"slavery is wrong\" or \"suicide is permitted\" may be true in one culture and false in another.", "This position can be understood in analogy to Einstein's theory of relativity, which states that the magnitude of physical properties like mass, length, and duration depends on the frame of reference of the observer.", "Some moral relativists hold that moral systems are constructed to serve certain goals such as social coordination.", "According to this view, different societies and different social groups within a society construct different moral systems based on their diverging purposes.", "A different explanation states that morality arises from moral emotions, which people project onto the external world.Moral nihilists deny the existence of moral facts.", "They are opposed to both objective moral facts defended by moral realism and subjective moral facts defended by moral relativism.", "They believe that the basic assumptions underlying moral claims are misguided.", "Some moral nihilists, like Friedrich Nietzsche, conclude from this that anything is allowed.", "A slightly different view emphasizes that moral nihilism is not itself a moral position about what is allowed and prohibited but the rejection of any moral position.", "Moral nihilism agrees with moral relativism that there are different standpoints according to which people judge actions to be right or wrong.", "However, it disagrees that this practice involves a form of morality and understands it instead as one among many types of human practices.==== Naturalism and non-naturalism ====An influential debate among moral realists is between naturalism and non-naturalism.", "Naturalism states that moral properties are natural properties and are in this respect similar to the natural properties accessible to empirical observation and investigated by the natural sciences, like color and shape.", "Some moral naturalists hold that moral properties are a unique and basic type of natural property.", "Another view states that moral properties are real but not a fundamental part of reality and can be reduced to other natural properties, for example, concerning what causes pleasure and pain.Non-naturalism accepts that moral properties form part of reality and argues that moral features are not identical or reducible to natural properties.", "This view is usually motivated by the idea that moral properties are unique because they express normative features or what should be the case.", "Proponents of this position often emphasize this uniqueness by claiming that it is a fallacy to define ethics in terms of natural entities or to infer prescriptive from descriptive statements.=== Cognitivism and non-cognitivism ===The metaethical debate between cognitivism and non-cognitivism belongs to the field of semantics and concerns the meaning of moral statements.", "According to cognitivism, moral statements like \"Abortion is morally wrong\" and \"Going to war is never morally justified\" are truth-apt.", "This means that they all have a truth value: they are either true or false.", "Cognitivism only claims that moral statements have a truth value but is not interested in which truth value they have.", "It is often seen as the default position since moral statements resemble other statements, like \"Abortion is a medical procedure\" or \"Going to war is a political decision\", which have a truth value.The semantic position of cognitivism is closely related to the ontological position of moral realism and philosophers who accept one often accept the other as well.", "An exception is J. L. Mackie's error theory, which combines cognitivism with moral nihilism by claiming that all moral statements are false because there are no moral facts.Non-cognitivism is the view that moral statements lack a truth value.", "According to this view, the statement \"Murder is wrong\" is neither true nor false.", "Some non-cognitivists claim that moral statements have no meaning at all.", "A different interpretation is that they express other types of meaning contents.", "Emotivism holds that they articulate emotional attitudes.", "According to this view, the statement \"Murder is wrong\" expresses that the speaker has negative moral attitudes towards murder or dislikes it.", "Prescriptivism, by contrast, understands moral statements as commands.", "According to this view, stating that \"Murder is wrong\" expresses a command like \"Do not commit murder\".=== Moral knowledge ===The epistemology of ethics studies whether or how one can know moral truths.", "Foundationalist views state that some moral beliefs are basic and do not require further justification.", "Ethical intuitionism is one foundationalist view that states that humans have a special cognitive faculty through which they can know right from wrong.", "Intuitionists often argue that general moral truths, like \"lying is wrong\", are self-evident and that it is possible to know them ''a priori'' without relying on empirical experience.", "A different foundationalist view relies not on general intuitions but on particular observations.", "It holds that if people are confronted with a concrete moral situation, they can perceive whether right or wrong conduct was involved.In contrast to foundationalists, coherentists hold that there are no basic moral beliefs.", "They argue that beliefs form a complex network and mutually support and justify one another.", "According to this view, a moral belief can only amount to knowledge if it coheres with the rest of the beliefs in the network.", "Moral skeptics reject the idea that moral knowledge is possible by arguing that people are unable to distinguish between right and wrong behavior.", "Moral skepticism is often criticized based on the claim that it leads to immoral behavior.The trolley problem is a thought experiment about the moral difference between doing and allowing harm.Thought experiments are a common methodological device in ethics to decide between competing theories.", "They usually present an imagined situation involving an ethical dilemma and explore how moral intuitions about what behavior is right depend on particular factors in the imagined situation.", "For example, in the trolley problem, a person can flip a switch to redirect a trolley from one track to another, thereby sacrificing the life of one person in order to save five.", "This scenario explores how the difference between doing and allowing harm affects moral obligations.", "Another thought experiment examines the moral implications of abortion by imagining a situation in which a person gets connected without their consent to an ill violinist.", "It explores whether it would be morally permissible to sever the connection within the next nine months even if this would lead to the violinist's death.=== Moral motivation ===On the level of psychology, metaethics is interested in how moral beliefs and experiences affect behavior.", "According to motivational internalists, there is a direct link between moral judgments and action.", "This means that every judgment about what is right motivates the person to act accordingly.", "For example, Socrates defends a strong form of motivational internalism by holding that a person can only perform an evil deed if they are unaware that it is evil.", "Weaker forms of motivational internalism allow that people can act against moral judgments, for example, because of weakness of the will.", "Motivational externalists accept that people can judge a behavior to be morally required without feeling a reason to engage in it.", "This means that moral judgments do not always provide motivational force.", "The debate between internalism and externalism is relevant for explaining the behavior of psychopaths or sociopaths, who fail either to judge that a behavior is wrong or to translate their judgment into action.", "A closely related question is whether moral judgments can provide motivation on their own or need to be accompanied by other mental states, such as a desire to act morally." ], [ "Related fields", "=== Value theory ===Value theory, also referred to as axiology, is the philosophical study of value.", "It aims to understand what value is and what types of value there are.", "Further questions include what kinds of things have value and how valuable they are.", "A central distinction is between intrinsic and instrumental value.", "An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake.", "An entity has instrumental value if it is valuable as a means to something else, for example, by causing something that has intrinsic value.", "Another key topic is about what entities have intrinsic value, for example, whether pleasure has intrinsic value and whether there are other sources of intrinsic value besides pleasure.There are disagreements about the exact relation between value theory and ethics.", "Some philosophers characterize value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics while others see value theory as the broader term that encompasses other fields besides ethics, such as aesthetics and political philosophy.", "A different characterization sees the two disciplines as overlapping but distinct fields.", "The term axiological ethics is sometimes used for the discipline studying this overlap, i.e., for the part of ethics that studies values.", "The two disciplines are sometimes distinguished based on their focus: ethics is about moral behavior or what is right while value theory is about value or what is good.", "Some ethical theories, like consequentialism, stand very close to value theory by defining what is right in terms of what is good.", "But this is not true for ethics in general and deontological theories tend to reject the idea that what is good can be used to define what is right.=== Moral psychology ===Moral psychology explores the psychological foundations and processes involved in moral behavior.", "It is an empirical science that studies how humans think and act in moral contexts.", "It is interested in how moral reasoning and judgments take place, how moral character forms, what sensitivity people have to moral evaluations, and how people attribute and react to moral responsibility.One of its key topics is moral development or the question of how morality develops on a psychological level from infancy to adulthood.", "According to Lawrence Kohlberg, for example, children go through different stages of moral development as they understand moral principles first as fixed rules governing reward and punishment, then as conventional social norms, and later as abstract principles of what is objectively right across societies.", "A closely related question is whether and how people can be taught to act morally.Evolutionary ethics is a subfield of moral psychology and sociobiology.", "It explores how evolutionary processes have shaped ethics.", "One of its key ideas is that natural selection is responsible for moral behavior and moral sensitivity.", "It interprets morality as an adaptation to evolutionary pressure that augments fitness by offering a selective advantage.", "Altruism, for example, can provide benefits to group survival by improving cooperation.=== Descriptive ethics ===Descriptive ethics, also called comparative ethics, studies actually existing moral codes, practices, and beliefs.", "It investigates and compares moral phenomena in different societies and different groups within a society.", "It aims to provide a value-neutral and empirical description without judging or justifying which practices are objectively right.", "For instance, the question of how nurses think about the ethical implications of abortion belongs to descriptive ethics.", "Another example is descriptive business ethics, which describes ethical standards in the context of business, including common practices, official policies, and employee opinions.", "Descriptive ethics also has a historical dimension by exploring how moral practices and beliefs have changed over time.Descriptive ethics is a multidisciplinary field that is covered by disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and history.", "Its empirical outlook contrasts with the philosophical inquiry into normative questions, such as which ethical principles are correct and how to justify them." ], [ "History", "According to Laozi's teachings of Daoism, humans should aim to live in harmony with the natural order of the universe.The history of ethics studies how moral philosophy has developed and evolved in the course of history.", "It has its origin in the ancient civilizations.", "In ancient Egypt, the concept of Maat was used as an ethical principle to guide behavior and maintain order by emphasizing the importance of truth, balance, and harmony.", "In ancient India, the Vedas and Upanishads were written as the foundational texts of Hindu philosophy and discussed the role of duty and the consequences of one's actions.", "Buddhist ethics also originated in ancient India and advocated compassion, non-violence, and the pursuit of enlightenment.", "Ancient China saw the emergence of Confucianism, which focuses on moral conduct and self-cultivation by acting in accordance with virtues, and Daoism, which teaches that human behavior should be in harmony with the natural order of the universe.In ancient Greece, Socrates emphasized the importance of inquiry into what a good life is by critically questioning established ideas and exploring concepts like virtue, justice, courage, and wisdom.", "According to Plato, to lead a good life means that the different parts of the soul are in harmony with each other.", "For Aristotle, a good life is associated with being happy by cultivating virtues and flourishing.", "The close relation between right action and happiness was also explored by Hellenistic schools of Epicureanism, which recommended a simple lifestyle without indulging in sensory pleasures, and Stoicism, which advocated living in tune with reason and virtue while practicing self-mastery and becoming immune to disturbing emotions.Ethical thought in the medieval period was strongly influenced by religious teachings.", "Christian philosophers interpreted moral principles as divine commands originating from God.", "Thomas Aquinas developed natural law ethics by claiming that ethical behavior consists in following the laws and order of nature, which he believed were created by God.", "In the Islamic world, philosophers like Al-Farabi and Avicenna synthesized ancient Greek philosophy with the ethical teachings of Islam while emphasizing the harmony between reason and faith.", "In medieval India, philosophers like Adi Shankara and Ramanuja saw the practice of spirituality to attain liberation as the highest goal of human behavior.G.", "E. Moore's book Principia Ethica was partly responsible for the emergence of metaethics in the 20th century.Moral philosophy in the modern period was characterized by a shift toward a secular approach to ethics.", "Thomas Hobbes identified self-interest as the primary drive of humans.", "He concluded that it would lead to \"a war of every man against every man\" unless a social contract is established to avoid this outcome.", "David Hume thought that only moral sentiments, like empathy, can motivate ethical actions while he saw reason not as a motivating factor but only as what anticipates the consequences of possible actions.", "Immanuel Kant, by contrast, saw reason as the source of morality.", "He formulated a deontological theory, according to which the ethical value of actions depends on their conformity with moral laws independent of their outcome.", "These laws take the form of categorical imperatives, which are universal requirements that apply to every situation.", "Another influential development in this period was the formulation of utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.", "According to the utilitarian doctrine, actions should promote happiness while reducing suffering and the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.An important development in 20th-century ethics in analytic philosophy was the emergence of metaethics.", "Significant early contributions to this field were made by G. E. Moore, who argued that moral values are essentially different from other properties found in the natural world.", "R. M. Hare followed this idea in formulating his prescriptivism, which states that moral statements are commands that, unlike regular judgments, are neither true nor false.", "An influential argument for moral realism was made by Derek Parfit, who argued that morality concerns objective features of reality that give people reasons to act in one way or another.", "Bernard Williams agreed with the close relation between reasons and ethics but defended a subjective view instead that sees reasons as internal mental states that may or may not reflect external reality.", "Another development in this period was the revival of ancient virtue ethics by philosophers like Philippa Foot.", "In the field of political philosophy, John Rawls relied on Kantian ethics to analyze social justice as a form of fairness.", "In continental philosophy, phenomenologists such as Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann built ethical systems based on the claim that values have objective reality that can be investigated using the phenomenological method.", "Existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre, by contrast, held that values are created by humans and explored the consequences of this view in relation to individual freedom, responsibility, and authenticity.", "This period also saw the emergence of feminist ethics, which questions traditional ethical assumptions associated with a male perspective and puts alternative concepts, like care, at the center." ], [ "See also", "* Effective altruism* Ethical movement* Index of ethics articles* Longtermism* Master of Applied Ethics* Neuroethics* Outline of ethics* Practical philosophy* Science of morality* Trail ethics" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Equivalence relation" ], [ "Introduction", "52 equivalence relations on a 5-element set depicted as logical matrices (colored fields, including those in light gray, stand for ones; white fields for zeros).", "The row and column indices of nonwhite cells are the related elements, while the different colors, other than light gray, indicate the equivalence classes (each light gray cell is its own equivalence class).In mathematics, an '''equivalence relation''' is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.", "The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation.", "A simpler example is equality.", "Any number is equal to itself (reflexive).", "If , then (symmetric).", "If and , then (transitive).Each equivalence relation provides a partition of the underlying set into disjoint equivalence classes.", "Two elements of the given set are equivalent to each other if and only if they belong to the same equivalence class." ], [ "Notation", "Various notations are used in the literature to denote that two elements and of a set are equivalent with respect to an equivalence relation the most common are \"\" and \"\", which are used when is implicit, and variations of \"\", \"\", or \"\" to specify explicitly.", "Non-equivalence may be written \"\" or \"\"." ], [ "Definition", "A binary relation on a set is said to be an equivalence relation, if and only if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.", "That is, for all and in * (reflexivity).", "* if and only if (symmetry).", "* If and then (transitivity).", "together with the relation is called a setoid.", "The equivalence class of under denoted is defined as === Alternative definition using relational algebra ===In relational algebra, if and are relations, then the composite relation is defined so that if and only if there is a such that and .", "This definition is a generalisation of the definition of functional composition.", "The defining properties of an equivalence relation on a set can then be reformulated as follows:* .", "(reflexivity).", "(Here, denotes the identity function on .", ")* (symmetry).", "* (transitivity)." ], [ "Examples", "=== Simple example ===On the set , the relation is an equivalence relation.", "The following sets are equivalence classes of this relation:The set of all equivalence classes for is This set is a partition of the set with respect to .=== Equivalence relations ===The following relations are all equivalence relations:* \"Is equal to\" on the set of numbers.", "For example, is equal to * \"Has the same birthday as\" on the set of all people.", "* \"Is similar to\" on the set of all triangles.", "* \"Is congruent to\" on the set of all triangles.", "* Given a natural number , \"is congruent to, modulo \" on the integers.", "* Given a function , \"has the same image under as\" on the elements of 's domain .", "For example, and have the same image under , viz.", ".", "* \"Has the same absolute value as\" on the set of real numbers* \"Has the same cosine as\" on the set of all angles.=== Relations that are not equivalences ===* The relation \"≥\" between real numbers is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric.", "For example, 7 ≥ 5 but not 5 ≥ 7.", "* The relation \"has a common factor greater than 1 with\" between natural numbers greater than 1, is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive.", "For example, the natural numbers 2 and 6 have a common factor greater than 1, and 6 and 3 have a common factor greater than 1, but 2 and 3 do not have a common factor greater than 1.", "* The empty relation ''R'' (defined so that ''aRb'' is never true) on a set ''X'' is vacuously symmetric and transitive; however, it is not reflexive (unless ''X'' itself is empty).", "* The relation \"is approximately equal to\" between real numbers, even if more precisely defined, is not an equivalence relation, because although reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive, since multiple small changes can accumulate to become a big change.", "However, if the approximation is defined asymptotically, for example by saying that two functions ''f'' and ''g'' are approximately equal near some point if the limit of ''f − g'' is 0 at that point, then this defines an equivalence relation." ], [ "Connections to other relations", "* A partial order is a relation that is reflexive, , and transitive.", "* Equality is both an equivalence relation and a partial order.", "Equality is also the only relation on a set that is reflexive, symmetric and antisymmetric.", "In algebraic expressions, equal variables may be substituted for one another, a facility that is not available for equivalence related variables.", "The equivalence classes of an equivalence relation can substitute for one another, but not individuals within a class.", "* A strict partial order is irreflexive, transitive, and asymmetric.", "* A partial equivalence relation is transitive and symmetric.", "Such a relation is reflexive if and only if it is total, that is, if for all there exists some Therefore, an equivalence relation may be alternatively defined as a symmetric, transitive, and total relation.", "* A ternary equivalence relation is a ternary analogue to the usual (binary) equivalence relation.", "* A reflexive and symmetric relation is a dependency relation (if finite), and a tolerance relation if infinite.", "* A preorder is reflexive and transitive.", "* A congruence relation is an equivalence relation whose domain is also the underlying set for an algebraic structure, and which respects the additional structure.", "In general, congruence relations play the role of kernels of homomorphisms, and the quotient of a structure by a congruence relation can be formed.", "In many important cases, congruence relations have an alternative representation as substructures of the structure on which they are defined (e.g., the congruence relations on groups correspond to the normal subgroups).", "* Any equivalence relation is the negation of an apartness relation, though the converse statement only holds in classical mathematics (as opposed to constructive mathematics), since it is equivalent to the law of excluded middle.", "* Each relation that is both reflexive and left (or right) Euclidean is also an equivalence relation." ], [ "Well-definedness under an equivalence relation", "If is an equivalence relation on and is a property of elements of such that whenever is true if is true, then the property is said to be well-defined or a under the relation A frequent particular case occurs when is a function from to another set if implies then is said to be a for a or simply This occurs, e.g.", "in the character theory of finite groups.", "The latter case with the function can be expressed by a commutative triangle.", "See also invariant.", "Some authors use \"compatible with \" or just \"respects \" instead of \"invariant under \".More generally, a function may map equivalent arguments (under an equivalence relation ) to equivalent values (under an equivalence relation ).", "Such a function is known as a morphism from to" ], [ "Related important definitions", "Let , and be an equivalence relation.", "Some key definitions and terminology follow:=== Equivalence class ===A subset of such that holds for all and in , and never for in and outside , is called an '''equivalence class''' of by .", "Let denote the equivalence class to which belongs.", "All elements of equivalent to each other are also elements of the same equivalence class.=== Quotient set ===The set of all equivalence classes of by denoted is the '''quotient set''' of by If is a topological space, there is a natural way of transforming into a topological space; see ''Quotient space'' for the details.=== Projection ===The '''projection''' of is the function defined by which maps elements of into their respective equivalence classes by : '''Theorem''' on projections: Let the function be such that if then Then there is a unique function such that If is a surjection and then is a bijection.=== Equivalence kernel ===The '''equivalence kernel''' of a function is the equivalence relation ~ defined by The equivalence kernel of an injection is the identity relation.=== Partition ===A '''partition''' of ''X'' is a set ''P'' of nonempty subsets of ''X'', such that every element of ''X'' is an element of a single element of ''P''.", "Each element of ''P'' is a ''cell'' of the partition.", "Moreover, the elements of ''P'' are pairwise disjoint and their union is ''X''.==== Counting partitions ====Let ''X'' be a finite set with ''n'' elements.", "Since every equivalence relation over ''X'' corresponds to a partition of ''X'', and vice versa, the number of equivalence relations on ''X'' equals the number of distinct partitions of ''X'', which is the ''n''th Bell number ''Bn'':: (Dobinski's formula)." ], [ "Fundamental theorem of equivalence relations", "A key result links equivalence relations and partitions:* An equivalence relation ~ on a set ''X'' partitions ''X''.", "* Conversely, corresponding to any partition of ''X'', there exists an equivalence relation ~ on ''X''.In both cases, the cells of the partition of ''X'' are the equivalence classes of ''X'' by ~.", "Since each element of ''X'' belongs to a unique cell of any partition of ''X'', and since each cell of the partition is identical to an equivalence class of ''X'' by ~, each element of ''X'' belongs to a unique equivalence class of ''X'' by ~.", "Thus there is a natural bijection between the set of all equivalence relations on ''X'' and the set of all partitions of ''X''." ], [ "Comparing equivalence relations", "If and are two equivalence relations on the same set , and implies for all then is said to be a '''coarser''' relation than , and is a '''finer''' relation than .", "Equivalently,* is finer than if every equivalence class of is a subset of an equivalence class of , and thus every equivalence class of is a union of equivalence classes of .", "* is finer than if the partition created by is a refinement of the partition created by .The equality equivalence relation is the finest equivalence relation on any set, while the universal relation, which relates all pairs of elements, is the coarsest.The relation \" is finer than \" on the collection of all equivalence relations on a fixed set is itself a partial order relation, which makes the collection a geometric lattice." ], [ "Generating equivalence relations", "* Given any set an equivalence relation over the set of all functions can be obtained as follows.", "Two functions are deemed equivalent when their respective sets of fixpoints have the same cardinality, corresponding to cycles of length one in a permutation.", "* An equivalence relation on is the equivalence kernel of its surjective projection Conversely, any surjection between sets determines a partition on its domain, the set of preimages of singletons in the codomain.", "Thus an equivalence relation over a partition of and a projection whose domain is are three equivalent ways of specifying the same thing.", "* The intersection of any collection of equivalence relations over ''X'' (binary relations viewed as a subset of ) is also an equivalence relation.", "This yields a convenient way of generating an equivalence relation: given any binary relation ''R'' on ''X'', the equivalence relation is the intersection of all equivalence relations containing ''R'' (also known as the smallest equivalence relation containing ''R'').", "Concretely, ''R'' generates the equivalence relation :: if there exists a natural number and elements such that , , and or , for :The equivalence relation generated in this manner can be trivial.", "For instance, the equivalence relation generated by any total order on ''X'' has exactly one equivalence class, ''X'' itself.", "* Equivalence relations can construct new spaces by \"gluing things together.\"", "Let ''X'' be the unit Cartesian square and let ~ be the equivalence relation on ''X'' defined by for all and for all Then the quotient space can be naturally identified (homeomorphism) with a torus: take a square piece of paper, bend and glue together the upper and lower edge to form a cylinder, then bend the resulting cylinder so as to glue together its two open ends, resulting in a torus." ], [ "Algebraic structure", "Much of mathematics is grounded in the study of equivalences, and order relations.", "Lattice theory captures the mathematical structure of order relations.", "Even though equivalence relations are as ubiquitous in mathematics as order relations, the algebraic structure of equivalences is not as well known as that of orders.", "The former structure draws primarily on group theory and, to a lesser extent, on the theory of lattices, categories, and groupoids.=== Group theory ===Just as order relations are grounded in ordered sets, sets closed under pairwise supremum and infimum, equivalence relations are grounded in partitioned sets, which are sets closed under bijections that preserve partition structure.", "Since all such bijections map an equivalence class onto itself, such bijections are also known as permutations.", "Hence permutation groups (also known as transformation groups) and the related notion of orbit shed light on the mathematical structure of equivalence relations.Let '~' denote an equivalence relation over some nonempty set ''A'', called the universe or underlying set.", "Let ''G'' denote the set of bijective functions over ''A'' that preserve the partition structure of ''A'', meaning that for all and Then the following three connected theorems hold:* ~ partitions ''A'' into equivalence classes.", "(This is the , mentioned above);* Given a partition of ''A'', ''G'' is a transformation group under composition, whose orbits are the cells of the partition;* Given a transformation group ''G'' over ''A'', there exists an equivalence relation ~ over ''A'', whose equivalence classes are the orbits of ''G''.In sum, given an equivalence relation ~ over ''A'', there exists a transformation group ''G'' over ''A'' whose orbits are the equivalence classes of ''A'' under ~.This transformation group characterisation of equivalence relations differs fundamentally from the way lattices characterize order relations.", "The arguments of the lattice theory operations meet and join are elements of some universe ''A''.", "Meanwhile, the arguments of the transformation group operations composition and inverse are elements of a set of bijections, ''A'' → ''A''.Moving to groups in general, let ''H'' be a subgroup of some group ''G''.", "Let ~ be an equivalence relation on ''G'', such that The equivalence classes of ~—also called the orbits of the action of ''H'' on ''G''—are the right '''cosets''' of ''H'' in ''G''.", "Interchanging ''a'' and ''b'' yields the left cosets.Related thinking can be found in Rosen (2008: chpt.", "10).=== Categories and groupoids ===Let ''G'' be a set and let \"~\" denote an equivalence relation over ''G''.", "Then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows.", "The objects are the elements of ''G'', and for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''G'', there exists a unique morphism from ''x'' to ''y'' if and only if The advantages of regarding an equivalence relation as a special case of a groupoid include:Whereas the notion of \"free equivalence relation\" does not exist, that of a free groupoid on a directed graph does.", "Thus it is meaningful to speak of a \"presentation of an equivalence relation,\" i.e., a presentation of the corresponding groupoid; Bundles of groups, group actions, sets, and equivalence relations can be regarded as special cases of the notion of groupoid, a point of view that suggests a number of analogies;In many contexts \"quotienting,\" and hence the appropriate equivalence relations often called congruences, are important.", "This leads to the notion of an internal groupoid in a category.=== Lattices ===The equivalence relations on any set ''X'', when ordered by set inclusion, form a complete lattice, called '''Con''' ''X'' by convention.", "The canonical map '''ker''' : ''X''^''X'' → '''Con''' ''X'', relates the monoid ''X''^''X'' of all functions on ''X'' and '''Con''' ''X''.", "'''ker''' is surjective but not injective.", "Less formally, the equivalence relation '''ker''' on ''X'', takes each function ''f'' : ''X'' → ''X'' to its kernel '''ker''' ''f''.", "Likewise, '''ker(ker)''' is an equivalence relation on ''X''^''X''." ], [ "Equivalence relations and mathematical logic", "Equivalence relations are a ready source of examples or counterexamples.", "For example, an equivalence relation with exactly two infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical, but not categorical for any larger cardinal number.An implication of model theory is that the properties defining a relation can be proved independent of each other (and hence necessary parts of the definition) if and only if, for each property, examples can be found of relations not satisfying the given property while satisfying all the other properties.", "Hence the three defining properties of equivalence relations can be proved mutually independent by the following three examples: ''Reflexive and transitive'': The relation ≤ on '''N'''.", "Or any preorder;* ''Symmetric and transitive'': The relation ''R'' on '''N''', defined as ''aRb'' ↔ ''ab'' ≠ 0.Or any partial equivalence relation;* ''Reflexive and symmetric'': The relation ''R'' on '''Z''', defined as ''aRb'' ↔ \"''a'' − ''b'' is divisible by at least one of 2 or 3.\"", "Or any dependency relation.Properties definable in first-order logic that an equivalence relation may or may not possess include:* The number of equivalence classes is finite or infinite;* The number of equivalence classes equals the (finite) natural number ''n'';* All equivalence classes have infinite cardinality;* The number of elements in each equivalence class is the natural number ''n''." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " Brown, Ronald, 2006.''", "Topology and Groupoids.''", "Booksurge LLC.", ".", "* Castellani, E., 2003, \"Symmetry and equivalence\" in Brading, Katherine, and E. Castellani, eds., ''Symmetries in Physics: Philosophical Reflections''.", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press: 422–433.", "* Robert Dilworth and Crawley, Peter, 1973.", "''Algebraic Theory of Lattices''.", "Prentice Hall.", "Chpt.", "12 discusses how equivalence relations arise in lattice theory.", "* Higgins, P.J., 1971.''", "Categories and groupoids.''", "Van Nostrand.", "Downloadable since 2005 as a TAC Reprint.", "* John Randolph Lucas, 1973.", "''A Treatise on Time and Space''.", "London: Methuen.", "Section 31.", "* Rosen, Joseph (2008) ''Symmetry Rules: How Science and Nature are Founded on Symmetry''.", "Springer-Verlag.", "Mostly chapters.", "9,10.", "* Raymond Wilder (1965) ''Introduction to the Foundations of Mathematics'' 2nd edition, Chapter 2-8: Axioms defining equivalence, pp 48–50, John Wiley & Sons." ], [ "External links", "* * Bogomolny, A., \" Equivalence Relationship\" cut-the-knot.", "Accessed 1 September 2009* Equivalence relation at PlanetMath*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Equivalence class" ], [ "Introduction", "Congruence is an example of an equivalence relation.", "The leftmost two triangles are congruent, while the third and fourth triangles are not congruent to any other triangle shown here.", "Thus, the first two triangles are in the same equivalence class, while the third and fourth triangles are each in their own equivalence class.In mathematics, when the elements of some set have a notion of equivalence (formalized as an equivalence relation), then one may naturally split the set into '''equivalence classes'''.", "These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements and belong to the same '''equivalence class''' if, and only if, they are equivalent.Formally, given a set and an equivalence relation on the of an element in is denoted or, equivalently, to emphasize its equivalence relation The definition of equivalence relations implies that the equivalence classes form a partition of meaning, that every element of the set belongs to exactly one equivalence class.The set of the equivalence classes is sometimes called the '''quotient set''' or the '''quotient space''' of by and is denoted by When the set has some structure (such as a group operation or a topology) and the equivalence relation is compatible with this structure, the quotient set often inherits a similar structure from its parent set.", "Examples include quotient spaces in linear algebra, quotient spaces in topology, quotient groups, homogeneous spaces, quotient rings, quotient monoids, and quotient categories." ], [ "Definition and notation", "An equivalence relation on a set is a binary relation on satisfying the three properties:* for all (reflexivity),* implies for all (symmetry),* if and then for all (transitivity).The equivalence class of an element is defined as:The word \"class\" in the term \"equivalence class\" may generally be considered as a synonym of \"set\", although some equivalence classes are not sets but proper classes.", "For example, \"being isomorphic\" is an equivalence relation on groups, and the equivalence classes, called isomorphism classes, are not sets.The set of all equivalence classes in with respect to an equivalence relation is denoted as and is called modulo (or the '''''' of by ).", "The surjective map from onto which maps each element to its equivalence class, is called the '''''', or the '''canonical projection'''.Every element of an equivalence class characterizes the class, and may be used to ''represent'' it.", "When such an element is chosen, it is called a '''representative''' of the class.", "The choice of a representative in each class defines an injection from to .", "Since its composition with the canonical surjection is the identity of such an injection is called a section, when using the terminology of category theory.", "Sometimes, there is a section that is more \"natural\" than the other ones.", "In this case, the representatives are called .", "For example, in modular arithmetic, for every integer greater than , the congruence modulo is an equivalence relation on the integers, for which two integers and are equivalent—in this case, one says ''congruent''—if divides this is denoted Each class contains a unique non-negative integer smaller than and these integers are the canonical representatives.", "The use of representatives for representing classes allows avoiding to consider explicitly classes as sets.", "In this case, the canonical surjection that maps an element to its class is replaced by the function that maps an element to the representative of its class.", "In the preceding example, this function is denoted and produces the remainder of the Euclidean division of by ." ], [ "Properties", "Every element of is a member of the equivalence class Every two equivalence classes and are either equal or disjoint.", "Therefore, the set of all equivalence classes of forms a partition of : every element of belongs to one and only one equivalence class.", "Conversely, every partition of comes from an equivalence relation in this way, according to which if and only if and belong to the same set of the partition.It follows from the properties in the previous section that if is an equivalence relation on a set and and are two elements of the following statements are equivalent:* * " ], [ "Examples", " Let be the set of all rectangles in a plane, and the equivalence relation \"has the same area as\", then for each positive real number there will be an equivalence class of all the rectangles that have area * Consider the modulo 2 equivalence relation on the set of integers, such that if and only if their difference is an even number.", "This relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes: one class consists of all even numbers, and the other class consists of all odd numbers.", "Using square brackets around one member of the class to denote an equivalence class under this relation, and all represent the same element of * Let be the set of ordered pairs of integers with non-zero and define an equivalence relation on such that if and only if then the equivalence class of the pair can be identified with the rational number and this equivalence relation and its equivalence classes can be used to give a formal definition of the set of rational numbers.", "The same construction can be generalized to the field of fractions of any integral domain.", "* If consists of all the lines in, say, the Euclidean plane, and means that and are parallel lines, then the set of lines that are parallel to each other form an equivalence class, as long as a line is considered parallel to itself.", "In this situation, each equivalence class determines a point at infinity." ], [ "Graphical representation", "Graph of an example equivalence with 7 classesAn undirected graph may be associated to any symmetric relation on a set where the vertices are the elements of and two vertices and are joined if and only if Among these graphs are the graphs of equivalence relations.", "These graphs, called cluster graphs, are characterized as the graphs such that the connected components are cliques." ], [ "Invariants", "If is an equivalence relation on and is a property of elements of such that whenever is true if is true, then the property is said to be an invariant of or well-defined under the relation A frequent particular case occurs when is a function from to another set ; if whenever then is said to be or simply This occurs, for example, in the character theory of finite groups.", "Some authors use \"compatible with \" or just \"respects \" instead of \"invariant under \".Any function is ''class invariant under'' according to which if and only if The equivalence class of is the set of all elements in which get mapped to that is, the class is the inverse image of This equivalence relation is known as the kernel of More generally, a function may map equivalent arguments (under an equivalence relation on ) to equivalent values (under an equivalence relation on ).", "Such a function is a morphism of sets equipped with an equivalence relation." ], [ "Quotient space in topology", "In topology, a quotient space is a topological space formed on the set of equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on a topological space, using the original space's topology to create the topology on the set of equivalence classes.In abstract algebra, congruence relations on the underlying set of an algebra allow the algebra to induce an algebra on the equivalence classes of the relation, called a quotient algebra.", "In linear algebra, a quotient space is a vector space formed by taking a quotient group, where the quotient homomorphism is a linear map.", "By extension, in abstract algebra, the term quotient space may be used for quotient modules, quotient rings, quotient groups, or any quotient algebra.", "However, the use of the term for the more general cases can as often be by analogy with the orbits of a group action.The orbits of a group action on a set may be called the quotient space of the action on the set, particularly when the orbits of the group action are the right cosets of a subgroup of a group, which arise from the action of the subgroup on the group by left translations, or respectively the left cosets as orbits under right translation.A normal subgroup of a topological group, acting on the group by translation action, is a quotient space in the senses of topology, abstract algebra, and group actions simultaneously.Although the term can be used for any equivalence relation's set of equivalence classes, possibly with further structure, the intent of using the term is generally to compare that type of equivalence relation on a set either to an equivalence relation that induces some structure on the set of equivalence classes from a structure of the same kind on or to the orbits of a group action.", "Both the sense of a structure preserved by an equivalence relation, and the study of invariants under group actions, lead to the definition of invariants of equivalence relations given above." ], [ "See also", "* Equivalence partitioning, a method for devising test sets in software testing based on dividing the possible program inputs into equivalence classes according to the behavior of the program on those inputs* Homogeneous space, the quotient space of Lie groups* * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Entertainment" ], [ "Introduction", "Kottabos and girl playing the aulos, Greece ().", "Banqueting and music have continued to be two important entertainments since ancient times.", "'''Entertainment''' is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight.", "It can be an idea or a task, but it is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.Although people's attention is held by different things because individuals have different preferences, most forms of entertainment are recognisable and familiar.", "Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, and developed into sophisticated forms over time, becoming available to all citizens.", "The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products.", "Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products, to a banquet adapted for two, to any size or type of party with appropriate music and dance, to performances intended for thousands, and even for a global audience.The experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose.", "This may be the case in various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire, for example.", "Hence, there is the possibility that what appears to be entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.An important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment.", "The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of people watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant and audience roles may be routinely reversed.", "Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performances, as in the case of theatre or concerts, or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of children's games.", "Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion, as with stage magic.", "Films and video games, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music.", "Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days.Some entertainment, such as public executions, is now illegal in most countries.", "Activities such as fencing or archery, once used in hunting or war, have become spectator sports.", "In the same way, other activities, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions, and then broadcast for entertainment.", "What is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work or an act of cruelty by another.The familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over into different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix.", "This has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures." ], [ "Etymology", "The Oxford English Dictionary gives Latin and French origins for the word \"entertain\", including ''inter'' (among) + ''tenir'' (to hold) as derivations, giving translations of \"to hold mutually\" or \"to hold intertwined\" and \"to engage, keep occupied, the attention, thoughts, or time (of a person)\".", "It also provides words like \"merry-making\", \"pleasure\", and \"delight\", as well as \"to receive as a guest and show hospitality to\".", "It cites a 1490 usage by William Caxton." ], [ "Psychology and philosophy", "Entertainment can be distinguished from other activities such as education and marketing even though they have learned how to use the appeal of entertainment to achieve their different goals.", "Sometimes entertainment can be a mixture for both.", "The importance and impact of entertainment is recognised by scholars and its increasing sophistication has influenced practices in other fields such as museology.Psychologists say the function of media entertainment is \"the attainment of gratification\".", "No other results or measurable benefits are usually expected from it (except perhaps the final score in a sporting entertainment).", "This is in contrast to education (which is designed with the purpose of developing understanding or helping people to learn) and marketing (which aims to encourage people to purchase commercial products).", "However, the distinctions become blurred when education seeks to be more \"entertaining\" and entertainment or marketing seek to be more \"educational\".", "Such mixtures are often known by the neologisms \"edutainment\" or \"infotainment\".", "The psychology of entertainment as well as of learning has been applied to all these fields.", "Some education-entertainment is a serious attempt to combine the best features of the two.", "Some people are entertained by others' pain or the idea of their unhappiness (schadenfreude).An entertainment might go beyond gratification and produce some insight in its audience.", "Entertainment may skilfully consider universal philosophical questions such as: \"What does it mean to be human?", "\"; \"What is the right thing to do?", "\"; or \"How do I know what I know?\".", "\"The meaning of life\", for example, is the subject in a wide range of entertainment forms, including film, music and literature.", "Questions such as these drive many narratives and dramas, whether they are presented in the form of a story, film, play, poem, book, dance, comic, or game.", "Dramatic examples include Shakespeare's influential play ''Hamlet'', whose hero articulates these concerns in poetry; and films, such as ''The Matrix'', which explores the nature of knowledge and was released worldwide.", "Novels give great scope for investigating these themes while they entertain their readers.", "An example of a creative work that considers philosophical questions so entertainingly that it has been presented in a very wide range of forms is ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''.", "Originally a radio comedy, this story became so popular that it has also appeared as a novel, film, television series, stage show, comic, audiobook, LP record, adventure game and online game, its ideas became popular references (see Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy) and has been translated into many languages.", "Its themes encompass the meaning of life, as well as \"the ethics of entertainment, artificial intelligence, multiple worlds, God, and philosophical method\"." ], [ "History", "Albert Bierstadt's ''The Campfire'' depicts storytelling, a universal form of entertainmentMosaic showing Roman entertainments that would have been offered at the gladiatorial games, from the 1st centuryThe \"ancient craft of communicating events and experiences, using words, images, sounds and gestures\" by telling a story is not only the means by which people passed on their cultural values and traditions and history from one generation to another, it has been an important part of most forms of entertainment ever since the earliest times.", "Stories are still told in the early forms, for example, around a fire while camping, or when listening to the stories of another culture as a tourist.", "\"The earliest storytelling sequences we possess, now of course, committed to writing, were undoubtedly originally a speaking from mouth to ear and their force as entertainment derived from the very same elements we today enjoy in films and novels.\"", "Storytelling is an activity that has evolved and developed \"toward variety\".", "Many entertainments, including storytelling but especially music and drama, remain familiar but have developed into a wide variety of form to suit a very wide range of personal preferences and cultural expression.", "Many types are blended or supported by other forms.", "For example, drama, stories and banqueting (or dining) are commonly enhanced by music; sport and games are incorporated into other activities to increase appeal.", "Some may have evolved from serious or necessary activities (such as running and jumping) into competition and then become entertainment.", "It is said, for example, that pole vaulting \"may have originated in the Netherlands, where people used long poles to vault over wide canals rather than wear out their clogs walking miles to the nearest bridge.", "Others maintain that pole vaulting was used in warfare to vault over fortress walls during battle.\"", "The equipment for such sports has become increasingly sophisticated.", "Vaulting poles, for example, were originally made from woods such as ash, hickory or hazel; in the 19th century bamboo was used and in the 21st century poles can be made of carbon fibre.", "Other activities, such as walking on stilts, are still seen in circus performances in the 21st century.", "Gladiatorial combats, also known as \"gladiatorial games\", popular during Roman times, provide a good example of an activity that is a combination of sport, punishment, and entertainment.Changes to what is regarded as entertainment can occur in response to cultural or historical shifts.", "Hunting wild animals, for example, was introduced into the Roman Empire from Carthage and became a popular public entertainment and spectacle, supporting an international trade in wild animals.Entertainment also evolved into different forms and expressions as a result of social upheavals such as wars and revolutions.", "During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, for example, Revolutionary opera was sanctioned by the Communist party and World War I, the Great Depression and the Russian Revolution all affected entertainment.Relatively minor changes to the form and venue of an entertainment continue to come and go as they are affected by the period, fashion, culture, technology, and economics.", "For example, a story told in dramatic form can be presented in an open-air theatre, a music hall, a movie theatre, a multiplex, or as technological possibilities advanced, via a personal electronic device such as a tablet computer.", "Entertainment is provided for mass audiences in purpose-built structures such as a theatre, auditorium, or stadium.", "One of the most famous venues in the Western world, the Colosseum, \"dedicated AD 80 with a hundred days of games, held fifty thousand spectators,\" and in it audiences \"enjoyed blood sport with the trappings of stage shows\".", "Spectacles, competitions, races, and sports were once presented in this purpose-built arena as public entertainment.", "New stadia continue to be built to suit the ever more sophisticated requirements of global audiences.=== Court entertainment ===Tournament before an audience and musicians (14th century)Ralph Hedley ''The Tournament'' (1898) Children adapting a courtly entertainmentImperial and royal courts have provided training grounds and support for professional entertainers, with different cultures using palaces, castles and forts in different ways.", "In the Maya city states, for example, \"spectacles often took place in large plazas in front of palaces; the crowds gathered either there or in designated places from which they could watch at a distance.\"", "Court entertainments also crossed cultures.", "For example, the durbar was introduced to India by the Mughals, and passed onto the British Empire, which then followed Indian tradition: \"institutions, titles, customs, ceremonies by which a Maharaja or Nawab were installed ... the exchange of official presents ... the order of precedence\", for example, were \"all inherited from ... the Emperors of Delhi\".", "In Korea, the \"court entertainment dance\" was \"originally performed in the palace for entertainment at court banquets.", "\"Court entertainment often moved from being associated with the court to more general use among commoners.", "This was the case with \"masked dance-dramas\" in Korea, which \"originated in conjunction with village shaman rituals and eventually became largely an entertainment form for commoners\".", "Nautch dancers in the Mughal Empire performed in Indian courts and palaces.", "Another evolution, similar to that from courtly entertainment to common practice, was the transition from religious ritual to secular entertainment, such as happened during the Goryeo dynasty with the Narye festival.", "Originally \"solely religious or ritualistic, a secular component was added at the conclusion\".", "Former courtly entertainments, such as jousting, often also survived in children's games.In some courts, such as those during the Byzantine Empire, the genders were segregated among the upper classes, so that \"at least before the period of the Komnenoi\" (1081–1185) men were separated from women at ceremonies where there was entertainment such as receptions and banquets.Court ceremonies, palace banquets and the spectacles associated with them, have been used not only to entertain but also to demonstrate wealth and power.", "Such events reinforce the relationship between ruler and ruled; between those with power and those without, serving to \"dramatise the differences between ordinary families and that of the ruler\".", "This is the case as much as for traditional courts as it is for contemporary ceremonials, such as the Hong Kong handover ceremony in 1997, at which an array of entertainments (including a banquet, a parade, fireworks, a festival performance and an art spectacle) were put to the service of highlighting a change in political power.", "Court entertainments were typically performed for royalty and courtiers as well as \"for the pleasure of local and visiting dignitaries\".", "Royal courts, such as the Korean one, also supported traditional dances.", "In Sudan, musical instruments such as the so-called \"slit\" or \"talking\" drums, once \"part of the court orchestra of a powerful chief\", had multiple purposes: they were used to make music; \"speak\" at ceremonies; mark community events; send long-distance messages; and call men to hunt or war.Courtly entertainments also demonstrate the complex relationship between entertainer and spectator: individuals may be either an entertainer or part of the audience, or they may swap roles even during the course of one entertainment.", "In the court at the Palace of Versailles, \"thousands of courtiers, including men and women who inhabited its apartments, acted as both performers and spectators in daily rituals that reinforced the status hierarchy\".Like court entertainment, royal occasions such as coronations and weddings provided opportunities to entertain both the aristocracy and the people.", "For example, the splendid 1595 Accession Day celebrations of Queen Elizabeth I offered tournaments and jousting and other events performed \"not only before the assembled court, in all their finery, but also before thousands of Londoners eager for a good day's entertainment.", "Entry for the day's events at the Tiltyard in Whitehall was set at 12d\".=== Public punishment ===Ticket for the execution of Jonathan Wild (1725)Although most forms of entertainment have evolved and continued over time, some once-popular forms are no longer as acceptable.", "For example, during earlier centuries in Europe, watching or participating in the punishment of criminals or social outcasts was an accepted and popular form of entertainment.", "Many forms of public humiliation also offered local entertainment in the past.", "Even capital punishment such as hanging and beheading, offered to the public as a warning, were also regarded partly as entertainment.", "Capital punishments that lasted longer, such as stoning and drawing and quartering, afforded a greater public spectacle.", "\"A hanging was a carnival that diverted not merely the unemployed but the unemployable.", "Good bourgeois or curious aristocrats who could afford it watched it from a carriage or rented a room.\"", "Public punishment as entertainment lasted until the 19th century by which time \"the awesome event of a public hanging aroused their loathing of writers and philosophers\".", "Both Dickens and Thackeray wrote about a hanging in Newgate Prison in 1840, and \"taught an even wider public that executions are obscene entertainments\"." ], [ "Children", "Pieter Bruegel ''Children's Games'' (1560)Children's entertainment is centred on play and is significant for their growth.", "It often mimics adult activities, such as watching performances (on television); prepares them for adult responsibilities, such as child rearing or social interaction (through dolls, pets and group games); or develops skills such as motor skills (such as a game of marbles), needed for sports and music.", "In the modern day, it often involves sedentary engagement with television or tablet computer.Entertainment is also provided to children or taught to them by adults and many activities that appeal to them such as puppets, clowns, pantomimes and cartoons are also enjoyed by adults.Children have always played games.", "It is accepted that as well as being entertaining, playing games helps children's development.", "One of the most famous visual accounts of children's games is a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called ''Children's Games'', painted in 1560.It depicts children playing a range of games that presumably were typical of the time.", "Many of these games, such as marbles, hide-and-seek, blowing soap bubbles and piggyback riding continue to be played.Example of a rating system specifying age appropriateness (Israel)Most forms of entertainment can be or are modified to suit children's needs and interests.", "During the 20th century, starting with the often criticised but nonetheless important work of G. Stanley Hall, who \"promoted the link between the study of development and the 'new' laboratory psychology\", and especially with the work of Jean Piaget, who \"saw cognitive development as being analogous to biological development\", it became understood that the psychological development of children occurs in stages and that their capacities differ from adults.", "Hence, stories and activities, whether in books, film, or video games were developed specifically for child audiences.", "Countries have responded to the special needs of children and the rise of digital entertainment by developing systems such as television content rating systems, to guide the public and the entertainment industry.In the 21st century, as with adult products, much entertainment is available for children on the internet for private use.", "This constitutes a significant change from earlier times.", "The amount of time expended by children indoors on screen-based entertainment and the \"remarkable collapse of children's engagement with nature\" has drawn criticism for its negative effects on imagination, adult cognition and psychological well-being.File:Toy Soldiers British Coldstream Guards.jpg\|Toy Coldstream Guards soldiers (19th century)File:6.Reborn doll - Jessy od Elizabeth Maris.jpg\|Doll of a newborn babyFile:Two children playing with a dog.jpg\|Children being entertained by a dog (19th century painting)File:Kids Playing duduk.jpg\|Boys play recordersFile:Girl with styrofoam swimming board.jpg\|Girl in a swimming poolFile:Playing together 4.jpg\|Children in a group gameFile:Children watching TV.jpg\|Boys watch children's TVFile:Interest.jpg\|Toddler using a tablet computer" ], [ "Forms", "=== Banquets ===Banquets have been a venue for amusement, entertainment or pleasure since ancient times, continuing into the modern era.", "until the 21st century when they are still being used for many of their original purposesto impress visitors, especially important ones; to show hospitality; as an occasion to showcase supporting entertainments such as music or dancing, or both.", "They were an integral part of court entertainments and helped entertainers develop their skills.", "They are also important components of celebrations such as coronations, weddings, birthdays civic or political achievements, military engagements or victories as well as religious obligations, one of the most famous being the Banqueting House, Whitehall in London.", "In modern times, banquets are available privately, or commercially in restaurants, sometimes combined with a dramatic performance in dinner theatres.", "Cooking by professional chefs has also become a form of entertainment as part of global competitions such as the Bocuse d'Or.File:An Egyptian Banquet.jpg\| A banquet scene from Ancient Egypt (from a wall painting in Thebes)File:Byzantine Greek Banquet Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG\| Byzantine banquet showing musicians and various musical instruments (1204–1453)File:Banquet de Charles V le Sage.jpg\| Jean Fouquet, ''Banquet for Charles V of France'' (1455–1460)File:A banquet for Babur.jpg\| A banquet including roast goose given for Babur by the Mirzas in 1507 (miniature )File:Helst, Peace of Münster.jpg\| Bartholomeus van der Helst, ''Peace of Münster'' Amsterdam (1648)File:Victory banquet 1788.jpg\| Victory banquet by Emperor Qianlong to greet the officers who attended the campaign against Taiwan.", "(late 18th century)File:Wedding in Toropets (landlords coming to the peasants’ wedding)..jpg\| Landlords coming to the peasants' wedding banquet (late 18th century)File:The banquet hall in King Sahla Sellases palace colour.jpg\| The banquet hall in the palace of King Sahle Selassie painting from a photo, Ethiopia (1852)File:George IV coronation banquet.jpg\| Coronation banquet of George IV in Westminster Hall (1821)File:Chinese banquet in a banquet hall.JPG\| Chinese banquet in a banquet hall given as a birthday celebration (2012)=== Music ===A full house at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City, waiting for a musical entertainment to begin (1937)Music is a supporting component of many kinds of entertainment and most kinds of performance.", "For example, it is used to enhance storytelling, it is indispensable in dance and opera, and is usually incorporated into dramatic film or theatre productions.Music is also a universal and popular type of entertainment on its own, constituting an entire performance such as when concerts are given.", "Depending on the rhythm, instrument, performance and style, music is divided into many genres, such as classical, jazz, folk, rock, pop music or traditional.", "Since the 20th century, performed music, once available only to those who could pay for the performers, has been available cheaply to individuals by the entertainment industry, which broadcasts it or pre-records it for sale.The wide variety of musical performances, whether or not they are artificially amplified, all provide entertainment irrespective of whether the performance is from soloists, choral or orchestral groups, or ensemble.", "Live performances use specialised venues, which might be small or large; indoors or outdoors; free or expensive.", "The audiences have different expectations of the performers as well as of their own role in the performance.", "For example, some audiences expect to listen silently and are entertained by the excellence of the music, its rendition or its interpretation.", "Other audiences of live performances are entertained by the ambience and the chance to participate.", "Even more listeners are entertained by pre-recorded music and listen privately.The instruments used in musical entertainment are either solely the human voice or solely instrumental or some combination of the two.", "Whether the performance is given by vocalists or instrumentalists, the performers may be soloists or part of a small or large group, in turn entertaining an audience that might be individual, passing by, small or large.", "Singing is generally accompanied by instruments although some forms, notably a cappella and overtone singing, are unaccompanied.", "Modern concerts often use various special effects and other theatrics to accompany performances of singing and dancing.File:Lama orchestra.jpg\| Traditional instruments used to accompany dance (Tibet, 1949)File:RIAN archive 24089 The youngsters singing.jpg\| Children's choir providing musical entertainment (Soviet Union, 1979)File:Paris Metro orchestra.jpg\| Ensemble entertains travellers in the Paris Métro (2002)File:Boduberu performer.jpg\| Drummer playing Boduberu (Maldives, 2010)File:CORO ECCLESIA.jpg\| Choir and orchestra in ecclesiastical setting (Italy, 2008)File:Rouvas fans.jpg\| Contemporary audience in ancient outdoor stadium (Greece, 2009)File:Jay Chou The Era Singapore 2010 concert.jpg\| A concert with a 3D enhanced stage (Singapore, 2010)File:Concertkoor Haarlem 19-11-2010 Philharmonie.jpg\| Concert hall audience (Netherlands, 2010)File:Phoenix ThomasMars1.jpg\| Crowd surfing at a concert (France, 2011)File:Music listener.jpg\| Woman listening privately to music through headphones (Russia, 2010)=== Games ===Games are played for entertainmentsometimes purely for recreation, sometimes for achievement or reward as well.", "They can be played alone, in teams, or online; by amateurs or by professionals.", "The players may have an audience of non-players, such as when people are entertained by watching a chess championship.", "On the other hand, players in a game may constitute their own audience as they take their turn to play.", "Often, part of the entertainment for children playing a game is deciding who is part of their audience and who is a player.Equipment varies with the game.", "Board games, such as Go, ''Monopoly'' or backgammon need a board and markers.", "One of the oldest known board games is Senet, a game played in Ancient Egypt, enjoyed by the pharaoh Tutankhamun.", "Card games, such as whist, poker and Bridge have long been played as evening entertainment among friends.", "For these games, all that is needed is a deck of playing cards.", "Other games, such as bingo, played with numerous strangers, have been organised to involve the participation of non-players via gambling.", "Many are geared for children, and can be played outdoors, including hopscotch, hide and seek, or Blind man's bluff.", "The list of ball games is quite extensive.", "It includes, for example, croquet, lawn bowling and paintball as well as many sports using various forms of balls.", "The options cater to a wide range of skill and fitness levels.", "Physical games can develop agility and competence in motor skills.", "Number games such as Sudoku and puzzle games like the Rubik's cube can develop mental prowess.Video games are played using a controller to create results on a screen.", "They can also be played online with participants joining in remotely.", "In the second half of the 20th century and in the 21st century the number of such games increased enormously, providing a wide variety of entertainment to players around the world.", "Video games are popular across the world.File:The Chess Game - Sofonisba Anguissola.jpg\|Sofonisba Anguissola ''The Chess Game'' (1555) An intellectual gameFile:Duverger Hopscotch.jpg\|Théophile Emmanuel Duverger (before 1901) ''Hopscotch'' A physical gameFile:Televised Star Craft.jpg\|Televised match of ''StarCraft'' (2006) South Korea An electronic game=== Literature ===Reading has been a source of entertainment for a very long time, especially when other forms, such as performance entertainments, were (or are) either unavailable or too costly.", "Even when the primary purpose of the writing is to inform or instruct, reading is well known for its capacity to distract from everyday worries.", "Both stories and information have been passed on through the tradition of orality and oral traditions survive in the form of performance poetry for example.", "However, they have drastically declined.", "\"Once literacy had arrived in strength, there was no return to the oral prerogative.\"", "The advent of printing, the reduction in costs of books and an increasing literacy all served to enhance the mass appeal of reading.", "Furthermore, as fonts were standardised and texts became clearer, \"reading ceased being a painful process of decipherment and became an act of pure pleasure\".", "By the 16th century in Europe, the appeal of reading for entertainment was well established.Among literature's many genres are some designed, in whole or in part, purely for entertainment.", "Limericks, for example, use verse in a strict, predictable rhyme and rhythm to create humour and to amuse an audience of listeners or readers.", "Interactive books such as \"choose your own adventure\" can make literary entertainment more participatory.Old man reading newspaper at BasantapurComics and editorial cartoons are literary genres that use drawings or graphics, usually in combination with text, to convey an entertaining narrative.", "Many contemporary comics have elements of fantasy and are produced by companies that are part of the entertainment industry.", "Others have unique authors who offer a more personal, philosophical view of the world and the problems people face.", "Comics about superheroes such as Superman are of the first type.", "Examples of the second sort include the individual work over 50 years of Charles M. Schulz who produced a popular comic called ''Peanuts'' about the relationships among a cast of child characters; and Michael Leunig who entertains by producing whimsical cartoons that also incorporate social criticism.", "The Japanese Manga style differs from the western approach in that it encompasses a wide range of genres and themes for a readership of all ages.", "Caricature uses a kind of graphic entertainment for purposes ranging from merely putting a smile on the viewer's face, to raising social awareness, to highlighting the moral characteristics of a person being caricatured.=== Comedy ===Comedian Charlie Chaplin impersonating Hitler for comic effect in the satirical film ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)Comedy is both a genre of entertainment and a component of it, providing laughter and amusement, whether the comedy is the sole purpose or used as a form of contrast in an otherwise serious piece.", "It is a valued contributor to many forms of entertainment, including in literature, theatre, opera, film and games.", "In royal courts, such as in the Byzantine court, and presumably, also in its wealthy households, \"mimes were the focus of orchestrated humour, expected or obliged to make fun of all at court, not even excepting the emperor and members of the imperial family.", "This highly structured role of jester consisted of verbal humour, including teasing, jests, insult, ridicule, and obscenity and non-verbal humour such as slapstick and horseplay in the presence of an audience.\"", "In medieval times, all comic types the buffoon, jester, hunchback, dwarf, jokester, were all \"considered to be essentially of one comic type: the fool\", who while not necessarily funny, represented \"the shortcomings of the individual\".Shakespeare wrote seventeen comedies that incorporate many techniques still used by performers and writers of comedysuch as jokes, puns, parody, wit, observational humor, or the unexpected effect of irony.", "One-liner jokes and satire are also used to comedic effect in literature.", "In farce, the comedy is a primary purpose.The meaning of the word \"comedy\" and the audience's expectations of it have changed over time and vary according to culture.", "Simple physical comedy such as slapstick is entertaining to a broad range of people of all ages.", "However, as cultures become more sophisticated, national nuances appear in the style and references so that what is amusing in one culture may be unintelligible in another.=== Performance ===Live performances before an audience constitute a major form of entertainment, especially before the invention of audio and video recording.", "Performance takes a wide range of forms, including theatre, music and drama.", "In the 16th and 17th centuries, European royal courts presented masques that were complex theatrical entertainments involving dancing, singing and acting.", "Opera is a similarly demanding performance style that remains popular.", "It also encompass all three forms, demanding a high level of musical and dramatic skill, collaboration and like the masque, production expertise as well.Poster for a 1908 production of Verdi's 1871 opera ''Aida'', performed by the Hippodrome Opera Company of Cleveland, OhioAudiences generally show their appreciation of an entertaining performance with applause.", "However, all performers run the risk of failing to hold their audience's attention and thus, failing to entertain.", "Audience dissatisfaction is often brutally honest and direct.==== Storytelling ====''The Boyhood of Raleigh'' by Sir John Everett Millais, oil on canvas, 1870.A seafarer tells the young Sir Walter Raleigh and his brother the story of what happened out at sea.Storytelling is an ancient form of entertainment that has influenced almost all other forms.", "It is \"not only entertainment, it is also thinking through human conflicts and contradictions\".", "Hence, although stories may be delivered directly to a small listening audience, they are also presented as entertainment and used as a component of any piece that relies on a narrative, such as film, drama, ballet, and opera.", "Written stories have been enhanced by illustrations, often to a very high artistic standard, for example, on illuminated manuscripts and on ancient scrolls such as Japanese ones.", "Stories remain a common way of entertaining a group that is on a journey.", "Showing how stories are used to pass the time and entertain an audience of travellers, Chaucer used pilgrims in his literary work ''The Canterbury Tales'' in the 14th century, as did Wu Cheng'en in the 16th century in ''Journey to the West''.", "Even though journeys can now be completed much faster, stories are still told to passengers en route in cars and aeroplanes either orally or delivered by some form of technology.The power of stories to entertain is evident in one of the most famous onesScheherazadea story in the Persian professional storytelling tradition, of a woman who saves her own life by telling stories.", "The connections between the different types of entertainment are shown by the way that stories like this inspire a retelling in another medium, such as music, film or games.", "For example, composers Rimsky-Korsakov, Ravel and Szymanowski have each been inspired by the Scheherazade story and turned it into an orchestral work; director Pasolini made a film adaptation; and there is an innovative video game based on the tale.", "Stories may be told wordlessly, in music, dance or puppetry for example, such as in the Javanese tradition of wayang, in which the performance is accompanied by a gamelan orchestra or the similarly traditional Punch and Judy show.Epic narratives, poems, sagas and allegories from all cultures tell such gripping tales that they have inspired countless other stories in all forms of entertainment.", "Examples include the Hindu ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''; Homer's ''Odyssey'' and ''Iliad''; the first Arabic novel ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan''; the Persian epic ''Shahnameh''; the Sagas of Icelanders and the celebrated ''Tale of the Genji''.", "Collections of stories, such as ''Grimms' Fairy Tales'' or those by Hans Christian Andersen, have been similarly influential.", "Originally published in the early 19th century, this collection of folk stories significantly influence modern popular culture, which subsequently used its themes, images, symbols, and structural elements to create new entertainment forms.Some of the most powerful and long-lasting stories are the foundation stories, also called origin or creation myths such as the Dreamtime myths of the Australian aborigines, the Mesopotamian ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', or the Hawaiian stories of the origin of the world.", "These too are developed into books, films, music and games in a way that increases their longevity and enhances their entertainment value.File:William Blake - Canterbury Pilgrims Picture.jpg\|William Blake's painting of the pilgrims in ''The Canterbury Tales''File:Sultan Pardons Scheherazade.jpg\|Scheherazade telling her stories to King Shahryar in ''The Arabian Nights''File:Wayang golek SF Asian Art Museum.JPG\|Telling stories via Wayang golek puppets in JavaFile:Tosa Mitsuoki—Portrait of Murasaki Shikibu.jpg\|Tosa Mitsuoki illustrating her ''Tale of Genji''==== Theatre ====Victoria Theatre, London (1872)Theatre performances, typically dramatic or musical, are presented on a stage for an audience and have a history that goes back to Hellenistic times when \"leading musicians and actors\" performed widely at \"poetical competitions\", for example at \"Delphi, Delos, Ephesus\".", "Aristotle and his teacher Plato both wrote on the theory and purpose of theatre.", "Aristotle posed questions such as \"What is the function of the arts in shaping character?", "Should a member of the ruling class merely watch performances or be a participant and perform?", "What kind of entertainment should be provided for those who do not belong to the elite?\"", "The \"Ptolemys in Egypt, the Seleucids in Pergamum\" also had a strong theatrical tradition and later, wealthy patrons in Rome staged \"far more lavish productions\".Expectations about the performance and their engagement with it have changed over time.", "For example, in England during the 18th century, \"the prejudice against actresses had faded\" and in Europe generally, going to the theatre, once a socially dubious activity, became \"a more respectable middle-class pastime\" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the variety of popular entertainments increased.", "Operetta and music halls became available, and new drama theatres such as the Moscow Art Theatre and the Suvorin Theatre in Russia opened.", "At the same time, commercial newspapers \"began to carry theatre columns and reviews\" that helped make theatre \"a legitimate subject of intellectual debate\" in general discussions about art and culture.", "Audiences began to gather to \"appreciate creative achievement, to marvel at, and be entertained by, the prominent 'stars'.\"", "Vaudeville and music halls, popular at this time in the United States, England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, were themselves eventually superseded.Plays, musicals, monologues, pantomimes, and performance poetry are part of the very long history of theatre, which is also the venue for the type of performance known as comedy.", "In the 20th century, radio and television, often broadcast live, extended the theatrical tradition that continued to exist alongside the new forms.The stage and the spaces set out in front of it for an audience create a theatre.", "All types of stage are used with all types of seating for the audience, including the impromptu or improvised; the temporary; the elaborate; or the traditional and permanent.", "They are erected indoors or outdoors.", "The skill of managing, organising and preparing the stage for a performance is known as stagecraft.", "The audience's experience of the entertainment is affected by their expectations, the stagecraft, the type of stage, and the type and standard of seating provided.File:Isaac Cruikshank King John's first appearance at the New Theatre Covent Garden 1809.jpg\| Satirical representation of audience reaction (1809)File:Öffentlich durchgeführte medizinische Behandlung auf einem französischen Jahrmarkt.jpg\| Improvised stage for a public performance at a fair (1642)File:The stage.jpg\| Improvised stage for domestic theatreFile:Dalhalla stage before show.JPG\| Outdoor stage before a showFile:Troldsalen-inne03.jpg\| Concert theatre ready for solo instrumentalistFile:PipesAndDrums.jpg\| Outdoor theatre created from Edinburgh castle forecourtFile:Noh stage Miyajima Sep2008.jpg\| Traditional stage for Japanese Noh theatreFile:Music Circus Stage 2011.jpg\| Stage for theatre in the roundFile:Colon-interior-escenario-TM.jpg\| Teatro Colón, a highly decorative, horseshoe theatreFile:SWHS locking rail.jpg\| Stagecraft a locking rail backstage==== Cinema and film ====Film audiences are typically seated in comfortable chairs arranged in close rows before a projection screen.", "Norway (2005)Films are a major form of entertainment, although not all films have entertainment as their primary purpose: documentary film, for example, aims to create a record or inform, although the two purposes often work together.", "The medium was a global business from the beginning: \"The Lumière brothers were the first to send cameramen throughout the world, instructing them to film everything which could be of interest for the public.\"", "In 1908, Pathé launched and distributed newsreels and by World War I, films were meeting an enormous need for mass entertainment.", "\"In the first decade of the 20th century cinematic programmes combined, at random, fictions and newsfilms.\"", "The Americans first \"contrived a way of producing an illusion of motion through successive images,\" but \"the French were able to transform a scientific principle into a commercially lucrative spectacle\".", "Film therefore became a part of the entertainment industry from its early days.", "Increasingly sophisticated techniques have been used in the film medium to delight and entertain audiences.", "Animation, for example, which involves the display of rapid movement in an art work, is one of these techniques that particularly appeals to younger audiences.", "The advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the 21st century made it \"possible to do spectacle\" more cheaply and \"on a scale never dreamed of\" by Cecil B. DeMille.", "From the 1930s to 1950s, movies and radio were the \"only mass entertainment\" but by the second decade of the 21st century, technological changes, economic decisions, risk aversion and globalisation reduced both the quality and range of films being produced.", "Sophisticated visual effects and CGI techniques, for example, rather than humans, were used not only to create realistic images of people, landscapes and events (both real and fantastic) but also to animate non-living items such as Lego normally used as entertainment as a game in physical form.", "Creators of ''The Lego Movie'' \"wanted the audience to believe they were looking at actual Lego bricks on a tabletop that were shot with a real camera, not what we actually did, which was create vast environments with digital bricks inside the computer.\"", "The convergence of computers and film has allowed entertainment to be presented in a new way and the technology has also allowed for those with the personal resources to screen films in a home theatre, recreating in a private venue the quality and experience of a public theatre.", "This is similar to the way that the nobility in earlier times could stage private musical performances or the use of domestic theatres in large homes to perform private plays in earlier centuries.Films also re-imagine entertainment from other forms, turning stories, books and plays, for example, into new entertainments.", "''The Story of Film'', a documentary about the history of film, gives a survey of global achievements and innovations in the medium, as well as changes in the conception of film-making.", "It demonstrates that while some films, particularly those in the Hollywood tradition that combines \"realism and melodramatic romanticism\", are intended as a form of escapism, others require a deeper engagement or more thoughtful response from their audiences.", "For example, the award-winning Senegalese film ''Xala'' takes government corruption as its theme.", "Charlie Chaplin's film ''The Great Dictator'' was a brave and innovative parody, also on a political theme.", "Stories that are thousands of years old, such as ''Noah'', have been re-interpreted in film, applying familiar literary devices such as allegory and personification with new techniques such as CGI to explore big themes such as \"human folly\", good and evil, courage and despair, love, faith, and death themes that have been a main-stay of entertainment across all its forms.As in other media, excellence and achievement in films is recognised through a range of awards, including ones from the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, the Cannes International Film Festival in France and the Asia Pacific Screen Awards.==== Dance ====Contra dancers at a ball in New Hampshire, United States (silent video)The many forms of dance provide entertainment for all age groups and cultures.", "Dance can be serious in tone, such as when it is used to express a culture's history or important stories; it may be provocative; or it may put in the service of comedy.", "Since it combines many forms of entertainment music, movement, storytelling, theatre it provides a good example of the various ways that these forms can be combined to create entertainment for different purposes and audiences.Dance is \"a form of cultural representation\" that involves not just dancers, but \"choreographers, audience members, patrons and impresarios ... coming from all over the globe and from vastly varied time periods.\"", "Whether from Africa, Asia or Europe, dance is constantly negotiating the realms of political, social, spiritual and artistic influence.\"", "Even though dance traditions may be limited to one cultural group, they all develop.", "For example, in Africa, there are \"Dahomean dances, Hausa dances, Masai dances and so forth.\"", "Ballet is an example of a highly developed Western form of dance that moved to the theatres from the French court during the time of Louis XIV, the dancers becoming professional theatrical performers.", "Some dances, such as the quadrille, a square dance that \"emerged during the Napoleonic years in France\" and other country dances were once popular at social gatherings like balls, but are now rarely performed.", "On the other hand, many folk dances (such as Scottish Highland dancing and Irish dancing), have evolved into competitions, which by adding to their audiences, has increased their entertainment value.", "\"Irish dance theatre, which sometimes features traditional Irish steps and music, has developed into a major dance form with an international reputation.", "\"Since dance is often \"associated with the female body and women's experiences\", female dancers, who dance to entertain, have in some cases been regarded as distinct from \"decent\" women because they \"use their bodies to make a living instead of hiding them as much as possible\".", "Society's attitudes to female dancers depend on the culture, its history and the entertainment industry itself.", "For example, while some cultures regard any dancing by women as \"the most shameful form of entertainment\", other cultures have established venues such as strip clubs where deliberately erotic or sexually provocative dances such as striptease are performed in public by professional women dancers for mostly male audiences.Various political regimes have sought to control or ban dancing or specific types of dancing, sometimes because of disapproval of the music or clothes associated with it.", "Nationalism, authoritarianism and racism have played a part in banning dances or dancing.", "For example, during the Nazi regime, American dances such as swing, regarded as \"completely un-German\", had \"become a public offense and needed to be banned\".", "Similarly, in Shanghai, China, in the 1930s, \"dancing and nightclubs had come to symbolise the excess that plagued Chinese society\" and officials wondered if \"other forms of entertainment such as brothels\" should also be banned.", "Banning had the effect of making \"the dance craze\" even greater.", "In Ireland, the Public Dance Hall Act of 1935 \"banned but did not stop dancing at the crossroads and other popular dance forms such as house and barn dances.\"", "In the US, various dances were once banned, either because like burlesque, they were suggestive, or because, like the Twist, they were associated with African Americans.", "\"African American dancers were typically banned from performing in minstrel shows until after the American Civil War.", "\"Dances can be performed solo, in pairs, in groups, or by massed performers.", "They might be improvised or highly choreographed; spontaneous for personal entertainment (such as when children begin dancing for themselves); a private audience, a paying audience, a world audience, or an audience interested in a particular dance genre.", "They might be a part of a celebration, such as a wedding or New Year, or a cultural ritual with a specific purpose, such as a dance by warriors like a haka.", "Some dances, such as traditional dance and ballet, need a very high level of skill and training; others, such as the can-can, require a very high level of energy and physical fitness.", "Entertaining the audience is a normal part of dance but its physicality often also produces joy for the dancers themselves.File:Korea-Andong-Hahoe Folk Village-Thai dancer-01.jpg\| Traditional dancer (Thailand)File:Harlekin Columbine Tivoli Denmark.jpg\| Harlequin and Columbine (Denmark)File:Ballroom dance exhibition.jpg\| Ballroom dancing (Czech Republic)File:Belly dancer dancing in Morocco.jpg\| Belly dancer (Morocco)File:Morris dancing at Berwick St John - geograph.org.uk - 903611.jpg\| Morris dancing (England)File:Allan-highlandwedding1780.jpg\| Highland wedding (Scotland, 1780)File:Mt Hagen Cultural Show PNG 2008.jpg\| Warrior dancers (Papua New Guinea)File:Fire Dragon dance.jpg\| Fire Dragon dance for Chinese New YearFile:Bhangra 1.jpg\| Bhangra dancers at the International Children's FestivalFile:Arirang Mass Games, Pyongyang, North Korea-1.jpg\| Children in Mass Games (North Korea)==== Animals ====Animals have been used for the purposes of entertainment for millennia.", "They have been hunted for entertainment (as opposed to hunted for food); displayed while they hunt for prey; watched when they compete with each other; and watched while they perform a trained routine for human amusement.", "The Romans, for example, were entertained both by competitions involving wild animals and acts performed by trained animals.", "They watched as \"lions and bears danced to the music of pipes and cymbals; horses were trained to kneel, bow, dance and prance ... acrobats turning handsprings over wild lions and vaulting over wild leopards.\"", "There were \"violent confrontations with wild beasts\" and \"performances over time became more brutal and bloodier\".Animals that perform trained routines or \"acts\" for human entertainment include fleas in flea circuses, dolphins in dolphinaria, and monkeys doing tricks for an audience on behalf of the player of a street organ.", "Animals kept in zoos in ancient times were often kept there for later use in the arena as entertainment or for their entertainment value as exotica.Many contests between animals are now regarded as sports for example, horse racing is regarded as both a sport and an important source of entertainment.", "Its economic impact means that it is also considered a global industry, one in which horses are carefully transported around the world to compete in races.", "In Australia, the horse race run on Melbourne Cup Day is a public holiday and the public regards the race as an important annual event.", "Like horse racing, camel racing requires human riders, while greyhound racing does not.", "People find it entertaining to watch animals race competitively, whether they are trained, like horses, camels or dogs, or untrained, like cockroaches.The use of animals for entertainment is sometimes controversial, especially the hunting of wild animals.", "Some contests between animals, once popular entertainment for the public, have become illegal because of the cruelty involved.", "Among these are blood sports such as bear-baiting, dog fighting and cockfighting.", "Other contests involving animals remain controversial and have both supporters and detractors.", "For example, the conflict between opponents of pigeon shooting who view it as \"a cruel and moronic exercise in marksmanship, and proponents, who view it as entertainment\" has been tested in a court of law.", "Fox hunting, which involves the use of horses as well as hounds, and bullfighting, which has a strong theatrical component, are two entertainments that have a long and significant cultural history.", "They both involve animals and are variously regarded as sport, entertainment or cultural tradition.", "Among the organisations set up to advocate for the rights of animals are some whose concerns include the use of animals for entertainment.", "However, \"in many cases of animal advocacy groups versus organisations accused of animal abuse, both sides have cultural claims.", "\"File:Ala-uddin and Mahima hunting.JPG\|'Ala'ud-Din and Mahima Dharma hunting a tiger while in an intimate relationship, Punjab Hills, India, 1790File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Arabische man met twee gedresseerde aapjes aan de ketting TMnr 60020423.jpg\|Trained monkey performing for an audience of children (1900–20)File:Pharlap1930melbournecup.jpg\|Crowd watches Pharlap win the Melbourne Cup in Australia, 1930File:San marcos bullfight 04.jpg\|Crowd watches a bullfight in Mexico, 2010==== Circus ====stilt walker performing in a circus actA circus, described as \"one of the most brazen of entertainment forms\", is a special type of theatrical performance, involving a variety of physical skills such as acrobatics and juggling and sometimes performing animals.", "Usually thought of as a travelling show performed in a big top, circus was first performed in permanent venues.", "Philip Astley is regarded as the founder of the modern circus in the second half of the 18th century and Jules Léotard is the French performer credited with developing the art of the trapeze, considered synonymous with circuses.", "Astley brought together performances that were generally familiar in traditional British fairs \"at least since the beginning of the 17th century\": \"tumbling, rope-dancing, juggling, animal tricks and so on\".", "It has been claimed that \"there is no direct link between the Roman circus and the circus of modern times. ...", "Between the demise of the Roman 'circus' and the foundation of Astley's Amphitheatre in London some 1300 years later, the nearest thing to a circus ring was the rough circle formed by the curious onlookers who gathered around the itinerant tumbler or juggler on a village green.", "\"==== Magic ====The form of entertainment known as stage magic or conjuring and recognisable as performance, is based on traditions and texts of magical rites and dogmas that have been a part of most cultural traditions since ancient times.", "(References to magic, for example, can be found in the Bible, in Hermeticism, in Zoroastrianism, in the Kabbalistic tradition, in mysticism and in the sources of Freemasonry.", ")Stage magic is performed for an audience in a variety of media and locations: on stage, on television, in the street, and live at parties or events.", "It is often combined with other forms of entertainment, such as comedy or music and showmanship is often an essential part of magic performances.", "Performance magic relies on deception, psychological manipulation, sleight of hand and other forms of trickery to give an audience the illusion that a performer can achieve the impossible.", "Audiences amazed at the stunt performances and escape acts of Harry Houdini, for example, regarded him as a magician.Fantasy magicians have held an important place in literature for centuries, offering entertainment to millions of readers.", "Famous wizards such as Merlin in the Arthurian legends have been written about since the 5th and 6th centuries, while in the 21st century, the young wizard Harry Potter became a global entertainment phenomenon when the book series about him sold about 450 million copies (as at June 2011), making it the best-selling book series in history.==== Street performance ====Didgeridoo player entertaining passers by in the streetStreet entertainment, street performance, or \"busking\" are forms of performance that have been meeting the public's need for entertainment for centuries.", "It was \"an integral aspect of London's life\", for example, when the city in the early 19th century was \"filled with spectacle and diversion\".", "Minstrels or troubadours are part of the tradition.", "The art and practice of busking is still celebrated at annual busking festivals.There are three basic forms of contemporary street performance.", "The first form is the \"circle show\".", "It tends to gather a crowd, usually has a distinct beginning and end, and is done in conjunction with street theatre, puppeteering, magicians, comedians, acrobats, jugglers and sometimes musicians.", "This type has the potential to be the most lucrative for the performer because there are likely to be more donations from larger audiences if they are entertained by the act.", "Good buskers control the crowd so patrons do not obstruct foot traffic.", "The second form, the ''walk-by act'', has no distinct beginning or end.", "Typically, the busker provides an entertaining ambience, often with an unusual instrument, and the audience may not stop to watch or form a crowd.", "Sometimes a walk-by act spontaneously turns into a circle show.", "The third form, ''café busking'', is performed mostly in restaurants, pubs, bars and cafés.", "This type of act occasionally uses public transport as a venue.==== Parades ====Parades are held for a range of purposes, often more than one.", "Whether their mood is sombre or festive, being public events that are designed to attract attention and activities that necessarily divert normal traffic, parades have a clear entertainment value to their audiences.", "Cavalcades and the modern variant, the motorcade, are examples of public processions.", "Some people watching the parade or procession may have made a special effort to attend, while others become part of the audience by happenstance.", "Whatever their mood or primary purpose, parades attract and entertain people who watch them pass by.", "Occasionally, a parade takes place in an improvised theatre space (such as the Trooping the Colour in ) and tickets are sold to the physical audience while the global audience participates via broadcast.One of the earliest forms of parade were \"triumphs\" grand and sensational displays of foreign treasures and spoils, given by triumphant Roman generals to celebrate their victories.", "They presented conquered peoples and nations that exalted the prestige of the victor.", "\"In the summer of 46 BCE Julius Caesar chose to celebrate four triumphs held on different days extending for about one month.\"", "In Europe from the Middle Ages to the Baroque the Royal Entry celebrated the formal visit of the monarch to the city with a parade through elaborately decorated streets, passing various shows and displays.", "The annual Lord Mayor's Show in London is an example of a civic parade that has survived since medieval times.Many religious festivals (especially those that incorporate processions, such as Holy Week processions or the Indian festival of Holi) have some entertainment appeal in addition to their serious purpose.", "Sometimes, religious rituals have been adapted or evolved into secular entertainments, or like the Festa del Redentore in Venice, have managed to grow in popularity while holding both secular and sacred purposes in balance.", "However, pilgrimages, such as the Roman Catholic pilgrimage of the Way of St. James, the Muslim Hajj and the Hindu Kumbh Mela, which may appear to the outsider as an entertaining parade or procession, are not intended as entertainment: they are instead about an individual's spiritual journey.", "Hence, the relationship between spectator and participant, unlike entertainments proper, is different.", "The manner in which the Kumbh Mela, for example, \"is divorced from its cultural context and repackaged for Western consumption renders the presence of voyeurs deeply problematic.", "\"Parades generally impress and delight often by including unusual, colourful costumes.", "Sometimes they also commemorate or celebrate.", "Sometimes they have a serious purpose, such as when the context is military, when the intention is sometimes to intimidate; or religious, when the audience might participate or have a role to play.", "Even if a parade uses new technology and is some distance away, it is likely to have a strong appeal, draw the attention of onlookers and entertain them.File:Triunphus Caesaris plate 6 - Andreani.jpg\| Triumph of Caesar, Andreani (1588/9)File:Alfred Jacob Miller - Cavalcade - Walters 371940199.jpg\| Alfred Jacob Miller ''Cavalcade'' by the Snake Indians (1858–60)File:Edmund Blair Leighton - 1816.jpg\| Parade from the onlooker perspective (1816)File:William McKinley 1901 inauguration.ogv\| Inauguration parade of US President McKinley (1897)File:1945 Eelde Canadezen.jpg\| Respectful crowd at motorcade in Canada (1945)File:Anant Chaturdashi.jpg\| Ganesh Visarjan, Mumbai (2007)File:West Indian Day Parade 2008-09-01 man in costume.jpg\| Costumes in West Indian Day parade (2008)File:Trooping the Colour March on.JPG\| Celebratory parade in London before seated audience (2008)File:Red Arrows over the Mall.JPG\| Flypast (2012)File:Desfile Portela 2014 (906185).jpg\| Festive parade in Brazil (2014)==== Fireworks ====Spectators at Bicentennial fireworks in ColombiaFireworks are a part of many public entertainments and have retained an enduring popularity since they became a \"crowning feature of elaborate celebrations\" in the 17th century.", "First used in China, classical antiquity and Europe for military purposes, fireworks were most popular in the 18th century and high prices were paid for pyrotechnists, especially the skilled Italian ones, who were summoned to other countries to organise displays.", "Fire and water were important aspects of court spectacles because the displays \"inspired by means of fire, sudden noise, smoke and general magnificence the sentiments thought fitting for the subject to entertain of his sovereign: awe fear and a vicarious sense of glory in his might.", "Birthdays, name-days, weddings and anniversaries provided the occasion for celebration.\"", "One of the most famous courtly uses of fireworks was one used to celebrate the end of the War of the Austrian Succession and while the fireworks themselves caused a fire, the accompanying Music for the Royal Fireworks written by Handel has been popular ever since.", "Aside from their contribution to entertainments related to military successes, courtly displays and personal celebrations, fireworks are also used as part of religious ceremony.", "For example, during the Indian Dashavatara Kala of Gomantaka \"the temple deity is taken around in a procession with a lot of singing, dancing and display of fireworks\".The \"fire, sudden noise and smoke\" of fireworks is still a significant part of public celebration and entertainment.", "For example, fireworks were one of the primary forms of display chosen to celebrate the turn of the millennium around the world.", "As the clock struck midnight and 1999 became 2000, firework displays and open-air parties greeted the New Year as the time zones changed over to the next century.", "Fireworks, carefully planned and choreographed, were let off against the backdrop of many of the world's most famous buildings, including the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Pyramids of Giza in Egypt, the Acropolis in Athens, Red Square in Moscow, Vatican City in Rome, the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and Elizabeth Tower in London.=== Sport ===Audience engagement from a crowd of Italian sport fansAudience engagement by individual South African fans at the 2010 FIFA World Cup Sporting competitions have always provided entertainment for crowds.", "To distinguish the players from the audience, the latter are often known as spectators.", "Developments in stadium and auditorium design, as well as in recording and broadcast technology, have allowed off-site spectators to watch sport, with the result that the size of the audience has grown ever larger and spectator sport has become increasingly popular.", "Two of the most popular sports with global appeal are association football and cricket.", "Their ultimate international competitions, the FIFA World Cup and the Cricket World Cup, are broadcast around the world.", "Beyond the very large numbers involved in playing these sports, they are notable for being a major source of entertainment for many millions of non-players worldwide.", "A comparable multi-stage, long-form sport with global appeal is the Tour de France, unusual in that it takes place outside of special stadia, being run instead in the countryside.Aside from sports that have worldwide appeal and competitions, such as the Olympic Games, the entertainment value of a sport depends on the culture and country where people play it.", "For example, in the United States, baseball and basketball games are popular forms of entertainment; in Bhutan, the national sport is archery; in New Zealand, it is rugby union; in Iran, it is freestyle wrestling.", "Japan's unique sumo wrestling contains ritual elements that derive from its long history.", "In some cases, such as the international running group Hash House Harriers, participants create a blend of sport and entertainment for themselves, largely independent of spectator involvement, where the social component is more important than the competitive.The evolution of an activity into a sport and then an entertainment is also affected by the local climate and conditions.", "For example, the modern sport of surfing is associated with Hawaii and that of snow skiing probably evolved in Scandinavia.", "While these sports and the entertainment they offer to spectators have spread around the world, people in the two originating countries remain well known for their prowess.", "Sometimes the climate offers a chance to adapt another sport such as in the case of ice hockeyan important entertainment in Canada.=== Fairs, expositions, shopping ===Fairs and exhibitions have existed since ancient and medieval times, displaying wealth, innovations and objects for trade and offering specific entertainments as well as being places of entertainment in themselves.", "Whether in a medieval market or a small shop, \"shopping always offered forms of exhilaration that took one away from the everyday\".", "However, in the modern world, \"merchandising has become entertainment: spinning signs, flashing signs, thumping music ... video screens, interactive computer kiosks, day care .. cafés\".By the 19th century, \"expos\" that encouraged arts, manufactures and commerce had become international.", "They were not only hugely popular but affected international ideas.", "For example, the 1878 Paris Exposition facilitated international cooperation about ideas, innovations and standards.", "From London 1851 to Paris 1900, \"in excess of 200 million visitors had entered the turnstiles in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia, Chicago and a myriad of smaller shows around the world.\"", "Since World War II \"well over 500 million visits have been recorded through world expo turnstiles\".", "As a form of spectacle and entertainment, expositions influenced \"everything from architecture, to patterns of globalisation, to fundamental matters of human identity\" and in the process established the close relationship between \"fairs, the rise of department stores and art museums\", the modern world of mass consumption and the entertainment industry.File:Paris 1889 plakat.jpg\|Advertisement for 1889 Paris Universal ExpositionFile:Qatar's Pavillion at the 2010 World Expo in Shanghai.jpg\|Audience queuing for Qatar's World Exposition Pavilion at the 2010 Shanghai World ExpoFile:Ballpit.jpg\|Ball pit of the type provided for children's entertainment in shopping malls" ], [ "Safety", "Some entertainments, such as at large festivals (whether religious or secular), concerts, clubs, parties and celebrations, involve big crowds.", "From earliest times, crowds at an entertainment have associated hazards and dangers, especially when combined with the recreational consumption of intoxicants such as alcohol.", "The Ancient Greeks had Dionysian Mysteries, for example, and the Romans had Saturnalia.", "The consequence of excess and crowds can produce breaches of social norms of behaviour, sometimes causing injury or even death, such as for example, at the Altamont Free Concert, an outdoor rock festival.", "The list of serious incidents at nightclubs includes those caused by stampede; overcrowding; terrorism, such as the 2002 Bali bombings that targeted a nightclub; and especially fire.", "Investigations, such as that carried out in the US after The Station nightclub fire often demonstrate that lessons learned \"regarding fire safety in nightclubs\" from earlier events such as the Cocoanut Grove fire do \"not necessarily result in lasting effective change\".", "Efforts to prevent such incidents include appointing special officers, such as the medieval Lord of Misrule or, in modern times, security officers who control access; and also ongoing improvement of relevant standards such as those for building safety.", "The tourism industry now regards safety and security at entertainment venues as an important management task." ], [ "{{Anchor\|Industry}} Industry", "Entertainment is big business, especially in the United States, but ubiquitous in all cultures.Although kings, rulers and powerful people have always been able to pay for entertainment to be provided for them and in many cases have paid for public entertainment, people generally have made their own entertainment or when possible, attended a live performance.", "Technological developments in the 20th century, especially in the area of mass media, meant that entertainment could be produced independently of the audience, packaged and sold on a commercial basis by an entertainment industry.", "Sometimes referred to as show business, the industry relies on business models to produce, market, broadcast or otherwise distribute many of its traditional forms, including performances of all types.", "The industry became so sophisticated that its economics became a separate area of academic study.The film industry is a part of the entertainment industry.", "Components of it include the Hollywood and Bollywood film industries, as well as the cinema of the United Kingdom and all the cinemas of Europe, including France, Germany, Spain, Italy and others.", "The sex industry is another component of the entertainment industry, applying the same forms and media (for example, film, books, dance and other performances) to the development, marketing and sale of sex products on a commercial basis.Amusement parks entertain paying guests with rides, such as roller coasters, ridable miniature railways, water rides, and dark rides, as well as other events and associated attractions.", "The parks are built on a large area subdivided into themed areas named \"lands\".", "Sometimes the whole amusement park is based on one theme, such as the various SeaWorld parks that focus on the theme of sea life.One of the consequences of the development of the entertainment industry has been the creation of new types of employment.", "While jobs such as writer, musician and composer exist as they always have, people doing this work are likely to be employed by a company rather than a patron as they once would have been.", "New jobs have appeared, such as gaffer or special effects supervisor in the film industry, and attendants in an amusement park.Prestigious awards are given by the industry for excellence in the various types of entertainment.", "For example, there are awards for Music, Games (including video games), Comics, Comedy, Theatre, television, Film, Dance and Magic.", "Sporting awards are made for the results and skill, rather than for the entertainment value.File:Film reel.jpg\|Packaged entertainment35mm film reels in boxesFile:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F079073-0006, Bonn, Sternstraße, Schallplattengeschäft.jpg\|Choosing music from a record store (Germany, 1988)File:LOceanogràfic, Ciudad de las artes y las ciencias, 2005, Valencia.jpg\|Ticket showing electronic barcode (Valencia, 2005)" ], [ "Architecture", "=== Architecture for entertainment ===Purpose-built structures as venues for entertainment that accommodate audiences have produced many famous and innovative buildings, among the most recognisable of which are theatre structures.", "For the ancient Greeks, \"the architectural importance of the theatre is a reflection of their importance to the community, made apparent in their monumentality, in the effort put into their design, and in the care put into their detail.\"", "The Romans subsequently developed the stadium in an oval form known as a circus.", "In modern times, some of the grandest buildings for entertainment have brought fame to their cities as well as their designers.", "The Sydney Opera House, for example, is a World Heritage Site and The O₂ in London is an entertainment precinct that contains an indoor arena, a music club, a cinema and exhibition space.", "The Bayreuth Festspielhaus in Germany is a theatre designed and built for performances of one specific musical composition.Two of the chief architectural concerns for the design of venues for mass audiences are speed of egress and safety.", "The speed at which the venue empty is important both for amenity and safety, because large crowds take a long time to disperse from a badly designed venue, which creates a safety risk.", "The Hillsborough disaster is an example of how poor aspects of building design can contribute to audience deaths.", "Sightlines and acoustics are also important design considerations in most theatrical venues.In the 21st century, entertainment venues, especially stadia, are \"likely to figure among the leading architectural genres\".", "However, they require \"a whole new approach\" to design, because they need to be \"sophisticated entertainment centres, multi-experience venues, capable of being enjoyed in many diverse ways\".", "Hence, architects now have to design \"with two distinct functions in mind, as sports and entertainment centres playing host to live audiences, and as sports and entertainment studios serving the viewing and listening requirements of the remote audience\".File:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg\|Colosseum, Rome (70–80 AD), Roman venue for mass entertainmentFile:Palais Garnier's grand salon, 12 February 2008.jpg\|The Grand Foyer in the Palais Garnier, Paris (1875), influenced architecture around the world.File:Maracana-predefinicao.jpg\|Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro, at inauguration (1950) the world's largest stadium by capacityFile:Flamingo Spa Vesipuisto.jpg\|Flamingo Entertainment Centre, Vantaa (2008), includes a variety of entertainment activities (e.g.", "a movie theater, spa, bowling, laser games, virtual experiences), 40 different stores and a hotel.=== Architecture as entertainment ===Inauthentic castle in Disneyland amusement parkArchitects who push the boundaries of design or construction sometimes create buildings that are entertaining because they exceed the expectations of the public and the client and are aesthetically outstanding.", "Buildings such as Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, designed by Frank Gehry, are of this type, becoming a tourist attraction as well as a significant international museum.", "Other apparently usable buildings are really follies, deliberately constructed for a decorative purpose and never intended to be practical.On the other hand, sometimes architecture is entertainment, while pretending to be functional.", "The tourism industry, for example, creates or renovates buildings as \"attractions\" that have either never been used or can never be used for their ostensible purpose.", "They are instead re-purposed to entertain visitors often by simulating cultural experiences.", "Buildings, history and sacred spaces are thus made into commodities for purchase.", "Such intentional tourist attractions divorce buildings from the past so that \"the difference between historical authenticity and contemporary entertainment venues/theme parks becomes hard to define\".", "Examples include \"the preservation of the Alcázar of Toledo, with its grim Civil War History, the conversion of slave dungeons into tourist attractions in Ghana, such as, for example, Cape Coast Castle and the presentation of indigenous culture in Libya\".", "The specially constructed buildings in amusement parks represent the park's theme and are usually neither authentic nor completely functional." ], [ "Effects of developments in electronic media", "=== Globalisation ===By the second half of the 20th century, developments in electronic media made possible the delivery of entertainment products to mass audiences across the globe.", "The technology enabled people to see, hear and participate in all the familiar forms stories, theatre, music, dance wherever they live.", "The rapid development of entertainment technology was assisted by improvements in data storage devices such as cassette tapes or compact discs, along with increasing miniaturisation.", "Computerisation and the development of barcodes also made ticketing easier, faster and global.=== Obsolescence ===Magazine advertisement for crystal radio (1922)Television tower in Almaty, Kazakhstan (constructed 1983)In the 1940s, radio was the electronic medium for family entertainment and information.", "In the 1950s, it was television that was the new medium and it rapidly became global, bringing visual entertainment, first in black and white, then in colour, to the world.", "By the 1970s, games could be played electronically, then hand-held devices provided mobile entertainment, and by the last decade of the 20th century, via networked play.", "In combination with products from the entertainment industry, all the traditional forms of entertainment became available personally.", "People could not only select an entertainment product such as a piece of music, film or game, they could choose the time and place to use it.", "The \"proliferation of portable media players and the emphasis on the computer as a site for film consumption\" together have significantly changed how audiences encounter films.", "One of the most notable consequences of the rise of electronic entertainment has been the rapid obsolescence of the various recording and storage methods.", "As an example of speed of change driven by electronic media, over the course of one generation, television as a medium for receiving standardised entertainment products went from unknown, to novel, to ubiquitous and finally to superseded.", "One estimate was that by 2011 over 30 percent of households in the US would own a Wii console, \"about the same percentage that owned a television in 1953\".", "Some expected that halfway through the second decade of the 21st century, online entertainment would have completely replaced televisionwhich did not happen.", "The so-called \"digital revolution\" has produced an increasingly transnational marketplace that has caused difficulties for governments, business, industries, and individuals, as they all try to keep up.", "Even the sports stadium of the future will increasingly compete with television viewing \"...in terms of comfort, safety and the constant flow of audio-visual information and entertainment available.\"", "Other flow on effects of the shift are likely to include those on public architecture such as hospitals and nursing homes, where television, regarded as an essential entertainment service for patients and residents, will need to be replaced by access to the internet.", "At the same time, the ongoing need for entertainers as \"professional engagers\" shows the continuity of traditional entertainment.=== Convergence ===By the second decade of the 21st century, analogue recording was being replaced by digital recording and all forms of electronic entertainment began to converge.", "For example, convergence is challenging standard practices in the film industry: whereas \"success or failure used to be determined by the first weekend of its run.", "Today, ... a series of exhibition 'windows', such as DVD, pay-per-view, and fibre-optic video-on-demand are used to maximise profits.\"", "Part of the industry's adjustment is its release of new commercial product directly via video hosting services.", "Media convergence is said to be more than technological: the convergence is cultural as well.", "It is also \"the result of a deliberate effort to protect the interests of business entities, policy institutions and other groups\".", "Globalisation and cultural imperialism are two of the cultural consequences of convergence.", "Others include fandom and interactive storytelling as well as the way that single franchises are distributed through and affect a range of delivery methods.", "The \"greater diversity in the ways that signals may be received and packaged for the viewer, via terrestrial, satellite or cable television, and of course, via the Internet\" also affects entertainment venues, such as sports stadia, which now need to be designed so that both live and remote audiences can interact in increasingly sophisticated ways for example, audiences can \"watch highlights, call up statistics\", \"order tickets and merchandise\" and generally \"tap into the stadium's resources at any time of the day or night\".The introduction of television altered the availability, cost, variety and quality of entertainment products for the public and the convergence of online entertainment is having a similar effect.", "For example, the possibility and popularity of user-generated content, as distinct from commercial product, creates a \"networked audience model that makes programming obsolete\".", "Individuals and corporations use video hosting services to broadcast content that is equally accepted by the public as legitimate entertainment.While technology increases demand for entertainment products and offers increased speed of delivery, the forms that make up the content are in themselves, relatively stable.", "Storytelling, music, theatre, dance and games are recognisably the same as in earlier centuries." ], [ "See also", "* Entertainment law* Family entertainment centre* List of entertainer occupations* Outline of entertainment* Performing arts* Performing arts education* Social entertainment" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ether" ], [ "Introduction", "The general structure of an ether in organic chemistry.", "R and R' represent any organyl substituent (e.g., alkyl or aryl).In organic chemistry, '''ethers''' are a class of compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two organyl groups (e.g., alkyl or aryl).", "They have the general formula , where R and R′ represent organyl groups (e.g., alkyl or aryl).", "Ethers can again be classified into two varieties: if the organyl groups are the same on both sides of the oxygen atom, then it is a simple or symmetrical ether, whereas if they are different, the ethers are called mixed or unsymmetrical ethers.", "A typical example of the first group is the solvent and anaesthetic diethyl ether, commonly referred to simply as \"ether\" ().", "Ethers are common in organic chemistry and even more prevalent in biochemistry, as they are common linkages in carbohydrates and lignin." ], [ "Structure and bonding", "Ethers feature bent linkages.", "In dimethyl ether, the bond angle is 111° and C–O distances are 141 pm.", "The barrier to rotation about the C–O bonds is low.", "The bonding of oxygen in ethers, alcohols, and water is similar.", "In the language of valence bond theory, the hybridization at oxygen is sp3.Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, thus the alpha hydrogens of ethers are more acidic than those of simple hydrocarbons.", "They are far less acidic than alpha hydrogens of carbonyl groups (such as in ketones or aldehydes), however.Ethers can be symmetrical of the type ROR or unsymmetrical of the type ROR'.", "Examples of the former are dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, dipropyl ether etc.", "Illustrative unsymmetrical ethers are anisole (methoxybenzene) and dimethoxyethane.===Vinyl- and acetylenic ethers===Vinyl- and acetylenic ethers are far less common than alkyl or aryl ethers.", "Vinylethers, often called enol ethers, are important intermediates in organic synthesis.", "Acetylenic ethers are especially rare.", "Di-tert-butoxyacetylene is the most common example of this rare class of compounds." ], [ "Nomenclature", "In the IUPAC Nomenclature system, ethers are named using the general formula ''\"alkoxyalkane\"'', for example CH3–CH2–O–CH3 is methoxyethane.", "If the ether is part of a more-complex molecule, it is described as an alkoxy substituent, so –OCH3 would be considered a ''\"methoxy-\"'' group.", "The simpler alkyl radical is written in front, so CH3–O–CH2CH3 would be given as ''methoxy''(CH3O)''ethane''(CH2CH3).===Trivial name===IUPAC rules are often not followed for simple ethers.", "The trivial names for simple ethers (i.e., those with none or few other functional groups) are a composite of the two substituents followed by \"ether\".", "For example, ethyl methyl ether (CH3OC2H5), diphenylether (C6H5OC6H5).", "As for other organic compounds, very common ethers acquired names before rules for nomenclature were formalized.", "Diethyl ether is simply called ether, but was once called ''sweet oil of vitriol''.", "Methyl phenyl ether is anisole, because it was originally found in aniseed.", "The aromatic ethers include furans.", "Acetals (α-alkoxy ethers R–CH(–OR)–O–R) are another class of ethers with characteristic properties.===Polyethers===Polyethers are generally polymers containing ether linkages in their main chain.", "The term polyol generally refers to polyether polyols with one or more functional end-groups such as a hydroxyl group.", "The term \"oxide\" or other terms are used for high molar mass polymer when end-groups no longer affect polymer properties.Crown ethers are cyclic polyethers.", "Some toxins produced by dinoflagellates such as brevetoxin and ciguatoxin are extremely large and are known as ''cyclic'' or ''ladder'' polyethers.+ Aliphatic polyethers Name of the polymers with low to medium molar mass Name of the polymers with high molar mass Preparation Repeating unit Examples of trade names Paraformaldehyde Polyoxymethylene (POM) or polyacetal or polyformaldehyde Step-growth polymerisation of formaldehyde –CH2O– Delrin from DuPont Polyethylene glycol (PEG) Polyethylene oxide (PEO) or polyoxyethylene (POE) Ring-opening polymerization of ethylene oxide –CH2CH2O– Carbowax from Dow Polypropylene glycol (PPG) Polypropylene oxide (PPOX) or polyoxypropylene (POP) anionic ring-opening polymerization of propylene oxide –CH2CH(CH3)O– Arcol from Covestro Polytetramethylene glycol (PTMG) or Polytetramethylene ether glycol (PTMEG) Polytetrahydrofuran (PTHF) Acid-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization of tetrahydrofuran Terathane from Invista and PolyTHF from BASFThe phenyl ether polymers are a class of aromatic polyethers containing aromatic cycles in their main chain: polyphenyl ether (PPE) and poly(''p''-phenylene oxide) (PPO).===Related compounds===Many classes of compounds with C–O–C linkages are not considered ethers: Esters (R–C(=O)–O–R′), hemiacetals (R–CH(–OH)–O–R′), carboxylic acid anhydrides (RC(=O)–O–C(=O)R′).There are compounds which, instead of C in the linkage, contain heavier group 14 chemical elements (e.g., Si, Ge, Sn, Pb).", "Such compounds are considered ethers as well.", "Examples of such ethers are silyl enol ethers (containing the linkage), disiloxane (the other name of this compound is disilyl ether, containing the linkage) and stannoxanes (containing the linkage)." ], [ "Physical properties", "Ethers have boiling points similar to those of the analogous alkanes.", "Simple ethers are generally colorless.", "Selected data about some alkyl ethers Ether Structure m.p.", "(°C) b.p.", "(°C) Solubility in 1 liter of H2O Dipole moment (D) Dimethyl etherCH3–O–CH3−138.5−23.070 g1.30 Diethyl etherCH3CH2–O–CH2CH3−116.334.469 g1.14 TetrahydrofuranO(CH2)4−108.466.0Miscible1.74 DioxaneO(C2H4)2O11.8101.3Miscible0.45==Reactions== Structure of the polymeric diethyl ether peroxideThe C-O bonds that comprise simple ethers are strong.", "They are unreactive toward all but the strongest bases.", "Although generally of low chemical reactivity, they are more reactive than alkanes.", "Specialized ethers such as epoxides, ketals, and acetals are unrepresentative classes of ethers and are discussed in separate articles.", "Important reactions are listed below.===Cleavage===Although ethers resist hydrolysis, they are cleaved by hydrobromic acid and hydroiodic acid.", "Hydrogen chloride cleaves ethers only slowly.", "Methyl ethers typically afford methyl halides::ROCH3 + HBr → CH3Br + ROHThese reactions proceed via onium intermediates, i.e.", "RO(H)CH3+Br−.Some ethers undergo rapid cleavage with boron tribromide (even aluminium chloride is used in some cases) to give the alkyl bromide.", "Depending on the substituents, some ethers can be cleaved with a variety of reagents, e.g.", "strong base.Despite these difficulties the chemical paper pulping processes are based on cleavage of ether bonds in the lignin.===Peroxide formation===When stored in the presence of air or oxygen, ethers tend to form explosive peroxides, such as diethyl ether hydroperoxide.", "The reaction is accelerated by light, metal catalysts, and aldehydes.", "In addition to avoiding storage conditions likely to form peroxides, it is recommended, when an ether is used as a solvent, not to distill it to dryness, as any peroxides that may have formed, being less volatile than the original ether, will become concentrated in the last few drops of liquid.", "The presence of peroxide in old samples of ethers may be detected by shaking them with freshly prepared solution of a ferrous sulfate followed by addition of KSCN.", "Appearance of blood red color indicates presence of peroxides.", "The dangerous properties of ether peroxides are the reason that diethyl ether and other peroxide forming ethers like tetrahydrofuran (THF) or ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (1,2-dimethoxyethane) are avoided in industrial processes.=== Lewis bases ===thf)3.Ethers serve as Lewis bases.", "For instance, diethyl ether forms a complex with boron trifluoride, i.e.", "borane diethyl etherate ().", "Ethers also coordinate to the Mg center in Grignard reagents.", "Tetrahydrofuran is more basic than acyclic ethers.", "It forms with many complexes.===Alpha-halogenation===This reactivity is similar to the tendency of ethers with alpha hydrogen atoms to form peroxides.", "Reaction with chlorine produces alpha-chloroethers.==Synthesis=====Dehydration of alcohols===The dehydration of alcohols affords ethers:: 2 R–OH → R–O–R + H2O at high temperaturecenterThis direct nucleophilic substitution reaction requires elevated temperatures (about 125 °C).", "The reaction is catalyzed by acids, usually sulfuric acid.", "The method is effective for generating symmetrical ethers, but not unsymmetrical ethers, since either OH can be protonated, which would give a mixture of products.", "Diethyl ether is produced from ethanol by this method.", "Cyclic ethers are readily generated by this approach.", "Elimination reactions compete with dehydration of the alcohol:: R–CH2–CH2(OH) → R–CH=CH2 + H2OThe dehydration route often requires conditions incompatible with delicate molecules.", "Several milder methods exist to produce ethers.===Electrophilic addition of alcohols to alkenes===Alcohols add to electrophilically activated alkenes.", "The method is atom-economical:: R2C=CR2 + R–OH → R2CH–C(–O–R)–R2Acid catalysis is required for this reaction.", "Commericially important ethers prepared in this way are derived from isobutene or isoamylene, which protonate to give relatively stable carbocations.", "Using ethanol and methanol with these two alkenes, four fuel-grade ethers are produced: methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), methyl tert-amyl ether (TAME), ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), and ethyl tert-amyl ether (TAEE).Solid acid catalysts are typically used to promote this reaction.===Epoxides===Epoxides are typically prepared by oxidation of alkenes.", "The most important epoxide in terms of industrial scale is ethylene oxide, which is produced by oxidation of ethylene with oxygen.", "Other epoxides are produced by one of two routes:* By the oxidation of alkenes with a peroxyacid such as ''m''-CPBA.", "* By the base intramolecular nucleophilic substitution of a halohydrin.Many ethers, ethoxylates and crown ethers, are produced from epoxides.===Williamson and Ullmann ether syntheses===Nucleophilic displacement of alkyl halides by alkoxides: R–ONa + R′–X → R–O–R′ + NaXThis reaction, the Williamson ether synthesis, involves treatment of a parent alcohol with a strong base to form the alkoxide, followed by addition of an appropriate aliphatic compound bearing a suitable leaving group (R–X).", "Although popular in textbooks, the method is usually impractical on scale because it cogenerates significant waste.Suitable leaving groups (X) include iodide, bromide, or sulfonates.", "This method usually does not work well for aryl halides (e.g.", "bromobenzene, see Ullmann condensation below).", "Likewise, this method only gives the best yields for primary halides.", "Secondary and tertiary halides are prone to undergo E2 elimination on exposure to the basic alkoxide anion used in the reaction due to steric hindrance from the large alkyl groups.In a related reaction, alkyl halides undergo nucleophilic displacement by phenoxides.", "The R–X cannot be used to react with the alcohol.", "However phenols can be used to replace the alcohol while maintaining the alkyl halide.", "Since phenols are acidic, they readily react with a strong base like sodium hydroxide to form phenoxide ions.", "The phenoxide ion will then substitute the –X group in the alkyl halide, forming an ether with an aryl group attached to it in a reaction with an SN2 mechanism.", ": C6H5OH + OH− → C6H5–O− + H2O: C6H5–O− + R–X → C6H5ORThe Ullmann condensation is similar to the Williamson method except that the substrate is an aryl halide.", "Such reactions generally require a catalyst, such as copper." ], [ "Important ethers", " Chemical structure of ethylene oxide Ethylene oxide A cyclic ether.", "Also the simplest epoxide.", "Chemical structure of dimethyl etherDimethyl etherA colourless gas that is used as an aerosol spray propellant.", "A potential renewable alternative fuel for diesel engines with a cetane rating as high as 56–57.Chemical structure of diethyl etherDiethyl etherA colourless liquid with sweet odour.", "A common low boiling solvent (b.p.", "34.6 °C) and an early anaesthetic.", "Used as starting fluid for diesel engines.", "Also used as a refrigerant and in the manufacture of smokeless gunpowder, along with use in perfumery.", "Chemical structure of dimethoxyethane Dimethoxyethane (DME) A water miscible solvent often found in lithium batteries (b.p.", "85 °C): Chemical structure of dioxane Dioxane A cyclic ether and high-boiling solvent (b.p. 101.1 °C).", "Chemical structure of THF Tetrahydrofuran (THF) A cyclic ether, one of the most polar simple ethers that is used as a solvent.", "Chemical structure of anisoleAnisole (methoxybenzene)An '''aryl ether''' and a major constituent of the essential oil of anise seed.", "Chemical structure of 18-crown-6Crown ethersCyclic polyethers that are used as phase transfer catalysts.", "Chemical structure of polyethylene glycol Polyethylene glycol (PEG) A linear polyether, e.g.", "used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.", "Polypropylene glycol A linear polyether, e.g.", "used in polyurethanes.", "File:Platelet-activating_factor.svg Platelet-activating factor An ether lipid, an example with an ether on sn-1, an ester on sn-2, and an inorganic ether on sn-3 of the glyceryl scaffold." ], [ "See also", "* Ester* Ether lipid* Ether addiction* Ether (song)* History of general anesthesia* Inhalant* Chemical paper pulping processes: Kraft process (and Soda pulping), Organosolv pulping process and the Sulfite process" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ecliptic" ], [ "Introduction", "As seen from the orbiting Earth, the Sun appears to move with respect to the fixed stars, and the ecliptic is the yearly path the Sun follows on the celestial sphere.", "This process repeats itself in a cycle lasting a little over 365 days.The '''ecliptic''' or '''ecliptic plane''' is the orbital plane of Earth around the Sun.", "From the perspective of an observer on Earth, the Sun's movement around the celestial sphere over the course of a year traces out a path along the ecliptic against the background of stars.", "The ecliptic is an important reference plane and is the basis of the ecliptic coordinate system." ], [ "Sun's apparent motion", "The ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun throughout the course of a year.Because Earth takes one year to orbit the Sun, the apparent position of the Sun takes one year to make a complete circuit of the ecliptic.", "With slightly more than 365 days in one year, the Sun moves a little less than 1° eastward every day.", "This small difference in the Sun's position against the stars causes any particular spot on Earth's surface to catch up with (and stand directly north or south of) the Sun about four minutes later each day than it would if Earth did not orbit; a day on Earth is therefore 24 hours long rather than the approximately 23-hour 56-minute sidereal day.", "Again, this is a simplification, based on a hypothetical Earth that orbits at uniform speed around the Sun.", "The actual speed with which Earth orbits the Sun varies slightly during the year, so the speed with which the Sun seems to move along the ecliptic also varies.", "For example, the Sun is north of the celestial equator for about 185 days of each year, and south of it for about 180 days.", "The variation of orbital speed accounts for part of the equation of time.", "Because of the movement of Earth around the Earth–Moon center of mass, the apparent path of the Sun wobbles slightly, with a period of about one month.", "Because of further perturbations by the other planets of the Solar System, the Earth–Moon barycenter wobbles slightly around a mean position in a complex fashion." ], [ "Relationship to the celestial equator", "plane of Earth's orbit projected in all directions forms the reference plane known as the ecliptic.", "Here, it is shown projected outward (gray) to the celestial sphere, along with Earth's equator and polar axis (green).", "The plane of the ecliptic intersects the celestial sphere along a great circle (black), the same circle on which the Sun seems to move as Earth orbits it.", "The intersections of the ecliptic and the equator on the celestial sphere are the vernal and autumnal equinoxes (red), where the Sun seems to cross the celestial equator.", "Because Earth's rotational axis is not perpendicular to its orbital plane, Earth's equatorial plane is not coplanar with the ecliptic plane, but is inclined to it by an angle of about 23.4°, which is known as the obliquity of the ecliptic.", "If the equator is projected outward to the celestial sphere, forming the celestial equator, it crosses the ecliptic at two points known as the equinoxes.", "The Sun, in its apparent motion along the ecliptic, crosses the celestial equator at these points, one from south to north, the other from north to south.", "The crossing from south to north is known as the vernal equinox, also known as the ''first point of Aries'' and the ''ascending node of the ecliptic'' on the celestial equator.", "The crossing from north to south is the autumnal equinox or descending node.The orientation of Earth's axis and equator are not fixed in space, but rotate about the poles of the ecliptic with a period of about 26,000 years, a process known as ''lunisolar precession'', as it is due mostly to the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun on Earth's equatorial bulge.", "Likewise, the ecliptic itself is not fixed.", "The gravitational perturbations of the other bodies of the Solar System cause a much smaller motion of the plane of Earth's orbit, and hence of the ecliptic, known as ''planetary precession''.", "The combined action of these two motions is called ''general precession'', and changes the position of the equinoxes by about 50 arc seconds (about 0.014°) per year.Once again, this is a simplification.", "Periodic motions of the Moon and apparent periodic motions of the Sun (actually of Earth in its orbit) cause short-term small-amplitude periodic oscillations of Earth's axis, and hence the celestial equator, known as nutation.This adds a periodic component to the position of the equinoxes; the positions of the celestial equator and (vernal) equinox with fully updated precession and nutation are called the ''true equator and equinox''; the positions without nutation are the ''mean equator and equinox''." ], [ "Obliquity of the ecliptic {{anchor\|Obliquity}}", "''Obliquity of the ecliptic'' is the term used by astronomers for the inclination of Earth's equator with respect to the ecliptic, or of Earth's rotation axis to a perpendicular to the ecliptic.", "It is about 23.4° and is currently decreasing 0.013 degrees (47 arcseconds) per hundred years because of planetary perturbations.The angular value of the obliquity is found by observation of the motions of Earth and other planets over many years.", "Astronomers produce new fundamental ephemerides as the accuracy of observation improves and as the understanding of the dynamics increases, and from these ephemerides various astronomical values, including the obliquity, are derived.Obliquity of the ecliptic for 20,000 years, from Laskar (1986).", "Note that the obliquity varies only from 24.2° to 22.5° during this time.", "The red point represents the year 2000.Until 1983 the obliquity for any date was calculated from work of Newcomb, who analyzed positions of the planets until about 1895:where is the obliquity and is tropical centuries from B1900.0 to the date in question.From 1984, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's DE series of computer-generated ephemerides took over as the fundamental ephemeris of the ''Astronomical Almanac''.", "Obliquity based on DE200, which analyzed observations from 1911 to 1979, was calculated:where hereafter is Julian centuries from J2000.0.JPL's fundamental ephemerides have been continually updated.", "The ''Astronomical Almanac'' for 2010 specifies:These expressions for the obliquity are intended for high precision over a relatively short time span, perhaps several centuries.", "J. Laskar computed an expression to order good to /1000 years over 10,000 years.All of these expressions are for the ''mean'' obliquity, that is, without the nutation of the equator included.", "The ''true'' or instantaneous obliquity includes the nutation." ], [ "Plane of the Solar System", "200px200px200pxTop and side views of the plane of the ecliptic, showing planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.", "Most of the planets orbit the Sun very nearly in the same plane in which Earth orbits, the ecliptic.Five planets (Earth included) lined up along the ecliptic in July 2010, illustrating how the planets orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane.", "Photo taken at sunset, looking west over Surakarta, Java, Indonesia.Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane.", "This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk.", "Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the ''invariable plane of the Solar System''.", "Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, Jupiter's orbit is within a little more than ½° of it, and the other major planets are all within about 6°.", "Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky.The invariable plane is defined by the angular momentum of the entire Solar System, essentially the vector sum of all of the orbital and rotational angular momenta of all the bodies of the system; more than 60% of the total comes from the orbit of Jupiter.", "That sum requires precise knowledge of every object in the system, making it a somewhat uncertain value.", "Because of the uncertainty regarding the exact location of the invariable plane, and because the ecliptic is well defined by the apparent motion of the Sun, the ecliptic is used as the reference plane of the Solar System both for precision and convenience.", "The only drawback of using the ecliptic instead of the invariable plane is that over geologic time scales, it will move against fixed reference points in the sky's distant background." ], [ "Celestial reference plane", "The apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic (red) as seen on the inside of the celestial sphere.", "Ecliptic coordinates appear in (red).", "The celestial equator (blue) and the equatorial coordinates (blue), being inclined to the ecliptic, appear to wobble as the Sun advances.The ecliptic forms one of the two fundamental planes used as reference for positions on the celestial sphere, the other being the celestial equator.", "Perpendicular to the ecliptic are the ecliptic poles, the north ecliptic pole being the pole north of the equator.", "Of the two fundamental planes, the ecliptic is closer to unmoving against the background stars, its motion due to planetary precession being roughly 1/100 that of the celestial equator.Spherical coordinates, known as ecliptic longitude and latitude or celestial longitude and latitude, are used to specify positions of bodies on the celestial sphere with respect to the ecliptic.", "Longitude is measured positively eastward 0° to 360° along the ecliptic from the vernal equinox, the same direction in which the Sun appears to move.", "Latitude is measured perpendicular to the ecliptic, to +90° northward or −90° southward to the poles of the ecliptic, the ecliptic itself being 0° latitude.", "For a complete spherical position, a distance parameter is also necessary.", "Different distance units are used for different objects.", "Within the Solar System, astronomical units are used, and for objects near Earth, Earth radii or kilometers are used.", "A corresponding right-handed rectangular coordinate system is also used occasionally; the ''x''-axis is directed toward the vernal equinox, the ''y''-axis 90° to the east, and the ''z''-axis toward the north ecliptic pole; the astronomical unit is the unit of measure.", "Symbols for ecliptic coordinates are somewhat standardized; see the table.+ Summary of notation for ecliptic coordinates '''Spherical''' '''Rectangular''' Longitude Latitude Distance '''Geocentric''' ''λ'' ''β'' ''Δ'' '''Heliocentric''' ''l'' ''b'' ''r'' ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' Ecliptic coordinates are convenient for specifying positions of Solar System objects, as most of the planets' orbits have small inclinations to the ecliptic, and therefore always appear relatively close to it on the sky.", "Because Earth's orbit, and hence the ecliptic, moves very little, it is a relatively fixed reference with respect to the stars.Inclination of the ecliptic over 200,000 years, from Dziobek (1892).", "This is the inclination to the ecliptic of 101,800 CE.", "Note that the ecliptic rotates by only about 7° during this time, whereas the celestial equator makes several complete cycles around the ecliptic.", "The ecliptic is a relatively stable reference compared to the celestial equator.Because of the precessional motion of the equinox, the ecliptic coordinates of objects on the celestial sphere are continuously changing.", "Specifying a position in ecliptic coordinates requires specifying a particular equinox, that is, the equinox of a particular date, known as an epoch; the coordinates are referred to the direction of the equinox at that date.", "For instance, the ''Astronomical Almanac'' lists the heliocentric position of Mars at 0h Terrestrial Time, 4 January 2010 as: longitude 118°09′15.8″, latitude +1°43′16.7″, true heliocentric distance 1.6302454 AU, mean equinox and ecliptic of date.", "This specifies the mean equinox of 4 January 2010 0h TT as above, without the addition of nutation." ], [ "Eclipses", "As the Earth revolves around the Sun, approximate axial parallelism of the Moon's orbital plane (tilted five degrees to the ecliptic) results in the revolution of the lunar nodes relative to the Earth.", "This causes an eclipse season approximately every six months, in which a solar eclipse can occur at the new moon phase and a lunar eclipse can occur at the full moon phase.Because the orbit of the Moon is inclined only about 5.145° to the ecliptic and the Sun is always very near the ecliptic, eclipses always occur on or near it.", "Because of the inclination of the Moon's orbit, eclipses do not occur at every conjunction and opposition of the Sun and Moon, but only when the Moon is near an ascending or descending node at the same time it is at conjunction (new) or opposition (full).", "The ecliptic is so named because the ancients noted that eclipses only occur when the Moon is crossing it." ], [ "Equinoxes and solstices", "+'''Positions of equinoxes and solstices''' '''ecliptic''' '''equatorial''' longitude right ascension '''March equinox''' 0° 0h '''June solstice''' 90° 6h '''September equinox''' 180° 12h '''December solstice''' 270° 18hThe exact instants of equinoxes and solstices are the times when the apparent ecliptic longitude (including the effects of aberration and nutation) of the Sun is 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.", "Because of perturbations of Earth's orbit and anomalies of the calendar, the dates of these are not fixed." ], [ "In the constellations", "Equirectangular plot of declination vs right ascension of the modern constellations with a dotted line denoting the ecliptic.", "Constellations are colour-coded by family and year established.The ecliptic currently passes through the following constellations:The constellations Cetus and Orion are not on the ecliptic, but are close enough that the Moon and planets can occasionally appear in them." ], [ "Astrology", "The ecliptic forms the center of the zodiac, a celestial belt about 20° wide in latitude through which the Sun, Moon, and planets always appear to move.Traditionally, this region is divided into 12 signs of 30° longitude, each of which approximates the Sun's motion in one month.", "In ancient times, the signs corresponded roughly to 12 of the constellations that straddle the ecliptic.These signs are sometimes still used in modern terminology.", "The \"First Point of Aries\" was named when the March equinox Sun was actually in the constellation Aries; it has since moved into Pisces because of precession of the equinoxes." ], [ "See also", "* Formation and evolution of the Solar System* Invariable plane* Protoplanetary disk* Celestial coordinate system" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* The Ecliptic: the Sun's Annual Path on the Celestial Sphere Durham University Department of Physics* Seasons and Ecliptic Simulator University of Nebraska-Lincoln* MEASURING THE SKY A Quick Guide to the Celestial Sphere James B. Kaler, University of Illinois* Earth's Seasons U.S.", "Naval Observatory* The Basics - the Ecliptic, the Equator, and Coordinate Systems AstrologyClub.Org*; comparison of the definitions of LeVerrier, Newcomb, and Standish." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of former sovereign states" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''historical sovereign state''' is a state that once existed, but has since been dissolved due to conflict, war, rebellion, annexation, or uprising.", "This page lists sovereign states, countries, nations, or empires that ceased to exist as political entities sometime after 1453, grouped geographically and by constitutional nature." ], [ "Criteria for inclusion", "The criteria for inclusion in this list are similar to that of the list of states with limited recognition.", "To be included here, a polity must have claimed statehood and either:* had de facto control over a territory, a population, a government, a capacity to enter into relations with other states, or* have been recognised as a state by at least one other state.This is not a list for all variant governments of a state, nor is it a list of variations of countries' official long form name.For purposes of this list, the cutoff between medieval and early modern states is the fall of Constantinople in 1453." ], [ "Ancient and medieval states", "* List of Copper Age states* List of Bronze Age states* List of Iron Age states* List of Classical Age states* List of states during Late Antiquity* List of states during the Middle Ages" ], [ "Modern states and territories by geography", "===Africa=======Morocco (Maghreb al-Aqsa)====* Marinid Sultanate (1244–1465)* Wattasid dynasty (1472–1549)* Saadi Sultanate (1510–1649)* border Republic of Salé (1627–1668)* 'Alawi dynasty (1631–1912)* border Republic of the Rif (1921–1926)====Egypt, Sudan and Libya====* 20x20px Makuria (5th century–1518)* 20x20px Alodia (6th century–1504)* 20x20px Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)* 20x20px Shilluk Kingdom (15th century- 1861)* 20px Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867)* Kingdom of Fazughli (–1685)* 31x31px Sultanate of Sennar (1504–1821)* 20x20px Sultanate of Darfur (1603–1874/1898–1916)* 20x20px Mahdist State (1885–1899)* border Tripolitanian Republic (1918–1922)* 20x20px Emirate of Cyrenaica (1949–1951)* 20x20px United Arab Republic (1958–1971)====Algeria (Central Maghreb)====* border Hafsid dynasty (1229–1574)* 20x20px Hafsid Emirate of Béjaïa (1285–1510)* border Kingdom of Tlemcen (1235–1556)* border Kingdom of Kuku (1515–1638)* 20x20px Kingdom of Beni Abbas (1510–1871)* Sultanate of Tuggurt (1414–1871)* Regency of Algiers (1516–1830)* 23x23px Emirate of Abdelkader (1832–1847)==== Comoro Islands ====* 20x20px Ali Soilih Regime (1976–1978)* 20x20px State of Anjouan (1997–2002), (2007–2008)==== Madagascar ====* border Kingdom of Antankarana – made a French protectorate in 1843, annexed in 1895* border Kingdom of Antongil (1773–1786)* border Kingdom of Boina (–1840)* border Kingdom of Menabe (–1834)* border Kingdom of Imerina (1540–1897)* border Kingdom of Tamatave (1712–1828)* border Kingdom of Tanibe (1822–1828)====Sub-Saharan Africa====* border Bornu Empire (–1893)* border Shilluk Kingdom (15th century–1861)* Wadai Empire (1501–1912)* Kingdom of Baguirmi (1480/1522–1897)==== Horn of Africa ====* Medri Bahri (–1879)* border Adal Sultanate (1415–1559)* border Imamate of Aussa (16th century–1750)* border Aussa Sultanate (1734–1936)* 20x20px Isaaq Sultanate (1750–1884)* Habr Yunis Sultanate (–1907)* border Ajuran Sultanate (13th century–17th century)* border Sultanate of Hobyo (1878–1925)* border Majeerteen Sultanate (–1924)* Sultanate of the Geledi (17th century–1910)* Kingdom of Kaffa (–1897)* Hadiya Sultanate (13th century–15th century)* Welayta Kingdom (–1894)* Kingdom of Janjero (c.15th century–1894)* Kingdom of Gumma (–1902)* Kingdom of Gomma (– 1886)* Kingdom of Gera (–1887)* Kingdom of Jimma (1790–1932)* Ennarea (14th century–)* Kingdom of Limmu-Ennarea (1801–1891)* Emirate of Harar (1647–1887)* State of Somaliland (1960)==== Western Africa ====* Emirate of Trarza (1640–1902)* Emirate of Tagant* Emirate of Brakna* Mali Empire (–1672)* Bamana Empire (1712–1861)* Khasso (17th century–19th century)* Sultanate of Agadez (1449–1900)* Songhai Empire (–1591)* Mossi States Gurunsi (–1899) Gwiriko Kingdom (1714–1897) Liptako (1718–1897, fully disestablished 1963) Tenkodogo (–1897) Wogodogo (1182?–1897) Yatenga (?–1895) Bilanga Bilayanga Bongandini Con Macakoali Piela** Nungu (1204–1895)* Zabarma Emirate (1860–1897)* border Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903)* Sultanate of Damagaram (1731–1851)* Empire of Great Fulo (Denanke Kingdom) (1490–1776)* Imamate of Futa Toro (1725–1861)* Jolof Empire (1350–1549)* Kingdom of Jolof (1549–1875)* Kingdom of Sine (c. 1520–1867, fully disestablished 1969)* Kingdom of Saloum (1494–1864, fully disestablished 1969)* Kingdom of Baol (1555–1895)* Kingdom of Cayor (1549–1879)* Kingdom of Waalo (1287–1855)* Bundu (1690–1858)* Kaabu (1537–1867)* 20x20px Imamate of Futa Jallon (1725–1912)* Toucouleur Empire (1861–1890)* border Wassoulou Empire (1878–1898)* Kong Empire (1710–1898)* Kingdom of Dagbon (–1899?", ")* border Ashanti Empire (1670/1701–1902)* Bonoman (11th century–20th century)* Gyaaman (–1895)* Denkyira (–1701)* Mankessim Kingdom (1252–1844)* Fante Confederacy (16th century–1873)* Kingdom of Whydah ( – 1727)* border Kingdom of Dahomey (–1904)* Oyo Empire (–1896)* Kingdom of Benin (1180–1897)* Kingdom of Nri (10th century?–1911)* border Aro Confederacy (1690–1902)* Kwararafa ()* Thomas Sankara's Burkina Faso government (1984–1987)* People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea (1979–1984)* border Republic of Maryland (1854–1857)* 20x20px Republic of Dahomey (1958–1975)* 20x20px Republic of Benin (September 19, 1967 – September 20, 1967)* border Biafra (1967–1970)==== African Great Lakes ====* border Buganda (14th century–1894, still exists as traditional kingdom)* border Bunyoro (13th century–1897, still exists as traditional kingdom)* border Ankole (1478–1901, fully disestablished 1967)* border Toro Kingdom (1830–1876, still exists as traditional kingdom)* border Busoga (?–1906, still exists as traditional kingdom)* Kingdom of Rwanda (11th century–1885, fully disestablished 1962)* border Kingdom of Burundi (1680–1890/1962–1966)* Kingdom of Karagwe (1450–1963) ==== Eastern Africa ====* Pate Sultanate (1203–1870)* Malindi Kingdom (9th century–15th century)* Mombasa Sultanate (1502–1887, fully disestablished 1963)* border Witu Sultanate (–1905/1923)* Kilwa Sultanate (957–1513)* Kingdom of Maravi (–1891)* border Sultanate of Zanzibar (pre–1503/4, 1856–1890, 1963–1964)* border People's Republic of Zanzibar (1964)* border Tanganyika (1961–1964)====Central Africa====* border Kingdom of Loango ()* Yaka Kingdom (17th century–18th century)* Anziku Kingdom (?–19th century)* border Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914)* Kuba Kingdom (1625–1884)* Kingdom of Luba (1585–1889)* Kingdom of Lunda (–1887)* Yeke Kingdom (1856–1891)* Kingdom of Ndongo (16th century–1671)* Kasanje Kingdom (1620–1910)* Kingdom of Matamba (1631–1744)* Mbunda Kingdom (1700–1914)* Chokwe Kingdom* Kazembe Kingdom (c. 1740 – 1894)* International Association of the Congo (1879–1885)* border Congo Free State (1885–1908)* 20x20px Republic of Zaire (1971–1997)====Southern Africa====* Kingdom of Barotseland (19th century)* 20px Kingdom of Mutapa (1430–1760)* Kingdom of Zimbabwe (1220–1450)* Kingdom of Butua (1450–)* Rozvi Empire (1660–1889)* Kingdom of Mthwakazi (1823–1894)* Ndebele Kingdom* Gaza Empire (1824–1895)* Mthethwa Empire (–1817)* border Swellendam (1795)* borderGraaff-Reinet (1795–1796)* Zulu Kingdom (1816–1897)* border South African Republic (Transvaal) (1856–1877, 1881–1902)* border Orange Free State (1854–1902)* border Griqualand East (1862–1874)* 20x20px Nieuwe Republiek (1884–1888)* 20x20px Natalia Republic (1839–1843)* 20x20px State of Goshen (1882–1883)* 20x20px Republic of Stellaland (1882–1885)* 20x20px United States of Stellaland (1883–1885)* 20x20px Republic of Upingtonia (1885–1887)* 20x20px Union of South Africa (1910-1961)* 20x20px Bophuthatswana (1977–1994)* 20x20px Ciskei (1981–1994)* 20x20px Transkei (1976–1994)* 20x20px Venda (1979–1994)* (1965–1979)* (1979)* Natal (1843—1910)===Asia=======Central Asia====* Chagatai Khanate (1225–1680)* Kart dynasty (1244–1381)* Uzbek Khanate (1428–1471)* Nogai Horde (1440–1634)* Kazakh Khanate (1465–1848)* Khanate of Bukhara (1506–1785)* Dzungar Khanate (1634–1755)* Khanate of Kokand (1709–1868)* Emirate of Bukhara (1785–1873)* Alash Autonomy (1917–1918)* Turkestan Autonomy (1917–1918)* Khanate of Khiva (1511–1920)* Confederated Republic of Altai (1918–1920)* Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)* Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)* (1933–1934)* (1944–1949)====East Asia====* border Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1924)* border Republic of China (based on mainland China 1912–1949; continued existence on Taiwan since 1949* People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China (1933–1934)* Reformed Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)* 20x20px Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China (Wang Jingwei Regime) (1940–1945)* 20x20px Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)* 20x20px East Hebei Autonomous Government (1935–1938)* border Republic of Formosa (1895)* border Great Han Sichuan Military Government:zh:大漢四川軍政府\|zh (1911–1912)* Guangzhou Commune (1927)* Hunan Soviet (1927)* border Hunan Soviet in a continental Chinese province (1927)* 20x20px Inner Mongolian People's Republic (1945)* 27x27px Jaxa (1665–1674)* 25x25px Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet (1931–1934)* border Jiangxi Soviet (1931–1937)* border Manchukuo (1932–1945)* 20x20px Mengjiang United Autonomous Government (1939–1945)* 20px Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Southern Ming (1644–1661)* 20x20px Qing dynasty (1636–1912)* 20x20px Ryukyu Kingdom (1429–1879)* 20x20px Shanghai Great Way Government (1937–1938)* Shun dynasty (1644–1646)* Soviet Zone of China (1927–1949)* border Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864)* border Tibet under Ganden Phodrang government (1644–1720)* border Tibet (1912–1951)* border Tibetan states (900–1240, 1300–1620)* 20x20px Kingdom of Tungning (1661–1683)* border Tuvan People's Republic (1921–1944)* Uryankhay Republic (1911–1914)* border Uryankhay Krai (1914)* Xi dynasty (1643–1647)* 20px Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and the Northern Yuan (1368–1635)===== Japanese Archipelago =====* 20px Allied Occupied Japan (1945–1952)* border Ashikaga shogunate (1336–1573)* 20px Azuchi–Momoyama (1568–1600)* border Empire of Japan (1868–1947)* 20px Republic of Ezo (1869)* border Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)===== Korean Peninsula =====* 20x20px Joseon (1392–1897)* 20x20px Korean Empire (1897–1910)* Korean People's Association in Manchuria (1929–1931)* 20x20px People's Republic of Korea (1945–1946)====West Asia========= Afghanistan =====* border Hotak dynasty (1709–1738)* 20x20px Durrani Empire (1747–1826)* Islamic Emirate of Badakhshan (1996)* Islamic Emirate of Kunar (1991)===== Balochistan =====* Khanate of Kalat (1666–1736, 1747–1749, 1758–1955)* 20x20px Afsharid Empire (1736–1747)* 20x20px Durrani Empire (1749–1758)=====Anatolia=====* border Beylik of Candar (1292–1461)* 20px Alaiye (1293–1471)* Beylik of Bafra (14th century–1460)* border Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)* Beylik of Alaiye (1293–1471)* Beylik of Karaman (1250–1487)* Beylik of Dulkadir (1337–1522)* Ramadanid Emirate (1352–1608)* Aq Qoyunlu (1378–1501)* Kara Koyunlu (1374–1468)* Emirate of Hasankeyf (1232–1524)* 20x20px Kars Republic (1918–1919)* border Ottoman Empire (–1923)=====Cyprus=====* border Kingdom of Cyprus (1192–1489)* Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (1975–1983)=====Mesopotamia=====* 20x20px Kingdom of Kurdistan (1922–1924)* 20x20px All-Palestine Government (1948–1967)* 20x20px Arab Federation (1958)=====Persia / Iran=====* Kar-Kiya dynasty (1370s–1592)* Baduspanids (665–1598)* Marashiyan dynasty (1359–1596)* Afrasiyab dynasty (1349–1504)* Mihrabanid dynasty (1236–1537)* 20x20px Timurid Empire (1370–1507)* 20x20px Safavid Iran (1501–1736)* 20x20px Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796)* 20x20px Zand dynasty (1751–1794) * 20x20px Sublime State of Persia (1794–1925)* 20x20px Imperial State of Persia / Iran (1925–1979)* border Persian Soviet Socialist Republic in Gilan (Iran) (1920–1921)* 20x20px Azerbaijan People's Government (1945–1946)* border Republic of Mahabad (1946)* Military Dictatorship of Mughan (1918–1919)=====Levant=====* 20x20px Arab Kingdom of Syria (1920)* United Arab Republic (1958–1971)* Free Lebanon State (1979–1984)* 20x20px Islamic State (2014–2017)=====Arabian Peninsula=====* 20px Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1613–1961)* 20px Bani Khalid Emirate (1669–1796)* border Emirate of Diriyah (1744–1812)* border Emirate of Nejd (1812–1891)* border Muscat and Oman (1820–1970)* border Emirate of Jabal Shammar (1836–1921)* border Emirate of Riyadh (1902–1913)* 20x20px Idrisid Emirate of Asir (1906–1934)* 20x20px Sheikdom of Upper Asir (1916–1920)* border Emirate of Nejd and Hasa (1913–1921)* border Sultanate of Nejd (1921–1925)* 20x20px Kingdom of Hejaz (1916–1925)* border Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd (1926–1932)* border Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1918–1962)* 20x20px Fadhli Sultanate (15th century–1888)* 20x20px Qu'aiti Sultanate in Hadhramaut (1858–1888)* 20x20px Sultanate of Upper Yafa (1800–1903)* 20x20px Sultanate of Lower Yafa (1800–1895)* 20x20px Emirate of Beihan (1680–1872)* 20x20px Emirate of Dhala (15th century–1904)* 20x20px Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf (1640–1888)* 20x20px Wahidi Sultanate of Haban (1640–1895)* 20x20px Kathiri Sultanate in Hadhramaut (14th century–1888)* 20x20px Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra (1432–1886)* 20x20px Sultanate of Lahej (1728–1839)* 20x20px Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967)* border Republic of Kuwait (1990)====South Asia====* border Garhwal Kingdom (823–1949)* 20px Kingdom of Cochin (Before 12th century CE–1949)* 20px Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)* Sur Empire (1540–1556)* Laur Kingdom (600–1565)* 20px Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)* Jaunpur Sultanate (1394–1479)* 20px Kingdom of Mysore (1399–1948)* Bijapur Sultanate (Adil Shahi dynasty, 1490–1686)* Pratapgarh Kingdom (1489–1700s)* 20px Bengal Subah (1717–1757)* 20px Maratha Empire (1674–1820)* Jaintia Kingdom (500–1835)* 20px Sikh Empire (1799–1849)* 20px Mughal Empire (1526–1857)* 20x20px Provisional Government of Free India (1943–1945)* 20x20px Hyderabad State (1724–1798)* 20x20px Travancore (1729–1949)* 20px Udaipur State (734–1818)* 20px Manikya dynasty (1400–1761)* border United Suvadive Republic (1959–1963)* 20x20px Sultanate of Maldives (1117–1796), (1954–1968)* border Sikkim (1642–1975)====Southeast Asia====*20px Kingdom of Cambodia (1431–1863) border Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)* In Laos: 20x20px Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (1707–1893) Kingdom of Vientiane (1707–1828) 20x20px Kingdom of Champasak (1713–1904) border Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (1945)** border Lao Issara (1945–1946)* In Vietnam: Champa kingdom (192–1832) Đại Việt (968–1407/1428–1804) border Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviet (1930–1931) border Empire of Vietnam (1945) border Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) (1945–1976) border Republic of Cochinchina (1946–1949) border Provisional Central Government of Vietnam (1948–1949) border State of Vietnam (known as South Vietnam after the Geneva Conference of 1954) (1949–1955) border Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) (1955–1975) border Republic of South Vietnam (1975–1976)* In Myanmar (Burma): Mon kingdoms (9th–11th, 13th–16th, 18th centuries) 20px Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1552) Ava (1364–1555) Pegu (1287–1539, 1747–1757) Kingdom of Mrauk U (1429–1785) border Taungoo dynasty (1486–1752, 2nd Empire) border Konbaung dynasty (1752–1885, 3rd Empire) border Shan States (1287–1557) Arakan (1287–1784) 20x20px State of Burma (1943–1945)* In Thailand: Langkasuka (2nd–15th century) Sultanate of Singora (1605–1680) border Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) border Thonburi Kingdom (1767–1782) Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom (13th century–1782) Lan Na (1292–1775) Kingdom of Chiang Mai (1782–1894) border Pattani kingdom (1516–1902) border Kingdom of Setul Mambang Segara (1808–1916) border Kingdom of Siam (1782–1932)* In Indonesia: border Republic of Indonesia (1945–1949) border United States of Indonesia (1949–1950)* border State of East Indonesia (1946–1950)* border State of East Java (1948–1950)* border State of East Sumatra (1947–1950)* border State of Madura (1948–1950)* border State of Pasundan (1948–1950)* border State of South Sumatra (1948–1950)* border Great Dayak (1946–1950)* border West Kalimantan (1946–1950)* In Sumatra: border Sultanate of Aceh (1496–1903) border Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura Jambi Sultanate (?", "– late 19th century) Palembang Sultanate (1659–1823) border Sultanate of Deli (1609–1862, fully disestablished 1956) border Sultanate of Langkat (1568–1946)** border Sultanate of Serdang (1723–1946)* In Java: border Majapahit (1293–1527) border Sultanate of Mataram (1588–1681) border Sultanate of Banten (1527–1813) border Sultanate of Cirebon (1445–1677) Sultanate of Demak (1475–1548) Kingdom of Pajang (1568–1586)* In Lesser Sunda Islands border Bali Kingdoms (914–1908) border Bima Sultanate (1620–1669, fully disestablished 1958)** Kingdom of Larantuka (1515–1904)* In Sulawesi: Kingdom of Banggai (?", "– 1907) border Sultanate of Gowa (14th century–1911, fully disestablished 1945) border Sultanate of Bone (14th century – 1905) Kingdom of Wajoq (–1906, fully disestablished 1957)* In Maluku:** border Sultanate of Ternate (1257–1914)* In Borneo: border Bruneian Empire (1368–1888) Sambas Sultanate (1609–1819, fully disestablished 1956) border Pontianak Sultanate (1771–1779) border Kingdom of Sarawak (1841–1888) Berau Sultanate 20x20px Sultanate of Bulungan (1731–, fully disestablished 1964)Kingdom of Kutai Martadipura (399–1635)Sultanate of Kutai Kartanegara (1300–1844) border Sultanate of Banjar (1526–1860) border Lanfang Republic (1777–1884)* In Riau Islands:** border Riau-Lingga Sultanate (1824–1911)* In Malaysia: Sultanate of Malacca (1400–1511) Johor Sultanate (1528–1855) Pahang Sultanate (1470–1623) 20x20px Pahang Kingdom (1770–1881) 20x20px Malayan Union (1946–1948) 20x20px Federation of Malaya (1957–1963)* In the Philippines border Sultanate of Maguindanao (1500–1888) border Sultanate of Sulu (1405–1915) 20x20px Republic of Negros (1898–1899) 20x20px Cantonal Government of Negros (1898–1901) 20x20px Tejeros Revolutionary Government (1897) 20x20px Sovereign Tagalog Nation (1896–1897) 20x20px First Philippine Republic (1899–1902) 20x20px Tagalog Republic (1902–1906)** 20x20px Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945)===Europe=======Nordic countries====In the Nordic countries, unions were personal, not unitary* border Icelandic Commonwealth (c. 930–1262)* Kingdom of Finland (1742–1743)* border Kingdom of Finland (1918–1919)* border Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (1918–1919)* border United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway (1814–1905)* border Kingdom of Norway (1814)* Denmark–Norway (1524–1814, intermittent)* Kalmar Union (1397–1523, intermittent)* border Schleswig (1058–1864)====Modern France====* border Kingdom of France (843–1792) (1814/15–1848) border Duchy of Brittany (939–1532) border Duchy of Burgundy (918–1482)* border French Empire (1804-1814/15) (1852–1870) border First French Empire (1804-1814/15) border Second French Empire (1852–1870)* border Duchy of Normandy (911–1259/1469)* 20px Duchy of Lorraine (959–1766)* 20px Viscounty of Béarn (9th century–1620) border Free City of Danzig (1807–1814) border Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815)** border Territory of the Saar Basin (1920–1935)* border Vichy France (1940–1944)** border Saar Protectorate (1946–1956)* border Kingdom of Corsica (1736)* border Corsican Republic (1755–1769)* border Anglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794–1796)* border County of Foix (1010–1607)* border Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune (1848–1849)* border Paris Commune (1871)====Modern Germany====* border Holy Roman Empire (843–1806)* border Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)* border Duchy of Anhalt (1806–1918)* 20px Principality of Reuss-Gera (1806–1918)* 20px Grand Duchy of Frankfurt (1810–1813)* border German Confederation (1815–1866)* border German Empire (1848–1849)* border North German Federation (1867–1871)* border German Empire (1871–1918) (1948–1990), Western Bloc-aligned political enclave.", " border German Democratic Republic (1949–1990) (also known as '''East Germany''' or '''GDR'''), its states acceded to Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.", "* border Alsace Soviet Republic (1918)* border Baden (Grand Duchy – 1806–1871)* border Kingdom of Bavaria (1806–1871)** border Bavarian Soviet Republic (1919)* border Bremen (1815–1871)* border Brunswick (1815–1871)* border Frankfurt (Free Imperial City of Frankfurt (HRE), before 1806; City of Frankfurt, 1815–1866)* border Hamburg (1189–1871)* border Kingdom of Hanover (1814–1866)* border Hesse-Homburg (1815–1866)* border Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) (Electorate, 1803–1807, 1813–1866)* border Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1623–1850)* border Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1623–1850)* border Holstein (1815–1864)* border Lippe (1123–1871)* border Lübeck (Free city 1226–1871)* border Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1815–1871)* border Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1815–1871)* border Nassau (1806–1866)* border Oldenburg (1815–1871)* border Pomerania (1121–1637)* border Prussia (1525–1871) border Duchy of Prussia (1525–1618) border Brandenburg-Prussia (1618–1701)** border Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1871)* border Reuss (1010–1806)* border Saxe-Altenburg (1602–1871)* border Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1735–1826)* border Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1826–1871)* border Saxe-Gotha (1640–1680)* border Saxe-Hildburghausen (1680–1826)* border Saxe-Lauenburg (or Duchy of Lauenburg) (1296–1871)* border Saxe-Meiningen (1680–1871)* border Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1809–1871)* border Saxony (kingdom) – 1806–1871)* border Schaumburg-Lippe (1647–1871)* border Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1599–1871)* border Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (1599–1871)* Waldeck (1180–1871)* border Württemberg (kingdom) – 1806–1871)* Free State of Bottleneck (1919–1923)==== Switzerland ====* border Old Swiss Confederacy (1300–1798)* border Helvetic Republic (1798–1803)* border Rhodanic Republic (1802–1810)====Italy====* 20px Republic of Crema (1797)* 20px Republic of Alba (1796)* 20x20px Republic of Ancona (–1532)* border Republic of Florence (1115–1569)* 20px Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816)* 20px Duchy of Urbino (1443–1625)* border Anconine Republic (1797–1798)* border Judicate of Arborea (9th century–1420)* border Kingdom of Etruria (1801–1807)* 20x20px United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860)* 20x20px Cisalpine Republic (1797–1802)* 20x20px Cispadane Republic (1796–1797)* 20x20px Republic of Cospaia (1440–1826)* 20x20px Principality of Elba (Elba) (1814–1815)* 20x20px Kingdom of Etruria (1801–1807)* border Marquisate of Finale (967–1602)* Regency of Carnaro (1919–1920)* 20x20px Gozitan Nation (1798–1801)* 20x20px Italian Republic (Napoleonic) (1802–1805)* 20x20px Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic) (1805–1814)* 20x20px Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866)* 20x20px Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847)* border Principality of Lucca and Piombino (1805–1814)* border Republic of Lucca (1160–1805)* 20x20px Sovereign Military Order of Malta (1530–1798)* 20x20px Duchy of Mantua (1273–1707)* 20x20px Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1473–1829)* 20x20px Duchy of Milan (1395–1797)* border Provisional Government of Milan (1848)* 20x20px Duchy of Modena (1452–1796, 1815–1859)* 20x20px Kingdom of Naples (1285–1816)* 20x20px Republic of Noli (1192–1797)* 20x20px Duchy of Parma (1545–1859)* 20x20px Papal States (752–1870)* border Republic of Pisa (–1406)* 20x20px Roman Republic (19th century) (1849)* 20x20px Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)* border Republic of San Marco (1848–1849)* Republic of Senarica (1343–1797)* 20x20px Kingdom of Sicily (1130–1816)* border Kingdom of Sicily (1848)* Transpadane Republic (1796–1797)* 20x20px Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1569–1801, 1815–1859)* 20x20px Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1815–1860)* 20x20px Republic of Venice (697–1797)* 20x20px Republic of Genoa (1095–1797) 20x20px Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943) 20x20px Italian governorate of Montenegro (1941–1943)* 20x20px Kingdom of Tavolara (1836–1934)* 20px Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)* border Republic of Rose Island (1968–1969)====Modern United Kingdom====* 20px Kingdom of Gwynedd (450–1216)* 20px Kingdom of Powys (5th century–1160)* border Kingdom of Scotland (843–1707)* border England (927–1707)* 20px Angevin Empire (1154–1214)* 20px Principality of Wales (1216–1536)* border Commonwealth of England (1649–1653) and (1659–1660)* border The Protectorate (1653–1659)* border Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800)* border United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922)====Ireland====* border Osraige (150–1541)* Airgíalla (331–1585)* border Uí Maine (–1611)* Ailech (450–1617)* border Tyrconnell (5th century–1607)* border Tír Eoghain (5th century–1607)* border Fermanagh (10th century–1607)* Magh Luirg (–1585)* 20px Republic of Connacht* border Thomond (1118–1543)* border Kingdom of Desmond (1118–1596)* border Lordship of Ireland (1171–1542)* border Clandeboye (1283–1605)* Kingdom of Uí Failghe (Unknown–1550)* border Kingdom of Leinster* border Kingdom of Connacht* border Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1801)* border Irish Catholic Confederation (1641–1649)* border Republic of Connacht (1798)* Irish soviets (1919–1922)** Limerick Soviet (1919)====Benelux====* border Prince-Bishopric of Liège (972–1795) annexed by France in 1795.", "* 20px Duchy of Brabant (1183–1794)* border Duchy of Bouillon (1456?", "– 1794)* border United Belgian States (1789–1790)* border Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581–1795) (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën) Independence from Spain after Eighty Years' War in 1581, conquered by France 1795.", "* border Batavian Republic (1795–1806) (Bataafse Republiek) France's vassal state.", "* border Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) (Koninkrijk Holland/Royaume d'Hollande) Ruled by Louis Bonaparte, annexed by France 1810.", "* border Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands (1813–1815)* border United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)* border Neutral Moresnet (1816–1920)====Poland====* border Duchy of Pomerania (1121–1160, 1264–1295, 1478–1531, 1625–1637) Demmin Principality (1160–1264) Szczecin Principality (1160–1264, 1295–1523)* 25x25px Duchy of Pomerania-Wolgast (1295–1478)* 25x25px Duchy of Masovia (1138–1275, 1294–1310, 1370–1381, 1495–1526)* 25x25px Duchy of Pomerania-Stolp (1368–1478)* Duchy of Pomerania-Neustettin (1368–1390)* 25x25px Duchy of Kraków (1227–1320)* border Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (1199–1349)* 25x25px Duchy of Bytom (1281–1498)* 25x25px Duchy of Silesia (1138–1335)* 25x25px Duchy of Opole (1172–1202, 1281–1532)* 25x25px Duchy of Racibórz (1172–1202, 1281–1521)* 25x25px Duchy of Opole and Racibórz (1202–1281, 1521–1532, 1551–1556)* 25x25px Duchy of Inowrocław (1267–1364)* 25x25px Duchy of Teschen (1281–1918)* Duchy of Poland (966–1025, 1031–1076, 1079–1138, 1138–1227)* 25x25px Kingdom of Poland (1025–1031, 1076–1079, 1295–1296, 1300–1320)* 25x25px United Kingdom of Poland (1320–1386)* 25x25px Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) border Crown of the Kingdom of Poland (1386–1795) border Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1236–1795) border Royal Prussia (1466–1569) border Duchy of Prussia (1525–1657) border Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1561–1795)* New Courland (1637, 1639, 1642, 1654–1659, 1660–1666, 1680–1683, 1686–1690)* 25x25px Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (1772–1918, part of the Austrian Empire, later part of the Austria-Hungary.", ")* 25x25px Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815; part of First French Empire, personal union with Kingdom of Saxony.", ")* border Free, Independent, and Strictly Neutral City of Cracow with its Territory (1815–1846)* 25x25px Kingdom of Poland (1815–1832; personal union with Russian Empire.", ")* 25x25px Vistula Land (1867–1915; part of the Russian Empire.", ")* 25x25px Grand Duchy of Posen (1815–1848; part of Kingdom of Prussia)* 25x25px Grand Duchy of Kraków (1846–1918; part of the Austria-Hungary)* 25x25px Polish National Government (1830–1831)* 25x25px Polish National Government (1846)* border Polish National Government (1863–1864)* 25x25px Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)* 25x25px Republic of Zakopane (1918)* border Republic of Tarnobrzeg (1918–1919)* border Komancza Republic (1918–1919)* border Lemko-Rusyn People's Republic (1918–1920)* 25x25px II Republic of Poland (1918–1939) 25x25px Republic of Central Lithuania (1920–1922) 25x25px Free City of Danzig (1920–1939)* 25x25px Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (1920)* 25x25px Military Administration in Poland (1939)* 25x25px General Governorate for the Occupied Polish Region (1939–1945)* 25x25px Polish Underground State (1939–1945)* 25x25px Polish Committee of National Liberation (1944)* 25x25px Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland (1944–1945)* 25x25px Provisional Government of National Unity (1945–1947)* 25x25px Republic of Poland (1947–1952)* 25x25px Polish People's Republic (1952–1989)* 25x25px Polish National-Territorial Region (1990–1991)====Ukraine====* 20px Kholodny Yar Republic (1919–1922)* border Zaporozhian Sich (1552–1775)* border Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)* Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920)* Ukrainian State (1918)* West Ukrainian People's Republic (1918–1919)* border Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991; sovereign until 1922)* border Makhnovshchina (1918–1921)* Hutsul Republic (1919)* border Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)* Carpatho-Ukraine (1939)* Ukrainian National Government (1941)====Crimea====* border Principality of Theodoro (13th century–1475)* border Crimean Khanate (1449–1783)* border Crimean People's Republic (1917–1918)* border Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1941/1944–1945/1991–1992)====Baltic countries and Belarus====* border Principality of Polotsk (10th century–1397)* border Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1236–1795)* Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)* 20x20px Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940)* border Republic of Perloja (1918–1923)* border Republic of Central Lithuania (1920–1922)* border Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919)* border Belarusian People's Republic (1918–1919)* border Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1922)* border State of the Teutonic Order (1230–1525)* border Kingdom of Livonia (1570–1578)* border United Baltic Duchy (1918)* border Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920)* 20x20px First Latvian Republic (1918–1940)* border Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)* border Soviet Republic of Naissaar on an Estonian Baltic Sea island (1917–1918)* border Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919)* 20x20px First Estonian Republic (1918–1940)====Romania and Moldova====* border Dacian Kingdom (168 BC–106 AD)* Țara Litua (1247–1330)* Voievodeship of Gelu (9th–11th century)* Voivodeship of Maramureș (9th century–1402)* Jupanat of Dimitrie (c. 943)* Voivodeship of Glad (10th century)* Voivodeship of Menumorut (9th–11th century)* Jupanat of Gheorghe (10th century)* Jupanat of Tatos (c. 1190)* Jupanat of Sacea (11th century)* Jupanat of Setslav (c. 1085)* border Voivodship of Transylvania (12th century-1541)* Banat of Severin (1228–1526)* Voivodship of Seneslav (13th century)* Cnezatul lui Ioan (13th century)* Cnezatul lui Farcaș (13th century)* border Principality of Wallachia (1330–1859)* border Principality of Moldavia (1346–1859)* border Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)* border Wallachian Eyalet (1595)* border Temeşvar Eyalet (1552–1716)* border Varat Eyalet (1660–1692)* border Grand Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)* border Banat of Temeswar (1718–1778)* border Duchy of Bukovina (1849–1918)* border United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1859–1881)* Kingdom of Romania (1881–1947)* border Banat Republic (1918–1919)* border Moldavian Democratic Republic (1917–1918)====Russia====* border Novgorod Republic (1136–1478)* border Pskov Republic (1348–1510)* border Principality of Tver (1246–1483)* Principality of Beloozero (13th–15th century)* Principality of Yaroslavl (1218–1463)* border Grand Duchy of Ryazan (1097–1521)* border Principality of Great Perm (1323–1505)** Vyatka Land* border Golden Horde (1320–1547)* Astrakhan Khanate (1466–1556)* Khanate of Kazan (1438–1552)* Qasim Khanate (1452–1681)* border Khanate of Sibir (1468–1598)* border Kalmyk Khanate (1630–1771)* 20px Republic of Uhtua (1918–1920)* border Kuban People's Republic (1918–1920)* border Don Republic (1918–1920)* 20x20px Idel-Ural State (1 March 1918 – 28 March 1918)* border Far Eastern Republic (1920–1922)* Green Ukraine (1920–1922)* Tungus Republic (1924–1925)* State of Buryat-Mongolia (1917–1920)* border Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283–1547)North Ingria(1919–1920)27x27pxJaxa (1665–1674) Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721)* Russian Empire (1721–1917) border Kingdom of Poland (1815–1867) border Grand Duchy of Finland (1809–1917)* 20x20px Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies (1917–1924)* Russian Republic (1917)* Russian Republic (1918)* Russian State (1918–1920)* border Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1922)* Supreme Administration of the Northern Region (1918)* Provisional Government of the Northern Region (1918–1920)* Armed Forces of South Russia (1918–1919)* border Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991) 20x20px Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991) 20x20px Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991) 20x20px Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991) 20x20px Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1991) 20x20px Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991) Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1956) 20x20px Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991) 20x20px Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991) 20x20px Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1990) 20x20px Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1990) 20x20px Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1991)* 20x20px Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991) 20x20px Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1922–1991)* Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1924)* Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1941)* Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)* Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990)* Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1936)* Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1924)* Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)* Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1945)* Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)* Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1990)* Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1940; 1956–1991)* Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1926–1936)* Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)* Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)* Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1935–1943; 1957–1991)* Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)* Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)* Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)* Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)* North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1992)* Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1957)* Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1961–1992)* Khakas Autonomous Oblast (1990–1991)* Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991) 20x20px Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (1929–1991) 20x20px Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991) 20x20px Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)** 20x20px Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)====Hungary====* border Principality of Hungary (895–1000)* border Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1804) x20px Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1526–1551, 1556–1570) border Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711) border Principality of Upper Hungary (1682–1685) border Principality of Transylvania (1711–1804)** border Kingdom of Croatia (1102–1526)* 20px Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)* border Hungarian State (1849)====Czech Republic and Slovakia====* border Duchy of Bohemia (–1198)* border Kingdom of Bohemia (1198–1918)* border Margraviate of Moravia (1182–1918)* border Slovak Soviet Republic (1919)* border Slovak Republic (1939–1945)* First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)* Second Czechoslovak Republic (1938–1939)* Third Czechoslovak Republic (1945–1948)* Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1948–1989; before 1960 as Czechoslovak Republic)* Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (1990–1992)====Austria====* border Duchy of Austria (1156–1453)* border Archduchy of Austria (1453–1804)* border Austrian Empire (1804–1867)* 20x20px Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)** 20x20px Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1868–1918)====Balkans====* In Albania: 20x20px Independent Albania (1912–1914) 23x23pxAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914) 20x20px Republic of Central Albania (1913–1914) 20x20px Principality of Albania (1914–1925) 20x20px Italian protectorate over Albania (1917–1920) 20x20px Republic of Mirdita (1921) 20x20px Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943) 20x20px German occupation of Albania (1943–1944)** 20x20pxPeople's Socialist Republic of Albania (1946–1992)* In Aromanian: 20x20px First Hellenic Republic (1828–1832) 25x25pxAreopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821–1825) 20x20px Kingdom of Greece (1832–1924, 1935–1941, 1944–1974) 20x20px Italian Islands of the Aegean (1912–1945)* In Bosnia: 20x20px Kingdom of Bosnia (1377–1463) 24x24px Kingdom of Bosnia (1377–1463) 20x20px Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918) 20x20px Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia (1993–1995) 20x20px Republika Srpska (1992–1995)** 20x20px Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (1991–1996)* In Bulgaria: 20x20px Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396) 20x20px Despotate of Dobruja (1356–1411) Principality of Bulgaria (1878–1908) 20x20px Strandzha Commune (1903)* In Croatia: 20x20px Kingdom of Croatia (1527–1868) 20x20px Kingdom of Slavonia (1699–1868) 20x20px Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1868–1918) 20x20px Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) 20x20px Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) 20x20px Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) 20x20px Republic of Ragusa (1358–1808) 20x20px Republic of Serbian Krajina (1991–1995)* In Greece: 20x20px First Hellenic Republic (1828–1832) 25x25pxAreopagus of Eastern Continental Greece (1821–1825) 20x20px Kingdom of Greece (1832–1924, 1935–1941, 1944–1974) 20x20px United States of the Ionian Islands (1815–1864) 20x20px Septinsular Republic (1800–1815) 20x20px Principality of Samos (1815–1864) 20x20px Cretan State (1898–1913) 20x20px Free State of Ikaria (1912)** 20x20px Italian Islands of the Aegean (1912–1945)* In Montenegro: 20x20px Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro (1516–1852) 20x20px Principality of Montenegro (1852–1910) 20x20px Kingdom of Montenegro (1910–1918) 20x20px Italian governorate of Montenegro (1941–1943)** 20x20px German-occupied territory of Montenegro (1943–1944)* In North Macedonia: 20x20px Kruševo Republic (1903) 20x20px Independent Macedonia (1944) proposed* In Serbia: 20x20px Revolutionary Serbia (1804–1813) 20x20px Principality of Serbia (1815–1882) 20x20px Kingdom of Serbia (1882–1918) 20x20px State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918) 20x20px Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1929–1943) 20x20px Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1943–1992) (1992–2003) (2003–2006)** 24x24px Republic of Kosova (1991–1999)* In Turkey: 20x20px Byzantine Empire (395–1453)* 24x24px Duchy of Athens (1205–1458)* Despotate of Epirus (1356–1479)* Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) 20x20px Ottoman Empire (–1922) 20x20px Government of the Grand National Assembly (1920–1923)====Caucasus====* 20px Caucasian Albania (2nd century BC–8th century AD)* border Kabardia (–)* 20x20px Circassia (13th century–1864)* Kingdom of Abkhazia (778–1008)* Elisu Sultanate (1604–1844)* 20px Avar Khanate (13th century–1864)* Caucasian Imamate (1828–1859)* 20x20px Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus (1917–1921)* 20x20px North Caucasian Emirate (1919–1920)* 23px Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1991–2000)* 20x20px Kingdom of Georgia (1008–1490)* border Kingdom of Imereti (1260–1810)* border Principality of Svaneti (1463–1858)* border Principality of Mingrelia (1557–1867)* border Principality of Guria (1460–1829)* Samtskhe-Saatabago (1266–1625)* Kingdom of Kartli (1478–1762)* border Kingdom of Kakheti (1465–1762)* 25px Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1762–1801)* border Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921)* First Republic of Armenia (1918–1920)* Republic of Mountainous Armenia (April 1921 – July 1921)* Republic of Artsakh (December 1991 – September 2023)* Republic of Aras (1918–1919)* Centrocaspian Dictatorship (1918)* Military Dictatorship of Mughan (1918–1919)* Baku Commune (1918)* Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (1918–1920)* border Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (February 1918 – May 1918)====Iberian Peninsula====* 20px Emirate of Córdoba (756–929)* 20px Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)* 20px Kingdom of León (910–1230)* Republic of Galicia (1931)* border Couto Misto (10th century–1868)* Asturian Socialist Republic (October 1934)* border Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620)* 23px First Catalan Republic (1641–1652)* Revolutionary Catalonia (1936–1939)* 23px Second Catalan Republic (1931)* 23px Crown of Aragon (1162–1479)* 23px Emirate of Granada (1238–1492)* 20px Kingdom of Majorca (1231–1715 (1349))* 20px Principality of Catalonia (12th century – 1714/1833)* border United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815–1825)* border Kingdom of Portugal (Monarchy of the North) (1919)* border Ditadura Nacional (1926–1933)* 23px Crown of Castile (1230–1479)** border Kingdom of Galicia (410–1833)* 20px Kingdom of Castile (1065–1230/1715)* Iberian Union (1580–1640)===North America======= Anguilla ====* 20x20px Republic of Anguilla (1967–1969)==== Canada ====* border Republic of Madawaska (1827)* 20x20px Republic of Canada (1837–1838)* 24x24px Republic of Lower Canada (1838)* border Miꞌkmaꞌki (1867)* border Republic of Manitoba (1867–1870)* border Provisional Government of Saskatchewan (1885)* border Dominion of Newfoundland (1907–1949)==== Dominican Republic ====* 20x20px Republic of Spanish Haiti (1821–1822)* 20x20px First Dominican Republic (1844–1861)==== Guatemala ====* 20x20px United Provinces of Central America* 20x20px State of Los Altos (1838–1840), (1848–1849)==== Haiti ====* 20x20px First Empire of Haiti (1804–1806)* 20x20px State of Haiti (1806–1811)* 20x20px Kingdom of Haiti (1811–1820)==== Mexico ====* 20px Toltec Empire (674 (disputed)–1122 (disputed))* 20px Cocollán (1100–1521)* Aztec Empire (1428–1521)* Zapotec civilization (–1521)* Governing Junta of Mexico (1808)* 20x20px Northern America (1813)* 20x20px First Mexican Empire (1821–1823)* 20x20px Provisional Government of Mexico (1823–1824)* 20x20px First Mexican Republic (1824–1835)* 20x20px Republic of the Rio Grande (1840)* 20x20px Centralist Republic of Mexico (1835–1846)* 20x20px Republic of Yucatán (1841–1848)* 20x20px Second Federal Republic of Mexico (1846–1863)* 20x20px Republic of Sonora (1853–1854)* 20px Republic of Baja California (1853–1854)* 20px Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867)==== United States ====* 20x20px Iroquois Confederacy (between 1450 and 1660–1867)* 20x20px Cherokee Nation (1794–1865)* 20x20px Vermont Republic (1777–1791)* 20x20px State of Muskogee (1799–1803)* 20x20px Republic of West Florida (1810)* 24x24px Republic of East Florida (1812)* 24x24px Republic of the Floridas (1817)* Republic of Indian Stream (1832–1835)* 20x20px Republic of Texas (1836–1846)* border State of Deseret (1849–1850)* 20x20px California Republic (June 14 – July 9, 1846)* 20x20px The Great Republic of Rough and Ready (1850)* border Palmetto Republic (1860–1861)* border Alabama Republic (1861)* border Republic of Louisiana (1861)* border Republic of Georgia (1861)* border Republic of Mississippi (1861)* (1861–1865)* border Republic of Puerto Rico (1868, 1898)===Oceania===* 20x20px Tuʻi Tonga Empire (–1865)* Kingdom of ʻUvea (15th century–1887)* Kingdom of Alo* Kingdom of Sigave* border Mangareva (1881)* 20x20px Kingdom of Bora Bora (till 1888 or 1895)* 20x20px Kingdom of Raiatea (till 1888, French protectorate since 1880)* 20x20px Kingdom of Huahine (till 1895, French protectorate since 1888)* 20x20px Kingdom of Tahiti (1788/91–1880, French protectorate since 1842)* 20x20px Kingdom of Rurutu (till 1900, French protectorate since 1888)* 20x20px Kingdom of Rimatara (till 1901, French protectorate since 1888)* 20x20px Kingdom of Tahuata (till 1880, French protectorate since 1842)* 20x20px Kingdom of Rapa Iti (till 1881, kingship continued to 1887)* Kingdom of Mangareva (till 1881, French protectorate since 1844/1871)* Taiohae Kingdom of Nuku Hiva (till 1901, sovereignty ceded to France in 1842)* 20x20px Kingdom of Tuamotu* 20x20px Kingdom of Fiji (1871–1874)* 20x20px Dominion of Fiji (1970–1987)* 20x20px Kingdom of Hawaii (1795–1893)* 20x20px Provisional Government of Hawaii (1893–1894)* 20x20px Republic of Hawaii (1894–1898)* Patu-iki or Kingdom of Niue (–1900)* 20x20px Kingdom of Rarotonga (1858–1893)* Saudeleur dynasty ()* 20x20px Kingdom of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (till 1888)* Kingdom of Nauru (till 1888)* People's Provisional Government of Vanuatu (1977–1978)===South America======= Argentina ====* United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (1810–1831)* Argentine Confederation (1831–1861)* Republic of Entre Ríos (1820–1821)* Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)* State of Buenos Aires (1852–1861)* Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia (1860–1862)==== Bolivia ====* State of Upper Peru (1825)* Republic of Bolívar (1825)* Republic of Upper Peru (1828)* Bolivian Republic (1836–1839)* Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)==== Brazil ====* (1899–1900; 1903)* (1822–1889)* Confederation of the Equator (1824)* Riograndense Republic (1836–1845)* Juliana Republic (1839)* Republic of Counani (1886–1891)* border Principality of Trindad (1893–1895)==== Chile ====* border Kingdom of Chile (1810–1814)* 20x20px New State of Chile (1819–1826)* 20x20px Conservative Republic (1830–1861)* 20x20px Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia (1862)==== Colombia ====* Muisca Confederation (1450–1537)* 20x20px Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca (1810–1815)* 20x20px Confederate Cities of Valle del Cauca (1811–1815)* 20x20px United Provinces of New Granada (1811–1816)* 20x20px Gran Colombia (1819–1831)==== Ecuador ====* 20x20px State of Quito (1809–1812) ''Estado de Quito''* 20x20px Free Province of Guayaquil (1820–1822)==== Paraguay ====* 20x20px El Stronato (1954–1989)==== Peru ====* Kingdom of Chimor (–1470)* Inca Empire (1438–1533)* Protectorate of Peru (1821–1822)* Republic of South Peru (1836–1839)* Republic of North Peru (1836–1839)* Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)* Peruvian Republic (1837)* Peruvian Republic (1838–1839)* Federal State of Loreto (1896)* Jungle Nation (1899–1900)==== Uruguay ====* Governing Junta of Montevideo (1808–1809)* 20x20px Liga Federal (1815–1820)==== Venezuela ====* 20x20px Supreme Junta (1810–1811)* 20x20px First Republic of Venezuela (1811–1812)* 20x20px Second Republic of Venezuela (1813–1814)* 20x20px Third Republic of Venezuela (1817–1819)" ], [ "Modern states and territories by type", "===Dismembered countries===These states are now dissolved into a number of states.", "* – Dissolved in 1945, its former territory now consists of the entirety of the countries of Austria and Germany, and parts of what is now Belarus, the Czech Republic, France, Luxembourg, Poland, Russia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Serbia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Slovenia.", "* – An empire created after Brazil declared its independence in 1822 and dissolved in 1889, now the countries of Brazil and Uruguay (who declared their independence in 1825, and was recognized in 1828).", "* – Existed from 1821 to 1841, broke up into Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.", "* – Polity existed to 7 December 1949 and its territory now controlled by the People's Republic of China (Mainland China), Mongolia, portion of the territory claimed by India and Japan, and parts of Afghanistan, Bhutan, Pakistan, Russia and Tajikistan.", "The rump state, still known as the \"Republic of China\", continues to control Taiwan and Penghu which was acquired from Japan in 1945, as well as Kinmen and Matsu Islands, forming part of the rump Fujian Province.", "See also the political status of Taiwan and the Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan.", "* – Existed from 1918 to 1992, the country wasn't active in World War II, but the government was in exile, dissolved in 1992 and broke up into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.", "* – Ceased to exist in 1910, its former territory now consists of the entirety of territory controlled by North Korea and South Korea, and a portion of territory claimed by Japan.", "* Mali Federation – In 1959 formed by Senegal and French Sudan, both parts of French West Africa, as an independent nation.", "It collapsed in 1960, and is now Senegal and Mali.", "* Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (''Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves'') created in 1815 when Brazil was upgraded to the rank of kingdom, once the Portuguese royal family was living in Rio de Janeiro since 1809.This country was dissolved in 1822 when Brazil became independent.", "Now the countries of Portugal, Brazil, Cabo Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Angola, East Timor and Mozambique.", "* – Dissolved in 1979, now the country of Zimbabwe.", "* – Dissolved in 2006, now the countries of Montenegro, Serbia, and the partially recognized Kosovo.", "* Somali Republic – Dissolved in 1991, now the countries of Somalia and unrecognized Somaliland.", "* – Dissolved in 1991, now the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.", "The Baltic countries occupied by USSR until 1991 (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) were not considered by most Western countries de jure part of the USSR.", "* United Arab Republic – A union formed by Egypt and Syria in 1958.It was dissolved in 1961, though Egypt used the name until 1971.Other Pan-Arab unity agreements with Iraq and Jordan in the 1950s failed.", "* United Arab States – A confederation formed by the United Arab Republic and North Yemen in 1958; it was dissolved in 1961.", "* – Dissolved in 1991 and 1992, now the countries of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, and the partially recognized Kosovo.===Nominally independent homelands of South Africa===Four of the homelands, or bantustans, for black South Africans, were granted nominal independence by the apartheid regime of South Africa.", "Not recognised by other nations, these effectively were puppet states and were re-incorporated in 1994.", "* Bophuthatswana – Declared independent in 1977, reincorporated in 1994.", "* Ciskei – Declared independent in 1981, reincorporated in 1994.", "* Transkei – Declared independent in 1976, reincorporated in 1994.", "* Venda – Declared independent in 1979, reincorporated in 1994.===Secessionist states===These nations declared themselves independent, but failed to achieve it in fact or did not seek permanent independence and were either re-incorporated into the mother country or incorporated into another country.", "* Carpatho-Ukraine – declared independence from Czechoslovakia in 1939, but was occupied and annexed by Hungary in one day.", "* Cartagena Canton – the haven city of Cartagena, Spain seceded from the First Spanish Republic in 1873.", "* Catalan Republic (April 14–17, 1931).", "* Chechnya – Virtually independent from Russia from 1996 as '''Chechen Republic of Ichkeria''', however the country was recognized only by the Taliban.", "After terrorist attacks in 1999 the republic was returned to Russia's control in the Second Chechen War.", "* – Occupied the southeastern United States, stretching from Texas to Virginia.", "Declared secession from the U.S. in 1861, reintegrated into the U.S. in 1865.Reconstruction ended in 1876 and U.S. troops withdrew as an occupation force in 1877.South Carolina was the first state to declare its secession from the United States, doing so on December 20, 1860.Political factions in the \"border states\" of Kentucky and Missouri declared themselves parts of the Confederacy and controlled small portions of those regions early in the war.", "The major Indian tribes in Oklahoma signed an alliance with the Confederacy, and participated in its military efforts against the U.S.* Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, declared independence from Ukraine in 1992 but soon settled for being an autonomous republic within Ukraine.", "* Cruzob, achieved independence from Mexico in 1856, but was reannexed in 1901.", "* Green Ukraine – Declared independence from Far Eastern Republic in 1920, dissolved in 1922.", "* Herzeg-Bosnia – Separated from Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, reincorporated into the country in 1994.", "* Italian Social Republic (1943–1945)* Katanga – Declared its independence of the newly formed Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1960, was incorporated again into the country in 1963.", "* Manitoba – short-lived republic led by Thomas Spence, declared after the Hudson's Bay Company gave up Rupert's Land and before the government of Canada took control (1867).", "* Red River Rebellion – provisional government in Rupert's Land, led by Louis Riel in (1869–1870).", "* Serbian Krajina – declared independence from Croatia in 1991, reincorporated into the country in 1995.", "* South Kasai – declared independence from the Democratic Republic of the Congo in June 1960, reincorporated into the country in December 1961.", "* Supreme Administration of Northern Region – Proclaimed independent in 1918, later became the Provisional Government of the Northern Region.", "* – Separated from Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, reincorporated into the country in 1995.", "* Principality of Trinidad – Declared independence in 1893, claimed by United Kingdom in 1895, but incorporated by Brazil.", "* Western Bosnia – Declared independence from Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1993 and reincorporated into it in 1995.", "* – Established in 2015 as a result of the merger of the Donetsk People's Republic with the Luhansk People's Republic and at the beginning of 2015 the confederation project was suspended.", " – Declared independence on April 7, 2014.As a result of the referendum of September 30, 2022, it was incorporated as a republic into the Russian Federation.", " – Declared independence on April 27, 2014.As a result of the referendum of September 30, 2022, it was incorporated as a republic into the Russian Federation.", "* Republic of Artsakh – Declared independence from Azerbaijan in 1991, reincorporated into the country in 2024.===Annexed countries===These nations, once separate, are now part of another country.", "Cases of voluntary accession are included.", "* Regency of Carnaro in 1919 and Free State of Fiume 1920–1924, two short-lived states in the port city of Fiume/Rijeka proclaimed by Gabriele D'Annunzio.", "Following World War I, the city was disputed between Italy and Yugoslavia, and eventually captured by Italy in 1921.The city passed to Yugoslavia after World War II and is now in Croatia.", "* Couto Misto – Tiny 10th century border territory that was split between Spain and Portugal in 1864–8.", "* Crete – Autonomous under Ottoman suzerainty in 1898, unilaterally declared union with Greece in 1908, which was recognized in 1913.", "* – Annexed by West Germany in 1990 and now part of Germany.", "* – Merged with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, now part of the United Kingdom.", "* Franceville (1889–1890) – Independent in 1889, later governed by France and Britain as part of the New Hebrides; now part of Vanuatu.", "* Hatay – Part of the Mandate of Syria that became part of Turkey; independent 1938–1939* – Annexed by the U.S. in the late 19th century.", "* Khanate of Kalat (1638, 1666–1955) – 1666 to 1955, became part of Pakistan.", "* Free States of Menton and Roquebrune – Seceded from Monaco in 1848, under nominal protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia, then annexed by France in 1861.", "* Moresnet – 1816–1920, Tiny European territory that endured for a hundred years before definitively becoming part of Belgium.", "* Natalia Republic – 1839–1843, Was quickly made into a British colony* Islands of Refreshment – The islands of Tristan da Cunha were settled in 1810 and declared independence in 1811.Annexed by the United Kingdom in 1815.", "* – Merged with England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, now part of the United Kingdom.", "* – Occupied by North Vietnam in 1975 and annexed into it in 1976.", "* Republic of Tatarstan – Existed from 1992 until annexed by Russia in 1994.", "* – Now part of South Africa.", "* – Annexed by the U.S. in 1845.", "* 20x20px Vermont Republic – Annexed by the US in 1791." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * () () () () () List of pre-modern states* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Berge, Bjørn.", "''Nowherelands: An Atlas of Vanished Countries 1840–1975''.", "New York: Thames & Hudson, 2017 240p.", "* Harding, Les.", "''Dead Countries of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Aden to Zululand''.", "Scarecrow Press, 1998." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ellipse" ], [ "Introduction", "An ellipse (red) obtained as the intersection of a cone with an inclined plane.Ellipse: notationsEllipses: examples with increasing eccentricityIn mathematics, an '''ellipse''' is a plane curve surrounding two focal points, such that for all points on the curve, the sum of the two distances to the focal points is a constant.", "It generalizes a circle, which is the special type of ellipse in which the two focal points are the same.", "The elongation of an ellipse is measured by its eccentricity , a number ranging from (the limiting case of a circle) to (the limiting case of infinite elongation, no longer an ellipse but a parabola).An ellipse has a simple algebraic solution for its area, but only approximations for its perimeter (also known as circumference), for which integration is required to obtain an exact solution.Analytically, the equation of a standard ellipse centered at the origin with width and height is:Assuming , the foci are for .", "The standard parametric equation is:Ellipses are the closed type of conic section: a plane curve tracing the intersection of a cone with a plane (see figure).", "Ellipses have many similarities with the other two forms of conic sections, parabolas and hyperbolas, both of which are open and unbounded.", "An angled cross section of a right circular cylinder is also an ellipse.An ellipse may also be defined in terms of one focal point and a line outside the ellipse called the directrix: for all points on the ellipse, the ratio between the distance to the focus and the distance to the directrix is a constant.", "This constant ratio is the above-mentioned eccentricity:Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engineering.", "For example, the orbit of each planet in the Solar System is approximately an ellipse with the Sun at one focus point (more precisely, the focus is the barycenter of the Sunplanet pair).", "The same is true for moons orbiting planets and all other systems of two astronomical bodies.", "The shapes of planets and stars are often well described by ellipsoids.", "A circle viewed from a side angle looks like an ellipse: that is, the ellipse is the image of a circle under parallel or perspective projection.", "The ellipse is also the simplest Lissajous figure formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency: a similar effect leads to elliptical polarization of light in optics.The name, (, \"omission\"), was given by Apollonius of Perga in his ''Conics''." ], [ "Definition as locus of points", "Ellipse: definition by sum of distances to fociEllipse: definition by focus and circular directrixAn ellipse can be defined geometrically as a set or locus of points in the Euclidean plane:The midpoint of the line segment joining the foci is called the ''center'' of the ellipse.", "The line through the foci is called the ''major axis'', and the line perpendicular to it through the center is the ''minor axis''.", "The major axis intersects the ellipse at two ''vertices'' , which have distance to the center.", "The distance of the foci to the center is called the ''focal distance'' or linear eccentricity.", "The quotient is the ''eccentricity''.The case yields a circle and is included as a special type of ellipse.The equation can be viewed in a different way (see figure): is called the ''circular directrix'' (related to focus of the ellipse.", "This property should not be confused with the definition of an ellipse using a directrix line below.Using Dandelin spheres, one can prove that any section of a cone with a plane is an ellipse, assuming the plane does not contain the apex and has slope less than that of the lines on the cone." ], [ "In Cartesian coordinates", "Shape parameters:=== Standard equation ===The standard form of an ellipse in Cartesian coordinates assumes that the origin is the center of the ellipse, the ''x''-axis is the major axis, and:For an arbitrary point the distance to the focus is and to the other focus .", "Hence the point is on the ellipse whenever:Removing the radicals by suitable squarings and using (see diagram) produces the standard equation of the ellipse:or, solved for ''y'':The width and height parameters are called the semi-major and semi-minor axes.", "The top and bottom points are the ''co-vertices''.", "The distances from a point on the ellipse to the left and right foci are and .It follows from the equation that the ellipse is ''symmetric'' with respect to the coordinate axes and hence with respect to the origin.=== Parameters ======= Principal axes ====Throughout this article, the semi-major and semi-minor axes are denoted and , respectively, i.e.", "In principle, the canonical ellipse equation may have (and hence the ellipse would be taller than it is wide).", "This form can be converted to the standard form by transposing the variable names and and the parameter names and ==== Linear eccentricity ====This is the distance from the center to a focus: .==== Eccentricity ====The eccentricity can be expressed as:assuming An ellipse with equal axes () has zero eccentricity, and is a circle.==== Semi-latus rectum ====The length of the chord through one focus, perpendicular to the major axis, is called the ''latus rectum''.", "One half of it is the ''semi-latus rectum'' .", "A calculation shows:The semi-latus rectum is equal to the radius of curvature at the vertices (see section curvature).=== Tangent ===An arbitrary line intersects an ellipse at 0, 1, or 2 points, respectively called an ''exterior line'', ''tangent'' and ''secant''.", "Through any point of an ellipse there is a unique tangent.", "The tangent at a point of the ellipse has the coordinate equation:A vector parametric equation of the tangent is:'''Proof:'''Let be a point on an ellipse and be the equation of any line containing .", "Inserting the line's equation into the ellipse equation and respecting yields:There are then cases:# Then line and the ellipse have only point in common, and is a tangent.", "The tangent direction has perpendicular vector , so the tangent line has equation for some .", "Because is on the tangent and the ellipse, one obtains .# Then line has a second point in common with the ellipse, and is a secant.Using (1) one finds that is a tangent vector at point , which proves the vector equation.If and are two points of the ellipse such that , then the points lie on two ''conjugate diameters'' (see below).", "(If , the ellipse is a circle and \"conjugate\" means \"orthogonal\".", ")=== Shifted ellipse ===If the standard ellipse is shifted to have center , its equation isThe axes are still parallel to the x- and y-axes.=== General ellipse ===A general ellipse in the plane can be uniquely described as a bivariate quadratic equation of Cartesian coordinates, or using center, semi-major and semi-minor axes, and angleIn analytic geometry, the ellipse is defined as a quadric: the set of points of the Cartesian plane that, in non-degenerate cases, satisfy the implicit equationprovided To distinguish the degenerate cases from the non-degenerate case, let ''∆'' be the determinantThen the ellipse is a non-degenerate real ellipse if and only if ''C∆'' 0, we have an imaginary ellipse, and if ''∆'' = 0, we have a point ellipse.The general equation's coefficients can be obtained from known semi-major axis , semi-minor axis , center coordinates , and rotation angle (the angle from the positive horizontal axis to the ellipse's major axis) using the formulae:These expressions can be derived from the canonical equationby a Euclidean transformation of the coordinates :Conversely, the canonical form parameters can be obtained from the general-form coefficients by the equations:where is the 2-argument arctangent function." ], [ "Parametric representation", "The construction of points based on the parametric equation and the interpretation of parameter ''t'', which is due to de la HireEllipse points calculated by the rational representation with equal spaced parameters ().===Standard parametric representation===Using trigonometric functions, a parametric representation of the standard ellipse is:The parameter ''t'' (called the ''eccentric anomaly'' in astronomy) is not the angle of with the ''x''-axis, but has a geometric meaning due to Philippe de La Hire (see '''' below).===Rational representation===With the substitution and trigonometric formulae one obtainsand the ''rational'' parametric equation of an ellipsewhich covers any point of the ellipse except the left vertex .For this formula represents the right upper quarter of the ellipse moving counter-clockwise with increasing The left vertex is the limit Alternately, if the parameter is considered to be a point on the real projective line , then the corresponding rational parametrization isThen Rational representations of conic sections are commonly used in computer-aided design (see Bezier curve).===Tangent slope as parameter===A parametric representation, which uses the slope of the tangent at a point of the ellipsecan be obtained from the derivative of the standard representation :With help of trigonometric formulae one obtains:Replacing and of the standard representation yields:Here is the slope of the tangent at the corresponding ellipse point, is the upper and the lower half of the ellipse.", "The vertices, having vertical tangents, are not covered by the representation.The equation of the tangent at point has the form .", "The still unknown can be determined by inserting the coordinates of the corresponding ellipse point :This description of the tangents of an ellipse is an essential tool for the determination of the orthoptic of an ellipse.", "The orthoptic article contains another proof, without differential calculus and trigonometric formulae.===General ellipse===Ellipse as an affine image of the unit circleAnother definition of an ellipse uses affine transformations:: Any ''ellipse'' is an affine image of the unit circle with equation .", ";Parametric representationAn affine transformation of the Euclidean plane has the form , where is a regular matrix (with non-zero determinant) and is an arbitrary vector.", "If are the column vectors of the matrix , the unit circle , , is mapped onto the ellipse:Here is the center and are the directions of two conjugate diameters, in general not perpendicular.", ";VerticesThe four vertices of the ellipse are , for a parameter defined by:(If , then .)", "This is derived as follows.", "The tangent vector at point is:At a vertex parameter , the tangent is perpendicular to the major/minor axes, so:Expanding and applying the identities gives the equation for ;AreaFrom Apollonios theorem (see below) one obtains:The area of an ellipse is;SemiaxesWith the abbreviations the statements of Apollonios's theorem can be written as:Solving this nonlinear system for yields the semiaxes:;Implicit representationSolving the parametric representation for by Cramer's rule and using , one obtains the implicit representationConversely: If the equation: with of an ellipse centered at the origin is given, then the two vectors point to two conjugate points and the tools developed above are applicable.", "''Example'': For the ellipse with equation the vectors are locus of points where the ellipses are especially close to each other.", ";Rotated Standard ellipseFor one obtains a parametric representation of the standard ellipse rotated by angle :;Ellipse in spaceThe definition of an ellipse in this section gives a parametric representation of an arbitrary ellipse, even in space, if one allows to be vectors in space." ], [ "Polar forms", "=== Polar form relative to center ===Polar coordinates centered at the center.In polar coordinates, with the origin at the center of the ellipse and with the angular coordinate measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation iswhere is the eccentricity, not Euler's number.=== Polar form relative to focus ===Polar coordinates centered at focus.If instead we use polar coordinates with the origin at one focus, with the angular coordinate still measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation iswhere the sign in the denominator is negative if the reference direction points towards the center (as illustrated on the right), and positive if that direction points away from the center.In the slightly more general case of an ellipse with one focus at the origin and the other focus at angular coordinate , the polar form isThe angle in these formulas is called the true anomaly of the point.", "The numerator of these formulas is the semi-latus rectum ." ], [ "Eccentricity and the directrix property", "Ellipse: directrix propertyEach of the two lines parallel to the minor axis, and at a distance of from it, is called a ''directrix'' of the ellipse (see diagram).", ": For an arbitrary point of the ellipse, the quotient of the distance to one focus and to the corresponding directrix (see diagram) is equal to the eccentricity: The proof for the pair follows from the fact that and satisfy the equationThe second case is proven analogously.The converse is also true and can be used to define an ellipse (in a manner similar to the definition of a parabola):: For any point (focus), any line (directrix) not through , and any real number with the ellipse is the locus of points for which the quotient of the distances to the point and to the line is that is: The extension to , which is the eccentricity of a circle, is not allowed in this context in the Euclidean plane.", "However, one may consider the directrix of a circle to be the line at infinity in the projective plane.", "(The choice yields a parabola, and if , a hyperbola.", ")Pencil of conics with a common vertex and common semi-latus rectum;ProofLet , and assume is a point on the curve.", "The directrix has equation .", "With , the relation produces the equations: and The substitution yieldsThis is the equation of an ''ellipse'' (), or a ''parabola'' (), or a ''hyperbola'' ().", "All of these non-degenerate conics have, in common, the origin as a vertex (see diagram).If , introduce new parameters so that , and then the equation above becomeswhich is the equation of an ellipse with center , the ''x''-axis as major axis, andthe major/minor semi axis .Construction of a directrix;Construction of a directrixBecause of point of directrix (see diagram) and focus are inverse with respect to the circle inversion at circle (in diagram green).", "Hence can be constructed as shown in the diagram.", "Directrix is the perpendicular to the main axis at point .", ";General ellipseIf the focus is and the directrix , one obtains the equation(The right side of the equation uses the Hesse normal form of a line to calculate the distance .)" ], [ "Focus-to-focus reflection property", "Ellipse: the tangent bisects the supplementary angle of the angle between the lines to the foci.Rays from one focus reflect off the ellipse to pass through the other focus.An ellipse possesses the following property:: The normal at a point bisects the angle between the lines .", ";ProofBecause the tangent line is perpendicular to the normal, an equivalent statement is that the tangent is the external angle bisector of the lines to the foci (see diagram).Let be the point on the line with distance to the focus , where is the semi-major axis of the ellipse.", "Let line be the external angle bisector of the lines and Take any other point on By the triangle inequality and the angle bisector theorem, therefore must be outside the ellipse.", "As this is true for every choice of only intersects the ellipse at the single point so must be the tangent line.", "; ApplicationThe rays from one focus are reflected by the ellipse to the second focus.", "This property has optical and acoustic applications similar to the reflective property of a parabola (see whispering gallery)." ], [ "Conjugate diameters", "=== Definition of conjugate diameters ===Orthogonal diameters of a circle with a square of tangents, midpoints of parallel chords and an affine image, which is an ellipse with conjugate diameters, a parallelogram of tangents and midpoints of chords.A circle has the following property:: The midpoints of parallel chords lie on a diameter.An affine transformation preserves parallelism and midpoints of line segments, so this property is true for any ellipse.", "(Note that the parallel chords and the diameter are no longer orthogonal.", "); Definition:Two diameters of an ellipse are ''conjugate'' if the midpoints of chords parallel to lie on From the diagram one finds:: Two diameters of an ellipse are conjugate whenever the tangents at and are parallel to .Conjugate diameters in an ellipse generalize orthogonal diameters in a circle.In the parametric equation for a general ellipse given above,any pair of points belong to a diameter, and the pair belong to its conjugate diameter.For the common parametric representation of the ellipse with equation one gets: The points : (signs: (+,+) or (−,−) ): (signs: (−,+) or (+,−) ):are conjugate and :In case of a circle the last equation collapses to === Theorem of Apollonios on conjugate diameters ===Theorem of ApolloniosFor the alternative area formulaFor an ellipse with semi-axes the following is true:: Let and be halves of two conjugate diameters (see diagram) then:# .", ":# The ''triangle'' with sides (see diagram) has the constant area , which can be expressed by , too.", "is the altitude of point and the angle between the half diameters.", "Hence the area of the ellipse (see section metric properties) can be written as .", ":# The parallelogram of tangents adjacent to the given conjugate diameters has the ; Proof:Let the ellipse be in the canonical form with parametric equationThe two points are on conjugate diameters (see previous section).", "From trigonometric formulae one obtains andThe area of the triangle generated by isand from the diagram it can be seen that the area of the parallelogram is 8 times that of .", "Hence" ], [ "Orthogonal tangents", "Ellipse with its orthopticFor the ellipse the intersection points of ''orthogonal'' tangents lie on the circle .This circle is called ''orthoptic'' or director circle of the ellipse (not to be confused with the circular directrix defined above)." ], [ "Drawing ellipses", "Central projection of circles (gate)Ellipses appear in descriptive geometry as images (parallel or central projection) of circles.", "There exist various tools to draw an ellipse.", "Computers provide the fastest and most accurate method for drawing an ellipse.", "However, technical tools (''ellipsographs'') to draw an ellipse without a computer exist.", "The principle of ellipsographs were known to Greek mathematicians such as Archimedes and Proklos.If there is no ellipsograph available, one can draw an ellipse using an approximation by the four osculating circles at the vertices.For any method described below, knowledge of the axes and the semi-axes is necessary (or equivalently: the foci and the semi-major axis).", "If this presumption is not fulfilled one has to know at least two conjugate diameters.", "With help of Rytz's construction the axes and semi-axes can be retrieved.=== de La Hire's point construction ===The following construction of single points of an ellipse is due to de La Hire.", "It is based on the standard parametric representation of an ellipse:# Draw the two ''circles'' centered at the center of the ellipse with radii and the axes of the ellipse.# Draw a ''line through the center'', which intersects the two circles at point and , respectively.# Draw a ''line'' through that is parallel to the minor axis and a ''line'' through that is parallel to the major axis.", "These lines meet at an ellipse point (see diagram).# Repeat steps (2) and (3) with different lines through the center.Elliko-sk.svg\|de La Hire's methodParametric ellipse.gif\|Animation of the methodEllipse: gardener's method===Pins-and-string method===The characterization of an ellipse as the locus of points so that sum of the distances to the foci is constant leads to a method of drawing one using two drawing pins, a length of string, and a pencil.", "In this method, pins are pushed into the paper at two points, which become the ellipse's foci.", "A string is tied at each end to the two pins; its length after tying is .", "The tip of the pencil then traces an ellipse if it is moved while keeping the string taut.", "Using two pegs and a rope, gardeners use this procedure to outline an elliptical flower bed—thus it is called the ''gardener's ellipse''.A similar method for drawing confocal ellipses with a ''closed'' string is due to the Irish bishop Charles Graves.=== Paper strip methods ===The two following methods rely on the parametric representation (see '''', above):This representation can be modeled technically by two simple methods.", "In both cases center, the axes and semi axes have to be known.", ";Method 1The first method starts with: a strip of paper of length .The point, where the semi axes meet is marked by .", "If the strip slides with both ends on the axes of the desired ellipse, then point traces the ellipse.", "For the proof one shows that point has the parametric representation , where parameter is the angle of the slope of the paper strip.A technical realization of the motion of the paper strip can be achieved by a Tusi couple (see animation).", "The device is able to draw any ellipse with a ''fixed'' sum , which is the radius of the large circle.", "This restriction may be a disadvantage in real life.", "More flexible is the second paper strip method.Elliko-pap1.svg\|Ellipse construction: paper strip method 1Tusi couple vs Paper strip plus Ellipses horizontal.gif\|Ellipses with Tusi couple.", "Two examples: red and cyan.A variation of the paper strip method 1 uses the observation that the midpoint of the paper strip is moving on the circle with center (of the ellipse) and radius .", "Hence, the paperstrip can be cut at point into halves, connected again by a joint at and the sliding end fixed at the center (see diagram).", "After this operation the movement of the unchanged half of the paperstrip is unchanged.", "This variation requires only one sliding shoe.Ellipse-papsm-1a.svg\|Variation of the paper strip method 1Ellipses with SliderCrank inner Ellipses.gif\|Animation of the variation of the paper strip method 1Ellipse construction: paper strip method 2; Method 2:The second method starts with: a strip of paper of length .One marks the point, which divides the strip into two substrips of length and .", "The strip is positioned onto the axes as described in the diagram.", "Then the free end of the strip traces an ellipse, while the strip is moved.", "For the proof, one recognizes that the tracing point can be described parametrically by , where parameter is the angle of slope of the paper strip.This method is the base for several ''ellipsographs'' (see section below).Similar to the variation of the paper strip method 1 a ''variation of the paper strip method 2'' can be established (see diagram) by cutting the part between the axes into halves.File:Archimedes Trammel.gif\|Trammel of Archimedes (principle)File:L-Ellipsenzirkel.png\|Ellipsograph due to Benjamin BramerFile:Ellipses with SliderCrank Ellipses at Slider Side.gif\|Variation of the paper strip method 2Most ellipsograph drafting instruments are based on the second paperstrip method.Approximation of an ellipse with osculating circles=== Approximation by osculating circles ===From ''Metric properties'' below, one obtains:* The radius of curvature at the vertices is: * The radius of curvature at the co-vertices is: The diagram shows an easy way to find the centers of curvature at vertex and co-vertex , respectively:# mark the auxiliary point and draw the line segment # draw the line through , which is perpendicular to the line # the intersection points of this line with the axes are the centers of the osculating circles.", "(proof: simple calculation.", ")The centers for the remaining vertices are found by symmetry.With help of a French curve one draws a curve, which has smooth contact to the osculating circles.=== Steiner generation ===Ellipse: Steiner generationEllipse: Steiner generationThe following method to construct single points of an ellipse relies on the Steiner generation of a conic section:: Given two pencils of lines at two points (all lines containing and , respectively) and a projective but not perspective mapping of onto , then the intersection points of corresponding lines form a non-degenerate projective conic section.For the generation of points of the ellipse one uses the pencils at the vertices .", "Let be an upper co-vertex of the ellipse and .", "is the center of the rectangle .", "The side of the rectangle is divided into n equal spaced line segments and this division is projected parallel with the diagonal as direction onto the line segment and assign the division as shown in the diagram.", "The parallel projection together with the reverse of the orientation is part of the projective mapping between the pencils at and needed.", "The intersection points of any two related lines and are points of the uniquely defined ellipse.", "With help of the points the points of the second quarter of the ellipse can be determined.", "Analogously one obtains the points of the lower half of the ellipse.Steiner generation can also be defined for hyperbolas and parabolas.", "It is sometimes called a ''parallelogram method'' because one can use other points rather than the vertices, which starts with a parallelogram instead of a rectangle.=== As hypotrochoid ===An ellipse (in red) as a special case of the hypotrochoid with ''R'' = 2''r''The ellipse is a special case of the hypotrochoid when , as shown in the adjacent image.", "The special case of a moving circle with radius inside a circle with radius is called a Tusi couple." ], [ "Inscribed angles and three-point form", "=== Circles ===Circle: inscribed angle theoremA circle with equation is uniquely determined by three points not on a line.", "A simple way to determine the parameters uses the ''inscribed angle theorem'' for circles:: For four points (see diagram) the following statement is true:: The four points are on a circle if and only if the angles at and are equal.Usually one measures inscribed angles by a degree or radian ''θ'', but here the following measurement is more convenient:: In order to measure the angle between two lines with equations one uses the quotient: ====Inscribed angle theorem for circles====For four points no three of them on a line, we have the following (see diagram):: The four points are on a circle, if and only if the angles at and are equal.", "In terms of the angle measurement above, this means: At first the measure is available only for chords not parallel to the y-axis, but the final formula works for any chord.====Three-point form of circle equation====: As a consequence, one obtains an equation for the circle determined by three non-collinear points : For example, for the three-point equation is:: , which can be rearranged to Using vectors, dot products and determinants this formula can be arranged more clearly, letting :The center of the circle satisfies:The radius is the distance between any of the three points and the center.=== Ellipses ===This section considers the family of ellipses defined by equations with a ''fixed'' eccentricity .", "It is convenient to use the parameter:and to write the ellipse equation as:where ''q'' is fixed and vary over the real numbers.", "(Such ellipses have their axes parallel to the coordinate axes: if , the major axis is parallel to the ''x''-axis; if , it is parallel to the ''y''-axis.", ")Inscribed angle theorem for an ellipseLike a circle, such an ellipse is determined by three points not on a line.For this family of ellipses, one introduces the following q-analog angle measure, which is ''not'' a function of the usual angle measure ''θ'':'''Planar Circle Geometries'''', an Introduction to Möbius-, Laguerre- and Minkowski Planes, p. 55: In order to measure an angle between two lines with equations one uses the quotient: ====Inscribed angle theorem for ellipses====: Given four points , no three of them on a line (see diagram).", ": The four points are on an ellipse with equation if and only if the angles at and are equal in the sense of the measurement above—that is, if At first the measure is available only for chords which are not parallel to the y-axis.", "But the final formula works for any chord.", "The proof follows from a straightforward calculation.", "For the direction of proof given that the points are on an ellipse, one can assume that the center of the ellipse is the origin.====Three-point form of ellipse equation====: A consequence, one obtains an equation for the ellipse determined by three non-collinear points : For example, for and one obtains the three-point form: and after conversion Analogously to the circle case, the equation can be written more clearly using vectors:where is the modified dot product" ], [ "Pole-polar relation", "Ellipse: pole-polar relationAny ellipse can be described in a suitable coordinate system by an equation .", "The equation of the tangent at a point of the ellipse is If one allows point to be an arbitrary point different from the origin, then: point is mapped onto the line , not through the center of the ellipse.This relation between points and lines is a bijection.The inverse function maps* line onto the point and* line onto the point Such a relation between points and lines generated by a conic is called ''pole-polar relation'' or ''polarity''.", "The pole is the point; the polar the line.By calculation one can confirm the following properties of the pole-polar relation of the ellipse:* For a point (pole) ''on'' the ellipse, the polar is the tangent at this point (see diagram: * For a pole ''outside'' the ellipse, the intersection points of its polar with the ellipse are the tangency points of the two tangents passing (see diagram: * For a point ''within'' the ellipse, the polar has no point with the ellipse in common (see diagram: # The intersection point of two polars is the pole of the line through their poles.# The foci and , respectively, and the directrices and , respectively, belong to pairs of pole and polar.", "Because they are even polar pairs with respect to the circle , the directrices can be constructed by compass and straightedge (see Inversive geometry).Pole-polar relations exist for hyperbolas and parabolas as well." ], [ "Metric properties", "All metric properties given below refer to an ellipse with equationexcept for the section on the area enclosed by a tilted ellipse, where the generalized form of Eq.", "() will be given.=== Area ===The area enclosed by an ellipse is:where and are the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively.", "The area formula is intuitive: start with a circle of radius (so its area is ) and stretch it by a factor to make an ellipse.", "This scales the area by the same factor: However, using the same approach for the circumference would be fallacious – compare the integrals and .", "It is also easy to rigorously prove the area formula using integration as follows.", "Equation () can be rewritten as For this curve is the top half of the ellipse.", "So twice the integral of over the interval will be the area of the ellipse:The second integral is the area of a circle of radius that is, SoAn ellipse defined implicitly by has area The area can also be expressed in terms of eccentricity and the length of the semi-major axis as (obtained by solving for flattening, then computing the semi-minor axis).The area enclosed by a tilted ellipse is .So far we have dealt with ''erect'' ellipses, whose major and minor axes are parallel to the and axes.", "However, some applications require ''tilted'' ellipses.", "In charged-particle beam optics, for instance, the enclosed area of an erect or tilted ellipse is an important property of the beam, its ''emittance''.", "In this case a simple formula still applies, namelywhere , are intercepts and , are maximum values.", "It follows directly from Apollonios's theorem.===Circumference===Ellipses with same circumferenceThe circumference of an ellipse is:where again is the length of the semi-major axis, is the eccentricity, and the function is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind,which is in general not an elementary function.The circumference of the ellipse may be evaluated in terms of using Gauss's arithmetic-geometric mean; this is a quadratically converging iterative method (see here for details).The exact infinite series is:where is the double factorial (extended to negative odd integers by the recurrence relation , for ).", "This series converges, but by expanding in terms of James Ivory and Bessel derived an expression that converges much more rapidly:Srinivasa Ramanujan gave two close approximations for the circumference in §16 of \"Modular Equations and Approximations to \"; they areandwhere takes on the same meaning as above.", "The errors in these approximations, which were obtained empirically, are of order and respectively.===Arc length===More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended (or of any two points on the upper half of the ellipse), is given by an incomplete elliptic integral.", "The upper half of an ellipse is parameterized byThen the arc length from to is:This is equivalent towhere is the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind with parameter Some lower and upper bounds on the circumference of the canonical ellipse with areHere the upper bound is the circumference of a circumscribed concentric circle passing through the endpoints of the ellipse's major axis, and the lower bound is the perimeter of an inscribed rhombus with vertices at the endpoints of the major and the minor axes.=== Curvature ===The curvature is given by radius of curvature at point :Radius of curvature at the two ''vertices'' and the centers of curvature:Radius of curvature at the two ''co-vertices'' and the centers of curvature:" ], [ "In triangle geometry", "Ellipses appear in triangle geometry as# Steiner ellipse: ellipse through the vertices of the triangle with center at the centroid,# inellipses: ellipses which touch the sides of a triangle.", "Special cases are the Steiner inellipse and the Mandart inellipse." ], [ "As plane sections of quadrics", "Ellipses appear as plane sections of the following quadrics:* Ellipsoid* Elliptic cone* Elliptic cylinder* Hyperboloid of one sheet* Hyperboloid of two sheetsEllipsoid Quadric.png\|EllipsoidQuadric Cone.jpg\|Elliptic coneElliptic Cylinder Quadric.png\|Elliptic cylinderHyperboloid1.png\|Hyperboloid of one sheetHyperboloid2.png\|Hyperboloid of two sheets" ], [ "Applications", "===Physics======= Elliptical reflectors and acoustics ====Wave pattern of a little droplet dropped into mercury in the foci of the ellipseIf the water's surface is disturbed at one focus of an elliptical water tank, the circular waves of that disturbance, after reflecting off the walls, converge simultaneously to a single point: the ''second focus''.", "This is a consequence of the total travel length being the same along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci.Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse are reflected to the second focus.", "Since no other smooth curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse.", "(In the special case of a circle with a source at its center all light would be reflected back to the center.)", "If the ellipse is rotated along its major axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a prolate spheroid), this property holds for all rays out of the source.", "Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with elliptical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors are used in some document scanners.Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a person standing at the other focus remarkably well.", "The effect is even more evident under a vaulted roof shaped as a section of a prolate spheroid.", "Such a room is called a ''whisper chamber''.", "The same effect can be demonstrated with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance.", "Examples are the National Statuary Hall at the United States Capitol (where John Quincy Adams is said to have used this property for eavesdropping on political matters); the Mormon Tabernacle at Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah; at an exhibit on sound at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago; in front of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Foellinger Auditorium; and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in the Alhambra.==== Planetary orbits ====In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun approximately at one focus, in his first law of planetary motion.", "Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation.More generally, in the gravitational two-body problem, if the two bodies are bound to each other (that is, the total energy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse.", "The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical significance.", "The orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at the same focus.Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially directed attraction force whose strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.", "Thus, in principle, the motion of two oppositely charged particles in empty space would also be an ellipse.", "(However, this conclusion ignores losses due to electromagnetic radiation and quantum effects, which become significant when the particles are moving at high speed.", ")For elliptical orbits, useful relations involving the eccentricity are:where* is the radius at apoapsis (the farthest distance)* is the radius at periapsis (the closest distance)* is the length of the semi-major axisAlso, in terms of and , the semi-major axis is their arithmetic mean, the semi-minor axis is their geometric mean, and the semi-latus rectum is their harmonic mean.", "In other words,==== Harmonic oscillators ====The general solution for a harmonic oscillator in two or more dimensions is also an ellipse.", "Such is the case, for instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two dimensions; of a mass attached to a fixed point by a perfectly elastic spring; or of any object that moves under influence of an attractive force that is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed attractor.", "Unlike Keplerian orbits, however, these \"harmonic orbits\" have the center of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and have fairly simple equations of motion.==== Phase visualization ====In electronics, the relative phase of two sinusoidal signals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope.", "If the Lissajous figure display is an ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out of phase.==== Elliptical gears ====Two non-circular gears with the same elliptical outline, each pivoting around one focus and positioned at the proper angle, turn smoothly while maintaining contact at all times.", "Alternatively, they can be connected by a link chain or timing belt, or in the case of a bicycle the main chainring may be elliptical, or an ovoid similar to an ellipse in form.", "Such elliptical gears may be used in mechanical equipment to produce variable angular speed or torque from a constant rotation of the driving axle, or in the case of a bicycle to allow a varying crank rotation speed with inversely varying mechanical advantage.Elliptical bicycle gears make it easier for the chain to slide off the cog when changing gears.An example gear application would be a device that winds thread onto a conical bobbin on a spinning machine.", "The bobbin would need to wind faster when the thread is near the apex than when it is near the base.==== Optics ====* In a material that is optically anisotropic (birefringent), the refractive index depends on the direction of the light.", "The dependency can be described by an index ellipsoid.", "(If the material is optically isotropic, this ellipsoid is a sphere.", ")* In lamp-pumped solid-state lasers, elliptical cylinder-shaped reflectors have been used to direct light from the pump lamp (coaxial with one ellipse focal axis) to the active medium rod (coaxial with the second focal axis).", "* In laser-plasma produced EUV light sources used in microchip lithography, EUV light is generated by plasma positioned in the primary focus of an ellipsoid mirror and is collected in the secondary focus at the input of the lithography machine.===Statistics and finance===In statistics, a bivariate random vector is jointly elliptically distributed if its iso-density contours—loci of equal values of the density function—are ellipses.", "The concept extends to an arbitrary number of elements of the random vector, in which case in general the iso-density contours are ellipsoids.", "A special case is the multivariate normal distribution.", "The elliptical distributions are important in finance because if rates of return on assets are jointly elliptically distributed then all portfolios can be characterized completely by their mean and variance—that is, any two portfolios with identical mean and variance of portfolio return have identical distributions of portfolio return.=== Computer graphics ===Drawing an ellipse as a graphics primitive is common in standard display libraries, such as the MacIntosh QuickDraw API, and Direct2D on Windows.", "Jack Bresenham at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit.", "M. L. V. Pitteway extended Bresenham's algorithm for lines to conics in 1967.Another efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by Jerry Van Aken.In 1970 Danny Cohen presented at the \"Computer Graphics 1970\" conference in England a linear algorithm for drawing ellipses and circles.", "In 1971, L. B. Smith published similar algorithms for all conic sections and proved them to have good properties.", "These algorithms need only a few multiplications and additions to calculate each vector.It is beneficial to use a parametric formulation in computer graphics because the density of points is greatest where there is the most curvature.", "Thus, the change in slope between each successive point is small, reducing the apparent \"jaggedness\" of the approximation.", ";Drawing with Bézier paths:Composite Bézier curves may also be used to draw an ellipse to sufficient accuracy, since any ellipse may be construed as an affine transformation of a circle.", "The spline methods used to draw a circle may be used to draw an ellipse, since the constituent Bézier curves behave appropriately under such transformations.=== Optimization theory ===It is sometimes useful to find the minimum bounding ellipse on a set of points.", "The ellipsoid method is quite useful for solving this problem." ], [ "See also", "* Cartesian oval, a generalization of the ellipse* Circumconic and inconic* Distance of closest approach of ellipses* Ellipse fitting* Elliptic coordinates, an orthogonal coordinate system based on families of ellipses and hyperbolae* Elliptic partial differential equation* Elliptical distribution, in statistics* Elliptical dome* Geodesics on an ellipsoid* Great ellipse* Kepler's laws of planetary motion* ''n''-ellipse, a generalization of the ellipse for ''n'' foci* Oval* Spheroid, the ellipsoid obtained by rotating an ellipse about its major or minor axis* Stadium (geometry), a two-dimensional geometric shape constructed of a rectangle with semicircles at a pair of opposite sides* Steiner circumellipse, the unique ellipse circumscribing a triangle and sharing its centroid* Superellipse, a generalization of an ellipse that can look more rectangular or more \"pointy\"* True, eccentric, and mean anomaly" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * Apollonius' Derivation of the Ellipse at Convergence* ''The Shape and History of The Ellipse in Washington, D.C.'' by Clark Kimberling* Ellipse circumference calculator* Collection of animated ellipse demonstrations* * Trammel according Frans van Schooten* by Matt Parker" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Extension" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Extension''', '''extend''' or '''extended''' may refer to:" ], [ "Mathematics", "===Logic or set theory===* Axiom of extensionality* Extensible cardinal* Extension (model theory)* Extension (predicate logic), the set of tuples of values that satisfy the predicate* Extension (semantics), the set of things to which a property applies* Extension by definitions* Extensional definition, a definition that enumerates every individual a term applies to* Extensionality===Other uses===* Extension of a function, defined on a larger domain* Extension of a polyhedron, in geometry* Exterior algebra, Grassmann's theory of extension, in geometry* Field extension, in Galois theory* Group extension, in abstract algebra and homological algebra* Homotopy extension property, in topology* Kolmogorov extension theorem, in probability theory* Linear extension, in order theory* Sheaf extension, in algebraic geometry* Tietze extension theorem, in topology* Whitney extension theorem, in differential geometry" ], [ "Music", "* Extension (music), notes that fit outside the standard range* ''Extended'' (Solar Fields album), 2005* ''Extension'' (George Braith album), 1964* ''Extension'' (Clare Fischer album), 1963* ''Extensions'' (Ahmad Jamal album), 1965* ''Extensions'', a 1969 album by Mystic Moods Orchestra* ''Extensions'' (McCoy Tyner album), 1970* ''Extensions'' (Dave Holland album), 1988* ''Extensions'' (The Manhattan Transfer album), 1979* Extension (The Extended Mixes), 2023 album reissue by Kylie Minogue" ], [ "Places", "* Extension, British Columbia, a village near Regional District of Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada* Extension, Louisiana, unincorporated community, United States" ], [ "Science", "* Extension (geology), relating to the pulling apart of the Earth's crust and lithosphere* Extension (anatomy), a movement at a joint that increases the angle between the two ends of the joint; the opposite of flexion* Extension locus, the gene locus of Melanocortin 1 receptor" ], [ "Other uses", "* Browser extension, a small software module for customizing a web browser* Building extension* Continuing education, or extension school, a school for continuing education* Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, a former division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture* Extension (metaphysics), the property of stretching out or taking up space* Extension (telephone), telephone line attached to a main line or to a PBX or Centrex system* Extension cord, power cable with a plug on one end and one or more sockets on the other end * Eyelash extensions, material applied to eyelashes* Hair extensions, strands of hair added to existing hair* Extension, the building of community capacity by outsiders, for instance agricultural extension* Filename extension, for computer file systems" ], [ "See also", "* Extensive (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elephant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elephants''' are the largest living land animals.", "Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant (''Loxodonta africana''), the African forest elephant (''L.", "cyclotis''), and the Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus'').", "They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea; extinct relatives include mammoths and mastodons.", "Distinctive features of elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, pillar-like legs, and tough but sensitive grey skin.", "The trunk is prehensile, bringing food and water to the mouth and grasping objects.", "Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging.", "The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication.", "African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs.Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are found in different habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes.", "They are herbivorous, and they stay near water when it is accessible.", "They are considered to be keystone species, due to their impact on their environments.", "Elephants have a fission–fusion society, in which multiple family groups come together to socialise.", "Females (cows) tend to live in family groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring.", "The leader of a female group, usually the oldest cow, is known as the matriarch.Males (bulls) leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males.", "Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate.", "They enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth, which helps them gain dominance over other males as well as reproductive success.", "Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years.", "Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild.", "They communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound and seismic communication over long distances.", "Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans.", "They appear to have self-awareness, and possibly show concern for dying and dead individuals of their kind.African bush elephants and Asian elephants are listed as endangered and African forest elephants as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).", "One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks.", "Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people.", "Elephants are used as working animals in Asia.", "In the past, they were used in war; today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or employed for entertainment in circuses.", "Elephants have an iconic status in human culture, and have been widely featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''elephant'' is based on the Latin (genitive ) , which is the Latinised form of the ancient Greek () (genitive ()), probably from a non-Indo-European language, likely Phoenician.", "It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as (genitive ) in Linear B syllabic script.", "As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory, but after the time of Herodotus, it also referred to the animal.", "The word ''elephant'' appears in Middle English as () and was borrowed from Old French (12th century)." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea.", "Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria.", "Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria.Three species of living elephants are recognised; the African bush elephant (''Loxodonta africana''), forest elephant (''Loxodonta cyclotis'') and Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus'').", "African elephants were traditionally considered a single species, ''Loxodonta africana'', but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species.", "Mammoths (''Mammuthus'') are nested within living elephants as they are more closely related to Asian elephants than to African elephants.", "Another extinct genus of elephant, ''Palaeoloxodon'', is also recognised, which appears to have close affinities with African elephants and to have hybridised with African forest elephants.===Evolution===Over 180 extinct members of order Proboscidea have been described.", "The earliest proboscideans, the African ''Eritherium'' and ''Phosphatherium'' are known from the late Paleocene.", "The Eocene included ''Numidotherium'', ''Moeritherium'' and ''Barytherium'' from Africa.", "These animals were relatively small and, some, like ''Moeritherium'' and ''Barytherium'' were probably amphibious.", "Later on, genera such as ''Phiomia'' and ''Palaeomastodon'' arose; the latter likely inhabited more forested areas.", "Proboscidean diversification changed little during the Oligocene.", "One notable species of this epoch was ''Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi'' of the Horn of Africa, which may have been an ancestor to several later species.A major event in proboscidean evolution was the collision of Afro-Arabia with Eurasia, during the Early Miocene, around 18–19 million years ago, allowing proboscideans to disperse from their African homeland across Eurasia and later, around 16–15 million years ago into North America across the Bering Land Bridge.", "Proboscidean groups prominent during the Miocene include the deinotheres, along with the more advanced elephantimorphs, including mammutids (mastodons), gomphotheres, amebelodontids (which includes the \"shovel tuskers\" like ''Platybelodon''), choerolophodontids and stegodontids.", "Around 10 million years ago, the earliest members of the family Elephantidae emerged in Africa, having originated from gomphotheres.Elephantids are distinguished from earlier proboscideans by a major shift in the molar morphology to parallel lophs rather than the cusps of earlier proboscideans, allowing them to become higher-crowned (hypsodont) and more efficient in consuming grass.", "The Late Miocene saw major climactic changes, which resulted in the decline and extinction of many proboscidean groups.", "The earliest members of the modern genera of Elephantidae appeared during the latest Miocene–early Pliocene around 5 million years ago.", "The elephantid genera ''Elephas'' (which includes the living Asian elephant) and ''Mammuthus'' (mammoths) migrated out of Africa during the late Pliocene, around 3.6 to 3.2 million years ago.Over the course of the Early Pleistocene, all non-elephantid probobscidean genera outside of the Americas became extinct with the exception of ''Stegodon'', with gomphotheres dispersing into South America as part of the Great American interchange, and mammoths migrating into North America around 1.5 million years ago.", "At the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 800,000 years ago the elephantid genus ''Palaeoloxodon'' dispersed outside of Africa, becoming widely distributed in Eurasia.", "Proboscideans were represented by around 23 species at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene.", "Proboscideans underwent a dramatic decline during the Late Pleistocene as part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions of most large mammals globally, with all remaining non-elephantid proboscideans (including ''Stegodon'', mastodons, and the American gomphotheres ''Cuvieronius'' and ''Notiomastodon'') and ''Palaeoloxodon'' becoming extinct, with mammoths only surviving in relict populations on islands around the Bering Strait into the Holocene, with their latest survival being on Wrangel Island, where they persisted until around 4,000 years ago.Over the course of their evolution, probobscideans grew in size.", "With that came longer limbs and wider feet with a more digitigrade stance, along with a larger head and shorter neck.", "The trunk evolved and grew longer to provide reach.", "The number of premolars, incisors, and canines decreased, and the cheek teeth (molars and premolars) became longer and more specialised.", "The incisors developed into tusks of different shapes and sizes.", "Several species of proboscideans became isolated on islands and experienced insular dwarfism, some dramatically reducing in body size, such as the tall dwarf elephant species ''Palaeoloxodon falconeri''.===Living species=== Name Size Appearance Distribution Image African bush elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') '''Male''': (shoulder height), (weight); '''Female''': (shoulder height), (weight).", "Relatively large and triangular ears, concave back, diamond shaped molar ridges, wrinkled skin, sloping abdomen, and two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk.", "Sub-Saharan Africa; forests, savannahs, deserts, wetlands, and near lakes200px African forest elephant (''Loxodonta cyclotis'') (shoulder height), (weight).", "Similar to the bush species, but with smaller and more rounded ears and thinner and straighter tusks.", "West and Central Africa; equatorial forests, but occasionally gallery forests and forest/grassland ecotones.200px Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus'') '''Male''': (shoulder height), (weight); '''Female''': (shoulder height), (weight).", "Relatively small ears, convex or level back, dish-shaped forehead with two large bumps, narrow molar ridges, smooth skin with some blotches of depigmentation, a straightened or saggy abdomen, and one extension at the tip of the trunk.South and Southeast Asia; habitats with a mix of grasses, low woody plants, and trees, including dry thorn-scrub forests in southern India and Sri Lanka and evergreen forests in Malaya.200px" ], [ "Anatomy", "African bush elephant skeletonElephants are the largest living terrestrial animals.", "The skeleton is made up of 326–351 bones.", "The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility.", "African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs.", "The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength.", "These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance.", "By contrast, the lower jaw is dense.", "The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head.", "The skull is built to withstand great stress, particularly when fighting or using the tusks.", "The brain is surrounded by arches in the skull, which serve as protection.", "Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support.Elephants are homeotherms and maintain their average body temperature at ~ 36 °C (97 °F), with a minimum of 35.2 °C (95.4 °F) during the cool season, and a maximum of 38.0 °C (100.4 °F) during the hot dry season.===Ears and eyes===African bush elephant with ears spread in a threat or attentive position; note the visible blood vesselsElephant ear flaps, or pinnae, are thick in the middle with a thinner tip and supported by a thicker base.", "They contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries.", "Warm blood flows into the capillaries, releasing excess heat into the environment.", "This effect is increased by flapping the ears back and forth.", "Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released.", "Of all the elephants, African bush elephants live in the hottest climates and have the largest ear flaps.", "The ossicles are adapted for hearing low frequencies, being most sensitive at 1 kHz.Lacking a lacrimal apparatus (tear duct), the eye relies on the harderian gland in the orbit to keep it moist.", "A durable nictitating membrane shields the globe.", "The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes.", "Elephants are dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light.===Trunk===African bush elephant with its trunk raised, a behaviour often adopted when trumpetingThe elongated and prehensile trunk, or proboscis, consists of both the nose and upper lip, which fuse in early fetal development.", "This versatile appendage contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles, with no bone and little fat.", "These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal.", "The former are divided into dorsal, ventral, and lateral muscles, while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles.", "The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull.", "The nasal septum consists of small elastic muscles between the nostrils, which are divided by cartilage at the base.", "A unique proboscis nerve – a combination of the maxillary and facial nerves – lines each side of the appendage.As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves through finely controlled muscle contractions, working both with and against each other.", "Using three basic movements: bending, twisting, and longitudinal stretching or retracting, the trunk has near unlimited flexibility.", "Objects grasped by the end of the trunk can be moved to the mouth by curving the appendage inward.", "The trunk can also bend at different points by creating stiffened \"pseudo-joints\".", "The tip can be moved in a way similar to the human hand.", "The skin is more elastic on the dorsal side of the elephant trunk than underneath; allowing the animal to stretch and coil while maintaining a strong grasp.", "The African elephants have two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow them to pluck small food.", "The Asian elephant has only one and relies more on wrapping around a food item.", "Asian elephant trunks have better motor coordination.Asian elephant drinking water with trunkThe trunk's extreme flexibility allows it to forage and wrestle other elephants with it.", "It is powerful enough to lift up to , but it also has the precision to crack a peanut shell without breaking the seed.", "With its trunk, an elephant can reach items up to high and dig for water in the mud or sand below.", "It also uses it to clean itself.", "Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to twist them to the left, others to the right.", "Elephant trunks are capable of powerful siphoning.", "They can expand their nostrils by 30%, leading to a 64% greater nasal volume, and can breathe in almost 30 times faster than a human sneeze, at over .", "They suck up water, which is squirted into the mouth or over the body.", "The trunk of an adult Asian elephant is capable of retaining of water.", "They will also sprinkle dust or grass on themselves.", "When underwater, the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel.The trunk also acts as a sense organ.", "Its sense of smell may be four times greater than a bloodhound's nose.", "The infraorbital nerve, which makes the trunk sensitive to touch, is thicker than both the optic and auditory nerves.", "Whiskers grow all along the trunk, and are particularly packed at the tip, where they contribute to its tactile sensitivity.", "Unlike those of many mammals, such as cats and rats, elephant whiskers do not move independently (\"whisk\") to sense the environment; the trunk itself must move to bring the whiskers into contact with nearby objects.", "Whiskers grow in rows along each side on the ventral surface of the trunk, which is thought to be essential in helping elephants balance objects there, whereas they are more evenly arranged on the dorsal surface.", "The number and patterns of whiskers are distinctly different between species.Damaging the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival, although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones.", "One trunkless elephant has been observed to graze using its lips with its hind legs in the air and balancing on its front knees.", "Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis recorded in African bush elephants and involves the degeneration of the peripheral nerves and muscles.", "The disorder has been linked to lead poisoning.===Teeth===Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks; 12 deciduous premolars; and 12 molars.", "Unlike most mammals, teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically.", "Instead, new teeth start at the back of the mouth and push out the old ones.", "The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old.", "This is followed by four more tooth replacements at the ages of four to six, 9–15, 18–28, and finally in their early 40s.", "The final (usually sixth) set must last the elephant the rest of its life.", "Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which are more diamond-shaped in African elephants.====Tusks====The tusks of an elephant have modified second incisors in the upper jaw.", "They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and keep growing at about a year.", "As the tusk develops, it is topped with smooth, cone-shaped enamel that eventually wanes.", "The dentine is known as ivory and has a cross-section of intersecting lines, known as \"engine turning\", which create diamond-shaped patterns.", "Being living tissue, tusks are fairly soft and about as dense as the mineral calcite.", "The tusk protrudes from a socket in the skull, and most of it is external.", "At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp, and some have nerves that stretch even further.", "Thus, it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal.", "When removed, ivory will dry up and crack if not kept cool and wet.", "Tusks function in digging, debarking, marking, moving objects, and fighting.Elephants are usually right- or left-tusked, similar to humans, who are typically right- or left-handed.", "The dominant, or \"master\" tusk, is typically more worn down, as it is shorter and blunter.", "For African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in both sexes, reaching up to , but those of males tend to be more massive.", "In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks.", "Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all.", "Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants.", "Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was long and weighed .", "Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for shorter tusks and tusklessness.=== Skin ===Asian elephant skinAn elephant's skin is generally very tough, at thick on the back and parts of the head.", "The skin around the mouth, anus, and inside of the ear is considerably thinner.", "Elephants are typically grey, but African elephants look brown or reddish after rolling in coloured mud.", "Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the head.", "Calves have brownish or reddish hair, with the head and back being particularly hairy.", "As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the tip of the tail and parts of the head and genitals.", "Normally, the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart.", "Their hair is thought to help them lose heat in their hot environments.Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive and requires mud baths to maintain moisture and protect it from burning and insect bites.", "After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body, which dries into a protective crust.", "Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human.", "They have even been observed lifting up their legs to expose their soles to the air.", "Elephants only have sweat glands between the toes, but the skin allows water to disperse and evaporate, cooling the animal.", "In addition, cracks in the skin may reduce dehydration and allow for increased thermal regulation in the long term.=== Legs, locomotion, and posture ===To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals.", "The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bones in place of medullary cavities.", "This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis (blood cell creation).", "Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front.", "The position of the limbs and leg bones allows an elephant to stand still for extended periods of time without tiring.", "Elephants are incapable of turning their manus as the ulna and radius of the front legs are secured in pronation.", "Elephants may also lack the pronator quadratus and pronator teres muscles or have very small ones.", "The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues, or \"cushion pads\" beneath the manus or pes, which allow them to bear the animal's great mass.", "They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra \"toe\" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra \"thumb\", that also helps in weight distribution.", "As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet.Elephants can move both forward and backward, but are incapable of trotting, jumping, or galloping.", "They can move on land only by walking or ambling: a faster gait similar to running.", "In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders moving up and down while the foot is planted on the ground.", "The fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, since there is no point where all the feet are off the ground, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, and can move faster by quickening its stride.", "Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of .", "At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length.", "Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals.", "The cushion pads expand and contract, and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving.", "Elephants are capable swimmers: they can swim for up to six hours while staying at the surface, moving at and traversing up to continuously.=== Internal systems ===The brain of an elephant weighs compared to for a human brain.", "It is the largest of all terrestrial mammals.", "While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller than the human brain.", "At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight.", "The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally.", "Their temporal lobes are proportionally larger than those of other animals, including humans.", "The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use.", "The larynx of the elephant is the largest known among mammals.", "The vocal folds are anchored close to the epiglottis base.", "When comparing an elephant's vocal folds to those of a human, an elephant's are proportionally longer, thicker, with a greater cross-sectional area.", "In addition, they are located further up the vocal tract with an acute slope.African elephant heart in a jarThe heart of an elephant weighs .", "Its apex has two pointed ends, an unusual trait among mammals.", "In addition, the ventricles of the heart split towards the top, a trait also found in sirenians.", "When upright, the elephant's heart beats around 28 beats per minute and actually speeds up to 35 beats when it lies down.", "The blood vessels are thick and wide and can hold up under high blood pressure.", "The lungs are attached to the diaphragm, and breathing relies less on the expanding of the ribcage.", "Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity.", "This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air.", "Elephants breathe mostly with the trunk but also with the mouth.", "They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach in length.", "Less than half of an elephant's food intake gets digested, despite the process lasting a day.", "An elephant's kidneys can produce more than 50 litres of urine per day.===Sex organs===A male elephant's testes, like other Afrotheria, are internally located near the kidneys.", "The penis can be as long as with a wide base.", "It curves to an 'S' when fully erect and has an orifice shaped like a Y.", "The female's clitoris may be .", "The vulva is found lower than in other herbivores, between the hind legs instead of under the tail.", "Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large belly.", "The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk.", "Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located on both sides of the head.", "This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth.", "Females have also been observed with these secretions." ], [ "Behaviour and ecology", "Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass, and roots.", "African elephants mostly browse, while Asian elephants mainly graze.", "They can eat as much as of food and drink of water in a day.", "Elephants tend to stay near water sources.", "They have morning, afternoon, and nighttime feeding sessions.", "At midday, elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing.", "Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down.", "Elephants average 3–4 hours of sleep per day.", "Both males and family groups typically move no more than a day, but distances as far as have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia.", "Elephants go on seasonal migrations in response to changes in environmental conditions.", "In northern Botswana, they travel to the Chobe River after the local waterholes dry up in late August.Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species.", "Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; smaller herbivores can access trees mowed down by elephants.", "When they dig for water during droughts, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals.", "When they use waterholes, they end up making them bigger.", "At Mount Elgon, elephants dig through caves and pave the way for ungulates, hyraxes, bats, birds and insects.", "Elephants are important seed dispersers; African forest elephants consume and deposit many seeds over great distances, with either no effect or a positive effect on germination.", "In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal.", "This ecological niche cannot be filled by the smaller Malayan tapir.", "Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys.", "Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems.", "At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda, elephant numbers have threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands.", "Their weight causes the soil to compress, leading to runoff and erosion.Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way.", "Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded.", "The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to predators.", "Calves may be preyed on by lions, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs in Africa and tigers in Asia.", "The lions of Savuti, Botswana, have adapted to hunting elephants, mostly calves, juveniles or even sub-adults.", "There are rare reports of adult Asian elephants falling prey to tigers.", "Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to many other mammals.", "This is due to them being largely immune to predators, which would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads.===Social organisation===A family of African bush elephantsElephants are generally gregarious animals.", "African bush elephants in particular have a complex, stratified social structure.", "Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit matrilineal family groups.", "They are led by the matriarch, who is often the eldest female.", "She remains leader of the group until death or if she no longer has the energy for the role; a study on zoo elephants found that the death of the matriarch led to greater stress in the surviving elephants.", "When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place instead of her sister (if present).", "One study found that younger matriarchs take potential threats less seriously.", "Large family groups may split if they cannot be supported by local resources.At Amboseli National Park, Kenya, female groups may consist of around ten members, including four adults and their dependent offspring.", "Here, a cow's life involves interaction with those outside her group.", "Two separate families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups.", "During the dry season, elephant families may aggregate into clans.", "These may number around nine groups, in which clans do not form strong bonds but defend their dry-season ranges against other clans.", "The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the \"central\" and \"peripheral\" subpopulations.Female Asian elephants tend to have more fluid social associations.", "In Sri Lanka, there appear to be stable family units or \"herds\" and larger, looser \"groups\".", "They have been observed to have \"nursing units\" and \"juvenile-care units\".", "In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups and possibly clans.", "Family groups tend to be small, with only one or two adult females and their offspring.", "A group containing more than two cows and their offspring is known as a \"joint family\".", "Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units and do not reach levels above a bond group.", "Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one cow with one to three offspring.", "These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings.Lone bull: Adult male elephants spend much of their time alone or in single-sex groupsAdult males live separate lives.", "As he matures, a bull associates more with outside males or even other families.", "At Amboseli, young males may be away from their families 80% of the time by 14–15 years of age.", "When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males.", "The former is typical of bulls in dense forests.", "A dominance hierarchy exists among males, whether they are social or solitary.", "Dominance depends on age, size, and sexual condition.", "Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for mates and form vast and fluid social networks.", "Older bulls act as the leaders of these groups.", "The presence of older males appears to subdue the aggression and \"deviant\" behaviour of younger ones.", "The largest all-male groups can reach close to 150 individuals.", "Adult males and females come together to breed.", "Bulls will accompany family groups if a cow is in oestrous.===Sexual behaviour=======Musth====Indian elephant bull in musthAdult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth.", "In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at 15 years old, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25.At Amboseli, no bulls under 24 were found to be in musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 were.", "In some areas, there may be seasonal influences on the timing of musths.", "The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid discharged from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face.", "Behaviours associated with musth include walking with a high and swinging head, nonsynchronous ear flapping, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling, and urinating in the sheath.", "The length of this varies between males of different ages and conditions, lasting from days to months.Males become extremely aggressive during musth.", "Size is the determining factor in agonistic encounters when the individuals have the same condition.", "In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger.", "A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank.", "Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other.", "Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring.", "Rarely do they full-on fight.====Mating====African elephant bull mating with a member of a female groupElephants are polygynous breeders, and most copulations occur during rainfall.", "An oestrous cow uses pheromones in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate.", "A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response, which requires him to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and taste it with the vomeronasal organ at the roof of the mouth.", "The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks, with the follicular phase lasting 4–6 weeks and the luteal phase lasting 8–10 weeks.", "While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants have two.", "The first (or anovulatory) surge, appears to change the female's scent, signaling to males that she is in heat, but ovulation does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge.", "Cows over 45–50 years of age are less fertile.Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males.", "Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females seek them out, particularly older ones.", "Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths.", "For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby for comfort.", "During copulation, the male rests his trunk on the female.", "The penis is mobile enough to move without the pelvis.", "Before mounting, it curves forward and upward.", "Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or an ejaculatory pause.Homosexual behaviour is frequent in both sexes.", "As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting.", "Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting, and \"championships\" may form between old bulls and younger males.", "Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity, where they engage in mutual masturbation with their trunks.===Birth and development===Gestation in elephants typically lasts between one and a half and two years and the female will not give birth again for at least four years.", "The relatively long pregnancy is supported by several corpus luteums and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk.", "Births tend to take place during the wet season.", "Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur.", "Calves are born roughly tall and with a weight of around .", "They are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd.", "A newborn calf will attract the attention of all the herd members.", "Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks.", "For the first few days, the mother limits access to her young.", "Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups.", "Allomothers are typically aged two to twelve years.For the first few days, the newborn is unsteady on its feet and needs its mother's help.", "It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its eyesight is less developed.", "With little coordination in its trunk, it can only flop it around which may cause it to trip.", "When it reaches its second week, the calf can walk with more balance and has more control over its trunk.", "After its first month, the trunk can grab and hold objects, but still lacks sucking abilities, and the calf must bend down to drink.", "It continues to stay near its mother as it is still reliant on her.", "For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on its mother's milk, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water.", "At the same time, there is progress in lip and leg movements.", "By nine months, mouth, trunk and foot coordination are mastered.", "Suckling bouts tend to last 2–4 min/hr for a calf younger than a year.", "After a year, a calf is fully capable of grooming, drinking, and feeding itself.", "It still needs its mother's milk and protection until it is at least two years old.", "Suckling after two years may improve growth, health and fertility.Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight.", "The former are sexually mature by the age of nine years while the latter become mature around 14–15 years.", "Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes.", "Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age.", "Lin Wang, a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years.===Communication===Elephants communicate in various ways.", "Individuals greet one another by touching each other on the mouth, temporal glands and genitals.", "This allows them to pick up chemical cues.", "Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to control younger ones.", "Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication.", "When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them.", "A calf will press against its mother's front legs to signal it wants to rest and will touch her breast or leg when it wants to suckle.Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations.", "Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears.", "They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as tossing around dust and vegetation.", "They are usually bluffing when performing these actions.", "Excited elephants also raise their heads and spread their ears but additionally may raise their trunks.", "Submissive elephants will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that are ready to fight will bend their ears in a V shape.Elephants produce several vocalisations—some of which pass though the trunk—for both short and long range communication.", "This includes trumpeting, bellowing, roaring, growling, barking, snorting, and rumbling.", "Elephants can produce infrasonic rumbles.", "For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, with sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB and last 10–15 seconds.", "For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, possibly over .", "Elephants are known to communicate with seismics, vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it.", "An individual foot stomping or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at travel distances of up to .", "Seismic waveforms produced by rumbles travel .===Intelligence and cognition===Elephant rolling a block to allow it to reach foodElephants are among the most intelligent animals.", "They exhibit mirror self-recognition, an indication of self-awareness and cognition that has also been demonstrated in some apes and dolphins.", "One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs.", "This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later.", "Elephants are among the species known to use tools.", "An Asian elephant has been observed fine-tuning branches for use as flyswatters.", "Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of chimpanzees.", "Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory.", "This could have a factual basis; they possibly have cognitive maps which give them long lasting memories of their environment on a wide scale.", "Individuals may be able to remember where their family members are located.Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion.", "They are attracted to the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related.", "As with chimpanzees and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups.", "This has been interpreted as expressing \"concern\"; however, the ''Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour'' (1987) said that \"one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion\"." ], [ "Conservation", "===Status===A family of African forest elephants in the Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve wetlands.", "This species is considered to be critically endangered.African bush elephants were listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2021, and African forest elephants were listed as Critically Endangered in the same year.", "In 1979, Africa had an estimated population of at least 1.3 million elephants, possibly as high as 3.0 million.", "A decade later, the population was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Central Africa, 110,000 in Eastern Africa, 204,000 in Southern Africa, and 19,000 in Western Africa.", "The population of rainforest elephants was lower than anticipated, at around 214,000 individuals.", "Between 1977 and 1989, elephant populations declined by 74% in East Africa.", "After 1987, losses in elephant numbers hastened, and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia experienced a decline of 80%.", "African forest elephants had a total loss of 43%.", "Population trends in southern Africa were various, with unconfirmed losses in Zambia, Mozambique and Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa.", "The IUCN estimated that total population in Africa is estimated at to 415,000 individuals for both species combined as of 2016.African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found.", "Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities while failures have led to declines as high as 70% or more of the course of ten years.", "As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation.", "Large-scale cullings stopped in the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "In 1989, the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), making trade illegal.", "Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000.In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies.In 2020, the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as endangered due to the population declining by half over \"the last three generations\".", "Asian elephants once ranged from Western to East Asia and south to Sumatra.", "and Java.", "It is now extinct in these areas, and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented.", "The total population of Asian elephants is estimated to be around 40,000–50,000, although this may be a loose estimate.", "Around 60% of the population is in India.", "Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in Sri Lanka appears to have risen and elephant numbers in the Western Ghats may have stabilised.===Threats===Men with elephant tusks at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence.", "Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use was comparable to that of gold.", "The ivory trade contributed to the fall of the African elephant population in the late 20th century.", "This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan.", "Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks.", "Ivory was banned internationally by CITES in 1990.Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically.", "By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not as badly affected.", "Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from culled individuals or those that died of natural causes.The ban allowed the elephant to recover in parts of Africa.", "In February 2012, 650 elephants in Bouba Njida National Park, Cameroon, were slaughtered by Chadian raiders.", "This has been called \"one of the worst concentrated killings\" since the ivory ban.", "Asian elephants are potentially less vulnerable to the ivory trade, as females usually lack tusks.", "Still, members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar National Park in India.", "China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015, and in September 2015, China and the United States said \"they would enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory\" due to causes of extinction.Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation.", "The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations and may be confined to small islands of forest among human-dominated landscapes.", "Elephants commonly trample and consume crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result.", "Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation.", "One proposed solution is the protection of wildlife corridors which give populations greater interconnectivity and space.", "Chili pepper products as well as guarding with defense tools have been found to be effective in preventing crop-raiding by elephants.", "Less effective tactics include beehive and electric fences." ], [ "Human relations", "===Working animal===Working elephant as transportElephants have been working animals since at least the Indus Valley civilization over 4,000 years ago and continue to be used in modern times.", "There were 13,000–16,500 working elephants employed in Asia in 2000.These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10–20 years old when they are both more trainable and can work for more years.", "They were traditionally captured with traps and lassos, but since 1950, tranquillisers have been used.", "Individuals of the Asian species have been often trained as working animals.", "Asian elephants are used to carry and pull both objects and people in and out of areas as well as lead people in religious celebrations.", "They are valued over mechanised tools as they can perform the same tasks but in more difficult terrain, with strength, memory, and delicacy.", "Elephants can learn over 30 commands.", "Musth bulls are difficult and dangerous to work with and so are chained up until their condition passes.In India, many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse.", "They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960.In both Myanmar and Thailand, deforestation and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live.The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa.", "The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre.===Warfare===Battle of Zama by Henri-Paul Motte, 1890Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war.", "They were described in Sanskrit texts as far back as 1500 BC.", "From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Persia and east to Southeast Asia.", "The Persians used them during the Achaemenid Empire (between the 6th and 4th centuries BC) while Southeast Asian states first used war elephants possibly as early as the 5th century BC and continued to the 20th century.", "War elephants were also employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period since the reign of Ptolemy II in Egypt.", "The Carthaginian general Hannibal famously took African elephants across the Alps during his war with the Romans and reached the Po Valley in 218 BC with all of them alive, but died of disease and combat a year later.An elephant's head and sides were equipped with armour, the trunk may have had a sword tied to it and tusks were sometimes covered with sharpened iron or brass.", "Trained elephants would attack both humans and horses with their tusks.", "They might have grasped an enemy soldier with the trunk and tossed him to their mahout, or pinned the soldier to the ground and speared him.", "Some shortcomings of war elephants included their great visibility, which made them easy to target, and limited maneuverability compared to horses.", "Alexander the Great achieved victory over armies with war elephants by having his soldiers injure the trunks and legs of the animals which caused them to panic and become uncontrollable.===Zoos and circuses===Circus poster, Elephants have traditionally been a major part of zoos and circuses around the world.", "In circuses, they are trained to perform tricks.", "The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a major attraction in the Barnum & Bailey Circus.", "These animals do not reproduce well in captivity due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles.", "Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses.", "After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975, imports of the species almost stopped by the end of the 1980s.", "Subsequently, the US received many captive African elephants from Zimbabwe, which had an overabundance of the animals.Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy.", "Proponents of zoos argue that they allow easy access to the animals and provide fund and knowledge for preserving their natural habitats, as well as safekeeping for the species.", "Opponents claim that animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress.", "Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of wobbling the body or head and pacing the same route both forwards and backwards.", "This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos.", "Elephants in European zoos appear to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts at only 17 years, although other studies suggest that zoo elephants live just as long.The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals.", "In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus.", "Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was rebuked for using an electric prod on an elephant.", "Despite this, he denied that any of these practices hurt the animals.", "Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment.", "Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on positive reinforcement when training his animals.", "Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016.===Attacks===Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans.", "In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Because of the timing, these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive.", "In parts of India, male elephants have entered villages at night, destroying homes and killing people.", "From 2000 to 2004, 300 people died in Jharkhand, and in Assam, 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006.Throughout the country, 1,500 people were killed by elephants between 2019 and 2022, which led to 300 elephants being killed in kind.", "Local people have reported their belief that some elephants were drunk during their attacks, though officials have disputed this.", "Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the retaliatory slaughter of about 200 elephants by locals.===Cultural significance===Relief of Ganesha on the Golden Door, Patan Durbar Square, NepalElephants have a universal presence in global culture.", "They have been represented in art since Paleolithic times.", "Africa, in particular, contains many examples of elephant rock art, especially in the Sahara and southern Africa.", "In Asia, the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples.", "Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first-hand experience of them.", "The ancient Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted elephants more accurately than medieval Europeans who portrayed them more like fantasy creatures, with horse, bovine and boar-like traits, and trumpet-like trunks.", "As Europeans gained more access to captive elephants during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinci.Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs.", "The Mbuti people of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants.", "Similar ideas existed among other African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants.", "During the 10th century AD, the people of Igbo-Ukwu, in modern-day Nigeria, placed elephant tusks underneath their death leader's feet in the grave.", "The animals' importance is only totemic in Africa but is much more significant in Asia.", "In Sumatra, elephants have been associated with lightning.", "Likewise in Hinduism, they are linked with thunderstorms as Airavata, the father of all elephants, represents both lightning and rainbows.", "One of the most important Hindu deities, the elephant-headed Ganesha, is ranked equal with the supreme gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma in some traditions.", "Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants and it is believed that he can give people success as well as grant them their desires, but could also take these things away.", "In Buddhism, Buddha is said to have been a white elephant reincarnated as a human.", "The Elephant's Child\" by Rudyard KiplingIn Western popular culture, elephants symbolise the exotic, especially since – as with the giraffe, hippopotamus and rhinoceros – there are no similar animals familiar to Western audiences.", "As characters, elephants are most common in children's stories, where they are portrayed positively.", "They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values.", "Many stories tell of isolated young elephants returning to or finding a family, such as \"The Elephant's Child\" from Rudyard Kipling's ''Just So Stories'', Disney's ''Dumbo,'' and Kathryn and Byron Jackson's ''The Saggy Baggy Elephant''.", "Other elephant heroes given human qualities include Jean de Brunhoff's Babar, David McKee's Elmer, and Dr. Seuss's Horton.Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and strangeness.", "For instance, a \"white elephant\" is a byword for something that is weird, unwanted, and has no value.", "The expression \"elephant in the room\" refers to something that is being ignored but ultimately must be addressed.", "The story of the blind men and an elephant involves blind men touching different parts of an elephant and trying to figure out what it is." ], [ "See also", "* Animal track* Desert elephant* Elephants' graveyard* List of individual elephants * Motty, captive hybrid of an Asian and African elephant* National Elephant Day (Thailand)* World Elephant Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ** * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * Nance, Susan (2013).", "''Entertaining Elephants: Animal Agency and the Business of the American Circus''.", "Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.", "* Saxe, John Godfrey (1872).", "\"The Blindmen and the Elephant\" at Wikisource.", "''The Poems of John Godfrey Saxe''.", "" ], [ "External links", " International Elephant Foundation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evolutionary linguistics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Evolutionary linguistics''' or '''Darwinian linguistics''' is a sociobiological approach to the study of language.", "Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics as a subfield of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.", "The approach is also closely linked with evolutionary anthropology, cognitive linguistics and biolinguistics.", "Studying languages as the products of nature, it is interested in the biological origin and development of language.", "Evolutionary linguistics is contrasted with humanistic approaches, especially structural linguistics.A main challenge in this research is the lack of empirical data: there are no archaeological traces of early human language.", "Computational biological modelling and clinical research with artificial languages have been employed to fill in gaps of knowledge.", "Although biology is understood to shape the brain, which processes language, there is no clear link between biology and specific human language structures or linguistic universals.For lack of a breakthrough in the field, there have been numerous debates about what kind of natural phenomenon language might be.", "Some researchers focus on the innate aspects of language.", "It is suggested that grammar has emerged adaptationally from the human genome, bringing about a language instinct; or that it depends on a single mutation which has caused a language organ to appear in the human brain.", "This is hypothesized to result in a crystalline grammatical structure underlying all human languages.", "Others suggest language is not crystallized, but fluid and ever-changing.", "Others, yet, liken languages to living organisms.", "Languages are considered analogous to a parasite or populations of mind-viruses.", "There is so far little scientific evidence for any of these claims, and some of them have been labelled as pseudoscience." ], [ "History", "===1863–1945: social Darwinism===Although pre-Darwinian theorists had compared languages to living organisms as a metaphor, the comparison was first taken literally in 1863 by the historical linguist August Schleicher who was inspired by Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species''.", "At the time there was not enough evidence to prove that Darwin's theory of natural selection was correct.", "Schleicher proposed that linguistics could be used as a testing ground for the study of the evolution of species.", "A review of Schleicher's book ''Darwinism as Tested by the Science of Language'' appeared in the first issue of ''Nature'' journal in 1870.Darwin reiterated Schleicher's proposition in his 1871 book ''The Descent of Man'', claiming that languages are comparable to species, and that language change occurs through natural selection as words 'struggle for life'.", "Darwin believed that languages had evolved from animal mating calls.", "Darwinists considered the concept of language creation as unscientific.August Schleicher and his friend Ernst Haeckel were keen gardeners and regarded the study of cultures as a type of botany, with different species competing for the same living space.", "Similar ideas became later advocated by politicians who wanted to appeal to working class voters, not least by the national socialists who subsequently included the concept of struggle for living space in their agenda.", "Highly influential until the end of World War II, social Darwinism was eventually banished from human sciences, leading to a strict separation of natural and sociocultural studies.This gave rise to the dominance of structural linguistics in Europe.", "There had long been a dispute between the Darwinists and the French intellectuals with the topic of language evolution famously having been banned by the Paris Linguistic Society as early as in 1866.Ferdinand de Saussure proposed structuralism to replace evolutionary linguistics in his ''Course in General Linguistics'', published posthumously in 1916.The structuralists rose to academic political power in human and social sciences in the aftermath of the student revolts of Spring 1968, establishing Sorbonne as an international centrepoint of humanistic thinking.===From 1959 onwards: genetic determinism===In the United States, structuralism was however fended off by the advocates of behavioural psychology; a linguistics framework nicknamed as 'American structuralism'.", "It was eventually replaced by the approach of Noam Chomsky who published a modification of Louis Hjelmslev's formal structuralist theory, claiming that syntactic structures are innate.", "An active figure in peace demonstrations in the 1950s and 1960s, Chomsky rose to academic political power following Spring 1968 at the MIT.Chomsky became an influential opponent of the French intellectuals during the following decades, and his supporters successfully confronted the post-structuralists in the ''Science Wars'' of the late 1990s.", "The shift of the century saw a new academic funding policy where interdisciplinary research became favoured, effectively directing research funds to biological humanities.", "The decline of structuralism was evident by 2015 with Sorbonne having lost its former spirit.Chomsky eventually claimed that syntactic structures are caused by a random mutation in the human genome, proposing a similar explanation for other human faculties such as ethics.", "But Steven Pinker argued in 1990 that they are the outcome of evolutionary adaptations.===From 1976 onwards: Neo-Darwinism===At the same time when the Chomskyan paradigm of biological determinism defeated humanism, it was losing its own clout within sociobiology.", "It was reported likewise in 2015 that generative grammar was under fire in applied linguistics and in the process of being replaced with ''usage-based linguistics''; a derivative of Richard Dawkins's memetics.", "It is a concept of linguistic units as replicators.", "Following the publication of memetics in Dawkins's 1976 nonfiction bestseller ''The Selfish Gene'', many biologically inclined linguists, frustrated with the lack of evidence for Chomsky's Universal Grammar, grouped under different brands including a framework called Cognitive Linguistics (with capitalised initials), and 'functional' (adaptational) linguistics (not to be confused with functional linguistics) to confront both Chomsky and the humanists.", "The replicator approach is today dominant in evolutionary linguistics, applied linguistics, cognitive linguistics and linguistic typology; while the generative approach has maintained its position in general linguistics, especially syntax; and in computational linguistics." ], [ "View of linguistics", "Evolutionary linguistics is part of a wider framework of Universal Darwinism.", "In this view, linguistics is seen as an ecological environment for research traditions struggling for the same resources.", "According to David Hull, these traditions correspond to species in biology.", "Relationships between research traditions can be symbiotic, competitive or parasitic.", "An adaptation of Hull's theory in linguistics is proposed by William Croft.", "He argues that the Darwinian method is more advantageous than linguistic models based on physics, structuralist sociology, or hermeneutics." ], [ "Approaches", "Evolutionary linguistics is often divided into functionalism and formalism, concepts which are not to be confused with functionalism and formalism in the humanistic reference.", "Functional evolutionary linguistics considers languages as adaptations to human mind.", "The formalist view regards them as crystallised or non-adaptational.===Functionalism (adaptationism) ===The adaptational view of language is advocated by various frameworks of cognitive and evolutionary linguistics, with the terms 'functionalism' and 'Cognitive Linguistics' often being equated.", "It is hypothesised that the evolution of the animal brain provides humans with a mechanism of abstract reasoning which is a 'metaphorical' version of image-based reasoning.", "Language is not considered as a separate area of cognition, but as coinciding with general cognitive capacities, such as perception, attention, motor skills, and spatial and visual processing.", "It is argued to function according to the same principles as these.It is thought that the brain links action schemes to form–meaning pairs which are called constructions.", "Cognitive linguistic approaches to syntax are called cognitive and construction grammar.", "Also deriving from memetics and other cultural replicator theories, these can study the natural or social selection and adaptation of linguistic units.", "Adaptational models reject a formal systemic view of language and consider language as a population of linguistic units.The bad reputation of social Darwinism and memetics has been discussed in the literature, and recommendations for new terminology have been given.", "What correspond to replicators or mind-viruses in memetics are called ''linguemes'' in Croft's ''theory of Utterance Selection'' (TUS), and likewise linguemes or constructions in construction grammar and usage-based linguistics; and metaphors, frames or schemas in cognitive and construction grammar.", "The reference of memetics has been largely replaced with that of a Complex Adaptive System.", "In current linguistics, this term covers a wide range of evolutionary notions while maintaining the Neo-Darwinian concepts of replication and replicator population.Functional evolutionary linguistics is not to be confused with functional humanistic linguistics.===Formalism (structuralism)===Advocates of formal evolutionary explanation in linguistics argue that linguistic structures are crystallised.", "Inspired by 19th century advances in crystallography, Schleicher argued that different types of languages are like plants, animals and crystals.", "The idea of linguistic structures as frozen drops was revived in tagmemics, an approach to linguistics with the goal to uncover divine symmetries underlying all languages, as if caused by the Creation.In modern biolinguistics, the X-bar tree is argued to be like natural systems such as ferromagnetic droplets and botanic forms.", "Generative grammar considers syntactic structures similar to snowflakes.", "It is hypothesised that such patterns are caused by a mutation in humans.The formal–structural evolutionary aspect of linguistics is not to be confused with structural linguistics." ], [ "Evidence", "There was some hope of a breakthrough at the discovery of the ''FOXP2'' gene.", "There is little support, however, for the idea that ''FOXP2'' is 'the grammar gene' or that it had much to do with the relatively recent emergence of syntactical speech.", "There is no evidence that people have a language instinct.", "Memetics is widely discredited as pseudoscience and neurological claims made by evolutionary cognitive linguists have been likened to pseudoscience.", "All in all, there does not appear to be any evidence for the basic tenets of evolutionary linguistics beyond the fact that language is processed by the brain, and brain structures are shaped by genes." ], [ "Criticism", "Evolutionary linguistics has been criticised by advocates of (humanistic) structural and functional linguistics.", "Ferdinand de Saussure commented on 19th century evolutionary linguistics:Mark Aronoff, however, argues that historical linguistics had its golden age during the time of Schleicher and his supporters, enjoying a place among the hard sciences, and considers the return of Darwinian linguistics as a positive development.", "Esa Itkonen nonetheless deems the revival of Darwinism as a hopeless enterprise:Itkonen also points out that the principles of natural selection are not applicable because language innovation and acceptance have the same source which is the speech community.", "In biological evolution, mutation and selection have different sources.", "This makes it possible for people to change their languages, but not their genotype." ], [ "See also", "* Biolinguistics* Evolutionary psychology of language* FOXP2* Origin of language* Historical linguistics* Phylogenetic tree* Universal Darwinism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "******************** * ************************" ], [ "External links", " Agent-Based Models of Language Evolution* ARTI Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Vrije Universiteit Brussel* Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory* Computerized comparative linguistics* Fluid Construction Grammar* Language Evolution and Computation Bibliography * Language Evolution and Computation Research Unit, University of Edinburgh" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "ECHELON" ], [ "Introduction", "A radome at RAF Menwith Hill, a site with satellite uplink capabilities believed to be used by ECHELONRAF Menwith Hill, North Yorkshire, EnglandMisawa Air Base Security Operations Center (MSOC), Aomori Prefecture, Japan'''ECHELON''', originally a secret government code name, is a surveillance program (signals intelligence/SIGINT collection and analysis network) operated by the five signatory states to the UKUSA Security Agreement: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, also known as the Five Eyes.Created in the late 1960s to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies during the Cold War, the ECHELON project became formally established in 1971.By the end of the 20th century, it had greatly expanded." ], [ "Organization", "Map of the UKUSA Agreement countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and the United StatesThe UKUSA intelligence community was assessed by the European Parliament (EP) in 2000 to include the signals intelligence agencies of each of the member states:* the Government Communications Headquarters of the United Kingdom,* the National Security Agency of the United States,* the Communications Security Establishment of Canada,* the Australian Signals Directorate of Australia, and* the Government Communications Security Bureau of New Zealand.+List of intercept stations according to Edward Snowden's documentsOperated by the United States Country Location Operator(s) Codename Brasília, Federal District* CIA* NSA '''SCS''' Bad Aibling, Bavaria* BND* NSA '''GARLICK''' New Delhi* CIA* NSA '''SCS''' Misawa, Tōhoku region* US Air Force* NSA '''LADYLOVE''' Bangkok (?", ")* CIA (?", ")* NSA (?", ")'''LEMONWOOD''' Menwith Hill, Harrogate* NSA* GCHQ '''MOONPENNY''' Sugar Grove, West Virginia* NSA '''TIMBERLINE''' Yakima, Washington* NSA '''JACKKNIFE''' Sábana Seca, Puerto Rico* NSA '''CORALINE'''Operated Jointly with the United States (2nd party) Country Location Contributor(s) Codename Geraldton, WA* ASD '''STELLAR''' Darwin, NT* ASD'''SHOAL BAY''' Waihopai, Blenheim* GCSB '''IRONSAND''' Bude, Cornwall* GCHQ* NSA '''CARBOY''' Ayios Nikolaos Station* GCHQ* NSA '''SOUNDER''' Nairobi* GCHQ '''SCAPEL''' Seeb, Muscat* GCHQ '''SNICK'''" ], [ "Reporting and disclosures", "=== Public disclosures (1972–2000) ===Former NSA analyst Perry Fellwock, under the pseudonym Winslow Peck, first blew the whistle on ECHELON to ''Ramparts'' in 1972, when he revealed the existence of a global network of listening posts and told of his experiences working there.", "He also revealed the existence of nuclear weapons in Israel in 1972, the widespread involvement of CIA and NSA personnel in drugs and human smuggling, and CIA operatives leading Nationalist Chinese (Taiwan) commandos in burning villages inside PRC borders.In 1982, James Bamford, investigative journalist and author wrote ''The Puzzle Palace'', an in-depth look inside the workings of the NSA, then a super-secret agency, and the massive eavesdropping operation under the codename \"SHAMROCK\".", "The NSA has used many codenames, and SHAMROCK was the codename used for ECHELON prior to 1975.In 1988, Margaret Newsham, a Lockheed employee under NSA contract, disclosed the ECHELON surveillance system to members of Congress.", "Newsham told a member of the US Congress that the telephone calls of Strom Thurmond, a Republican US senator, were being collected by the NSA.", "Congressional investigators determined that \"targeting of US political figures would not occur by accident, but was designed into the system from the start.", "\"Also in 1988, an article titled \"Somebody's Listening\", written by investigative journalist Duncan Campbell in the ''New Statesman'', described the signals intelligence gathering activities of a program code-named \"ECHELON\".", "James Bamford describes the system as the software controlling the collection and distribution of civilian telecommunications traffic conveyed using communication satellites, with the collection being undertaken by ground stations located in the footprint of the downlink leg.A detailed description of ECHELON was provided by the New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in his 1996 book ''Secret Power: New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network''.", "Two years later, Hager's book was cited by the European Parliament in a report titled \"An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control\" (PE 168.184).In March 1999, for the first time in history, the Australian government admitted that news reports about the top secret UKUSA Agreement were true.", "Martin Brady, the director of Australia's Defence Signals Directorate (DSD, now known as Australian Signals Directorate, or ASD) told the Australian broadcasting channel Nine Network that the DSD \"does co-operate with counterpart signals intelligence organisations overseas under the UKUSA relationship.", "\"In 2000, James Woolsey, the former Director of the US Central Intelligence Agency, confirmed that US intelligence uses interception systems and keyword searches to monitor European businesses.Lawmakers in the United States feared that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor US citizens.", "According to ''The New York Times'', the ECHELON system has been \"shrouded in such secrecy that its very existence has been difficult to prove.\"", "Critics said the ECHELON system emerged from the Cold War as a \"Big Brother without a cause\".===European Parliament investigation (2000–2001)===The New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager, who testified before the European Parliament and provided specific details about the ECHELON surveillance systemThe program's capabilities and political implications were investigated by a committee of the European Parliament during 2000 and 2001 with a report published in 2001.In July 2000, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System was established by the European parliament to investigate the surveillance network.", "It was chaired by the Portuguese politician Carlos Coelho, who was in charge of supervising investigations throughout 2000 and 2001.In May 2001, as the committee finalised its report on the ECHELON system, a delegation travelled to Washington, D.C. to attend meetings with US officials from the following agencies and departments:* US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)* US Department of Commerce (DOC)* US National Security Agency (NSA)All meetings were cancelled by the US government and the committee was forced to end its trip prematurely.", "According to a BBC correspondent in May 2001, \"The US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists.", "\"In July 2001, the Committee released its final report.", "The EP report concluded that it seemed likely that ECHELON is a method of sorting captured signal traffic, rather than a comprehensive analysis tool.", "On 5 September 2001, the European parliament voted to accept the report.", "The European Parliament stated in its report that the term ECHELON is used in a number of contexts, but that the evidence presented indicates that it was the name for a signals intelligence collection system.", "The report concludes that, on the basis of information presented, ECHELON was capable of interception and content inspection of telephone calls, fax, e-mail and other data traffic globally through the interception of communication bearers including satellite transmission, public switched telephone networks (which once carried most Internet traffic), and microwave links.", "=== Confirmation of ECHELON (2015) ===Two internal NSA newsletters from January 2011 and July 2012, published as part of Edward Snowden's leaks by the website ''The Intercept'' on 3 August 2015, for the first time confirmed that NSA used the code word ECHELON and provided some details about the scope of the program: ECHELON was part of an umbrella program with the code name FROSTING, which was established by the NSA in 1966 to collect and process data from communications satellites.", "FROSTING had two sub-programs:* TRANSIENT: for intercepting Soviet satellite transmissions* ECHELON: for intercepting Intelsat satellite transmissions The European Parliament's Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System stated, \"It seems likely, in view of the evidence and the consistent pattern of statements from a very wide range of individuals and organisations, including American sources, that its name is in fact '''ECHELON''', although this is a relatively minor detail\".", "The US intelligence community uses many code names (''see'', for example, CIA cryptonym).Former NSA employee Margaret Newsham said that she worked on the configuration and installation of software that makes up the ECHELON system while employed at Lockheed Martin, from 1974 to 1984 in Sunnyvale, California, in the United States, and in Menwith Hill, England, in the UK.", "At that time, according to Newsham, the code name ECHELON was NSA's term for the computer network itself.", "Lockheed called it ''P415''.", "The software programs were called ''SILKWORTH'' and ''SIRE''.", "A satellite named ''VORTEX'' intercepted communications.", "An image available on the internet of a fragment apparently torn from a job description shows Echelon listed along with several other code names.Britain's ''The Guardian'' newspaper summarized the capabilities of the ECHELON system as follows:Documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed that the ECHELON system's collection of satellite data is also referred to as '''FORNSAT''' - an abbreviation for \"Foreign Satellite Collection\"." ], [ "Intercept stations", "First revealed by the European Parliament report (p. 54 ff) and confirmed later by the Edward Snowden disclosures the following ground stations presently have, or have had, a role in intercepting transmissions from Satellite and other means of communication:* RAF Little Sai Wan (Closed) (Hong Kong) Map* Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station (Geraldton, Western Australia) Map* RAF Menwith Hill (Yorkshire, England – Largest known ECHELON facility) Map * Misawa Security Operations Center (Oura, Misawa, Aomori, Tōhoku, Japan) Map* GCHQ Bude (''formerly CSO Morwenstow'') (Cornwall, UK) Map* Pine Gap (Outside Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia) Map* Sugar Grove (Closed) (West Virginia, US) Map * Yakima Training Center (''Closed'') (Washington State, US) Map * Buckley Space Force Base (Aurora, Colorado) Map* GCSB Waihopai (Marlborough, New Zealand) Map* GCSB Tangimoana (Manawatu-Wanganui, New Zealand) Map* CFS Leitrim (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) Map* Teufelsberg (''Closed 1992)'', Berlin, Germany – Responsible for listening in to the Eastern Bloc.)", "Map Ayios Nikolaos (British Sovereign Base area of Dhekelia, Cyprus – Cyprus)* Gibraltar (UK)* Diego Garcia (UK)* Bad Aibling Station (Bad Aibling, Germany – US)** relocated to Griesheim/Darmstadt in 2004.", "(German), ''hr online'', 1 October 2004* Fort Eisenhower (Georgia, US)* CFB Gander (Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada)* Guam (Pacific Ocean, US)* Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center (Hawaii, US)* Lackland Air Force Base, Medina Annex (San Antonio, Texas, US)* RAF Edzell (Closed 1996) (Scotland)* RAF Boulmer (England)* SNICK International Processing Center (Seeb, Oman) Map" ], [ "History and context", "Equipment at the Yakima Research Station (YRS) in the early days of the ECHELON programThe ability to intercept communications depends on the medium used, be it radio, satellite, microwave, cellular or fiber-optic.", "During World War II and through the 1950s, high-frequency (\"short-wave\") radio was widely used for military and diplomatic communication and could be intercepted at great distances.", "The rise of geostationary communications satellites in the 1960s presented new possibilities for intercepting international communications.", "In 1964, plans for the establishment of the ECHELON network took off after dozens of countries agreed to establish the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), which would own and operate a global constellation of communications satellites.Teletype operators at the Yakima Research Station (YRS) in the early days of the ECHELON programIn 1966, the first Intelsat satellite was launched into orbit.", "From 1970 to 1971, the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) of Britain began to operate a secret signal station at Morwenstow, near Bude in Cornwall, England.", "The station intercepted satellite communications over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.", "Soon afterwards, the US National Security Agency (NSA) built a second signal station at Yakima, near Seattle, for the interception of satellite communications over the Pacific Ocean.", "In 1981, GCHQ and the NSA started the construction of the first global wide area network (WAN).", "Soon after Australia, Canada, and New Zealand joined the ECHELON system.", "The report to the European Parliament of 2001 states: \"If UKUSA states operate listening stations in the relevant regions of the earth, in principle they can intercept all telephone, fax, and data traffic transmitted via such satellites.", "\"Most reports on ECHELON focus on satellite interception.", "Testimony before the European Parliament indicated that separate but similar UKUSA systems are in place to monitor communication through undersea cables, microwave transmissions, and other lines.", "The report to the European Parliament points out that interception of private communications by foreign intelligence services is not necessarily limited to the US or British foreign intelligence services.", "The role of satellites in point-to-point voice and data communications has largely been supplanted by fiber optics.", "In 2006, 99% of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic was carried over optical-fiber.", "The proportion of international communications accounted for by satellite links is said to have decreased substantially to an amount between 0.4% and 5% in Central Europe.", "Even in less-developed parts of the world, communications satellites are used largely for point-to-multipoint applications, such as video.", "Thus, the majority of communications can no longer be intercepted by earth stations; they can only be collected by tapping cables and intercepting line-of-sight microwave signals, which is possible only to a limited extent." ], [ "Concerns", "British journalist Duncan Campbell and New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager said in the 1990s that the United States was exploiting ECHELON traffic for industrial espionage, rather than military and diplomatic purposes.", "Examples alleged by the journalists include the gear-less wind turbine technology designed by the German firm Enercon and the speech technology developed by the Belgian firm Lernout & Hauspie.In 2001, the Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System recommended to the European Parliament that citizens of member states routinely use cryptography in their communications to protect their privacy, because economic espionage with ECHELON has been conducted by the US intelligence agencies.American author James Bamford provides an alternative view, highlighting that legislation prohibits the use of intercepted communications for commercial purposes, although he does not elaborate on how intercepted communications are used as part of an all-source intelligence process.In its report, the committee of the European Parliament stated categorically that the Echelon network was being used to intercept not only military communications, but also private and business ones.", "In its epigraph to the report, the parliamentary committee quoted Juvenal, \"''Sed quis custodiet ipsos custodes''.", "(\"But who will watch the watchers\").", "James Bamford, in ''The Guardian'' in May 2001, warned that if Echelon were to continue unchecked, it could become a \"cyber secret police, without courts, juries, or the right to a defence\".Alleged examples of espionage conducted by the members of the \"Five Eyes\" include:* On behalf of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, the Communications Security Establishment allegedly spied on two British cabinet ministers in 1983.", "* The US National Security Agency spied on and intercepted the phone calls of Diana, Princess of Wales right up until she died in a Paris car crash with Dodi Fayed in 1997.The NSA currently holds 1,056 pages of classified information about Princess Diana, which has been classified as top secret \"because their disclosure could reasonably be expected to cause exceptionally grave damage to the national security ... the damage would be caused not by the information about Diana, but because the documents would disclose 'sources and methods' of US intelligence gathering\".", "An official said that \"the references to Diana in intercepted conversations were 'incidental',\" and she was never a 'target' of the NSA eavesdropping.", "* UK agents monitored the conversations of the 7th Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan.", "* US agents gathered \"detailed biometric information\" on the 8th Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon.", "* In the early 1990s, the US National Security Agency intercepted the communications between the European aerospace company Airbus and the Saudi Arabian national airline.", "In 1994, Airbus lost a $6 billion contract with Saudi Arabia after the NSA, acting as a whistleblower, reported that Airbus officials had been bribing Saudi officials to secure the contract.", "As a result, the American aerospace company McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing) won the multibillion-dollar contract instead of Airbus.", "* The United States defense contractor Raytheon won a US$1.3 billion contract with the Government of Brazil to monitor the Amazon rainforest after the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), acting as a whistleblower, reported that Raytheon's French competitor Thomson-Alcatel had been paying bribes to get the contract.", "* In order to boost the United States position in trade negotiations with the then Japanese Trade Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto, in 1995 the CIA eavesdropped on the conversations between Japanese bureaucrats and executives of car manufacturers Toyota and Nissan." ], [ "Workings", "System diagram of the ECHELON satellite intercept station of the NSA at the Yakima Research Station (YRS)TOPCO = Terminal Operations ControlCCS = Computer Control SubsystemSTEAMS = System Test, Evaluation, Analysis, and Monitoring SubsystemSPS = Signal Processing SubsystemTTDM = Teletype DemodulatorThe first United States satellite ground station for the ECHELON collection program was built in 1971 at a military firing and training center near Yakima, Washington.", "The facility, which was codenamed JACKKNIFE, was an investment of ca.", "21.3 million dollars and had around 90 people.", "Satellite traffic was intercepted by a 30-meter single-dish antenna.", "The station became fully operational on 4 October 1974.It was connected with NSA headquarters at Fort Meade by a 75-baud secure Teletype orderwire channel.In 1999 the Australian Senate Joint Standing Committee on Treaties was told by Professor Desmond Ball that the Pine Gap facility was used as a ground station for a satellite-based interception network.", "The satellites were said to be large radio dishes between 20 and 100 meters in diameter in geostationary orbits.", "The original purpose of the network was to monitor the telemetry from 1970s Soviet weapons, air defence and other radars' capabilities, satellites' ground stations' transmissions and ground-based microwave communications.=== Examples of industrial espionage ===In 1999, Enercon, a German company and leading manufacturer of wind energy equipment, developed a breakthrough generator for wind turbines.", "After applying for a US patent, it had learned that Kenetech, an American rival, had submitted an almost identical patent application shortly before.", "By the statement of a former NSA employee, it was later claimed that the NSA had secretly intercepted and monitored Enercon's data communications and conference calls and passed information regarding the new generator to Kenetech.", "However, later German media reports contradicted this story, as it was revealed that the American patent in question was actually filed three years before the alleged wiretapping was said to have taken place.", "As German intelligence services are forbidden from engaging in industrial or economic espionage, German companies have complained that this leaves them defenceless against industrial espionage from the United States or Russia.", "According to Wolfgang Hoffmann, a former manager at Bayer, German intelligence services know which companies are being targeted by US intelligence agencies, but refuse to inform the companies involved." ], [ "See also", "* Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)* ADVISE* Frenchelon* List of government surveillance projects* Mass surveillance* Onyx (interception system), the Swiss \"Echelon\"* Operation Ivy Bells" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Aldrich, Richard J.; ''GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency'', HarperCollins, July 2010.", "* Bamford, James; ''The Puzzle Palace'', Penguin, ; 1983* Bamford, James; ''The Shadow Factory: The Ultra-Secret NSA from 9/11 to the Eavesdropping on America'', Doubleday, ; 2008* Hager, Nicky; ''Secret Power: New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network''; Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson, NZ; ; 1996* Keefe, Patrick Radden ''Chatter: Dispatches from the Secret World of Global Eavesdropping''; Random House Publishing, New York, NY; ; 2005* * Lawner, Kevin J.; Post-Sept. 11th International Surveillance Activity - A Failure of Intelligence: The Echelon Interception System & the Fundamental Right to Privacy in Europe, 14 ''Pace Int'l L. Rev''.", "435 (2002)" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Equation" ], [ "Introduction", "The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14''x'' + 15 = 71 in modern notation.", "From ''The Whetstone of Witte'' by Robert Recorde of Wales (1557).In mathematics, an '''equation''' is a mathematical formula that expresses the equality of two expressions, by connecting them with the equals sign .", "The word ''equation'' and its cognates in other languages may have subtly different meanings; for example, in French an ''équation'' is defined as containing one or more variables, while in English, any well-formed formula consisting of two expressions related with an equals sign is an equation.Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make the equality true.", "The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called '''unknowns''', and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation.", "There are two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations.", "An identity is true for all values of the variables.", "A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.The \"=\" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length." ], [ "Description", "An equation is written as two expressions, connected by an equals sign (\"=\").", "The expressions on the two sides of the equals sign are called the \"left-hand side\" and \"right-hand side\" of the equation.", "Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero.", "This does not reduce the generality, as this can be realized by subtracting the right-hand side from both sides.The most common type of equation is a polynomial equation (commonly called also an ''algebraic equation'') in which the two sides are polynomials.The sides of a polynomial equation contain one or more terms.", "For example, the equation :has left-hand side , which has four terms, and right-hand side , consisting of just one term.", "The names of the variables suggest that and are unknowns, and that , , and are parameters, but this is normally fixed by the context (in some contexts, may be a parameter, or , , and may be ordinary variables).An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed.", "When equal weights of something (e.g., grain) are placed into the two pans, the two weights cause the scale to be in balance and are said to be equal.", "If a quantity of grain is removed from one pan of the balance, an equal amount of grain must be removed from the other pan to keep the scale in balance.", "More generally, an equation remains in balance if the same operation is performed on its both sides." ], [ "Properties", "Two equations or two systems of equations are ''equivalent'', if they have the same set of solutions.", "The following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one – provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:* Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation.", "This shows that every equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.", "* Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.", "* Applying an identity to transform one side of the equation.", "For example, expanding a product or factoring a sum.", "* For a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation, multiplied by the same quantity.If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions.", "For example, the equation has the solution Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which means applying the function to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to , which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution, Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/''x'', which is not defined for ''x'' = 0), solutions existing at those values may be lost.", "Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a transformation to an equation.The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination." ], [ "Examples", "===Analogous illustration===Illustration of a simple equation; ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' are real numbers, analogous to weights.An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance.", "Different quantities can be placed on each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an inequality represented by an inequation).In the illustration, ''x'', ''y'' and ''z'' are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' has a different weight.", "Addition corresponds to adding weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from what is already there.", "When equality holds, the total weight on each side is the same.===Parameters and unknowns===Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns.", "These other terms, which are assumed to be ''known'', are usually called ''constants'', ''coefficients'' or ''parameters''.An example of an equation involving ''x'' and ''y'' as unknowns and the parameter ''R'' is:When ''R ''is chosen to have the value of 2 (''R ''= 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin.", "Hence, the equation with ''R'' unspecified is the general equation for the circle.Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''w'', ..., while coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'', ... .", "For example, the general quadratic equation is usually written ''ax''2 + ''bx'' + ''c'' = 0.The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation.", "Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the parameters are also called ''solutions''.A system of equations is a set of ''simultaneous equations'', usually in several unknowns for which the common solutions are sought.", "Thus, a ''solution to the system'' is a set of values for each of the unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system.", "For example, the system:has the unique solution ''x'' = −1, ''y'' = 1.===Identities===An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains.", "Many identities are known in algebra and calculus.", "In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares::which is true for all ''x'' and ''y''.Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations.", "Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are::and:which are both true for all values of ''θ''.For example, to solve for the value of ''θ'' that satisfies the equation::where ''θ'' is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to give::yielding the following solution for ''θ:'':Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no restrictions on ''θ''.", "In this example, restricting ''θ'' to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the solution to only one number." ], [ "Algebra", "Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations.", "When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form ''P''(''x'') = 0, where ''P'' is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ''ax'' + ''b'' = 0, where ''a'' and ''b'' are parameters.", "To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis.", "Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers.", "The techniques used are different and come from number theory.", "These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.===Polynomial equations===graph of the quadratic function cuts the x-axis.In general, an ''algebraic equation'' or polynomial equation is an equation of the form:, or: where ''P'' and ''Q'' are polynomials with coefficients in some field (e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers).", "An algebraic equation is ''univariate'' if it involves only one variable.", "On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables, in which case it is called ''multivariate'' (multiple variables, x, y, z, etc.", ").For example,:is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer coefficients and:is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression, with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically).", "This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.", "A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).===Systems of linear equations===The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is an anonymous 2nd-century Chinese book proposing a method of resolution for linear equations.A system of linear equations (or ''linear system'') is a collection of linear equations involving one or more variables.", "For example,:is a system of three equations in the three variables .", "A '''solution''' to a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied.", "A solution to the system above is given by:since it makes all three equations valid.", "The word \"''system''\" indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, rather than individually.In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics.", "Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, and economics.", "A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system." ], [ "Geometry", "===Analytic geometry===intersection point, (2,3), satisfies both equations.In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid.", "This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations.", "A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form , where and are real numbers and are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid.", "The values are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation.", "A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation and a plane.", "In other words, in space, all conics are defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given.", "This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions.", "The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry.", "This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics.", "Although it still uses equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional analysis and linear algebra.===Cartesian equations===Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red.", "The equation of a circle is where ''a'' and ''b'' are the coordinates of the center and ''r'' is the radius.In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures.", "As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses equations for studying properties of figures.", "This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines).The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra.", "Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape.", "For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin, may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates ''x'' and ''y'' satisfy the equation .===Parametric equations===A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a variable, called a parameter.", "For example,:are parametric equations for the unit circle, where ''t'' is the parameter.", "Together, these equations are called a parametric representation of the curve.The notion of ''parametric equation'' has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is ''one'' and ''one'' parameter is used, for surfaces dimension ''two'' and ''two'' parameters, etc.", ")." ], [ "Number theory", "===Diophantine equations===A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values).", "A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one.", "An example of linear Diophantine equation is where ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are constants.", "An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations.", "In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.The word ''Diophantine'' refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra.", "The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.===Algebraic and transcendental numbers===An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients).", "Numbers such as that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental.", "Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.===Algebraic geometry===Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations.", "Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations.", "Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals.", "A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.", "Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity.", "More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations." ], [ "Differential equations", "A strange attractor, which arises when solving a certain differential equationA differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives.", "In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two.", "They are solved by finding an expression for the function that does not involve derivatives.", "Differential equations are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology, and economics.In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation.", "Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas; however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form.If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically approximated using computers.", "The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.===Ordinary differential equations===An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives.", "The term \"''ordinary''\" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to ''more than'' one independent variable.Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained.", "By contrast, ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or integral form.", "Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.===Partial differential equations===A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable functions and their partial derivatives.", "(This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.)", "PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant computer model.PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics.", "These seemingly distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs.", "Just as ordinary differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model multidimensional systems.", "PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations." ], [ "Types of equations", "Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved.", "Important types include:* An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials (see also system of polynomial equations).", "These are further classified by degree: linear equation for degree one quadratic equation for degree two cubic equation for degree three quartic equation for degree four quintic equation for degree five sextic equation for degree six septic equation for degree seven octic equation for degree eight* A Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers* A transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns* A parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations* A functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities* Equations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences: A differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as .", "Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables An integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown functions.", "For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface An integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions.", "For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.", " A functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as A difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function ''f'' that occurs in the equation through ''f''(''x''), ''f''(''x''−1), ..., ''f''(''x''−''k''), for some whole integer ''k'' called the ''order'' of the equation.", "If ''x'' is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation A stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process" ], [ "See also", "* Formula* History of algebra* Indeterminate equation* List of equations* List of scientific equations named after people* Term (logic)* Theory of equations* Cancelling out" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Winplot: General Purpose plotter that can draw and animate 2D and 3D mathematical equations.", "* Equation plotter: A web page for producing and downloading pdf or postscript plots of the solution sets to equations and inequations in two variables (''x'' and ''y'')." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ethical naturalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ethical naturalism''' (also called '''moral naturalism''' or '''naturalistic cognitivistic definism''') is the meta-ethical view which claims that:# Ethical sentences express propositions.# Some such propositions are true.# Those propositions are made true by objective features of the world.# These moral features of the world ''are'' reducible to some set of non-moral features." ], [ "Overview", "The versions of ethical naturalism which have received the most sustained philosophical interest, for example, Cornell realism, differ from the position that \"the way things are is always the way they ought to be\", which few ethical naturalists hold.", "Ethical naturalism does, however, reject the fact-value distinction: it suggests that inquiry into the natural world can increase our moral knowledge in just the same way it increases our scientific knowledge.", "Indeed, proponents of ethical naturalism have argued that humanity needs to invest in the science of morality, a broad and loosely defined field that uses evidence from biology, primatology, anthropology, psychology, neuroscience, and other areas to classify and describe moral behavior.Ethical naturalism encompasses any reduction of ethical properties, such as 'goodness', to non-ethical properties; there are many different examples of such reductions, and thus many different varieties of ethical naturalism.", "Hedonism, for example, is the view that goodness is ultimately just pleasure." ], [ "Ethical theories that can be naturalistic", "AltruismConsequentialismConsequentialist libertarianismCornell realismEthical egoism/ ObjectivismEvolutionary ethicsHedonismHumanistic ethicsNatural-rights libertarianismUtilitarianismVirtue ethics" ], [ "Criticisms", "Ethical naturalism has been criticized most prominently by ethical non-naturalist G. E. Moore, who formulated the open-question argument.", "Garner and Rosen say that a common definition of \"natural property\" is one \"which can be discovered by sense observation or experience, experiment, or through any of the available means of science.\"", "They also say that a good definition of \"natural property\" is problematic but that \"it is only in criticism of naturalism, or in an attempt to distinguish between naturalistic and nonnaturalistic definist theories, that such a concept is needed.\"", "R. M. Hare also criticised ethical naturalism because of what he considered its fallacious definition of the terms 'good' or 'right', saying that value-terms being part of our prescriptive moral language are not reducible to descriptive terms: \"Value-terms have a special function in language, that of commending; and so they plainly cannot be defined in terms of other words which themselves do not perform this function\".===Moral nihilism===Moral nihilists maintain that there are no such entities as objective values or objective moral facts.", "Proponents of moral science like Ronald A. Lindsay have counter-argued that their way of understanding \"morality\" as a practical enterprise is the way we ought to have understood it in the first place.", "He holds the position that the alternative seems to be the elaborate philosophical reduction of the word \"moral\" into a vacuous, useless term.", "Lindsay adds that it is important to reclaim the specific word \"morality\" because of the connotations it holds with many individuals." ], [ "Morality as a science", "Author Sam Harris has argued that we overestimate the relevance of many arguments against the science of morality, arguments he believes scientists happily and rightly disregard in other domains of science like physics.", "For example, scientists may find themselves attempting to argue against philosophical skeptics, when Harris says they should be practically asking – as they would in any other domain – \"why would we listen to a solipsist in the first place?\"", "This, Harris contends, is part of what it means to practice a science of morality.Sam Harris argues that there are societally optimal \"moral peaks\" to discover.In modern times, many thinkers discussing the fact–value distinction and the is–ought problem have settled on the idea that one cannot derive ''ought'' from ''is''.", "Conversely, Harris maintains that the fact-value distinction is a confusion, proposing that values are really a certain kind of fact.", "Specifically, Harris suggests that values amount to empirical statements about \"the flourishing of conscious creatures in a society\".", "He argues that there are objective answers to moral questions, even if some are difficult or impossible to possess in practice.", "In this way, he says, science can tell us what to value.", "Harris adds that we do not demand absolute certainty from predictions in physics, so we should not demand that of a science studying morality (see ''The Moral Landscape'').Physicist Sean Carroll believes that conceiving of morality as a science could be a case of scientific imperialism and insists that what is \"good for conscious creatures\" is not an adequate working definition of \"moral\".", "In opposition, Vice President at the Center for Inquiry, John Shook, claims that this working definition is more than adequate for science at present, and that disagreement should not immobilize the scientific study of ethics." ], [ "References" ], [ "Other sources", " " ], [ "External links", "* Philosophy 302: Naturalistic Ethics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ethical non-naturalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ethical non-naturalism''' (or '''moral non-naturalism''') is the meta-ethical view which claims that:# Ethical sentences express propositions.# Some such propositions are true.# Those propositions are made true by objective features of the world, independent of human opinion.# These moral features of the world are ''not'' reducible to any set of non-moral features.This makes ethical non-naturalism a non-definist form of moral realism, which is in turn a form of cognitivism.", "Ethical non-naturalism stands in opposition to ethical naturalism, which claims that moral terms and properties are reducible to non-moral terms and properties, as well as to all forms of moral anti-realism, including ethical subjectivism (which denies that moral propositions refer to objective facts), error theory (which denies that any moral propositions are true), and non-cognitivism (which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all)." ], [ "Definitions and examples", "According to G. E. Moore, \"Goodness is a simple, undefinable, non-natural property.\"", "To call goodness \"non-natural\" does not mean that it is supernatural or divine.", "It does mean, however, that goodness cannot be reduced to natural properties such as needs, wants or pleasures.", "Moore also stated that a reduction of ethical properties to a divine command would be the same as stating their naturalness.", "This would be an example of what he referred to as \"the naturalistic fallacy.", "\"Moore claimed that goodness is \"indefinable\", i.e., it cannot be defined in any other terms.", "This is the central claim of non-naturalism.", "Thus, the meaning of sentences containing the word \"good\" cannot be explained entirely in terms of sentences not containing the word \"good.\"", "One cannot substitute words referring to pleasure, needs or anything else in place of \"good.", "\"Some properties, such as hardness, roundness and dampness, are clearly natural properties.", "We encounter them in the real world and can perceive them.", "On the other hand, other properties, such as being good and being right, are not so obvious.", "A great novel is considered to be a good thing; goodness may be said to be a property of that novel.", "Paying one's debts and telling the truth are generally held to be right things to do; rightness may be said to be a property of certain human actions.However, these two types of property are quite different.", "Those natural properties, such as hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.", "On the other hand, it is not immediately clear how to physically see, touch or measure the goodness of a novel or the rightness of an action." ], [ "A difficult question", "Moore did not consider goodness and rightness to be natural properties, i.e., they cannot be defined in terms of any natural properties.", "How, then, can we know that anything is good and how can we distinguish good from bad?", "Moral epistemology, the part of epistemology (and/or ethics) that studies how we know moral facts and how moral beliefs are justified, has proposed an answer.", "British epistemologists, following Moore, suggested that humans have a special faculty, a faculty of moral intuition, which tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.", "Ethical intuitionists assert that, if we see a good person or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, we simply intuit that the person is good or that the action is right.", "Moral intuition is supposed to be a mental process different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgments are its outputs.", "When someone judges something to be good, or some action to be right, then the person is using the faculty of moral intuition.", "The faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.", "Perhaps the best ordinary notion that approximates moral intuition would be the idea of a conscience." ], [ "Another argument for non-naturalism", "Moore also introduced what is called the open-question argument, a position he later rejected.", "Suppose a definition of \"good\" is \"pleasure-causing.\"", "In other words, if something is good, it causes pleasure; if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.", "Moore asserted, however, that we could always ask, \"But are pleasure-causing things good?\"", "This would always be an open question.", "There is no foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure-causing things are good.", "In his initial argument, Moore concluded that any similar definition of goodness could be criticized in the same way." ], [ "See also", "* Principia Ethica* The Right and the Good" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elvis Presley" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elvis Aaron Presley''' (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977), also known mononymously as '''Elvis''', was an American singer and actor.", "Known as the \"King of Rock and Roll\", he is regarded as one of the most significant cultural figures of the 20th century.", "Presley's energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style, combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines during a transformative era in race relations, brought both great success and initial controversy.Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi; his family relocated to Memphis, Tennessee, when he was 13.His music career began there in 1954, at Sun Records with producer Sam Phillips, who wanted to bring the sound of African-American music to a wider audience.", "Presley, on guitar and accompanied by lead guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, was a pioneer of rockabilly, an uptempo, backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues.", "In 1955, drummer D. J. Fontana joined to complete the lineup of Presley's classic quartet and RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker, who would manage him for more than two decades.", "Presley's first RCA Victor single, \"Heartbreak Hotel\", was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States.", "Within a year, RCA Victor would sell ten million Presley singles.", "With a series of successful television appearances and chart-topping records, Presley became the leading figure of the newly popular rock and roll; though his performative style and promotion of the then-marginalized sound of African Americans led to him being widely considered a threat to the moral well-being of white American youth.In November 1956, Presley made his film debut in ''Love Me Tender''.", "Drafted into military service in 1958, he relaunched his recording career two years later with some of his most commercially successful work.", "Presley held few concerts, however, and guided by Parker, proceeded to devote much of the 1960s to making Hollywood films and soundtrack albums, most of them critically derided.", "Some of Presley's most famous films included ''Jailhouse Rock'' (1957), ''Blue Hawaii'' (1961), and ''Viva Las Vegas'' (1964).", "In 1968, following a seven-year break from live performances, he returned to the stage in the acclaimed NBC television comeback special ''Elvis'', which led to an extended Las Vegas concert residency and a string of highly profitable tours.", "In 1973, Presley gave the first concert by a solo artist to be broadcast around the world, ''Aloha from Hawaii''.", "However, years of prescription drug abuse and unhealthy eating habits severely compromised his health, and Presley died unexpectedly in August, 1977 at his Graceland estate at the age of 42.Having sold roughly 400 million records worldwide, Presley is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, and widely acclaimed as the best-selling solo artist.", "He was commercially successful in many genres, including pop, country, rockabilly, rhythm & blues, adult contemporary, and gospel.", "He won three Grammy Awards, received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36, and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame.", "He also holds several records, including the most RIAA-certified gold and platinum albums, the most albums charted on the ''Billboard'' 200, the most number-one albums by a solo artist on the UK Albums Chart, and the most number-one singles by any act on the UK Singles Chart.", "In 2018, Presley was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom." ], [ "Life and career", "=== 1935–1953: early years ===Presley's birthplace in Tupelo, MississippiPresley's parentsElvis Aaron Presley was born on January 8, 1935, in Tupelo, Mississippi, to Vernon Presley and Gladys Love (''née'' Smith) Presley.", "Elvis' twin Jesse Garon was delivered stillborn.", "Presley became close to both parents, especially his mother.", "The family attended an Assembly of God church, where he found his initial musical inspiration.", "Vernon moved from one odd job to the next, and the family often relied on neighbors and government food assistance.", "In 1938 they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of altering a check and jailed for eight months.In September 1941, Presley entered first grade at East Tupelo Consolidated, where his teachers regarded him as \"average\".", "His first public performance was a singing contest at the Mississippi–Alabama Fair and Dairy Show on October 3, 1945, when he was 10; he sang \"Old Shep\" and recalled placing fifth.", "A few months later, Presley received his first guitar for his birthday; he received guitar lessons from two uncles and a pastor at the family's church.", "Presley recalled, \"I took the guitar, and I watched people, and I learned to play a little bit.", "But I would never sing in public.", "I was very shy about it.", "\"In September 1946, Presley entered a new school, Milam, for sixth grade.", "The following year, he began singing and playing his guitar at school.", "He was often teased as a \"trashy\" kid who played hillbilly music.", "Presley was a devotee of Mississippi Slim's radio show.", "He was described as \"crazy about music\" by Slim's younger brother, one of Presley's classmates.", "Slim showed Presley chord techniques.", "When his protégé was 12, Slim scheduled him for two on-air performances.", "Presley was overcome by stage fright the first time but performed the following week.In November 1948, the family moved to Memphis, Tennessee.", "Enrolled at L. C. Humes High School, Presley received a C in music in eighth grade.", "When his music teacher said he had no aptitude for singing, he brought in his guitar and sang a recent hit, \"Keep Them Cold Icy Fingers Off Me\".", "He was usually too shy to perform openly and was occasionally bullied by classmates for being a \"mama's boy\".", "In 1950, Presley began practicing guitar under the tutelage of Lee Denson, a neighbor.", "They and three other boys, including two future rockabilly pioneers, brothers Dorsey and Johnny Burnette—formed a loose musical collective.During his junior year, Presley began to stand out among his classmates, largely because of his appearance: he grew his sideburns and styled his hair.", "He would head down to Beale Street, the heart of Memphis' thriving blues scene, and admire the wild, flashy clothes at Lansky Brothers.", "By his senior year, he was wearing those clothes.", "He competed in Humes' Annual \"Minstrel\" Show in 1953, singing and playing \"Till I Waltz Again with You\", a recent hit for Teresa Brewer.", "Presley recalled that the performance did much for his reputation: I wasn't popular in school ...", "I failed music—only thing I ever failed.", "And then they entered me in this talent show ... when I came onstage, I heard people kind of rumbling and whispering and so forth, 'cause nobody knew I even sang.", "It was amazing how popular I became in school after that.Presley, who could not read music, played by ear and frequented record stores that provided jukeboxes and listening booths.", "He knew all of Hank Snow's songs, and he loved records by other country singers such as Roy Acuff, Ernest Tubb, Ted Daffan, Jimmie Rodgers, Jimmie Davis, and Bob Wills.", "The Southern gospel singer Jake Hess, one of his favorite performers, was a significant influence on his ballad-singing style.", "Presley was a regular audience member at the monthly All-Night Singings downtown, where many of the white gospel groups that performed reflected the influence of African American spirituals.", "Presley listened to regional radio stations, such as WDIA, that played what were then called \"race records\": spirituals, blues, and the modern, backbeat-heavy rhythm and blues.", "Like some of his peers, he may have attended blues venues only on nights designated for exclusively white audiences.", "Many of his future recordings were inspired by local African-American musicians such as Arthur Crudup and Rufus Thomas.", "B.B.", "King recalled that he had known Presley before he was popular when they both used to frequent Beale Street.", "By the time he graduated high school in June 1953, Presley had singled out music as his future.=== 1953–1956: first recordings ======= Sam Phillips and Sun Records ====Presley in a Sun Records promotional photograph, 1954In August 1953, Presley checked into Memphis Recording Service, the company run by Sam Phillips before he started Sun Records.", "He aimed to pay for studio time to record a two-sided acetate disc: \"My Happiness\" and \"That's When Your Heartaches Begin\".", "He later claimed that he intended the record as a birthday gift for his mother, or that he was merely interested in what he \"sounded like\".", "Biographer Peter Guralnick argued that Presley chose Sun in the hope of being discovered.", "In January 1954, Presley cut a second acetate at Sun—\"I'll Never Stand in Your Way\" and \"It Wouldn't Be the Same Without You\"—but again nothing came of it.", "Not long after, he failed an audition for a local vocal quartet, the Songfellows, and another for the band of Eddie Bond.Phillips, meanwhile, was always on the lookout for someone who could bring to a broader audience the sound of the black musicians on whom Sun focused.", "In June, he acquired a demo recording by Jimmy Sweeney of a ballad, \"Without You\", that he thought might suit Presley.", "The teenaged singer came by the studio but was unable to do it justice.", "Despite this, Phillips asked Presley to sing other numbers and was sufficiently affected by what he heard to invite two local musicians, guitarist Winfield \"Scotty\" Moore and upright bass player Bill Black, to work with Presley for a recording session.", "The session, held the evening of July 5, proved entirely unfruitful until late in the night.", "As they were about to abort and go home, Presley launched into a 1946 blues number, Arthur Crudup's \"That's All Right\".", "Moore recalled, \"All of a sudden, Elvis just started singing this song, jumping around and acting the fool, and then Bill picked up his bass, and he started acting the fool, too, and I started playing with them.\"", "Phillips quickly began taping; this was the sound he had been looking for.", "Three days later, popular Memphis disc jockey Dewey Phillips (no relation to Sam Phillips) played \"That's All Right\" on his ''Red, Hot, and Blue'' show.", "Listener interest was such that Phillips played the record repeatedly during the remaining two hours of his show.", "Interviewing Presley on-air, Phillips asked him what high school he attended to clarify his color for the many callers who had assumed that he was black.", "During the next few days, the trio recorded a bluegrass song, Bill Monroe's \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\", again in a distinctive style and employing a jury-rigged echo effect that Sam Phillips dubbed \"slapback\".", "A single was pressed with \"That's All Right\" on the A-side and \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\" on the reverse.==== Early live performances and RCA Victor contract ====The trio played publicly for the first time at the Bon Air club on July 17, 1954.Later that month, they appeared at the Overton Park Shell, with Slim Whitman headlining.", "Here Elvis pioneered \"Rubber Legs\", his signature dance movement.", "A combination of his strong response to rhythm and nervousness led Presley to shake his legs as he performed: His wide-cut pants emphasized his movements, causing young women in the audience to start screaming.", "Moore recalled, \"During the instrumental parts, he would back off from the mike and be playing and shaking, and the crowd would just go wild.", "\"Soon after, Moore and Black left their old band to play with Presley regularly, and disc jockey/promoter Bob Neal became the trio's manager.", "From August through October, they played frequently at the Eagle's Nest club, a dance venue in Memphis.", "When Presley played, teenagers rushed from the pool to fill the club, then left again as the house western swing band resumed.", "Presley quickly grew more confident on stage.", "According to Moore, \"His movement was a natural thing, but he was also very conscious of what got a reaction.", "He'd do something one time and then he would expand on it real quick.\"", "Amid these live performances, Presley returned to Sun studio for more recording sessions.", "Presley made what would be his only appearance on Nashville's ''Grand Ole Opry'' on October 2; ''Opry'' manager Jim Denny told Phillips that his singer was \"not bad\" but did not suit the program.==== ''Louisiana Hayride'', radio commercial, and first television performances ====In November 1954, Presley performed on ''Louisiana Hayride''—the ''Opry''s chief, and more adventurous, rival.", "The show was broadcast to 198 radio stations in 28 states.", "His nervous first set drew a muted reaction.", "A more composed and energetic second set inspired an enthusiastic response.", "Soon after the show, the ''Hayride'' engaged Presley for a year's worth of Saturday-night appearances.", "Trading in his old guitar for $8, he purchased a Martin instrument for $175 () and his trio began playing in new locales, including Houston, Texas, and Texarkana, Arkansas.", "Presley made his first television appearance on the KSLA-TV broadcast of ''Louisiana Hayride''.", "Soon after, he failed an audition for ''Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts'' on the CBS television network.", "By early 1955, Presley's regular ''Hayride'' appearances, constant touring, and well-received record releases had made him a regional star.In January, Neal signed a formal management contract with Presley and brought him to the attention of Colonel Tom Parker, whom he considered the best promoter in the music business.", "Having successfully managed the top country star Eddy Arnold, Parker was working with the new number-one country singer, Hank Snow.", "Parker booked Presley on Snow's February tour.By August, Sun had released ten sides credited to \"Elvis Presley, Scotty and Bill\"; the latest recordings included a drummer.", "Some of the songs, like \"That's All Right\", were in what one Memphis journalist described as the \"R&B idiom of negro field jazz\"; others, like \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\", were \"more in the country field\", \"but there was a curious blending of the two different musics in both\".", "This blend of styles made it difficult for Presley's music to find radio airplay.", "According to Neal, many country-music disc jockeys would not play it because Presley sounded too much like a black artist and none of the R&B stations would touch him because \"he sounded too much like a hillbilly.\"", "The blend came to be known as \"rockabilly\".", "At the time, Presley was billed as \"The King of Western Bop\", \"The Hillbilly Cat\", and \"The Memphis Flash\".Presley renewed Neal's management contract in August 1955, simultaneously appointing Parker as his special adviser.", "The group maintained an extensive touring schedule.", "Neal recalled, \"It was almost frightening, the reaction that came to Elvis from the teenaged boys.", "So many of them, through some sort of jealousy, would practically hate him.", "There were occasions in some towns in Texas when we'd have to be sure to have a police guard because somebody'd always try to take a crack at him.\"", "The trio became a quartet when ''Hayride'' drummer Fontana joined as a full member.", "In mid-October, they played a few shows in support of Bill Haley, whose \"Rock Around the Clock\" track had been a number-one hit the previous year.", "Haley observed that Presley had a natural feel for rhythm, and advised him to sing fewer ballads.At the Country Disc Jockey Convention in early November, Presley was voted the year's most promising male artist.", "After three major labels made offers of up to $25,000, Parker and Phillips struck a deal with RCA Victor on November 21 to acquire Presley's Sun contract for an unprecedented $40,000.Presley, aged 20, was legally still a minor, so his father signed the contract.", "Parker arranged with the owners of Hill & Range Publishing, Jean and Julian Aberbach, to create two entities, Elvis Presley Music and Gladys Music, to handle all the new material recorded by Presley.", "Songwriters were obliged to forgo one-third of their customary royalties in exchange for having Presley perform their compositions.", "By December, RCA had begun to heavily promote its new singer, and before month's end had reissued many of his Sun recordings.=== 1956–1958: commercial breakout and controversy ======= First national TV appearances and debut album ====Billboard'' magazine advertisement, March 10, 1956 On January 10, 1956, Presley made his first recordings for RCA Victor in Nashville.", "Extending his by-now customary backup of Moore, Black, Fontana, and ''Hayride'' pianist Floyd Cramer—who had been performing at live club dates with Presley—RCA Victor enlisted guitarist Chet Atkins and three background singers, including Gordon Stoker of the popular Jordanaires quartet.", "The session produced the moody \"Heartbreak Hotel\", released as a single on January 27.Parker brought Presley to national television, booking him on CBS's ''Stage Show'' for six appearances over two months.", "The program, produced in New York City, was hosted on alternate weeks by big band leaders and brothers Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey.", "After his first appearance on January 28, Presley stayed in town to record at RCA Victor's New York studio.", "The sessions yielded eight songs, including a cover of Carl Perkins' rockabilly anthem \"Blue Suede Shoes\".", "In February, Presley's \"I Forgot to Remember to Forget\", a Sun recording released the previous August, reached the top of the ''Billboard'' country chart.", "Neal's contract was terminated and Parker became Presley's manager.RCA Victor released Presley's self-titled debut album on March 23.Joined by five previously unreleased Sun recordings, its seven recently recorded tracks included two country songs, a bouncy pop tune, and what would centrally define the evolving sound of rock and roll: \"Blue Suede Shoes\"—\"an improvement over Perkins' in almost every way\", according to critic Robert Hilburn—and three R&B numbers that had been part of Presley's stage repertoire, covers of Little Richard, Ray Charles, and The Drifters.", "As described by Hilburn, these were the most revealing of all.", "Unlike many white artists ... who watered down the gritty edges of the original R&B versions of songs in the '50s, Presley reshaped them.", "He not only injected the tunes with his own vocal character but also made guitar, not piano, the lead instrument in all three cases.", "It became the first rock and roll album to top the ''Billboard'' chart, a position it held for ten weeks.", "While Presley was not an innovative guitarist like Moore or contemporary African American rockers Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry, cultural historian Gilbert B. Rodman argued that the album's cover image, \"of Elvis having the time of his life on stage ''with a guitar in his hands'' played a crucial role in positioning the guitar ... as the instrument that best captured the style and spirit of this new music.", "\"==== ''Milton Berle Show'' and \"Hound Dog\" ====Presley signing autographs in Minneapolis in 1956On April 3, Presley made the first of two appearances on NBC's ''The Milton Berle Show''.", "His performance, on the deck of the USS ''Hancock'' in San Diego, California, prompted cheers and screams from an audience of sailors and their dates.", "A few days later, Presley and his band were flying to Nashville for a recording session when an engine died and the plane almost went down over Arkansas.", "Twelve weeks after its original release, \"Heartbreak Hotel\" became Presley's first number-one pop hit.", "In late April he began a two-week residency at the New Frontier Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip.", "The shows were poorly received by the conservative, middle-aged hotel guests—\"like a jug of corn liquor at a champagne party\", wrote a critic for ''Newsweek.''", "Amid his Vegas tenure, Presley, who had acting ambitions, signed a seven-year contract with Paramount Pictures.", "He began a tour of the Midwest in mid-May, covering fifteen cities in as many days.", "He had attended several shows by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys in Vegas and was struck by their cover of \"Hound Dog\", a hit in 1953 for blues singer Big Mama Thornton by songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller.", "It became his new closing number.After a show in La Crosse, Wisconsin, an urgent message on the letterhead of the local Catholic diocese's newspaper was sent to FBI director J. Edgar Hoover.", "It warned that Presley is a definite danger to the security of the United States. ...", "His actions and motions were such as to rouse the sexual passions of teenaged youth. ...", "After the show, more than 1,000 teenagers tried to gang into Presley's room at the auditorium. ...", "Indications of the harm Presley did just in La Crosse were the two high school girls ... whose abdomen and thigh had Presley's autograph.Presley's second ''Milton Berle Show'' appearance came on June 5 at NBC's Hollywood studio, amid another hectic tour.", "Milton Berle persuaded Presley to leave his guitar backstage.", "During the performance, Presley abruptly halted an uptempo rendition of \"Hound Dog\" and launched into a slow, grinding version accentuated with exaggerated body movements.", "His gyrations created a storm of controversy.", "Television critics were outraged: Jack Gould of ''The New York Times'' wrote, Mr. Presley has no discernible singing ability. ...", "His phrasing, if it can be called that, consists of the stereotyped variations that go with a beginner's aria in a bathtub. ...", "His one specialty is an accented movement of the body ... primarily identified with the repertoire of the blond bombshells of the burlesque runway.", "Ben Gross of the New York ''Daily News'' opined that popular music \"has reached its lowest depths in the 'grunt and groin' antics of one Elvis Presley. ...", "Elvis, who rotates his pelvis ... gave an exhibition that was suggestive and vulgar, tinged with the kind of animalism that should be confined to dives and bordellos\".", "Ed Sullivan, whose variety show was the nation's most popular, declared Presley \"unfit for family viewing\".", "To Presley's displeasure, he soon found himself being referred to as \"Elvis the Pelvis\", which he called \"childish\".==== ''Steve Allen Show'' and first Sullivan appearance ====Ed Sullivan and Presley during rehearsals for his second appearance on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', October 26, 1956The Berle shows drew such high ratings that Presley was booked for a July 1 appearance on NBC's ''The Steve Allen Show'' in New York.", "Allen, no fan of rock and roll, introduced a \"new Elvis\" in a white bowtie and black tails.", "Presley sang \"Hound Dog\" for less than a minute to a basset hound wearing a top hat and bowtie.", "As described by television historian Jake Austen, \"Allen thought Presley was talentless and absurd ... he set things up so that Presley would show his contrition\".", "Allen later wrote that he found Presley's \"strange, gangly, country-boy charisma, his hard-to-define cuteness, and his charming eccentricity intriguing\" and worked him into the \"comedy fabric\" of his program.", "Just before the final rehearsal for the show, Presley told a reporter, \"I don't want to do anything to make people dislike me.", "I think TV is important so I'm going to go along, but I won't be able to give the kind of show I do in a personal appearance.\"", "Presley would refer back to the Allen show as the most ridiculous performance of his career.", "Later that night, he appeared on ''Hy Gardner Calling'', a popular local television show.", "Pressed on whether he had learned anything from the criticism of him, Presley responded, \"No, I haven't...", "I don't see how any type of music would have any bad influence on people when it's only music. ...", "how would rock 'n' roll music make anyone rebel against their parents?", "\"The next day, Presley recorded \"Hound Dog\", \"Any Way You Want Me\" and \"Don't Be Cruel\".", "The Jordanaires sang harmony, as they had on ''The Steve Allen Show''; they would work with Presley through the 1960s.", "A few days later, Presley made an outdoor concert appearance in Memphis, at which he announced, \"You know, those people in New York are not gonna change me none.", "I'm gonna show you what the real Elvis is like tonight.\"", "In August, a judge in Jacksonville, Florida, ordered Presley to tame his act.", "Throughout the following performance, he largely kept still, except for wiggling his little finger suggestively in mockery of the order.", "The single pairing \"Don't Be Cruel\" with \"Hound Dog\" ruled the top of the charts for eleven weeks—a mark that would not be surpassed for thirty-six years.", "Recording sessions for Presley's second album took place in Hollywood in early September.", "Leiber and Stoller, the writers of \"Hound Dog\", contributed \"Love Me\".Allen's show with Presley had, for the first time, beaten ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' in the ratings.", "Sullivan booked Presley for three appearances for an unprecedented $50,000.The first, on September 9, 1956, was seen by approximately 60 million viewers—a record 82.6 percent of the television audience.", "Actor Charles Laughton hosted the show, filling in while Sullivan was recovering from a car accident.", "According to legend, Presley was shot only from the waist up.", "Watching clips of the Allen and Berle shows, Sullivan had opined that Presley \"got some kind of device hanging down below the crotch of his pants—so when he moves his legs back and forth you can see the outline of his cock. ...", "I think it's a Coke bottle. ...", "We just can't have this on a Sunday night.", "This is a family show!\"", "Sullivan publicly told ''TV Guide'', \"As for his gyrations, the whole thing can be controlled with camera shots.\"", "In fact, Presley was shown head-to-toe.", "Though the camerawork was relatively discreet during his debut, with leg-concealing closeups when he danced, the studio audience reacted with screams.", "Presley's performance of his forthcoming single, the ballad \"Love Me Tender\", prompted a record-shattering million advance orders.", "More than any other single event, it was this first appearance on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' that made Presley a national celebrity.Accompanying Presley's rise to fame, a cultural shift was taking place that he both helped inspire and came to symbolize.", "The historian Marty Jezer wrote that Presley began the \"biggest pop craze\" since Glenn Miller and Frank Sinatra and brought rock and roll to mainstream culture: As Presley set the artistic pace, other artists followed. ...", "Presley, more than anyone else, gave the young a belief in themselves as a distinct and somehow unified generation—the first in America ever to feel the power of an integrated youth culture.==== Crazed crowds and film debut ====Presley performing live at the Mississippi-Alabama Fairgrounds in Tupelo, September 26, 1956The audience response at Presley's live shows became increasingly fevered.", "Moore recalled, \"He'd start out, 'You ain't nothin' but a Hound Dog,' and they'd just go to pieces.", "They'd always react the same way.", "There'd be a riot every time.\"", "At the two concerts he performed in September at the Mississippi–Alabama Fair and Dairy Show, fifty National Guardsmen were added to the police detail to prevent a ruckus.", "''Elvis'', Presley's second RCA Victor album, was released in October and quickly rose to number one.", "The album includes \"Old Shep\", which he sang at the talent show in 1945, and which now marked the first time he played piano on an RCA Victor session.", "According to Guralnick, \"the halting chords and the somewhat stumbling rhythm\" showed \"the unmistakable emotion and the equally unmistakable valuing of emotion over technique.\"", "Assessing the musical and cultural impact of Presley's recordings from \"That's All Right\" through ''Elvis'', rock critic Dave Marsh wrote that \"these records, more than any others, contain the seeds of what rock & roll was, has been and most likely what it may foreseeably become.", "\"Presley returned to ''The Ed Sullivan Show'', hosted this time by its namesake, on October 28.After the performance, crowds in Nashville and St. Louis burned him in effigy.", "His first motion picture, ''Love Me Tender'', was released on November 21.Though he was not top-billed, the film's original title—''The Reno Brothers''—was changed to capitalize on his latest number-one record: \"Love Me Tender\" had hit the top of the charts earlier that month.", "To further take advantage of Presley's popularity, four musical numbers were added to what was originally a straight acting role.", "The film was panned by critics but did very well at the box office.", "Presley would receive top billing on every subsequent film he made.On December 4, Presley dropped into Sun Records, where Carl Perkins and Jerry Lee Lewis were recording, and had an impromptu jam session along with Johnny Cash.", "Though Phillips no longer had the right to release any Presley material, he made sure that the session was captured on tape.", "The results, none officially released for twenty-five years, became known as the \"Million Dollar Quartet\" recordings.", "The year ended with a front-page story in ''The Wall Street Journal'' reporting that Presley merchandise had brought in $22 million on top of his record sales, and ''Billboard''s declaration that he had placed more songs in the top 100 than any other artist since records were first charted.", "In his first full year at RCA Victor, then the record industry's largest company, Presley had accounted for over fifty percent of the label's singles sales.==== Leiber and Stoller collaboration and draft notice ====Presley made his third and final ''Ed Sullivan Show'' appearance on January 6, 1957—on this occasion indeed shot only down to the waist.", "Some commentators have claimed that Parker orchestrated an appearance of censorship to generate publicity.", "In any event, as critic Greil Marcus describes, Presley \"did not tie himself down.", "Leaving behind the bland clothes he had worn on the first two shows, he stepped out in the outlandish costume of a pasha, if not a harem girl.", "From the make-up over his eyes, the hair falling in his face, the overwhelmingly sexual cast of his mouth, he was playing Rudolph Valentino in ''The Sheik'', with all stops out.\"", "To close, displaying his range and defying Sullivan's wishes, Presley sang a gentle black spiritual, \"Peace in the Valley\".", "At the end of the show, Sullivan declared Presley \"a real decent, fine boy\".", "Two days later, the Memphis draft board announced that Presley would be classified 1-A and would probably be drafted sometime that year.Each of the three Presley singles released in the first half of 1957 went to number one: \"Too Much\", \"All Shook Up\", and \"(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear\".", "Already an international star, he was attracting fans even where his music was not officially released: ''The New York Times'' reported that pressings of his music on discarded X-ray plates were commanding high prices in Leningrad.", "Presley purchased his 18-room mansion, Graceland, on March 19, 1957.Before the purchase, Elvis recorded ''Loving You''—the soundtrack to his second film, which was released in July.", "It was his third straight number-one album.", "The title track was written by Leiber and Stoller, who were then retained to write four of the six songs recorded at the sessions for ''Jailhouse Rock'', Presley's next film.", "The songwriting team effectively produced the ''Jailhouse'' sessions and developed a close working relationship with Presley, who came to regard them as his \"good-luck charm\".", "\"He was fast,\" said Leiber.", "\"Any demo you gave him he knew by heart in ten minutes.\"", "The title track became another number-one hit, as was the ''Jailhouse Rock'' EP.Presley and costar Judy Tyler in the trailer for ''Jailhouse Rock'', released in October 1957Presley undertook three brief tours during the year, continuing to generate a crazed audience response.", "A Detroit newspaper suggested that \"the trouble with going to see Elvis Presley is that you're liable to get killed\".", "Villanova students pelted the singer with eggs in Philadelphia, and in Vancouver the crowd rioted after the show ended, destroying the stage.", "Frank Sinatra, who had inspired the swooning and screaming of teenage girls in the 1940s, decried rock and roll as \"brutal, ugly, degenerate, vicious. ...", "It fosters almost totally negative and destructive reactions in young people.", "It smells phoney and false.", "It is sung, played and written, for the most part, by cretinous goons. ...", "This rancid-smelling aphrodisiac I deplore.\"", "Asked for a response, Presley said, \"I admire the man.", "He has a right to say what he wants to say.", "He is a great success and a fine actor, but I think he shouldn't have said it. ...", "This is a trend, just the same as he faced when he started years ago.", "\"Leiber and Stoller were again in the studio for the recording of ''Elvis' Christmas Album''.", "Toward the end of the session, they wrote a song on the spot at Presley's request: \"Santa Claus Is Back in Town\", an innuendo-laden blues.", "The holiday release stretched Presley's string of number-one albums to four and would become the best-selling Christmas album ever in the United States, with eventual sales of over 20 million worldwide.", "After the session, Moore and Black—drawing only modest weekly salaries, sharing in none of Presley's massive financial success—resigned, though they were brought back on a per diem basis a few weeks later.On December 20, Presley received his draft notice, though he was granted a deferment to finish the forthcoming film ''King Creole''.", "A couple of weeks into the new year, \"Don't\", another Leiber and Stoller tune, became Presley's tenth number-one seller.", "Recording sessions for the ''King Creole'' soundtrack were held in Hollywood in mid-January 1958.Leiber and Stoller provided three songs, but it would be the last time Presley and the duo worked closely together.", "As Stoller later recalled, Presley's manager and entourage sought to wall him off.", "A brief soundtrack session on February 11 marked the final occasion on which Black was to perform with Presley.=== 1958–1960: military service and mother's death ===sworn into the Army on March 24, 1958, at Fort ChaffeeOn March 24, 1958, Presley was drafted into the United States Army at Fort Chaffee in Arkansas.", "His arrival was a major media event.", "Hundreds of people descended on Presley as he stepped from the bus; photographers accompanied him into the installation.", "Presley announced that he was looking forward to his military service, saying that he did not want to be treated any differently from anyone else.Between March 28 and September 17, 1958, Presley completed basic and advanced training at Fort Hood, Texas, where he was temporarily assigned to Company A, 2d Medium Tank Battalion, 37th Armor.", "During the two weeks' leave between his basic and advanced training in early June, he recorded five songs in Nashville.", "In early August, Presley's mother was diagnosed with hepatitis, and her condition rapidly worsened.", "Presley was granted emergency leave to visit her and arrived in Memphis on August 12.Two days later, she died of heart failure at age 46.Presley was devastated and never the same; their relationship had remained extremely close—even into his adulthood, they would use baby talk with each other and Presley would address her with pet names.3d Armored Division Shoulder Sleeve Insignia, poses atop a tank at Ray BarracksOn October 1, 1958, Presley was assigned to the 1st Medium Tank Battalion, 32d Armor, 3d Armored Division, at Ray Barracks, West Germany, where he served as an armor intelligence specialist.", "On November 27, he was promoted to private first class and on June 1, 1959, to specialist fourth class.", "While on maneuvers, Presley was introduced to amphetamines and became \"practically evangelical about their benefits\", not only for energy but for \"strength\" and weight loss.", "Karate became a lifelong interest: he studied with Jürgen Seydel, and later included it in his live performances.", "Fellow soldiers have attested to Presley's wish to be seen as an able, ordinary soldier despite his fame, and to his generosity.", "He donated his Army pay to charity, purchased television sets for the base, and bought an extra set of fatigues for everyone in his outfit.", "Presley was promoted to sergeant on February 11, 1960.While in Bad Nauheim, Presley, aged 24, met 14-year-old Priscilla Beaulieu.", "They would marry after a seven-and-a-half-year courtship.", "In her autobiography, Priscilla said that Presley was concerned that his 24 months in the military would ruin his career.", "In Special Services, he would have been able to perform and remain in touch with the public, but Parker had convinced him that to gain popular respect, he should serve as a regular soldier.", "Media reports echoed Presley's concerns about his career, but RCA Victor producer Steve Sholes and Freddy Bienstock of Hill and Range had carefully prepared: armed with a substantial amount of unreleased material, they kept up a regular stream of successful releases.", "Between his induction and discharge, Presley had ten top-40 hits, including \"Wear My Ring Around Your Neck\", the bestselling \"Hard Headed Woman\", and \"One Night\" in 1958, and \"(Now and Then There's) A Fool Such as I\" and the number-one \"A Big Hunk o' Love\" in 1959.RCA Victor also generated four albums compiling previously issued material during this period, most successfully ''Elvis' Golden Records'' (1958), which hit number three on the LP chart.=== 1960–1968: focus on films ======= ''Elvis Is Back'' ====Presley returned to the U.S. on March 2, 1960, and was honorably discharged three days later.", "The train that carried him from New Jersey to Tennessee was mobbed all the way, and Presley was called upon to appear at scheduled stops to please his fans.", "On the night of March 20, he entered RCA's Nashville studio to cut tracks for a new album along with a single, \"Stuck on You\", which was rushed into release and swiftly became a number-one hit.", "Another Nashville session two weeks later yielded a pair of bestselling singles, the ballads \"It's Now or Never\" and \"Are You Lonesome Tonight?", "\", along with the rest of ''Elvis Is Back!''", "The album features several songs described by Greil Marcus as full of Chicago blues \"menace, driven by Presley's own super-miked acoustic guitar, brilliant playing by Scotty Moore, and demonic sax work from Boots Randolph.", "Elvis' singing wasn't sexy, it was pornographic.\"", "The record \"conjured up the vision of a performer who could be all things\", according to music historian John Robertson: \"a flirtatious teenage idol with a heart of gold; a tempestuous, dangerous lover; a gutbucket blues singer; a sophisticated nightclub entertainer; a raucous rocker\".", "Released only days after recording was complete, it reached number two on the album chart.Presley with Juliet Prowse in ''G.I.", "Blues''Presley returned to television on May 12 as a guest on ''The Frank Sinatra Timex Special''.", "Also known as ''Welcome Home Elvis'', the show had been taped in late March, the only time all year Presley performed in front of an audience.", "Parker secured an unheard-of $125,000 for eight minutes of singing.", "The broadcast drew an enormous viewership.''G.I.", "Blues'', the soundtrack to Presley's first film since his return, was a number-one album in October.", "His first LP of sacred material, ''His Hand in Mine'', followed two months later; it reached number 13 on the U.S. pop chart and number 3 in the United Kingdom, remarkable figures for a gospel album.", "In February 1961, Presley performed two shows in Memphis, for a benefit for twenty-four local charities.", "During a luncheon preceding the event, RCA Victor presented him with a plaque certifying worldwide sales of over 75 million records.", "A twelve-hour Nashville session in mid-March yielded nearly all of Presley's next studio album, ''Something for Everybody''.", "According to John Robertson, it exemplifies the Nashville sound, the restrained, cosmopolitan style that would define country music in the 1960s.", "Presaging much of what was to come from Presley over the next half-decade, the album is largely \"a pleasant, unthreatening pastiche of the music that had once been Elvis' birthright\".", "It would be his sixth number-one LP.", "Another benefit concert, for a Pearl Harbor memorial, was staged on March 25 in Hawaii.", "It was to be Presley's last public performance for seven years.==== Lost in Hollywood ====Parker had by now pushed Presley into a heavy filmmaking schedule, focused on formulaic, modestly budgeted musical comedies.", "Presley initially insisted on pursuing higher roles, but when two films in a more dramatic vein—''Flaming Star'' (1960) and ''Wild in the Country'' (1961)—were less commercially successful, he reverted to the formula.", "Among the twenty-seven films he made during the 1960s, there were a few further exceptions.", "His films were almost universally panned; critic Andrew Caine dismissed them as a \"pantheon of bad taste\".", "Nonetheless, they were virtually all profitable.", "Hal Wallis, who produced nine, declared, \"A Presley picture is the only sure thing in Hollywood.", "\"Of Presley's films in the 1960s, fifteen were accompanied by soundtrack albums and another five by soundtrack EPs.", "The films' rapid production and release schedules—Presley frequently starred in three a year—affected his music.", "According to Jerry Leiber, the soundtrack formula was already evident before Presley left for the Army: \"three ballads, one medium-tempo number, one up-tempo, and one break blues boogie\".", "As the decade wore on, the quality of the soundtrack songs grew \"progressively worse\".", "Julie Parrish, who appeared in ''Paradise, Hawaiian Style'' (1966), says that Presley disliked many of the songs.", "The Jordanaires' Gordon Stoker describes how he would retreat from the studio microphone: \"The material was so bad that he felt like he couldn't sing it.\"", "Most of the film albums featured a song or two from respected writers such as the team of Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman.", "But by and large, according to biographer Jerry Hopkins, the numbers seemed to be \"written on order by men who never really understood Elvis or rock and roll\".In the first half of the decade, three of Presley's soundtrack albums were ranked number one on the pop charts, and a few of his most popular songs came from his films, such as \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" (1961) and \"Return to Sender\" (1962).", "However, the commercial returns steadily diminished.", "From 1964 through 1968, Presley had only one top-ten hit: \"Crying in the Chapel\" (1965), a gospel number recorded in 1960.As for non-film albums, between the June 1962 release of ''Pot Luck'' and the November 1968 release of the soundtrack to the television special that signaled his comeback, only one LP of new material by Presley was issued: the gospel album ''How Great Thou Art'' (1967).", "It won him his first Grammy Award, for Best Sacred Performance.", "As Marsh described, Presley was \"arguably the greatest white gospel singer of his time and really the last rock & roll artist to make gospel as vital a component of his musical personality as his secular songs\".Shortly before Christmas 1966, more than seven years since they first met, Presley proposed to Priscilla Beaulieu.", "They were married on May 1, 1967, in a brief ceremony in their suite at the Aladdin Hotel in Las Vegas.", "The flow of formulaic films and assembly-line soundtracks continued.", "It was not until October 1967, when the ''Clambake'' soundtrack LP registered record low sales for a new Presley album, that RCA Victor executives recognized a problem.", "\"By then, of course, the damage had been done\", as historians Connie Kirchberg and Marc Hendrickx put it.", "\"Elvis was viewed as a joke by serious music lovers and a has-been to all but his most loyal fans.", "\"=== 1968–1973: comeback ======= ''Elvis'': the '68 Comeback Special ===='68 Comeback Special produced \"one of the most famous images\" of Presley.", "Taken on June 29, 1968, it was adapted for the cover of ''Rolling Stone'' in July 1969.Presley's only child, Lisa Marie, was born on February 1, 1968, during a period when he had grown deeply unhappy with his career.", "Of the eight Presley singles released between January 1967 and May 1968, only two charted in the top 40, none higher than number 28.His forthcoming soundtrack album, ''Speedway'', would rank at number 82.Parker had already shifted his plans to television: he maneuvered a deal with NBC that committed the network to finance a theatrical feature and broadcast a Christmas special.Recorded in late June in Burbank, California, the special, simply called ''Elvis'', aired on December 3, 1968.Later known as the '''68 Comeback Special'', the show featured lavishly staged studio productions as well as songs performed with a band in front of a small audience—Presley's first live performances since 1961.The live segments saw Presley dressed in tight black leather, singing and playing guitar in an uninhibited style reminiscent of his early rock and roll days.", "Director and co-producer Steve Binder worked hard to produce a show that was far from the hour of Christmas songs Parker had originally planned.", "The show, NBC's highest-rated that season, captured forty-two percent of the total viewing audience.", "Jon Landau of ''Eye'' magazine remarked, \"There is something magical about watching a man who has lost himself find his way back home.", "He sang with the kind of power people no longer expect of rock 'n' roll singers.", "He moved his body with a lack of pretension and effort that must have made Jim Morrison green with envy.\"", "Marsh calls the performance one of \"emotional grandeur and historical resonance\".By January 1969, the single \"If I Can Dream\", written for the special, reached number 12.The soundtrack album rose into the top ten.", "According to friend Jerry Schilling, the special reminded Presley of what \"he had not been able to do for years, being able to choose the people; being able to choose what songs and not being told what had to be on the soundtrack. ...", "He was out of prison, man.\"", "Binder said of Presley's reaction, \"I played Elvis the 60-minute show, and he told me in the screening room, 'Steve, it's the greatest thing I've ever done in my life.", "I give you my word I will never sing a song I don't believe in.==== ''From Elvis in Memphis'' and the International ====Buoyed by the experience of the ''Comeback Special'', Presley engaged in a prolific series of recording sessions at American Sound Studio, which led to the acclaimed ''From Elvis in Memphis''.", "Released in June 1969, it was his first secular, non-soundtrack album from a dedicated period in the studio in eight years.", "As described by Marsh, it is \"a masterpiece in which Presley immediately catches up with pop music trends that had seemed to pass him by during the movie years.", "He sings country songs, soul songs and rockers with real conviction, a stunning achievement.\"", "The album featured the hit single \"In the Ghetto\", issued in April, which reached number three on the pop chart—Presley's first non-gospel top ten hit since \"Bossa Nova Baby\" in 1963.Further hit singles were culled from the American Sound sessions: \"Suspicious Minds\", \"Don't Cry Daddy\", and \"Kentucky Rain\".Presley was keen to resume regular live performing.", "Following the success of the ''Comeback Special'', offers came in from around the world.", "The London Palladium offered Parker () for a one-week engagement.", "He responded, \"That's fine for me, now how much can you get for Elvis?\"", "In May, the brand-new International Hotel in Las Vegas, boasting the largest showroom in the city, booked Presley for fifty-seven shows over four weeks, beginning July 31.Moore, Fontana, and the Jordanaires declined to participate, afraid of losing the lucrative session work they had in Nashville.", "Presley assembled new, top-notch accompaniment, led by guitarist James Burton and including two gospel groups, The Imperials and Sweet Inspirations.", "Costume designer Bill Belew, responsible for the intense leather styling of the ''Comeback Special'', created a new stage look for Presley, inspired by his passion for karate.", "Nonetheless, Presley was nervous: his only previous Las Vegas engagement, in 1956, had been dismal.", "Parker oversaw a major promotional push, and International Hotel owner Kirk Kerkorian arranged to send his own plane to New York to fly in rock journalists for the debut performance.Presley took to the stage without introduction.", "The audience of 2,200, including many celebrities, gave him a standing ovation before he sang a note and another after his performance.", "A third followed his encore, \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" (which would be his closing number for much of his remaining life).", "At a press conference after the show, when a journalist referred to him as \"The King\", Presley gestured toward Fats Domino, who was taking in the scene.", "\"No,\" Presley said, \"that's the real king of rock and roll.\"", "The next day, Parker's negotiations with the hotel resulted in a five-year contract for Presley to play each February and August, at an annual salary of $1 million.", "''Newsweek'' commented, \"There are several unbelievable things about Elvis, but the most incredible is his staying power in a world where meteoric careers fade like shooting stars.\"", "''Rolling Stone'' called Presley \"supernatural, his own resurrection.\"", "In November, Presley's final non-concert film, ''Change of Habit'', opened.", "The double album ''From Memphis to Vegas/From Vegas to Memphis'' came out the same month; the first LP consisted of live performances from the International, the second of more cuts from the American Sound sessions.", "\"Suspicious Minds\" reached the top of the charts—Presley's first U.S. pop number-one in over seven years, and his last.Cassandra Peterson, later television's Elvira, met Presley during this period in Las Vegas.", "She recalled of their encounter, \"He was so anti-drug when I met him.", "I mentioned to him that I smoked marijuana, and he was just appalled.\"", "Presley also rarely drank—several of his family members had been alcoholics, a fate he intended to avoid.==== Back on tour and meeting Nixon ====Presley returned to the International early in 1970 for the first of the year's two-month-long engagements, performing two shows a night.", "Recordings from these shows were issued on the album ''On Stage''.", "In late February, Presley performed six attendance-record–breaking shows at the Houston Astrodome.", "In April, the single \"The Wonder of You\" was issued—a number one hit in the UK, it topped the U.S. adult contemporary chart as well.", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) filmed rehearsal and concert footage at the International during August for the documentary ''Elvis: That's the Way It Is''.", "Presley was performing in a jumpsuit, which would become a trademark of his live act.", "During this engagement, he was threatened with murder unless () was paid.", "Presley had been the target of many threats since the 1950s, often without his knowledge.", "The FBI took the threat seriously and security was increased for the next two shows.", "Presley went onstage with a Derringer in his right boot and a .45 caliber pistol in his waistband, but the concerts succeeded without any incidents.", "''That's the Way It Is'', produced to accompany the documentary and featuring both studio and live recordings, marked a stylistic shift.", "As music historian John Robertson noted, The authority of Presley's singing helped disguise the fact that the album stepped decisively away from the American-roots inspiration of the Memphis sessions towards a more middle-of-the-road sound.", "With country put on the back burner, and soul and R&B left in Memphis, what was left was very classy, very clean white pop—perfect for the Las Vegas crowd, but a definite retrograde step for Elvis.", "After the end of his International engagement on September 7, Presley embarked on a week-long concert tour, largely of the South, his first since 1958.Another week-long tour, of the West Coast, followed in November.Presley meets US President Richard Nixon in the White House Oval Office, December 21, 1970On December 21, 1970, Presley engineered a meeting with U.S. President Richard Nixon at the White House, where he explained how he believed he could reach out to the hippies to help combat the drug culture he and the president abhorred.", "He asked Nixon for a Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs badge, to signify official sanction of his efforts.", "Nixon, who apparently found the encounter awkward, expressed a belief that Presley could send a positive message to young people and that it was, therefore, important that he \"retain his credibility\".", "Presley told Nixon that the Beatles, whose songs he regularly performed in concert during the era, exemplified what he saw as a trend of anti-Americanism.", "Presley and his friends previously had a four-hour get-together with the Beatles at his home in Bel Air, California, in August 1965.Paul McCartney later said that he \"felt a bit betrayed. ...", "The great joke was that we were taking illegal drugs, and look what happened to him\", a reference to Presley's early death linked to prescription drug abuse.The U.S.", "Junior Chamber of Commerce named Presley one of its annual Ten Most Outstanding Young Men of the Nation on January 16, 1971.Not long after, the City of Memphis named the stretch of Highway 51 South on which Graceland is located \"Elvis Presley Boulevard\".", "The same year, Presley became the first rock and roll singer to be awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (then known as the Bing Crosby Award).", "Three new, non-film Presley studio albums were released in 1971.Best received by critics was ''Elvis Country'', a concept record that focused on genre standards.", "The biggest seller was ''Elvis Sings The Wonderful World of Christmas''.", "According to Greil Marcus, In the midst of ten painfully genteel Christmas songs, every one sung with appalling sincerity and humility, one could find Elvis tom-catting his way through six blazing minutes of \"Merry Christmas Baby\", a raunchy old Charles Brown blues....", "If Presley's sin was his lifelessness, it was his sinfulness that brought him to life.==== Marriage breakdown and ''Aloha from Hawaii'' ====Bill Porter (left) and Paul Anka (right) backstage at the Las Vegas Hilton on August 5, 1972MGM filmed Presley in April 1972 for ''Elvis on Tour'', which went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Documentary Film for that year's Golden Globe Awards.", "His gospel album ''He Touched Me'', released that month, would earn him his second Grammy Award for Best Inspirational Performance.", "A fourteen-date tour commenced with an unprecedented four consecutive sold-out shows at New York's Madison Square Garden.", "The evening concert on July 10 was issued in LP form a week later.", "''Elvis: As Recorded at Madison Square Garden'' became one of Presley's biggest-selling albums.", "After the tour, the single \"Burning Love\" was released—Presley's last top ten hit on the U.S. pop chart.", "\"The most exciting single Elvis has made since 'All Shook Up, wrote rock critic Robert Christgau.Presley came up with his outfit's eagle motif, as \"something that would say 'America' to the world\"Presley and his wife had become increasingly distant, barely cohabiting.", "In 1971, an affair he had with Joyce Bova resulted—unbeknownst to him—in her pregnancy and an abortion.", "He often raised the possibility of Joyce moving into Graceland.", "The Presleys separated on February 23, 1972, after Priscilla disclosed her relationship with Mike Stone, a karate instructor Presley had recommended to her.", "Priscilla related that when she told him, Presley forcefully made love to her, declaring, \"This is how a real man makes love to his woman\".", "She later stated in an interview that she regretted her choice of words in describing the incident, and said it had been an overstatement.", "Five months later, Presley's new girlfriend, Linda Thompson, a songwriter and one-time Memphis beauty queen, moved in with him.", "Presley and his wife filed for divorce on August 18.According to Joe Moscheo of the Imperials, the failure of Presley's marriage \"was a blow from which he never recovered\".", "At a rare press conference that June, a reporter had asked Presley whether he was satisfied with his image.", "Presley replied, \"Well, the image is one thing and the human being another ... it's very hard to live up to an image.", "\"In January 1973, Presley performed two benefit concerts for the Kui Lee Cancer Fund in connection with a groundbreaking television special, ''Aloha from Hawaii'', which would be the first concert by a solo artist to be aired globally.", "The first show served as a practice run and backup should technical problems affect the live broadcast two days later.", "On January 14, ''Aloha from Hawaii'' aired live via satellite to prime-time audiences in Japan, South Korea, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as to U.S. servicemen based across Southeast Asia.", "In Japan, where it capped a nationwide Elvis Presley Week, it smashed viewing records.", "The next night, it was simulcast to twenty-eight European countries, and in April an extended version aired in the U.S., receiving a fifty-seven percent share of the TV audience.", "Over time, Parker's claim that it was seen by one billion or more people would be broadly accepted, but that figure appeared to have been sheer invention.", "Presley's stage costume became the most recognized example of the elaborate concert garb with which his latter-day persona became closely associated.", "As described by Bobbie Ann Mason, \"At the end of the show, when he spreads out his American Eagle cape, with the full stretched wings of the eagle studded on the back, he becomes a god figure.\"", "The accompanying double album, released in February, went to number one and eventually sold over 5 million copies in the U.S.", "It was Presley's last U.S. number-one pop album during his lifetime.At a midnight show that same month, four men rushed onto the stage in an apparent attack.", "Security personnel came to Presley's defense, and he ejected one invader from the stage himself.", "Following the show, Presley became obsessed with the idea that the men had been sent by Mike Stone to kill him.", "Though they were shown to have been only overexuberant fans, Presley raged, \"There's too much pain in me ... Stone must die.\"", "His outbursts continued with such intensity that a physician was unable to calm him, despite administering large doses of medication.", "After another two full days of raging, Red West, his friend and bodyguard, felt compelled to get a price for a contract killing and was relieved when Presley decided, \"Aw hell, let's just leave it for now.", "Maybe it's a bit heavy.", "\"=== 1973–1977: health deterioration and death ======= Medical crises and last studio sessions ====Presley's divorce was finalized on October 9, 1973.By then, his health was in serious decline.", "Twice during the year he overdosed on barbiturates, spending three days in a coma in his hotel suite after the first incident.", "In late 1973, he was hospitalized from the effects of a pethidine addiction.", "According to his primary care physician, George C. Nichopoulos, Presley \"felt that by getting drugs from a doctor, he wasn't the common everyday junkie getting something off the street\".", "Since his comeback, he had staged more live shows with each passing year, and 1973 saw 168 concerts, his busiest schedule ever.", "Despite his failing health, he undertook another intensive touring schedule in 1974.Presley's condition declined precipitously that September.", "Keyboardist Tony Brown remembered his arrival at a University of Maryland concert: \"He fell out of the limousine, to his knees.", "People jumped to help, and he pushed them away like, 'Don't help me.'", "He walked on stage and held onto the mic for the first thirty minutes like it was a post.", "Everybody's looking at each other like, 'Is the tour gonna happen'?\"", "Guitarist John Wilkinson recalled, \"He was all gut.", "He was slurring.", "He was so fucked up. ...", "It was obvious he was drugged.", "It was obvious there was something terribly wrong with his body.", "It was so bad the words to the songs were barely intelligible. ...", "I remember crying.", "He could barely get through the introductions.", "\"RCA began to grow anxious as his interest in the recording studio waned.", "After a session in December 1973 that produced eighteen songs, enough for almost two albums, Presley made no official studio recordings in 1974.Parker delivered RCA another concert record, ''Elvis Recorded Live on Stage in Memphis''.", "Recorded on March 20, it included a version of \"How Great Thou Art\" that won Presley his third and final Grammy Award for Best Inspirational Performance.", "All three of his competitive Grammy winsout of fourteen total nominationswere for gospel recordings.", "Presley returned to the recording studio in March 1975, but Parker's attempts to arrange another session toward the end of the year were unsuccessful.", "In 1976, RCA sent a mobile recording unit to Graceland that made possible two full-scale recording sessions.", "However, the recording process had become a struggle for him.==== Final months ====Journalist Tony Scherman wrote that, by early 1977, \"Presley had become a grotesque caricature of his sleek, energetic former self.", "Grossly overweight, his mind dulled by the pharmacopia he daily ingested, he was barely able to pull himself through his abbreviated concerts.\"", "According to Andy Greene of ''Rolling Stone'', Presley's final performances were mostly \"sad, sloppy affairs where a bloated, drugged Presley struggled to remember his lyrics and get through the night without collapsing ...", "Most everything from the final three years of his life is sad and hard to watch.\"", "In Alexandria, Louisiana, he was on stage for less than an hour and \"was impossible to understand\".", "On March 31, he canceled a performance in Baton Rouge, unable to get out of his hotel bed; four shows had to be canceled and rescheduled.Despite the accelerating deterioration of his health, Presley fulfilled most of his touring commitments.", "According to Guralnick, fans \"were becoming increasingly voluble about their disappointment, but it all seemed to go right past Presley, whose world was now confined almost entirely to his room and his spiritualism books\".", "Presley's cousin, Billy Smith, recalled how he would sit in his room and chat for hours, sometimes recounting favorite Monty Python sketches and his past escapades, but more often gripped by paranoid obsessions.", "\"Way Down\", Presley's last single issued during his lifetime, was released on June 6, 1977.That month, CBS taped two concerts for a television special, ''Elvis in Concert'', to be broadcast in October.", "In the first, shot in Omaha on June 19, Presley's voice, Guralnick writes, \"is almost unrecognizable, a small, childlike instrument in which he talks more than sings most of the songs, casts about uncertainly for the melody in others, and is virtually unable to articulate or project\".", "Two days later, in Rapid City, South Dakota, \"he looked healthier, seemed to have lost a little weight, and sounded better, too\", though, by the conclusion of the performance, his face was \"framed in a helmet of blue-black hair from which sweat sheets down over pale, swollen cheeks\".", "Presley's final concert was held in Indianapolis at Market Square Arena, on June 26, 1977.Presley's grave at Graceland==== Death====On August 16, 1977, Presley was scheduled on an evening flight out of Memphis to Portland, Maine, to begin another tour.", "That afternoon, however, his fiancée Ginger Alden discovered him unresponsive on the bathroom floor of his Graceland mansion.", "Attempts to revive him failed, and he was pronounced dead at Baptist Memorial Hospital at 3:30 p.m.", "He was 42.President Jimmy Carter issued a statement that credited Presley with having \"permanently changed the face of American popular culture\".", "Thousands of people gathered outside Graceland to view the open casket.", "One of Presley's cousins, Billy Mann, accepted () to secretly photograph the body; the picture appeared on the cover of the ''National Enquirer''s biggest-selling issue ever.", "Alden struck a $105,000 () deal with the ''Enquirer'' for her story, but settled for less when she broke her exclusivity agreement.", "Presley left her nothing in his will.Presley's funeral was held at Graceland on August 18.Outside the gates, a car plowed into a group of fans, killing two young women and critically injuring a third.", "About 80,000 people lined the processional route to Forest Hill Cemetery, where Presley was buried next to his mother.", "Within a few weeks, \"Way Down\" topped the country and UK singles chart.", "Following an attempt to steal Presley's body in late August, the remains of both Presley and his mother were exhumed and reburied in Graceland's Meditation Garden on October 2.=== Cause of death ===While an autopsy, undertaken the same day Presley died, was still in progress, Memphis medical examiner Jerry Francisco announced that the immediate cause of death was cardiac arrest and declared that \"drugs played no role in Presley's death\".", "In fact, \"drug use was heavily implicated\" in Presley's death, writes Guralnick.", "The pathologists conducting the autopsy thought it possible, for instance, that he had suffered \"anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills he had gotten from his dentist, to which he was known to have had a mild allergy\".", "Lab reports filed two months later strongly suggested that polypharmacy was the primary cause of death; one reported \"fourteen drugs in Elvis' system, ten in significant quantity\".", "In 1979, forensic pathologist Cyril Wecht reviewed the reports and concluded that a combination of depressants had resulted in Presley's accidental death.", "Forensic historian and pathologist Michael Baden viewed the situation as complicated: \"Elvis had had an enlarged heart for a long time.", "That, together with his drug habit, caused his death.", "But he was difficult to diagnose; it was a judgment call.", "\"The competence and ethics of two of the centrally involved medical professionals were seriously questioned.", "Francisco had offered a cause of death before the autopsy was complete; claimed the underlying ailment was cardiac arrhythmia, a condition that can be determined only in a living person; and denied drugs played any part in Presley's death before the toxicology results were known.", "Allegations of a cover-up were widespread.", "While a 1981 trial of Presley's main physician, George C. Nichopoulos, exonerated him of criminal liability, the facts were startling: \"In the first eight months of 1977 alone, he had prescribed more than 10,000 doses of sedatives, amphetamines, and narcotics: all in Elvis' name.\"", "Nichopoulos' license was suspended for three months.", "It was permanently revoked in the 1990s after the Tennessee Medical Board brought new charges of over-prescription.In 1994, the Presley autopsy report was reopened.", "Joseph Davis, who had conducted thousands of autopsies as Miami-Dade County coroner, declared at its completion, \"There is nothing in any of the data that supports a death from drugs.", "In fact, everything points to a sudden, violent heart attack.\"", "More recent research has revealed that Francisco did not speak for the entire pathology team.", "Other staff \"could say nothing with confidence until they got the results back from the laboratories, if then.\"", "One of the examiners, E. Eric Muirhead, could not believe his ears.", "Francisco had not only presumed to speak for the hospital's team of pathologists, he had announced a conclusion that they had not reached. ...", "Early on, a meticulous dissection of the body ... confirmed that Elvis was chronically ill with diabetes, glaucoma, and constipation.", "As they proceeded, the doctors saw evidence that his body had been wracked over a span of years by a large and constant stream of drugs.", "They had also studied his hospital records, which included two admissions for drug detoxification and methadone treatments.", "According to biographer Frank Coffey, \"other plausible causes\" include \"the Valsalva maneuver (essentially straining on the toilet leading to heart stoppage—plausible because Elvis suffered constipation, a common reaction to drug use)\".=== Later developments ===Between 1977 and 1981, six of Presley's posthumously released singles were top-ten country hits.", "Graceland was opened to the public in 1982.Attracting over half a million visitors annually, it became the second-most-visited home in the United States, after the White House.", "The residence was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2006.Presley has been inducted into five music halls of fame: the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (1986), the Country Music Hall of Fame (1998), the Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2001), the Rockabilly Hall of Fame (2007), and the Memphis Music Hall of Fame (2012).", "In 1984, he received the W. C. Handy Award from the Blues Foundation and the Academy of Country Music's first Golden Hat Award.", "In 1987, he received the American Music Awards' Award of Merit.A Junkie XL remix of Presley's \"A Little Less Conversation\" (credited as \"Elvis Vs JXL\") was used in a Nike advertising campaign during the 2002 FIFA World Cup.", "It topped the charts in over twenty countries and was included in a compilation of Presley's number-one hits, ''ELV1S'', which was also an international success.", "The album returned Presley to the top of the ''Billboard'' chart for the first time in almost three decades.In 2003, a remix of \"Rubberneckin'\", a 1969 recording, topped the U.S. sales chart, as did a 50th-anniversary re-release of \"That's All Right\" the following year.", "The latter was an outright hit in Britain, debuting at number three on the pop chart; it also made the top ten in Canada.", "In 2005, another three reissued singles, \"Jailhouse Rock\", \"One Night\"/\"I Got Stung\", and \"It's Now or Never\", went to number one in the UK.", "They were part of a campaign that saw the re-release of all eighteen of Presley's previous chart-topping UK singles.", "The first, \"All Shook Up\", came with a collectors' box that made it ineligible to chart again; each of the other seventeen reissues hit the British top five.In 2005, ''Forbes'' magazine named Presley the top-earning deceased celebrity for the fifth straight year, with a gross income of $45 million.", "He was placed second in 2006, returned to the top spot the next two years, and ranked fourth in 2009.The following year, he was ranked second, with his highest annual income ever—$60 million—spurred by the celebration of his 75th birthday and the launch of Cirque du Soleil's ''Viva Elvis'' show in Las Vegas.", "In November 2010, ''Viva Elvis: The Album'' was released, setting his voice to newly recorded instrumental tracks.", "As of mid-2011, there were an estimated 15,000 licensed Presley products, and he was again the second-highest-earning deceased celebrity.", "Six years later, he ranked fourth with earnings of $35 million, up $8 million from 2016 due in part to the opening of a new entertainment complex, Elvis Presley's Memphis, and hotel, The Guest House at Graceland.In 2018, RCA/Legacy released ''Elvis Presley – Where No One Stands Alone'', a new album focused on Presley' love of gospel music.", "Produced by Joel Weinshanker, Lisa Marie Presley and Andy Childs, the album introduced newly recorded instrumentation along with vocals from singers who had performed in the past with Elvis.", "It included a reimagined duet with Lisa Marie, on the album's title track.In 2022, Baz Luhrmann's film ''Elvis'', a biographical film about Presley's life, was released.", "Presley is portrayed by Austin Butler and Parker by Tom Hanks.", "As of August 2022, the film had grossed $261.8 million worldwide on a $85 million budget, becoming the second-highest-grossing music biopic of all-time behind ''Bohemian Rhapsody'' (2018), and the fifth-highest-grossing Australian-produced film.", "For his portrayal of Presley, Butler won the Golden Globe and was nominated for the Oscar for Best Actor.", "In January 2023, his 1962 Lockheed 1329 JetStar sold at an auction for $260,000." ], [ "Artistry", "=== Influences ===Presley's earliest musical influence came from gospel.", "His mother recalled that from the age of two, at the Assembly of God church in Tupelo attended by the family, \"he would slide down off my lap, run into the aisle and scramble up to the platform.", "There he would stand looking at the choir and trying to sing with them.\"", "In Memphis, Presley frequently attended all-night gospel singings at the Ellis Auditorium, where groups such as the Statesmen Quartet led the music in a style that, Guralnick suggests, sowed the seeds of Presley's future stage act:As a teenager, Presley's musical interests were wide-ranging, and he was deeply informed about both white and African-American musical idioms.", "Though he never had any formal training, he had a remarkable memory, and his musical knowledge was already considerable by the time he made his first professional recordings aged 19 in 1954.When Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller met him two years later, they were astonished at his encyclopedic understanding of the blues, and, as Stoller put it, \"He certainly knew a lot more than we did about country music and gospel music.\"", "At a press conference the following year, he proudly declared, \"I know practically every religious song that's ever been written.", "\"=== Musicianship ===Presley played guitar, bass, and piano; he received his first guitar when he was 11 years old.", "He could not read or write music and had no formal lessons, and played everything by ear.", "Presley often played an instrument on his recordings and produced his own music.", "Presley played rhythm acoustic guitar on most of his Sun recordings and his 1950s RCA Victor albums.", "Presley played piano on songs such as \"Old Shep\" and \"First in Line\" from his 1956 album ''Elvis''.", "He is credited with playing piano on later albums such as ''From Elvis in Memphis'' and \"Moody Blue\", and on \"Unchained Melody\", which was one of the last songs that he recorded.", "Presley played lead guitar on one of his successful singles called \"Are You Lonesome Tonight\".", "In the 68 Comeback Special, Elvis took over on lead electric guitar, the first time he had ever been seen with the instrument in public, playing it on songs such as \"Baby What You Want Me to Do\" and \"One Night\".", "The album ''Elvis is Back!''", "features Presley playing a lot of acoustic guitar on songs such as \"I Will Be Home Again\" and \"Like a Baby\".=== Musical styles and genres ===Presley with his longtime vocal backup group, the Jordanaires, March 1957Presley was a central figure in the development of rockabilly, according to music historians.", "\"Rockabilly crystallized into a recognizable style in 1954 with Elvis Presley's first release, on the Sun label,\" writes Craig Morrison.", "Paul Friedlander described rockabilly as \"essentially ... an Elvis Presley construction\", with the defining elements as \"the raw, emotive, and slurred vocal style and emphasis on rhythmic feeling of the blues with the string band and strummed rhythm guitar of country\".", "In \"That's All Right\", the Presley trio's first record, Scotty Moore's guitar solo, \"a combination of Merle Travis–style country finger-picking, double-stop slides from acoustic boogie, and blues-based bent-note, single-string work, is a microcosm of this fusion\".", "While Katherine Charlton calls Presley \"rockabilly's originator\", Carl Perkins, another pioneer of rock'n'roll, said that \"Sam Phillips, Elvis, and I didn't create rockabilly\".", "According to Michael Campbell, the first major rockabilly song was recorded by Bill Haley.", "In Moore's view, \"It had been there for quite a while, really.", "Carl Perkins was doing basically the same sort of thing up around Jackson, and I know for a fact Jerry Lee Lewis had been playing that kind of music ever since he was ten years old.", "\"At RCA Victor, Presley's rock and roll sound grew distinct from rockabilly with group chorus vocals, more heavily amplified electric guitars and a tougher, more intense manner.", "While he was known for taking songs from various sources and giving them a rockabilly/rock and roll treatment, he also recorded songs in other genres from early in his career, from the pop standard \"Blue Moon\" at Sun Records to the country ballad \"How's the World Treating You?\"", "on his second RCA Victor LP to the blues of \"Santa Claus Is Back in Town\".", "In 1957, his first gospel record was released, the four-song EP ''Peace in the Valley''.", "Certified as a million-seller, it became the top-selling gospel EP in recording history.", "Presley would record gospel periodically for the rest of his life.After his return from military service in 1960, Presley continued to perform rock and roll, but the characteristic style was substantially toned down.", "His first post-Army single, the number-one hit \"Stuck on You\", is typical of this shift.", "RCA Victor publicity referred to its \"mild rock beat\"; discographer Ernst Jorgensen calls it \"upbeat pop\".", "The number five \"She's Not You\" (1962) \"integrates the Jordanaires so completely, it's practically doo-wop\".", "The modern blues/R&B sound captured with success on ''Elvis Is Back!''", "was essentially abandoned for six years until such 1966–67 recordings as \"Down in the Alley\" and \"Hi-Heel Sneakers\".", "Presley's output during most of the 1960s emphasized pop music, often in the form of ballads such as \"Are You Lonesome Tonight?", "\", a number-one in 1960.", "\"It's Now or Never\", which also topped the chart that year, was a classically influenced variation of pop based on the Neapolitan song \"\" and concluding with a \"full-voiced operatic cadence\".", "These were both dramatic numbers, but most of what Presley recorded for his many film soundtracks was in a much lighter vein.While Presley performed several of his classic ballads for the '''68 Comeback Special'', the sound of the show was dominated by aggressive rock and roll.", "He recorded few new straight rock and roll songs thereafter; as he explained, they had become \"hard to find\".", "A significant exception was \"Burning Love\", his last major hit on the pop charts.", "Like his work of the 1950s, Presley's subsequent recordings reworked pop and country songs, but in markedly different permutations.", "His stylistic range now began to embrace a more contemporary rock sound as well as soul and funk.", "Much of ''Elvis in Memphis'', as well as \"Suspicious Minds\", cut at the same sessions, reflected this new rock and soul fusion.", "In the mid-1970s, many of his singles found a home on country radio, the field where he first became a star.=== Vocal style and range ===Publicity photo for the CBS program ''Stage Show'', January 16, 1956The developmental arc of Presley's singing voice, as described by critic Dave Marsh, goes from \"high and thrilled in the early days, to lower and perplexed in the final months.\"", "Marsh credits Presley with the introduction of the \"vocal stutter\" on 1955's \"Baby Let's Play House\".", "When on \"Don't Be Cruel\", Presley \"slides into a 'mmmmm' that marks the transition between the first two verses,\" he shows \"how masterful his relaxed style really is.\"", "Marsh describes the vocal performance on \"Can't Help Falling in Love\" as one of \"gentle insistence and delicacy of phrasing\", with the line Shall I stay' pronounced as if the words are fragile as crystal\".Jorgensen calls the 1966 recording of \"How Great Thou Art\" \"an extraordinary fulfillment of his vocal ambitions\", as Presley \"crafted for himself an ad-hoc arrangement in which he took every part of the four-part vocal, from the bass intro to the soaring heights of the song's operatic climax\", becoming \"a kind of one-man quartet\".", "Guralnick finds \"Stand by Me\" from the same gospel sessions \"a beautifully articulated, almost nakedly yearning performance\", but, by contrast, feels that Presley reaches beyond his powers on \"Where No One Stands Alone\", resorting \"to a kind of inelegant bellowing to push out a sound\" that Jake Hess of the Statesmen Quartet had in his command.", "Hess himself thought that while others might have voices the equal of Presley's, \"he had that certain something that everyone searches for all during their lifetime.\"", "Guralnick attempts to pinpoint that something: \"The warmth of his voice, his controlled use of both vibrato technique and natural falsetto range, the subtlety and deeply felt conviction of his singing were all qualities recognizably belonging to his talent but just as recognizably not to be achieved without sustained dedication and effort.", "\"Marsh praises his 1968 reading of \"U.S.", "Male\", \"bearing down on the hard guy lyrics, not sending them up or overplaying them but tossing them around with that astonishingly tough yet gentle assurance that he brought to his Sun records.\"", "The performance on \"In the Ghetto\" is, according to Jorgensen, \"devoid of any of his characteristic vocal tricks or mannerisms\", instead relying on the exceptional \"clarity and sensitivity of his voice\".", "Guralnick describes the song's delivery as of \"almost translucent eloquence ... so quietly confident in its simplicity\".", "On \"Suspicious Minds\", Guralnick hears essentially the same \"remarkable mixture of tenderness and poise\", but supplemented with \"an expressive quality somewhere between stoicism (at suspected infidelity) and anguish (over impending loss)\".Music critic Henry Pleasants observes that \"Presley has been described variously as a baritone and a tenor.", "An extraordinary compass ... and a very wide range of vocal color have something to do with this divergence of opinion.\"", "He identifies Presley as a high baritone, calculating his range as two octaves and a third, \"from the baritone low G to the tenor high B, with an upward extension in falsetto to at least a D-flat.", "Presley's best octave is in the middle, D-flat to D-flat, granting an extra full step up or down.\"", "In Pleasants' view, his voice was \"variable and unpredictable\" at the bottom, \"often brilliant\" at the top, with the capacity for \"full-voiced high Gs and As that an opera baritone might envy\".", "Scholar Lindsay Waters, who figures Presley's range as two-and-a-quarter octaves, emphasizes that \"his voice had an emotional range from tender whispers to sighs down to shouts, grunts, grumbles, and sheer gruffness that could move the listener from calmness and surrender, to fear.", "His voice can not be measured in octaves, but in decibels; even that misses the problem of how to measure delicate whispers that are hardly audible at all.\"", "Presley was always \"able to duplicate the open, hoarse, ecstatic, screaming, shouting, wailing, reckless sound of the black rhythm-and-blues and gospel singers\", writes Pleasants, and also demonstrated a remarkable ability to assimilate many other vocal styles." ], [ "Public image", "=== Relationship with the African-American community ===When Dewey Phillips first aired \"That's All Right\" on Memphis' WHBQ, many listeners who contacted the station to ask for it again assumed that its singer was black.", "From the beginning of his national fame, Presley expressed respect for African-American performers and their music, and disregard for the segregation and racial prejudice then prevalent in the South.", "Interviewed in 1956, he recalled how in his childhood he would listen to blues musician Arthur Crudup—the originator of \"That's All Right\"—\"bang his box the way I do now, and I said if I ever got to the place where I could feel all old Arthur felt, I'd be a music man like nobody ever saw.\"", "''The Memphis World'', an African-American newspaper, reported that Presley \"cracked Memphis' segregation laws\" by attending the local amusement park on what was designated as its \"colored night\".", "Such statements and actions led Presley to be generally hailed in the black community during his early stardom.", "In contrast, many white adults \"did not like him, and condemned him as depraved.", "Anti-negro prejudice doubtless figured in adult antagonism.", "Regardless of whether parents were aware of the Negro sexual origins of the phrase 'rock 'n' roll', Presley impressed them as the visual and aural embodiment of sex.", "\"Despite the largely positive view of Presley held by African Americans, a rumor spread in mid-1957 that he had announced, \"The only thing Negroes can do for me is buy my records and shine my shoes.\"", "A journalist with the national African American weekly ''Jet'', Louie Robinson, pursued the story.", "On the set of ''Jailhouse Rock'', Presley granted Robinson an interview, though he was no longer dealing with the mainstream press.", "He denied making such a statement: I never said anything like that, and people who know me know that I wouldn't have said it. ...", "A lot of people seem to think I started this business.", "But rock 'n' roll was here a long time before I came along.", "Nobody can sing that kind of music like colored people.", "Let's face it: I can't sing like Fats Domino can.", "I know that.", "Robinson found no evidence that the remark had ever been made, and elicited testimony from many individuals indicating that Presley was anything but racist.", "Blues singer Ivory Joe Hunter, who had heard the rumor before he visited Graceland, reported of Presley, \"He showed me every courtesy, and I think he's one of the greatest.\"", "Though the rumored remark was discredited, it was still being used against Presley decades later.The persistence of such attitudes was fueled by resentment over the fact that Presley, whose musical and visual performance idiom owed much to African-American sources, achieved the cultural acknowledgement and commercial success largely denied his black peers.", "Into the 21st century, the notion that Presley had \"stolen\" black music still found adherents.", "Notable among African-American entertainers expressly rejecting this view was Jackie Wilson, who argued, \"A lot of people have accused Elvis of stealing the black man's music, when in fact, almost every black solo entertainer copied his stage mannerisms from Elvis.\"", "Moreover, Presley acknowledged his debt to African-American musicians throughout his career.", "Addressing his '68 Comeback Special audience, he said, \"Rock 'n' roll music is basically gospel or rhythm and blues, or it sprang from that.", "People have been adding to it, adding instruments to it, experimenting with it, but it all boils down to that.\"", "Nine years earlier, he had said, \"Rock 'n' roll has been around for many years.", "It used to be called rhythm and blues.", "\"=== Sex symbol ===Poster for the film ''Girls!", "Girls!", "Girls!''", "(1962), visualizing Presley's sex symbol imagePresley's physical attractiveness and sexual appeal were widely acknowledged.", "\"He was once beautiful, astonishingly beautiful\", according to critic Mark Feeney.", "Television director Steve Binder reported, \"I'm straight as an arrow and I got to tell you, you stop, whether you're male or female, to look at him.", "He was that good looking.", "And if you never knew he was a superstar, it wouldn't make any difference; if he'd walked in the room, you'd know somebody special was in your presence.\"", "His performance style was equally responsible for Presley's eroticized image.", "Critic George Melly described him as \"the master of the sexual simile, treating his guitar as both phallus and girl\".", "In his Presley obituary, Lester Bangs credited him with bringing \"overt blatant vulgar sexual frenzy to the popular arts in America\".", "Ed Sullivan's declaration that he perceived a soda bottle in Presley's trousers was echoed by rumors involving a similarly positioned toilet roll tube or lead bar.While Presley was marketed as an icon of heterosexuality, some critics have argued that his image was ambiguous.", "In 1959, ''Sight and Sound''s Peter John Dyer described his onscreen persona as \"aggressively bisexual in appeal\".", "Brett Farmer places the \"orgasmic gyrations\" of the title dance sequence in ''Jailhouse Rock'' within a lineage of cinematic musical numbers that offer a \"spectacular eroticization, if not homoeroticization, of the male image\".", "In the analysis of Yvonne Tasker, \"Elvis was an ambivalent figure who articulated a peculiar feminised, objectifying version of white working-class masculinity as aggressive sexual display.", "\"Reinforcing Presley's image as a sex symbol were the reports of his dalliances with Hollywood stars and starlets, from Natalie Wood in the 1950s to Connie Stevens and Ann-Margret in the 1960s to Candice Bergen and Cybill Shepherd in the 1970s.", "June Juanico of Memphis, one of Presley's early girlfriends, later blamed Parker for encouraging him to choose his dating partners with publicity in mind.", "Presley never grew comfortable with the Hollywood scene, and most of these relationships were insubstantial." ], [ "Legacy", "Presley's rise to national attention in 1956 transformed the field of popular music and had a huge effect on the broader scope of popular culture.", "As the catalyst for the cultural revolution that was rock and roll, he was central not only to defining it as a musical genre but in making it a touchstone of youth culture and rebellious attitude.", "With its racially mixed origins—repeatedly affirmed by Presley—rock and roll's occupation of a central position in mainstream American culture facilitated a new acceptance and appreciation of black culture.In this regard, Little Richard said of Presley, \"He was an integrator.", "Elvis was a blessing.", "They wouldn't let black music through.", "He opened the door for black music.\"", "Al Green agreed: \"He broke the ice for all of us.", "\"President Jimmy Carter remarked on Presley's legacy in 1977: \"His music and his personality, fusing the styles of white country and black rhythm and blues, permanently changed the face of American popular culture.\"", "Presley also heralded the vastly expanded reach of celebrity in the era of mass communication: within a year of his first appearance on American network television, he was regarded as one of the most famous people in the world.A group of Elvis impersonators in 2005Presley's name, image, and voice are recognized around the world.", "He has inspired a legion of impersonators.", "In polls and surveys, he is recognized as one of the most important popular music artists and influential Americans.", "American composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein said, \"Elvis Presley is the greatest cultural force in the twentieth century.", "He introduced the beat to everything and he changed everything—music, language, clothes.\"", "John Lennon said that \"Nothing really affected me until Elvis.\"", "Bob Dylan described the sensation of first hearing Presley as \"like busting out of jail\".Presley's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6777 Hollywood BlvdFor much of his adult life, Presley, with his rise from poverty to riches and fame, had seemed to epitomize the American Dream.", "In his final years, and following the revelations about his circumstances after his death, he became a symbol of excess and gluttony.", "Increasing attention was paid to his appetite for the rich, heavy Southern cooking of his upbringing, foods such as chicken-fried steak and biscuits and gravy.", "In particular, his love of fried peanut butter, banana, and (sometimes) bacon sandwiches, now known as \"Elvis sandwiches\", came to symbolize this characteristic.Since 1977, there have been numerous alleged sightings of Presley.", "A long-standing conspiracy theory among some fans is that he faked his death.", "Adherents cite alleged discrepancies in the death certificate, reports of a wax dummy in his original coffin, and accounts of Presley planning a diversion so he could retire in peace.", "An unusually large number of fans have domestic shrines devoted to Presley and journey to sites with which he is connected, however faintly.", "On the anniversary of his death, thousands of people gather outside Graceland for a candlelight ritual.", "\"With Elvis, it is not just his music that has survived death\", writes Ted Harrison.", "\"He himself has been raised, like a medieval saint, to a figure of cultic status.", "It is as if he has been canonized by acclamation.", "\"On the 25th anniversary of Presley's death, ''The New York Times'' asserted: All the talentless impersonators and appalling black velvet paintings on display can make him seem little more than a perverse and distant memory.", "But before Elvis was camp, he was its opposite: a genuine cultural force. ...", "Elvis' breakthroughs are underappreciated because in this rock-and-roll age, his hard-rocking music and sultry style have triumphed so completely.He was ranked third on ''Rolling Stone'''s list of greatest artists.", "Bono wrote in appreciation: \"In Elvis, you have the blueprint for rock & roll.", "The highness — the gospel highs.", "The mud — the Delta mud, the blues.", "Sexual liberation.", "Controversy.", "Changing the way people feel about the world.", "It’s all there with Elvis.\"", "Not only Presley's achievements but his failings as well, are seen by some cultural observers as adding to the power of his legacy, as in this description by Greil Marcus:Elvis Presley is a supreme figure in American life, one whose presence, no matter how banal or predictable, brooks no real comparisons. ...", "The cultural range of his music has expanded to the point where it includes not only the hits of the day, but also patriotic recitals, pure country gospel, and really dirty blues. ...", "Elvis has emerged as a great ''artist'', a great ''rocker'', a great ''purveyor of schlock'', a great ''heart throb'', a great ''bore'', a great ''symbol of potency'', a great ''ham'', a great ''nice person'', and, yes, a great American." ], [ "Achievements", "Having sold about 400 million records worldwide, Presley is one of the best-selling music artists of all time.Presley holds the records for most songs charting in ''Billboard''s top 40 (115) and top 100 (152), according to chart statistician Joel Whitburn, 139 according to Presley historian Adam Victor.", "Presley's rankings for top ten and number-one hits vary depending on how the double-sided \"Hound Dog/Don't Be Cruel\" and \"Don't/I Beg of You\" singles, which precede the inception of ''Billboard''s unified Hot 100 chart, are analyzed.", "According to Whitburn's analysis, Presley holds the record with 38, tying with Madonna; per ''Billboard''s current assessment, he ranks second with 36.Whitburn and ''Billboard'' concur that the Beatles hold the record for most number-one hits with 20, and that Mariah Carey is second with 19.Whitburn has Presley with 18: ''Billboard'' has him third with 17.According to ''Billboard'', Presley has 79 cumulative weeks at number one: alone at 80, according to Whitburn and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with only Mariah Carey having more with 91 weeks.", "He holds the records for most number-one singles on the UK chart with 21 and singles reaching the top ten with 76.As an album artist, Presley is credited by ''Billboard'' with the record for the most albums charting in the ''Billboard'' 200: 129, far ahead of second-place Frank Sinatra's 82.He also holds the record for most time spent at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200: 67 weeks.", "In 2015 and 2016, two albums setting Presley's vocals against music by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, ''If I Can Dream'' and ''The Wonder of You'', both reached number one in the UK.", "This gave him a new record for number-one UK albums by a solo artist with 13, and extended his record for longest span between number-one albums by anybody—Presley had first topped the British chart in 1956 with his self-titled debut., the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) credits Presley with 146.5 million certified album sales in the US, third all time behind the Beatles and Garth Brooks.", "He holds the records for most gold albums (101, nearly double second-place Barbra Streisand's 51), and most platinum albums (57).", "His 25 multi-platinum albums is second behind the Beatles' 26.His total of 197 album certification awards (including one diamond award), far outpaces the Beatles' second-best 122.He has the 9th-most gold singles (54, tied with Justin Bieber), and the 16th-most platinum singles (27).In 2012, the spider ''Paradonea presleyi'' was named in his honor.", "In 2018, President Donald Trump awarded Presley the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously." ], [ "Discography", "A vast number of recordings have been issued under Presley's name.", "The number of his original master recordings has been variously calculated as 665 and 711.His career began and he was most successful during an era when singles were the primary commercial medium for pop music.", "For his albums, the distinction between \"official\" studio records and other forms is often blurred.", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Elvis Presley'' (1956)* ''Elvis'' (1956)* ''Elvis' Christmas Album'' (1957)* ''Elvis Is Back!''", "(1960)* ''His Hand in Mine'' (1960)* ''Something for Everybody'' (1961)* ''Pot Luck'' (1962)* ''Elvis for Everyone!''", "(1965)* ''How Great Thou Art'' (1967)* ''From Elvis in Memphis'' (1969)* ''From Memphis to Vegas / From Vegas to Memphis'' (1969)* ''That's the Way It Is'' (1970)* ''Elvis Country (I'm 10,000 Years Old)'' (1971)* ''Love Letters from Elvis'' (1971)* ''Elvis sings The Wonderful World of Christmas'' (1971)* ''Elvis Now'' (1972)* ''He Touched Me'' (1972)* ''Elvis'' (1973) (The \"Fool\" Album)* ''Raised on Rock / For Ol' Times Sake'' (1973)* ''Good Times'' (1974)* ''Promised Land'' (1975)* ''Today'' (1975)* ''From Elvis Presley Boulevard, Memphis, Tennessee'' (1976)* ''Moody Blue'' (1977)'''Soundtrack albums (original material)'''* ''Loving You'' (1957)* ''King Creole'' (1958)* ''G.I.", "Blues'' (1960)* ''Blue Hawaii'' (1961)* ''Girls!", "Girls!", "Girls!''", "(1962)* ''It Happened at the World's Fair'' (1963)* ''Fun in Acapulco'' (1963)* ''Kissin' Cousins'' (1964)* ''Roustabout'' (1964)* ''Girl Happy'' (1965)* ''Harum Scarum'' (1965)* ''Frankie and Johnny'' (1966)* ''Paradise, Hawaiian Style'' (1966)* ''Spinout'' (1966)* ''Double Trouble'' (1967)* ''Clambake'' (1967)* ''Speedway'' (1968)" ], [ "Filmography", "; Films starred* ''Love Me Tender'' (1956)* ''Loving You'' (1957)* ''Jailhouse Rock'' (1957)* ''King Creole'' (1958)* ''G.I.", "Blues'' (1960)* ''Flaming Star'' (1960)* ''Wild in the Country'' (1961)* ''Blue Hawaii'' (1961)* ''Follow That Dream'' (1962)* ''Kid Galahad'' (1962)* ''Girls!", "Girls!", "Girls!''", "(1962)* ''It Happened at the World's Fair'' (1963)* ''Fun in Acapulco'' (1963)* ''Kissin' Cousins'' (1964)* ''Viva Las Vegas'' (1964)* ''Roustabout'' (1964)* ''Girl Happy'' (1965)* ''Tickle Me'' (1965)* ''Harum Scarum'' (1965)* ''Frankie and Johnny'' (1966)* ''Paradise, Hawaiian Style'' (1966)* ''Spinout'' (1966)* ''Easy Come, Easy Go'' (1967)* ''Double Trouble'' (1967)* ''Clambake'' (1967)* ''Stay Away, Joe'' (1968)* ''Speedway'' (1968)* ''Live a Little, Love a Little'' (1968)* ''Charro!''", "(1969)* ''The Trouble with Girls'' (1969)* ''Change of Habit'' (1969)* ''Elvis: That's the Way It Is'' (1970)* ''Elvis on Tour'' (1972); TV concert specials* ''Elvis'' (1968)* ''Aloha from Hawaii via Satellite'' (1973)* ''Elvis in Concert'' (1977)" ], [ "See also", "* Elvis Presley Enterprises* List of artists by number of UK Albums Chart number ones* List of artists by number of UK Singles Chart number ones* List of bestselling music artists* Personal relationships of Elvis Presley" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * via * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Allen, Lew (2007).", "''Elvis and the Birth of Rock''.", "Genesis.", ".", "* * * * Cantor, Louis (2005).", "''Dewey and Elvis: The Life and Times of a Rock 'n' Roll Deejay''.", "University of Illinois Press.", ".", "* Dickerson, James L. (2001).", "''Colonel Tom Parker: The Curious Life of Elvis Presley's Eccentric Manager''.", "Cooper Square Press.", ".", "* * Goldman, Albert (1981).", "''Elvis.''", "McGraw-Hill.", ".", "* Goldman, Albert (1990).", "''Elvis: The Last 24 Hours.''", "St. Martin's.", ".", "* Klein, George (2010).", "''Elvis: My Best Man: Radio Days, Rock 'n' Roll Nights, and My Lifelong Friendship with Elvis Presley''.", "Virgin Books.", "* Marcus, Greil (1991).", "''Dead Elvis: A Chronicle of a Cultural Obsession''.", "Doubleday.", ".", "* Marcus, Greil (2000).", "''Double Trouble: Bill Clinton and Elvis Presley in a Land of No Alternative''.", "Picador.", ".", "* * * Nash, Alanna (2010).", "''Baby, Let's Play House: Elvis Presley and the Women Who Loved Him''.", "It Books.", ".", "* Roy, Samuel (1985).", "''Elvis: Prophet of Power''.", "Branden, .", "* * * * * Red West, Sonny West, and Dave Hebler as told to Steve Dunleavy (1977).", "''Elvis: What Happened?''", "Bantam Books.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Elvis Presley at Curlie* * * * Elvis The Music official record label site* Elvis Presley Interviews on officially sanctioned Elvis Australia site* \"The All American Boy: Enter Elvis and the Rock-a-billies\" episode of 1968 ''Pop Chronicles'' radio series" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "The Evil Dead" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Evil Dead''''' is a 1981 American supernatural horror film written and directed by Sam Raimi (in his feature directorial debut).", "The film stars Bruce Campbell, Ellen Sandweiss, Richard DeManincor, Betsy Baker and Theresa Tilly.", "The story focuses on five college students vacationing in an isolated cabin in a remote wooded area.", "After they find an audio tape that, when played, releases a legion of demons and spirits, four members of the group suffer from demonic possession, forcing the fifth member, Ash Williams (Campbell), to survive an onslaught of increasingly gory mayhem.Raimi, producer Robert G. Tapert, Campbell, and their friends produced the short film ''Within the Woods'' as a proof of concept to build the interest of potential investors, which secured US$90,000 to begin work on ''The Evil Dead''.", "Principal photography took place on location in a remote cabin located in Morristown, Tennessee, in a difficult filming process that proved extremely uncomfortable for the cast and crew; the film's extensive prosthetic makeup effects and stop-motion animations were created by artist Tom Sullivan.", "The completed film attracted the interest of producer Irvin Shapiro, who helped screen the film at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival.", "Horror author Stephen King gave a rave review of the film, which resulted in New Line Cinema acquiring its distribution rights.", "''The Evil Dead'' grossed $2.4 million in the United States and between $2.7 and $29.4 million worldwide.", "Both early and later critical reception were universally positive; in the years since its release, the film has developed a reputation as one of the most significant cult films, cited among the greatest horror films of all time and one of the most successful independent films.", "It launched the careers of Raimi, Tapert, and Campbell, who have continued to collaborate on several films together, such as Raimi's ''Spider-Man'' trilogy.", "''The Evil Dead'' spawned a media franchise, beginning with two direct sequels written and directed by Raimi, ''Evil Dead II'' (1987) and ''Army of Darkness'' (1992), a fourth film, ''Evil Dead'' (2013), which serves as a soft reboot and continuation, a follow-up television series, ''Ash vs Evil Dead'', which aired from 2015 to 2018, and a fifth film, ''Evil Dead Rise'' (2023); the franchise also includes video games and comic books.", "The film's protagonist Ash Williams is considered to be a cultural icon." ], [ "Plot", "Five Michigan State University students – Ash Williams, his girlfriend Linda, his sister Cheryl, their friend Scott, and Scott's girlfriend Shelly – vacation at an isolated cabin in rural Tennessee.", "Approaching the cabin, the group notices the porch swing move on its own but suddenly stop as Scott grabs the doorkey.", "While Cheryl draws a picture of a clock, the clock stops, and she hears a faint, demonic voice tell her to \"join us\".", "Her hand becomes possessed, turns pale and draws a picture of a book with a demonic face on its cover.", "Although shaken, she does not mention the incident.When the cellar trapdoor flies open during dinner, Shelly, Linda, and Cheryl remain upstairs as Ash and Scott investigate the cellar.", "They find the ''Naturom Demonto'', a Sumerian version of the Egyptian ''Book of the Dead'', along with archaeologist Raymond Knowby's tape recorder, and they take the items upstairs.", "Scott plays a tape of incantations that resurrect a demonic entity.", "Cheryl yells for Scott to turn off the tape recorder, and a tree branch breaks one of the cabin's windows.", "Later that evening, an agitated Cheryl goes into the woods to investigate strange noises and she's attacked and raped by the vines and branches of demonically possessed trees.", "When she escapes and returns to the cabin bruised and anguished, Ash agrees to take her back into town, only to discover that the bridge to the cabin has been destroyed.", "Cheryl panics as she realizes that they are now trapped and the demonic entity will not let them leave.", "Back at the cabin, Ash listens to more of the tape, learning that the only way to kill the entity is to dismember a possessed host.", "As Linda and Shelly play spades, Cheryl correctly calls out the cards without looking at them, succumbs to the entity, and levitates.", "In a raspy, demonic voice, she demands to know why they disturbed her sleep and threatens to kill everyone.", "She stabs Linda in the ankle with a pencil and throws Ash into a shelf.", "Scott knocks Cheryl into the cellar and locks her inside.Everyone fights about what to do.", "Having become paranoid upon seeing Cheryl's demonic transformation, Shelly lies down in her room but is drawn to look out of her window, where a demon crashes through and attacks her, turning her into a Deadite.", "She attacks Scott before he throws her into the fireplace, slashes her wrist and then stabs her in the back with a Sumerian dagger, apparently killing her.", "When she reanimates, Scott dismembers her with an axe.", "Ash and Scott then bury her remains.", "Shaken by the experience, Scott decides to leave in order to find a way back to town.", "He returns shortly after, mortally wounded from the possessed trees, and dies while warning Ash that the trees will not let them escape alive.", "When Ash checks on Linda, he is horrified to find that she has become possessed.", "She attacks him, but he stabs her with the Sumerian dagger.", "Unwilling to dismember her, he buries her instead.", "She revives and attacks him, forcing him to decapitate her with a shovel.", "Her headless body bleeds on his face as it tries to rape him.", "He manages to escape as Linda dies, and then retreats back to the cabin.Back inside, Ash discovers that Cheryl has escaped the cellar.", "Cheryl eludes Ash, and attempts to choke him.", "Ash escapes her grasp, then shoots Cheryl in the jaw.", "As Ash is barricading the door, Scott reanimates into a Deadite.", "Scott attacks Ash, and inadvertently knocks the book close to the fireplace.", "Ash gouges Scott's eyes out and pulls a tree branch from Scott's stomach, causing him to bleed out and fall to the ground.", "Cheryl breaks through the trapdoor and knocks Ash to the floor.", "As Scott and Cheryl continue to attack Ash on the ground, Ash grabs the book and throws it into the fireplace.", "While the book burns, the Deadites freeze in place, then begin to rapidly decompose.", "Large appendages burst from both corpses, covering Ash in blood.", "The bodies of Scott and Cheryl then completely decompose.", "Dawn breaks, and Ash stumbles outside.As Ash walks away from the cabin, an unseen demon moves rapidly through the forest, rushes through the cabin, and attacks him as he screams in terror." ], [ "Cast", "* Bruce Campbell as Ash Williams* Ellen Sandweiss as Cheryl Williams* Richard DeManincor (as Hal Delrich) as Scott* Betsy Baker as Linda* Theresa Tilly (as Sarah York) as Shelly===Uncredited===* Sam Raimi as Local Fisherman and the voice of the Evil Dead* Robert G. Tapert as Local Fisherman* Bob Dorian as Professor Knowby's voice" ], [ "Production", "Sam Raimi wrote and directed the short film ''Within the Woods'' to generate the interest of investors for ''The Evil Dead''.", "\|thumb\|right\|upright===Background and writing===Sam Raimi and Bruce Campbell grew up together, and have been friends from an early age.", "The duo made several low-budget Super 8 mm film projects together.", "Several were comedies, including ''Clockwork'' and ''It's Murder!''.", "Shooting a suspense scene in ''It's Murder!''", "inspired them to approach careers in the horror genre; after researching horror cinema at drive-in theaters, Raimi was set on directing a horror film, opting to shoot a proof of concept short film – described by the director as a \"prototype\" – that would attract the interest of financiers, and use the funds raised to shoot a full-length project.", "The short film that Raimi created was called ''Within the Woods'', which was produced for $1,600.For ''The Evil Dead'' Raimi required over $100,000.To generate funds to produce the film, Raimi approached Phil Gillis, a lawyer to one of his friends.", "Raimi showed him ''Within the Woods'', and although Gillis was not impressed by the short film, he offered Raimi legal advice on how to produce ''The Evil Dead''.", "With his advice in mind, Raimi asked a variety of people for donations, and even eventually \"begged\" some.", "Campbell had to ask several of his own family members, and Raimi asked every individual he thought might be interested.", "He eventually raised enough money to produce a full-length film, though not the full amount he originally wanted.", "Raimi said the film cost $375,000.With enough money to produce the film, Raimi and Campbell set out to make what was then titled ''Book of the Dead'', a name inspired by Raimi's interest in the fiction of H. P. Lovecraft.", "The film was supposed to be a remake of ''Within the Woods'', with higher production values and a full-length running time.", "Raimi turned 20 just before shooting began, and he considered the project his \"rite of passage\".===Pre-production and casting===Betsy Baker, Ellen Sandweiss, and Theresa Tilly in 2009Raimi asked for help and assistance from several of his friends and past collaborators to make ''The Evil Dead''.", "Campbell offered to produce the film alongside Tapert, and was subsequently cast as Ash Williams, the main character, since his producing responsibilities made him the only actor willing to stay during the production's entirety.", "To acquire more actors for the project, Raimi put an ad in ''The Detroit News''.", "Betsy Baker was one of the actresses who responded, and Ellen Sandweiss, who appeared in ''Within the Woods'', was also cast.", "The crew consisted almost entirely of Raimi and Campbell's friends and family.", "The special make-up effects artist for ''Within the Woods'', Tom Sullivan, was brought on to compose the effects after expressing a positive reaction to working with Raimi.", "He helped create many of the film's foam latex and fake blood effects, and added coffee as an extra ingredient to the traditional fake blood formula of corn syrup and food coloring.Without any formal assistance from location scouts, the cast had to find filming locations on their own.", "The crew initially attempted to shoot the film in Raimi's hometown of Royal Oak, Michigan, but instead chose Morristown, Tennessee, as it was the only state that expressed enthusiasm for the project.", "The crew quickly found a remote cabin located several miles away from any other buildings.", "During pre-production, the 13 crew members had to stay at the cabin, leading to several people sleeping in the same room.", "The living conditions were notoriously difficult, with several arguments breaking out between crew members.Steve Frankel was the only carpenter on set, which made him the art direction's sole contributor.", "For exterior shots, Frankel had to produce several elaborate props with a circular saw.", "Otherwise, the cabin mostly remained the way it was found during production.", "The cabin had no plumbing, but phone lines were connected to it.===Principal photography===The film was made on Kodak 16mm film stock with a rented camera.", "The inexperienced crew made filming a \"comedy of errors\".", "The first day of filming led to them getting lost in the woods during a scene shot on a bridge.", "Several crew members were injured during the shoot, and because of the cabin's remoteness, securing medical assistance was difficult.", "One notably gruesome moment on set involved ripping off Baker's eyelashes during removal of her face-mask.", "Because of the low budget, contact lenses as thick as glass had to be applied to the actors to achieve the \"demonic eyes\" effect.", "The lenses took ten minutes to apply, and could only be left on for about 15 minutes because eyes could not \"breathe\" with them applied.", "Campbell later commented that to get the effect of wearing these lenses, they had to put \"Tupperware\" over their eyes.Raimi developed a sense of ''mise en scène'', coming up with ideas for scenes at a fast rate.", "He had drawn several crude illustrations to help him break down the flow of scenes.", "The crew was surprised when Raimi began using Dutch angles during shots to build atmosphere during scenes.", "To accommodate Raimi's style of direction, several elaborate, low-budget rigs had to be built, since the crew could not afford a camera dolly.", "One involved the \"vas-o-cam\", which relied on a mounted camera that was slid down long wooden platforms to create a more fluid sense of motion.Sam Raimi's brother Ted Raimi was the \"fake shemp\" in several scenes.\|thumb\|left\|uprightA camera trick used to emulate a Steadicam inexpensively was the \"shaky cam\", which involved mounting the camera to a piece of wood and having two camera operators sprint around the swamp.", "During scenes involving the unseen force in the woods watching the characters, Raimi had to run through the woods with the makeshift rig, jumping over logs and stones.", "This often proved difficult due to mist in the swamp.", "The film's final scene was shot with the camera mounted to a bike, while it was quickly driven through the cabin to create a seamless long take.Raimi had been a big fan of ''The Three Stooges'' during his youth, which inspired him to use \"Fake Shemps\" during production.", "In any scene that required a background shot of a character, he used another actor as a substitute if the original actor was preoccupied.", "During a close-up involving Richard DeManicor's hand opening a curtain, Raimi used his own hand in the scene since it was more convenient.", "His brother Ted Raimi was used as a \"Fake Shemp\" in many scenes when the original actor was either busy or preoccupied.Raimi enjoyed \"torturing\" his actors.", "Raimi believed that to capture pain and anger in his actors, he had to abuse them a little at times, saying, \"if everyone was in extreme pain and misery, that would translate into a horror\".", "Producer Robert Tapert agreed with Raimi, commenting that he \"enjoyed when an actor bleeds.\"", "While shooting a scene with Campbell running down a hill, Campbell tripped and injured his leg.", "Raimi enjoyed poking Campbell's injury with a stick he found in the woods.", "Because of the copious amounts of blood in the film, the crew produced gallons of fake blood with Karo corn syrup.", "It took Campbell hours to remove the sticky substance from himself.", "Several actors had inadvertently been stabbed or thrown into objects during production.", "During the last few days on set, the conditions had become so extreme the crew began burning furniture to stay warm.", "Since at that point only exterior shots needed to be filmed, they burned nearly every piece of furniture left.", "Several actors went days without showering, and because of the freezing conditions, several caught colds and other illnesses.", "Campbell later described the filming process as nearly \"twelve weeks of mirthless exercise in agony\", though he allowed that he did manage to have fun while on set.", "On January 23, 1980, filming was finished and almost every crew member left the set to return home, with Campbell staying with Raimi.", "While looking over the footage that had been shot, Raimi discovered that a few pick-ups were required to fill in missing shots.", "Four days of re-shoots were then done to complete the film.", "The final moment involved Campbell having \"monster-guts\" splattered on him in the basement.Summing up the production decades later, Campbell remarked: \"It's low-budget, it's got rough edges,\" but even so, \"there are parts of that movie that are visually stunning.", "\"===Editing===Joel Coen ''(pictured right'') of the rightAfter the extensive filming process, Raimi had a \"mountain of footage\" that he had to put together.", "He chose a Detroit editing association, where he met Edna Paul, to cut the film.", "Paul's assistant was Joel Coen of the Coen brothers, who helped with the film's editing.", "Paul edited a majority of the film, although Coen edited the shed sequence.", "Coen had been inspired by Raimi's ''Within the Woods'' and liked the idea of producing a prototype film to help build the interest of investors.", "Joel used the concept to help make ''Blood Simple'' with his brother Ethan, and he and Raimi became friends following the editing process.The film's first cut ran at around 117 minutes, which Campbell called an impressive achievement in light of the 65-minute length of the screenplay.", "The cut scenes were to focus on the main character's lamentation of not being able to save the victims from their deaths, but was edited down to make the film less \"grim and depressing\" and to be a more marketable 85 minutes.", "Raimi was inspired by the fact that Brian De Palma was editing his own film ''Blow Out'' with John Travolta at the same sound facility.", "One of the most intricate moments during editing was the stop-motion animation sequence where the corpses \"melted\", which took hours to cut properly.", "The film had unique sounds that required extensive recording from the crew.", "Several sounds were not recorded properly during shooting, which meant the effects had to be redone in the editing rooms.", "Dead chickens were stabbed to replicate the sounds of mutilated flesh, and Campbell had to scream into a microphone for several hours.Much like ''Within the Woods'', ''The Evil Dead'' needed to be blown up to 35mm, the industry standard, to be played at movie theaters.", "The relatively large budget made this a much simpler process with ''The Evil Dead'' than it had been with the short film." ], [ "Promotion and distribution rights", "''The Evil Dead'' premiered at the Redford Theatre because Bruce Campbell watched films there as a child.With the film completed, Raimi and the crew decided to celebrate with a \"big premiere\".", "They chose to screen the film at Detroit's Redford Theatre, which Campbell had often visited as a child.", "Raimi opted to have the most theatrical premiere possible, using custom tickets and wind tracks set in the theater, and ordering ambulances outside the theater to build atmosphere.", "The premiere setup was inspired by horror director William Castle, who would often attempt to scare his audiences by using gimmicks.", "Local turnout for the premiere exceeded the cast's expectations, with a thousand patrons showing up.", "The audiences responded enthusiastically to the premiere, which led to Raimi's idea of \"touring\" the film to build hype.Raimi showed the film to anyone willing to watch it, booking meetings with distribution agents and anyone with experience in the film industry.", "Eventually Raimi came across Irvin Shapiro, the man who was responsible for the distribution of George A. Romero's ''Night of the Living Dead'' and other famous horror films.", "Upon first viewing the film, he joked that while it \"wasn't ''Gone with the Wind''\", it had commercial potential, and he expressed an interest in distributing it.", "It was his idea not to use the then-title ''Book of the Dead'', because he thought it made the film sound boring.", "Raimi brainstormed several ideas, eventually going with ''The Evil Dead'', deemed the \"least worst\" title.", "Shapiro also advised distributing the film worldwide to garner a larger income, though it required a further financial investment by Raimi, who managed to scrape together what little money he had.Stephen King cited ''The Evil Dead'' as one of his favorite films, which brought the interest of New Line Cinema.Shapiro was a founder of the Cannes Film Festival, and allowed Raimi to screen the film at the 1982 festival out of competition.", "Stephen King was present at its screening and gave the film a rave review.", "''USA Today'' released an article about King's favorite horror films; the author cited ''The Evil Dead'' as his fifth favorite film of the genre.", "The film severely affected King, who commented that while watching the film at Cannes, he was \"registering things he had never seen in a movie before\".", "He became one of the film's largest supporters during the early efforts to find a distributor, eventually describing it as the \"most ferociously original film of the year\", a quote used in the film's promotional pieces.", "King's comments attracted the interest of critics, who otherwise would likely have dismissed the low-budget thriller.The film's press attracted the attention of British film distribution agent Stephen Woolley.", "Though he considered the film a big risk, Woolley decided to take on the job of releasing the film in the United Kingdom.", "The film was promoted in an unconventional manner for a film of its budget, receiving marketing on par with that of larger budget films.", "Dozens of promotional pieces, including film posters and trailers, were showcased in the UK, heavy promotion rarely expended on such a low-budget film.", "Woolley was impressed by Raimi, whom he called \"charming\", and was an admirer of the film, which led to his taking more risks with the film's promotion than he normally would have.", "''Fangoria'' started covering the film in late 1982, writing several articles about the film's long production history.", "Early critical reception at the time was very positive, and along with ''Fangoria'', King and Shapiro's approval, the film generated an impressive amount of interest before its commercial premiere.", "New Line Cinema, one of the distributors interested in the film, negotiated an agreement to distribute it domestically.", "The film had several \"sneak previews\" before its commercial release, including screenings in New York and Detroit.", "Audience reception at both screenings was widely enthusiastic, and interest was built for the film to such an extent that wider distribution was planned.", "New Line Cinema wrote Raimi a check large enough to pay off all the investors, and decided to release the film in an unusual manner: simultaneously into both cinemas and onto VHS, with substantial domestic promotion." ], [ "Release", "===Theatrical===Because of its large promotional campaign, the film performed above expectations at the box office.", "However, the initial domestic gross was described as \"disappointing.\"", "The movie opened in 15 theaters and grossed $108,000 in its opening weekend.", "Word of mouth later spread, and the film became a \"sleeper hit\".", "It grossed $2,400,000 domestically, nearly eight times its production budget.", "Sources differ as to whether it grossed $261,944 overseas, for a worldwide gross of $2,661,944, or $27 million overseas, for a worldwide gross of $29.4 million.", "Raimi said in 1990 that the film \"did very well overseas and did very poorly domestically\" and that its investors earned a return of \"about five times their initial investment.", "\"===Rating===The film's release was met with controversy, as Raimi had made the film as gruesome as possible with neither interest in nor fear of censorship.", "Writer Bruce Kawin described ''The Evil Dead'' as one of the most notorious splatter films of its day, along with ''Cannibal Holocaust'' and ''I Spit on Your Grave''.In the UK, the film was trimmed by 49 seconds before it was granted an X certificate for cinema release.", "This censored version was also released on home video; at the time there was no requirement that films had to be classified for video release.", "A campaign by pro-censorship organization NVLA led to the film being labelled a \"video nasty\" and when the Video Recordings Act was passed in 1984, the video version was removed from circulation.", "In 1990, a further 66 seconds were trimmed from the already censored version and the film was granted an 18 certificate for home video release.", "In 2000, the uncut version was finally granted an 18 certificate for both cinema and home video.In the US, the film received an X rating.", "Films with this label were quite violent and disturbing, and the rating was often held by pornographic films.", "The film has since been re-rated NC-17 for “substantial graphic horror violence and gore”, though many recent home media releases have been released without a rating.The film was and is still banned either theatrically or on video in some countries.===Home media release===The first VHS release of ''The Evil Dead'' was released by Thorn EMI in 1983, and Thorn's successor company HBO/Cannon Video later repackaged the film.", "Former HBO Video's partner Congress Video, a company notable for public domain films, issued its version in 1989.In its first week of video release, the film made £100,000 in the UK.", "It quickly became that week's bestselling video release, and later became the year's bestselling video in the UK, out-grossing large-budget horror releases such as ''The Shining''.", "Its impressive European performance was chalked up to its heavy promotion there and the more open-minded nature of European audiences.The resurgence of ''The Evil Dead'' in the home-video market came through two companies that restored the film from its negatives and issued special editions in 1998: Anchor Bay Entertainment on VHS, and Elite Entertainment on LaserDisc.", "Anchor Bay was responsible for the film's first DVD release on January 19, 1999, along with Elite releasing the special collector's edition DVD on March 30, 1999, and between them, Elite and Anchor Bay have released six different DVD versions of ''The Evil Dead'', most notably the 2002 \"Book Of The Dead\" edition, packaged in a latex replica of the ''Necronomicon'' sculpted by Tom Sullivan and the 2007 three disc \"Ultimate Edition\" which contained the widescreen and original full frame versions of the movie.", "The film's high-definition debut was in a 2010 Blu-ray.Lionsgate Films released a 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray edition of ''The Evil Dead'' on October 9, 2018." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical response===Upon its release, contemporary critical opinion was largely positive.", "Bob Martin, editor of ''Fangoria'', reviewed the film before its formal premiere and proclaimed that it \"might be the exception to the usual run of low-budget horror films\".", "He followed up on this praise after the film's premiere, stating: \"Since I started editing this magazine, I have not seen ''any'' new film that I could recommend to our readers with more confidence that it would be loved, embraced and hailed as a new milestone in graphic horror\".", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' called the film an \"instant classic\", proclaiming it as \"probably the grisliest well-made movie ever.\"", "In a 1982 review, staff from ''Variety'' wrote that the film \"emerges as the ''ne plus ultra'' of low-budget gore and shock effect\", commenting that the \"powerful\" and inventive camerawork was key to creating a sense of dread.British press for the film was positive; Kim Newman of ''Monthly Film Bulletin'', Richard Cook of ''NME'' and Julian Petley of ''Film and Filming'' all gave the film good reviews during its early release.", "Petley and Cook compared the film to other contemporary horror films, writing that the film expressed more imagination and \"youthful enthusiasm\" than an average horror film.", "Cook described the camera work by Raimi as \"audacious\", stating that the film's visceral nature was greatly helped by the style of direction.", "Woolley, Newman and several critics complimented the film for its unexpected use of black comedy, which elevated the film above its genre's potential trappings.", "All three critics compared the film to the surrealistic work of Georges Franju and Jean Cocteau, noting the cinephilic references to Cocteau's film ''Orpheus''.", "Writer Lynn Schofield Clark in his novel ''From Angels to Aliens'' compared the film to better-known horror films such as ''The Exorcist'' and ''The Omen'', citing it as a key supernatural thriller.===Later response=== ''Empire'' stated the film's \"reputation was deserved\", writing that the film was impressive considering its low budget and the cast's inexperience.", "He commented that the film successfully blended the \"bizarre\" combination of ''Night of the Living Dead'', ''The Texas Chain Saw Massacre'' and ''The Three Stooges''.", "A reviewer for Film4 rated ''The Evil Dead'' four-and-a-half stars out of five, musing that the film was \"energetic, original and icky\" and concluding that Raimi's \"splat-stick debut is a tight little horror classic that deserves its cult reputation, despite the best efforts of the censors.", "\"''Slant''s Ed Gonzales compared the film to Dario Argento's work, citing Raimi's \"unnerving wide angle work\" as an important factor to the film's atmosphere.", "He mused that Raimi possessed an \"almost unreal ability to suggest the presence of intangible evil\", which was what prevented the movie from being \"B-movie schlock\".", "BBC critic Martyn Glanville awarded the film four stars out of five, writing that for Raimi, it served as a better debut film than Tobe Hooper's ''The Texas Chain Saw Massacre'' or Wes Craven's ''The Last House on the Left''.", "Glanville noted that other than the \"ill-advised trees-that-rape scene\", the film is \"one of the great modern horror films, and even more impressive when one considers its modest production values.", "\"Filmcritic.com's Christopher Null gave the film the same rating as Glanville, writing that \"Raimi's biggest grossout is schlock horror done the right way\" and comparing it to Romero's ''Night of the Living Dead'' in its ability to create stark atmosphere.", "''Chicago Reader'' writer Pat Graham commented that the film featured several \"clever\" turns on the standard horror formula, adding that Raimi's \"anything-for-an-effect enthusiasm pays off in lots of formally inventive bits.\"", "''Time Out'' critic Stephen Garrett, referred to the make-up effects in the climax as \"amazing\", and commented that although the film was light on character development, it \"blends comic fantasy\" with \"atmospheric horror ... to impressive effect\".", "The same site later cited the film as the 41st greatest horror movie ever made.", "Phelim O'Neill of ''The Guardian'' combined ''The Evil Dead'' and its sequel ''Evil Dead II'' and listed them as the 23rd best horror film ever made, announcing that the former film \"stands above its mostly forgotten peers in the 80s horror boom.\"", "Don Summer, in his book ''Horror Movie Freak'', and writer Kate Egan have both cited the film as a horror classic.J.C.", "Maçek III of ''PopMatters'' said: \"What is unquestionable is that the Raimis and their pals created a monster in ''The Evil Dead''.", "It started as a disastrous failure to obtain a big break with a too long, too perilous shoot (note Campbell's changing hairstyle in the various scenes of the one-day plot).", "The film went through name changes and bannings only to survive as not only 'the ultimate experience in grueling horror' but as an oft-imitated and cashed-in-on classic, with 30 years of positive reviews to prove it.\"" ], [ "Aftermath", "Bruce Campbell at a fan convention, signing a VHS copy of ''The Evil Dead''.\|thumb\|right\|uprightWhile ''The Evil Dead'' received favorable critical comment when it was initially released, it failed to establish Raimi's reputation.", "It was, however, a box-office success, which led to Campbell and Raimi teaming up again for the release of another movie.", "Joel Coen and his brother Ethan had collaborated as directors and released the film ''Blood Simple'', to critical acclaim.", "According to Campbell, Ethan, then an accountant, expressed surprise when the duo succeeded.", "The Coen brothers and Raimi collaborated on a screenplay, which was released shortly after ''The Evil Dead''.", "The film, ''Crimewave'', was a box-office failure.", "The film's production was a \"disaster\", according to Campbell, who stated that \"missteps\" like ''Crimewave'' usually lead to the end of a director's career.", "Other people involved with the film expressed similar disappointment with the project.", "Fortunately, Raimi had the studio support to make a sequel to ''The Evil Dead'', which he initially decided to make out of desperation.===Sequels===''The Evil Dead'' was followed by a series of sequels.", "The franchise is noted from attracting attention for each sequel featuring more comedic qualities than the last, progressing into \"weirder\" territory with each film.", "''Evil Dead II: Dead by Dawn'' was a black comedy-horror film which released in 1987, and was a box-office success.", "It received general acclaim from critics, and is often considered to be superior to the first film.", "This was followed by ''Army of Darkness'', a comedy fantasy-horror film released in 1992.At that time, Raimi had become a successful director, attracting Hollywood's interest.", "His superhero film ''Darkman'' (1990) was another box-office success, which led to an increased budget for ''Army of Darkness''.", "''Army of Darkness'' had 22.8 times the budget of the original ''Evil Dead'', though it was not considered to be a box-office success like its two predecessors.", "It was met with mostly positive critical reception.", "After any additional installments suffered through development hell, a supernatural-horror soft reboot/legacy sequel titled ''Evil Dead'' was released in 2013, featuring Jane Levy as the main character Mia Allen.", "Directed and co-written by Fede Álvarez, the film was produced by Raimi and Campbell.", "The film, which was a departure from the humor of the previous two films, was a moderate box office success and was praised for its dark and bloody story.", "While various projects going through varying stages of development, a continuation was released as a television series titled, ''Ash vs.", "Evil Dead''.", "Created and executive produced by Sam Raimi, the series aired from 2015-2018.After further film installments once again remained in development hell for a number of years, a fifth feature film titled ''Evil Dead Rise'' was announced to be in development.", "The project began filming in June 2021, with Irish filmmaker Lee Cronin serving as writer/director.", "Though Campbell reprised his role as Ashley \"Ash\" J. Williams in each of the proceeding sequels, he did not appear in the film.", "The film was released theatrically on April 21, 2023, by Warner Bros. Pictures.====Foreign market====Unofficial sequels were made in Italy, where the film was known as ''La Casa'' (\"The House\").", "Produced by Joe D'Amato's Filmirage, two mostly unrelated films were released and marketed as sequels to ''Evil Dead II'': Umberto Lenzi's ''La Casa 3: Ghosthouse'' and ''La Casa 4: Witchery'' starring Linda Blair and David Hasselhoff.", "The final film was released in 1990 and titled, ''La Casa 5: Beyond Darkness''.", "The film ''House II: The Second Story'' was reissued and retitled in Italy as ''La Casa 6''; followed by ''The Horror Show'' which was released in Italy as ''La Casa 7''.===Legacy===The original ''Evil Dead'' trilogy of films has been recognized as one of the most successful cult film series in history.", "David Lavery, in his book ''The Essential Cult TV Reader'', surmised that Campbell's \"career is a practical guide to becoming a cult idol\".", "The film launched the careers of Raimi and Campbell, who have since collaborated frequently.", "Raimi has worked with Campbell in virtually all of his films since, and Campbell has appeared in cameo roles in all three of Raimi's ''Spider-Man'' films (as well as a very brief appearance at the end of ''Darkman''), which have become some of the highest-grossing films in history.", "Though it has often been considered an odd choice for Raimi, a director known for his violent horror films, to direct a family-friendly franchise, the hiring was mostly inspired by Raimi's passion for comic books as a child.", "Raimi returned to the horror-comedy genre in 2009 with ''Drag Me to Hell''.Critics have often compared Campbell's later performances to his role in ''Evil Dead'', which has been called his defining role.", "Campbell's performance as Ash has been compared to roles ranging from his performance of Elvis Presley in the film ''Bubba Ho-tep'' to the bigamous demon in ''The X-Files'' episode \"Terms of Endearment\".", "Campbell's fan base gradually developed after the release of ''Evil Dead II'' and his short-lived series ''The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.''.", "He is a regular favorite at most fan conventions and often draws sold-out auditoriums at his public appearances.", "''The Evil Dead'' developed a substantial cult following throughout the years, and has often been cited as a defining cult classic.", "''The Evil Dead'' has spawned a media franchise.", "A video game adaptation of the same name was released for the Commodore 64 in 1984, as was a trilogy of survival horror games in the 1990s and early 2000s: ''Evil Dead: Hail to the King'', ''Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick'' and ''Evil Dead: Regeneration''.", "Ted Raimi did voices for the trilogy, and Campbell returned as the voice of Ash.", "The character Ash became the main character of a comic book franchise.", "Ash has fought both Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees in the ''Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash'' series, Herbert West in ''Army of Darkness vs. Re-Animator'', zombie versions of the Marvel Comics superheroes in ''Marvel Zombies vs.", "The Army of Darkness'', and has even saved the life of a fictional Barack Obama in ''Army of Darkness: Ash Saves Obama''.", "In January 2008, Dark Horse Comics began releasing a four-part monthly comic book mini-series, written by Mark Verheiden and drawn by John Bolton, based on ''The Evil Dead''.", "The film has also inspired a stage musical, ''Evil Dead: The Musical'', which was produced with the permission of Raimi and Campbell.", "The musical has run on and off since its inception in 2003.After the film was released, many people began to trespass onto the filming location in Morristown.", "In 1982, the cabin was burned down by drunken trespassers.", "Although the cabin is now gone, the chimney remains, which many people now take stones from when they trespass onto the location.In 2022, a video game adaptation of the series called ''Evil Dead: The Game'' was released.In 2021, heavy metal band Ice Nine Kills released a song titled \"Ex-Mørtis\" on their album ''The Silver Scream 2: Welcome to Horrorwood'', which is composed of songs each explicitly linked to specific horror media per the album's booklet of liner notes; \"Ex-Mørtis\" is stated to be inspired by ''The Evil Dead''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * The Evil Dead at Evil Dead Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economic calculation problem" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economic calculation problem''' (sometimes abbreviated '''ECP''') is a criticism of using economic planning as a substitute for market-based allocation of the factors of production.", "It was first proposed by Ludwig von Mises in his 1920 article \"Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth\" and later expanded upon by Friedrich Hayek.In his first article, Mises described the nature of the price system under capitalism and described how individual subjective values (while criticizing other theories of value) are translated into the objective information necessary for rational allocation of resources in society.", "He argued that economy planning necessarily leads to an irrational and inefficient allocation of resources.", "In market exchanges, prices reflect the supply and demand of resources, labor and products.", "In the article, Mises focused his criticism on the deficiencies of the socialisation of capital goods, but he later went on to elaborate on various different forms of socialism in his book ''Socialism''.", "He briefly mentioned the problem in the 3rd book of ''Human Action: a Treatise on Economics'', where he also elaborated on the different types of socialism, namely the \"Hindenburg\" and \"Lenin\" models, which he viewed as fundamentally flawed despite their ideological differences.", "Mises and Hayek argued that economic calculation is only possible by information provided through market prices and that bureaucratic or technocratic methods of allocation lack methods to rationally allocate resources.", "Mises's analysis centered on price theory while Hayek went with a more feathered analysis of information and entrepreneurship.", "The debate raged in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by economic historians as the socialist calculation debate.", "Mises' initial criticism received multiple reactions and led to the conception of trial-and-error market socialism, most notably the Lange–Lerner theorem.In the 1920 paper, Mises argued that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if a public entity owned all the means of production, no rational prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods and not \"objects of exchange\", unlike final goods.", "Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily irrational as the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently.", "He wrote that \"rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth\".", "Mises developed his critique of socialism more completely in his 1922 book ''Socialism'', arguing that the market price system is an expression of praxeology and can not be replicated by any form of bureaucracy.Notable critics of both Mises's original argument and Hayek's newer proposition include Anarcho-capitalist economist Bryan Caplan, computer programmer and Marxist Paul Cockshott, as well as other communists." ], [ "Theory", "=== Comparing heterogeneous goods ===Since capital goods and labor are highly heterogeneous (i.e.", "they have different characteristics that pertain to physical productivity), economic calculation requires a common basis for comparison for all forms of capital and labour.As a means of exchange, money enables buyers to compare the costs of goods without having knowledge of their underlying factors; the consumer can simply focus on his personal cost-benefit decision.", "Therefore, the price system is said to promote economically efficient use of resources by agents who may not have explicit knowledge of all of the conditions of production or supply.", "This is called the signalling function of prices as well as the rationing function which prevents over-use of any resource.Without the market process to fulfill such comparisons, critics of non-market socialism say that it lacks any way to compare different goods and services and would have to rely on calculation in kind.", "The resulting decisions, it is claimed, would therefore be made without sufficient knowledge to be considered rational.=== Relating utility to capital and consumption goods ===The common basis for comparison of capital goods must also be connected to consumer welfare.", "It must also be able to compare the desired trade-off between present consumption and delayed consumption (for greater returns later on) via investment in capital goods.", "The use of money as a medium of exchange and unit of account is necessary to solve the first two problems of economic calculation.", "Mises (1912) applied the marginal utility theory developed by Carl Menger to money.Marginal consumer expenditures represent the marginal utility or additional consumer satisfaction expected by consumers as they spend money.", "This is similar to the equi-marginal principle developed by Alfred Marshall.", "Consumers equalize the marginal utility (amount of satisfaction) to the last dollar spent on each good.", "Thus, the exchange of consumer goods establishes prices that represent the marginal utility of consumers and money is representative of consumer satisfaction.If money is also spent on capital goods and labor, then it is possible to make comparisons between capital goods and consumer goods.", "The exchange of consumer and capital/labor goods does not imply that capital goods are valued accurately, only that it is possible for the valuations of capital goods to be made.", "These are foundational elements of economic calculation, namely that it requires the use of money across all goods.", "This is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for successful economic calculation.", "Without a price mechanism, Mises argues, socialism lacks the means to relate consumer satisfaction to economic activity.", "The incentive function of prices allows diffuse interests, like the interests of every household in cheap, high quality shoes to compete, among buyers, with the concentrated interests of the cobblers in expensive, poor quality shoes.", "Without it, a panel of experts set up to \"rationalise production\", likely closely linked to the cobblers for expertise, would tend to support the cobblers interests in a \"conspiracy against the public\".", "However, if this happens to all industries, everyone would be worse off than if they had been subject to the rigours of market competition.", "The latter forces producers to produce superior products at appropriate prices to please their consumers.", "The Mises theory of money and calculation conflicts directly with Marxist labour theory of value.", "Marxist theory allows for the possibility that labour content can serve as a common means of valuing capital goods, a position now out of favour with economists following the success of the theory of marginal utility.=== Entrepreneurship ===The third condition for economic calculation is the existence of genuine entrepreneurship and market rivalry.According to Israel Kirzner (1973) and Don Lavoie (1985), entrepreneurs reap profits by supplying unfulfilled needs in all markets.", "Thus, entrepreneurship brings prices closer to marginal costs.", "The adjustment of prices in markets towards equilibrium (where supply and demand equal) gives them greater utilitarian significance.", "The activities of entrepreneurs make prices more accurate in terms of how they represent the marginal utility of consumers.", "Prices act as guides to the planning of production.", "Those who plan production use prices to decide which lines of production should be expanded or curtailed.Entrepreneurs lack the profit motive to take risks under socialism and so are far less likely to attempt to supply consumer demands.", "Without the price system to match consumer utility to incentives for production, or even indicate those utilities \"without providing incentives\", state planners are much less likely to invest in new ideas to satisfy consumers' desires.", "Entrepreneurs would also lack the ability to economize within the production process, causing repercussions for consumers.", "=== Coherent planning ===The fourth condition for successful economic calculation is plan coordination among those who plan production.", "The problem of planning production is the knowledge problem explained by Hayek (1937, 1945), but first mentioned and illustrated by his mentor Mises in ''Socialism'' (1922), not to be mistaken with ''Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis'' (1951).", "The planning could either be done in a decentralised fashion, requiring some mechanism to make the individual plans coherent, or centrally, requiring a lot of information.Within capitalism, the overall plan for production is composed of individual plans among capitalists in large and small enterprises.", "Since capitalists purchase labour and capital out of the same common pool of available yet scarce labor and capital, it is essential that their plans fit together in at least a semi-coherent fashion.", "Hayek (1937) defined an efficient planning process as one where all decision makers form plans that contain relevant data from the plans from others.", "Entrepreneurs acquire data on the plans from others through the price system.", "The price system is an indispensable communications network for plan coordination among entrepreneurs.", "Increases and decreases in prices inform entrepreneurs about the general economic situation, to which they must adjust their own plans.As for socialism, Mises (1944) and Hayek (1937) insisted that bureaucrats in individual ministries could not coordinate their plans without a price system due to the local knowledge problem.Opponents argued that in principle an economy can be seen as a set of equations.", "Thus, using information about available resources and the preferences of people, it should be possible to calculate an optimal solution for resource allocation.", "Friedrich von Hayek responded that the system of equations required too much information that would not be easily available and the ensuing calculations would be too difficult.", "This is partly because individuals possess useful knowledge but do not realise its importance, may have no incentive to transmit the information, or may have incentive to transmit false information about their preferences.", "He contended that the only rational solution is to utilize all the dispersed knowledge in the market place through the use of price signals.", "The early debates were made before the much greater calculating powers of modern computers became available but also before research on chaos theory.", "In the 1980s, Alexander Nove argued that the calculations would take millions of years even with the best computers.", "It may be impossible to make long-term predictions for a highly complex system such as an economy.Hayek (1935, 1937, 1940, 1945) stressed the knowledge problem of central planning, partly because decentralized socialism seemed indefensible.", "Part of the reason that Hayek stressed the knowledge problem was also because he was mainly concerned with debating the proposal for market socialism and the Lange model by Oskar R. Lange (1938) and Hayek's student Abba Lerner (1934, 1937, 1938) which was developed in response to the calculation argument.", "Lange and Lerner conceded that prices were necessary in socialism.", "Lange and Lerner thought that socialist officials could simulate some markets (mainly spot markets) and the simulation of spot markets was enough to make socialism reasonably efficient.", "Lange argued that prices can be seen merely as an accounting practice.", "In principle, claim market socialists, socialist managers of state enterprises could use a price system, as an accounting system, in order to minimize costs and convey information to other managers.", "However, while this can deal with existing stocks of goods, providing a basis for values can be ascertained, it does not deal with the investment in new capital stocks.", "Hayek responded by arguing that the simulation of markets in socialism would fail due to a lack of genuine competition and entrepreneurship.", "Central planners would still have to plan production without the aid of economically meaningful prices.", "Lange and Lerner also admitted that socialism would lack any simulation of financial markets, and that this would cause problems in planning capital investment.However, Hayek's argumentation is not only regarding computational complexity for the central planners.", "He further argues that much of the information individuals have cannot be collected or used by others.", "First, individuals may have no or little incentive to share their information with central or even local planners.", "Second, the individual may not be aware that he has valuable information; and when he becomes aware, it is only useful for a limited time, too short for it to be communicated to the central or local planners.", "Third, the information is useless to other individuals if it is not in a form that allows for meaningful comparisons of value (i.e.", "money prices as a common basis for comparison).", "Therefore, Hayek argues, individuals must acquire data through prices in real markets.=== Financial markets ===The fifth condition for successful economic calculation is the existence of well functioning financial markets.", "Economic efficiency depends heavily upon avoiding errors in capital investment.", "The costs of reversing errors in capital investment are potentially large.", "This is not just a matter of rearranging or converting capital goods that are found to be of little use.", "The time spent reconfiguring the structure of production is time lost in the production of consumer goods.", "Those who plan capital investment must anticipate future trends in consumer demand if they are to avoid investing too much in some lines of production and too little in other lines of production.Capitalists plan production for profit.", "Capitalists use prices to form expectations that determine the composition of capital accumulation, the pattern of investment across industry.", "Those who invest in accordance with consumers' desires are rewarded with profits, those who do not are forced to become more efficient or go out of business.Prices in futures markets play a special role in economic calculation.", "Futures markets develop prices for commodities in future time periods.", "It is in futures markets that entrepreneurs sort out plans for production based on their expectations.", "Futures markets are a link between entrepreneurial investment decisions and household consumer decisions.", "Since most goods are not explicitly traded in futures markets, substitute markets are needed.", "The stock market serves as a ‘continuous futures market’ that evaluates entrepreneurial plans for production (Lachmann 1978).", "Generally speaking, the problem of economic calculation is solved in financial markets as Mises argued:The existence of financial markets is a necessary condition for economic calculation.", "The existence of financial markets itself does not automatically imply that entrepreneurial speculation will tend towards efficiency.", "Mises argued that speculation in financial markets tends towards efficiency because of a \"trial and error\" process.", "Entrepreneurs who commit relatively large errors in investment waste their funds over expanding some lines of production at the cost of other more profitable ventures where consumer demand is higher.", "The entrepreneurs who commit the worst errors by forming the least accurate expectations of future consumer demands incur financial losses.", "Financial losses remove these inept entrepreneurs from positions of authority in industry.Entrepreneurs who commit smaller errors by anticipating consumer demand more correctly attain greater financial success.", "The entrepreneurs who form the most accurate opinions regarding the future state of markets (i.e.", "new trends in consumer demands) earn the highest profits and gain greater control of industry.", "Those entrepreneurs who anticipate future market trends therefore waste the least amount of real capital and find the most favorable terms for finance on markets for financial capital.", "Minimal waste of real capital goods implies the minimization of the opportunity costs of capital's economic calculation.", "The value of capital goods is brought into line with the value of future consumer goods through competition in financial markets, because competition for profits among capitalist financiers rewards entrepreneurs who value capital more correctly (i.e.", "anticipating future prices more correctly) and eliminates capitalists who value capital least correctly.", "To sum things up, the use of money in trading all goods (capital/labor and consumer) in all markets (spot and financial) combined with profit driven entrepreneurship and Darwinian natural selection in financial markets all combine to make rational economic calculation and allocation the outcome of the capitalist process.Mises insisted that socialist calculation is impossible because socialism precludes the exchange of capital goods in terms of a generally accepted medium of exchange, or money.", "Investment in financial markets determines the capital structure of modern industry with some degree of efficiency.", "The egalitarian nature of socialism prohibits speculation in financial markets.", "Therefore, Mises concluded that socialism lacks any clear tendency towards improvement in the capital structure of industry." ], [ "Example", "Mises gave the example of choosing between producing wine or oil, making the following point:Such intermediate products would include land, warehouse storage, bottles, barrels, oil, transport, etc.", "Not only would these things have to be assembled, but they would have to compete with the attainment of other economic goals.", "Without pricing for capital goods, essentially, Mises is arguing, it is impossible to know how they should rationally/efficiently use it.", "And since the absence of pricing necessitates the prior absence of a current standard of exchange, investment becomes particularly impossible.", "In other words, the potential future outputs cannot be measured by any current standard, let alone a monetary one required for economic calculation.", "Likewise, the value consumers have for current consumption over future consumption cannot be expressed, quantified or implemented.", "<!-- THIS IS A PROBLEM OF CENTRAL PLANNING, NOT SPECIFICALLY RELATED TO THE PROBLEM OF ECONOMIC CALCULATION.", "IT SHOULD PROBABLY BE MOVED TO THE CENTRAL PLANNING PAGE." ], [ "Implementation of central planning decisions", "In ''The Road to Serfdom'', Hayek also argues that the central administrative resource allocation, which often must take away resources and power from subordinate leader and groups, necessarily requires and therefore selects ruthless leaders and the continued strong threat of coercion and punishment in order for the plans to be somewhat effectively implemented.", "This, in combination of the failures of the central planning, slowly leads socialism down the road to an oppressive dictatorship.", "John Jewkes, at the same time, made a similar analysis in ''Ordeal by Planning''.Central planning was also criticized by socialist economists such as Janos Kornai and Alexander Nove.", "Robin Cox has argued that the economic calculation argument can only be successfully rebutted on the assumption that a moneyless socialist economy was to a large extent spontaneously ordered via a self-regulating system of stock control which would enable decision-makers to allocate production goods on the basis of their relative scarcity using calculation in kind.", "This was only feasible in an economy where most decisions were decentralised.-->" ], [ "Criticism", "=== Efficiency of markets ===Some academics and economists argue that the claim a free market is an efficient, or even the most efficient, method of resource allocation is incorrect.", "Alexander Nove argued that Mises \"tends to spoil his case by the implicit assumption that capitalism and optimum resource allocation go together\" in Mises' \"Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth\".", "Joan Robinson argued that many prices in modern capitalism are effectively \"administered prices\" created by \"quasi monopolies\", thus challenging the connection between capital markets and rational resource allocation.Socialist market abolitionists argue that whilst advocates of capitalism and the Austrian School in particular recognize equilibrium prices do not exist in real life, they nonetheless claim that these prices can be used as a rational basis when this is not the case, hence markets are not efficient.", "Robin Hahnel further argued that market inefficiencies, such as externalities and excess supply and demand, arise from buyers and sellers thoughtlessly maximizing their rational interests, which free markets inherently do not deter.", "Nonetheless, Hahnel commended current policies pursued by free market capitalist societies against these inefficiencies (e.g.", "Pigouvian taxes, antitrust laws etc.", "), as long as they are properly calculated and consistently enforced.Milton Friedman agreed that markets with monopolistic competition are not efficient, but he argued that it is easy to force monopolies to adopt competitive behavior by exposing them to foreign rivals.", "Economic liberals and libertarian capitalists also argue that monopolies and big business are not generally the result of a free market, or that they never arise from a free market; rather, they say that such concentration is enabled by governmental grants of franchises or privileges.", "That said, protectionist economies can theoretically still foster competition as long as there is strong consumer switching.", "Joseph Schumpeter additionally argued that economic advancement, through innovation and investment, are often driven by large monopolies.=== Equilibrium ===Allin Cottrell, Paul Cockshott and Greg Michaelson argued that the contention that finding a true economic equilibrium is not just hard but impossible for a central planner applies equally well to a market system.", "As any universal Turing machine can do what any other Turing machine can, a central calculator in principle has no advantage over a system of dispersed calculators, i.e.", "a market, or vice versa.In some economic models, finding an equilibrium is hard, and finding an Arrow–Debreu equilibrium is PPAD-complete.", "If the market can find an equilibrium in polynomial time, then the equivalence above can be used to prove that P=PPAD.", "This line of argument thus attempts to show that any claim to impossibility must necessarily involve a local knowledge problem, because the planning system is no less capable than the market if given full information.Don Lavoie makes a local knowledge argument by taking this implication in reverse.", "The market socialists pointed out the formal similarity between the neoclassical model of Walrasian general equilibrium and that of market socialism which simply replace the Walrasian auctioneer with a planning board.", "According to Lavoie, this emphasizes the shortcomings of the model.", "By relying on this formal similarity, the market socialists must adopt the simplifying assumptions of the model.", "The model assumes that various sorts of information are given to the auctioneer or planning board.", "However, if not coordinated by a capital market, this information exists in a fundamentally distributed form, which would be difficult to utilize on the planners' part.", "If the planners decided to utilize the information, it would immediately become stale and relatively useless, unless reality somehow imitated the changeless monotony of the equilibrium model.", "The existence and usability of this information depends on its creation and situation within a distributed discovery procedure.=== Exaggerated claims ===One criticism is that proponents of the theory overstate the strength of their case by describing socialism as impossible rather than inefficient.", "In explaining why he is not an Austrian School economist, anarcho-capitalist economist Bryan Caplan argues that while the economic calculation problem is a problem for socialism, he denies that Mises has shown it to be fatal or that it is this particular problem that led to the collapse of authoritarian socialist states.", "Caplan also states the exaggeration of the problem; in his view, Mises did not manage to prove why economic calculation made the socialist economy 'impossible', and even if there were serious doubts about the efficiency of cost benefit analysis, other arguments are plentiful (Caplan gives the example of the incentive problem).=== Steady-state economy ===Joan Robinson argued that in a steady-state economy there would be an effective abundance of means of production and so markets would not be needed.", "Mises acknowledged such a theoretical possibility in his original tract when he said the following: \"The static state can dispense with economic calculation.", "For here the same events in economic life are ever recurring; and if we assume that the first disposition of the static socialist economy follows on the basis of the final state of the competitive economy, we might at all events conceive of a socialist production system which is rationally controlled from an economic point of view.\"", "However, he contended that stationary conditions never prevail in the real world.", "Changes in economic conditions are inevitable; and even if they were not, the transition to socialism would be so chaotic as to preclude the existence of such a steady-state from the start.The purpose of the price mechanism is to allow individuals to recognise the opportunity cost of decisions.", "In a state of abundance, there is no such cost, which is to say that in situations where one need not economize, economics does not apply, e.g.", "areas with abundant fresh air and water.", "Otto Neurath and Hillel Ticktin argued that with detailed use of real unit accounting and demand surveys a planned economy could operate without a capital market in a situation of abundance.=== Use of technology ===In ''Towards a New Socialism'''s \"Information and Economics: A Critique of Hayek\" and \"Against Mises\", Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell argued that the use of computational technology now simplifies economic calculation and allows planning to be implemented and sustained.", "Len Brewster replied to this by arguing that ''Towards a New Socialism'' establishes what is essentially another form of a market economy, making the following point:In response, Cockshott argued that the economic system is sufficiently far removed from a capitalist free-market economy to not count as one, saying:Leigh Phillips' and Michal Rozworski's 2019 book ''The People's Republic of Walmart'' argues that multinational corporations like Walmart and Amazon already operate centrally planned economies in a more technologically sophisticated manner than the Soviet Union, proving that the economic calculation problem is surmountable.", "There are some contentions to this view however, namely how economic planning and planned economy ought to be distinguished.", "Both entail formulating data-driven economic objectives but the latter precludes it from occurring within a free market context and delegates the task to centralized bodies.", "Karras J. Lambert and Tate Fegley argue that artificial intelligence systems, no matter how advanced, cannot assume the role of central planners because they do not fulfill the prerequisites of effective economic calculation.", "This includes the ability to convert the ordinal preferences of producers and consumers into commensurate cardinal utility values, which are available and agreed upon, and forecast future market interactions.", "One reason includes how they are dependent on Big Data, which in turn is entirely based on past information.", "Hence, the system cannot make any meaningful conclusions about future consumer preferences, which are required for optimal pricing.", "This necessitates the intervention of the programmer, who is highly likely to be biased in their judgments.", "Even the manner by which a system can \"predict\" consumer preferences is also based on a programmer's creative bias.", "They further argue that even if artificial intelligence is able to ordinally rank items like humans, they would still suffer from the same issues of not being able to conceive of a pricing structure where meaningful pricing calculations, using a common cardinal utility unit, can be formed.", "Nonetheless, Lambert and Fegley acknowledge that entrepreneurs can benefit from Big Data's predictive value, provided that the data is based on past market prices and that it is used in tandem with free market-styled bidding." ], [ "See also", "* Decentralized planning (economics)* Economic planning* Enrico Barone* Input-output model* Lange model* Local knowledge problem* Market socialism* New Economic Policy* Otto Neurath* Post-scarcity economy* Production for use* Real prices and ideal prices* ''Red Plenty''* Self-managed economy* Socialism* Socialist calculation debate* Socialization (economics)* Tax choice* Transition economy* ''Why Socialism?''", "- an article written by Albert Einstein which presents a critique of modern capitalism and advocates for a planned economy." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Boettke, Peter 1990 ''The Political Economy of Soviet Socialism''.", "* Caldwell, B: 1997.Hayek and Socialism The Journal of Economic Literature V35 pp.", "1856–1890.", "* Cottrell, Allin and Cockshott W. Paul \"Calculation, Complexity and Planning: The Socialist Calculation Debate Once Again\" Review of Political Economy* Cox, Robin 2005, \"The Economic Calculation Controversy: Unravelling of a Myth\".", "* Dickinson H. D. 1933 Price Formation in a Socialist Community in ''The Economic Journal''.", "* Dickinson, H. D. 1939 ''The Economics of Socialism''.", "* Hayek, F. A.", "1935 ''Collectivist Economic Planning''.", "* Hayek F. A.", "1937 Economics and Knowledge ''Economica'' V4 N13 pp.", "33–54.", "* Hayek F. A.", "1940 The Competitive \"Solution\" ''Economica'' V7 N26 pp.", "125–149.", "* Hayek, F. A.", "''The Road to Serfdom''.", "* Hayek, F. A.", "1945 \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\" ''The American Economic Review''.", "* Hayek, F. A.", "1952 ''The Counter Revolution of Science''.", "* * * * Lachmann, L: 1978 Capital and Its Structure.", "Sheed, Andrews, and McMeel, Kansas City.", "* * * * Lange, Oscar 1967 The Computer and the Market in Socialism, Capitalism, and Economic Growth Feinstein Ed.", "* Lavoie, Don: 1981.A Critique of the Standard Account of the Socialist Calculation Debate Journal of Libertarian Studies N5 V1 pp.", "41-87.", "* * * * * MacKenzie, D. W. 2006 \"Oskar Lange and the Impossibility of Economic Calculation\".", "''Studia Economicze''.", "* Mises L. E. 1912 ''The Theory of Money and Credit''.", "* Mises L. E. 1920 Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth, reprinted in Hayek (1935).", "* Mises L. E. 1922 1936 ''Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis''.", "* Mises 1933 Planned Economy and Socialism; reprinted in Selected Writings of Ludwig von Mises, The Liberty Fund (2002) Richard M Ebeling ed.", "* Mises L. E. 1944 ''Bureaucracy''.", "* Mises L. E. 1944 ''Omnipotent Government''.", "* Mises L. E. 1949 ''Human Action''.", "* Mises L. E. 1957 ''Theory and History''.", "* Roemer, John (1994).", "''A Future for Socialism'', Verso Press.", "* Rothbard, M. N. 1991.The End of Socialism and the Calculation Debate Revisited.", "''The Review of Austrian Economics''.", "* Spufford, Francis.", "2010 ''Red Plenty'', Faber & Faber.", "* Stiglitz, J: 1994.Whither Socialism?", "MIT Press.", "* Vaughn, Karen.", "1980.Economic Calculation under Socialism: The Austrian Contribution.", "Economic Inquiry 18 pp. 535–554.", "* Yunker, James A.", "\"Post-Lange Market Socialism\" 1995, Journal of Economic Issues." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Erasmus Darwin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Erasmus Robert Darwin''' (12 December 173118 April 1802) was an English physician.", "One of the key thinkers of the Midlands Enlightenment, he was also a natural philosopher, physiologist, slave-trade abolitionist, inventor, and poet.His poems included much natural history, including a statement of evolution and the relatedness of all forms of life.He was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family, which includes his grandsons Charles Darwin and Francis Galton.", "Darwin was a founding member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, a discussion group of pioneering industrialists and natural philosophers.He turned down an invitation from George III to become Physician to the King." ], [ "Early life and education", "Stone-cast bust of Erasmus Darwin, by W. J.", "Coffee, Darwin's House in Lichfield, now a museum dedicated to his life and work.Darwin was born in 1731 at Elston Hall, Nottinghamshire, near Newark-on-Trent, England, the youngest of seven children of Robert Darwin of Elston (1682–1754), a lawyer and physician, and his wife Elizabeth Hill (1702–97).", "The name Erasmus had been used by a number of his family and derives from his ancestor Erasmus Earle, Common Sergent of England under Oliver Cromwell.", "His siblings were:* Robert Waring Darwin of Elston (17 October 1724 – 4 November 1816)* Elizabeth Darwin (15 September 1725 – 8 April 1800)* William Alvey Darwin (3 October 1726 – 7 October 1783)* Anne Darwin (12 November 1727 – 3 August 1813)* Susannah Darwin (10 April 1729 – 29 September 1789)* Rev.", "John Darwin, rector of Elston (28 September 1730 – 24 May 1805)He was educated at Chesterfield Grammar School, then later at St John's College, Cambridge.", "He obtained his medical education at the University of Edinburgh Medical School.Darwin settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but met with little success and so moved the following year to Lichfield to try to establish a practice there.", "A few weeks after his arrival, using a novel course of treatment, he restored the health of a young fisherman whose death seemed inevitable.", "This ensured his success in the new locale.", "Darwin was a highly successful physician for more than fifty years in the Midlands.", "In 1761, he was elected to the Royal Society.", "George III invited him to be Royal Physician, but Darwin declined." ], [ "Personal life", "Portrait of Erasmus Darwin, 1770, by Joseph Wright of Derby.Darwin married twice and had 14 children, including two illegitimate daughters by an employee, and, possibly, at least one further illegitimate daughter.Erasmus Darwin's coat of arms.", "Escutcheon: Argent, on a bend Gules cottised Vert, three escallop shells, Or.", "Crest: A demi-griffin segreant, Vert, holding in his claws an escallop, Or.", "Motto: ''E conchis omnia'' (All things out of conches/molluscs).In 1757 he married Mary (Polly) Howard (1740–1770), the daughter of Charles Howard, a Lichfield solicitor.", "They had four sons and one daughter, two of whom (a son and a daughter) died in infancy:* Charles Darwin (1758–1778), uncle of the naturalist* Erasmus Darwin Jr (1759–1799)* Elizabeth Darwin (1763, survived 4 months)* Robert Waring Darwin (1766–1848), father of the naturalist Charles Darwin* William Alvey Darwin (1767, survived 19 days)The first Mrs. Darwin died in 1770.A governess, Mary Parker, was hired to look after Robert.", "By late 1771, employer and employee had become intimately involved and together they had two illegitimate daughters:* Susanna Parker (1772–1856)* Mary Parker Jr (1774–1859)Susanna and Mary Jr later established a boarding school for girls.", "In 1782, Mary Sr (the governess) married Joseph Day (1745–1811), a Birmingham merchant, and moved away.There was also a rumour that Darwin fathered another child, this time with a married woman.", "A Lucy Swift gave birth in 1771 to a baby, also named Lucy, who was christened a daughter of her mother and William Swift.", "It has been suggested that the father was really Darwin.", "However, it is more likely that this child was the legitimate daughter of Lamech Swift, at that time owner of the Derby Silk Mill and his wife Dorothy, who became a friend of the two Parker girls.", "Lucy Swift, later known as Lucy Hardcastle after her marriage, went on to be known as a botanist and teacher.In 1775, Darwin met Elizabeth Pole, daughter of Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore, and wife of Colonel Edward Pole (1718–1780); but as she was married, Darwin could only make his feelings known for her through poetry.", "When Edward Pole died, Darwin married Elizabeth and moved to her home, Radbourne Hall, west of Derby.", "The hall and village are these days known as Radbourne.", "In 1782, they moved to Full Street, Derby.", "They had four sons, one of whom died in infancy, and three daughters:* Edward Darwin (1782–1829)* Frances Ann Violetta Darwin (1783–1874), married Samuel Tertius Galton, was the mother of Francis Galton* Emma Georgina Elizabeth Darwin (1784–1818)* Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin (1786–1859)* Revd.", "John Darwin (1787–1818), Christian; Rector of All Saints' Church, Elston* Henry Darwin (1789–1790), died in infancy.", "* Harriet Darwin (1790–1825), married Admiral Thomas James MalingDarwin's personal appearance is described in unflattering detail in his Biographical Memoirs, printed by the ''Monthly Magazine'' in 1802.Darwin, the description reads, \"was of middle stature, in person gross and corpulent; his features were coarse, and his countenance heavy; if not wholly void of animation, it certainly was by no means expressive.", "The print of him, from a painting of Mr. Wright, is a good likeness.", "In his gait and dress he was rather clumsy and slovenly, and frequently walked with his tongue hanging out of his mouth.", "\"=== Freemasonry ===Darwin had been a Freemason throughout his life, in the Time Immemorial Lodge of Cannongate Kilwinning, No.", "2, of Scotland.", "Later on, Sir Francis Darwin, one of his sons, was made a Mason in Tyrian Lodge, No.", "253, at Derby, in 1807 or 1808.His son Reginald was made a Mason in Tyrian Lodge in 1804.Charles Darwin's name does not appear on the rolls of the Lodge but it is very possible that he, like Francis, was a Mason, as he held many Masonic beliefs such as Deism throughout his life." ], [ "Death", "Darwin died suddenly on 18 April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory, just north of Derby.", "The Monthly Magazine of 1802, in its Biographical Memoirs of the Late Dr. Darwin, reports that \"during the last few years, Dr. Darwin was much subject to inflammation in his breast and lungs; he had a very serious attack of this disease in the course of the last Spring, from which, after repeated bleedings, by himself and a surgeon, he with great difficulty recovered.", "\"Darwin's death, the Biographical Memoirs continues, \"is variously accounted for: it is supposed to have been caused by the cold fit of an inflammatory fever.", "Dr. Fox, of Derby, considers the disease which occasioned it to have been angina pectoris; but Dr. Garlicke, of the same place, thinks this opinion not sufficiently well founded.", "Whatever was the disease, it is not improbable, surely, that the fatal event was hastened by the violent fit of passion with which he was seized in the morning.", "\"His body is buried in All Saints' Church, Breadsall.Erasmus Darwin is commemorated on one of the Moonstones, a series of monuments in Birmingham." ], [ "Writings", "=== Botanical works and the Lichfield Botanical Society ===Erasmus Darwin in stipple engraving by Holl, 1803, after J. RawlinsonDarwin formed 'A Botanical Society, at Lichfield' almost always incorrectly named as the Lichfield Botanical Society (despite the name, composed of only three men, Erasmus Darwin, Sir Brooke Boothby and Mr John Jackson, proctor of Lichfield Cathedral) to translate the works of the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus from Latin into English.", "This took seven years.", "The result was two publications: ''A System of Vegetables'' between 1783 and 1785, and ''The Families of Plants'' in 1787.In these volumes, Darwin coined many of the English names of plants that we use today.Darwin then wrote ''The Loves of the Plants,'' a long poem, which was a popular rendering of Linnaeus' works.", "Darwin also wrote ''Economy of Vegetation'', and together the two were published as ''The Botanic Garden''.", "Among other writers he influenced were Anna Seward and Maria Jacson.=== Zoonomia ===Darwin's most important scientific work, ''Zoonomia'' (1794–1796), contains a system of pathology and a chapter on 'Generation'.", "In the latter, he anticipated some of the views of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, which foreshadowed the modern theory of evolution.", "Erasmus Darwin's works were read and commented on by his grandson Charles Darwin the naturalist.", "Erasmus Darwin based his theories on David Hartley's psychological theory of associationism.", "The essence of his views is contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the conclusion that one and the same kind of living filament is and has been the cause of all organic life:Would it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end!", "Erasmus Darwin also anticipated survival of the fittest in ''Zoönomia'' mainly when writing about the \"three great objects of desire\" for every organism: \"lust, hunger, and security.\"", "A similar \"survival of the fittest\" view in ''Zoönomia'' is Erasmus' view on how a species \"should\" propagate itself.", "Erasmus' idea that \"the strongest and most active animal should propagate the species, which should thence become improved\".", "Today, this is called the theory of survival of the fittest.", "His grandson Charles Darwin posited the different and fuller theory of natural selection.", "Charles' theory was that natural selection is the inheritance of changed genetic characteristics that are better adaptations to the environment; these are not necessarily based in \"strength\" and \"activity\", which themselves ironically can lead to the overpopulation that results in natural selection yielding nonsurvivors of genetic traits.Erasmus Darwin was familiar with the earlier proto-evolutionary thinking of James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, and cited him in his 1803 work ''Temple of Nature.", "''=== Poem on evolution ===Erasmus Darwin offered the first glimpse of his theory of evolution, obliquely, in a question at the end of a long footnote to his popular poem ''The Loves of the Plants'' (1789), which was republished throughout the 1790s in several editions as ''The Botanic Garden''.", "His poetic concept was to anthropomorphise the stamen (male) and pistil (female) sexual organs, as bride and groom.", "In this stanza on the flower Curcuma (also Flax and Turmeric) the \"youths\" are infertile, and he devotes the footnote to other examples of neutered organs in flowers, insect castes, and finally associates this more broadly with many popular and well-known cases of vestigial organs (male nipples, the third and fourth wings of flies, etc.", ")Woo'd with long care, CURCUMA cold and shyMeets her fond husband with averted eye:''Four'' beardless youths the obdurate beauty moveWith soft attentions of Platonic love.Darwin's final long poem, ''The Temple of Nature'' was published posthumously in 1803.The poem was originally titled ''The Origin of Society''.", "It is considered his best poetic work.", "It centres on his own conception of evolution.", "The poem traces the progression of life from micro-organisms to civilised society.", "The poem contains a passage that describes the struggle for existence.His poetry was admired by Wordsworth, while Coleridge was intensely critical, writing, \"I absolutely nauseate Darwin's poem\".It often made reference to his interests in science; for example botany and steam engines.=== Education of women ===The last two leaves of Darwin's ''A plan for the conduct of female education in boarding schools'' (1797) contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for \"Miss Parkers School\".The school advertised on the last page is the one he set up in Ashbourne, Derbyshire, for his two illegitimate children, Susanna and Mary.Darwin regretted that a good education had not been generally available to women in Britain in his time, and drew on the ideas of Locke, Rousseau, and Genlis in organising his thoughts.", "Addressing the education of middle-class girls, Darwin argued that amorous romance novels were inappropriate and that they should seek simplicity in dress.", "He contends that young women should be educated in schools, rather than privately at home, and learn appropriate subjects.", "These subjects include physiognomy, physical exercise, botany, chemistry, mineralogy, and experimental philosophy.", "They should familiarise themselves with arts and manufactures through visits to sites like Coalbrookdale, and Wedgwood's potteries; they should learn how to handle money, and study modern languages.", "Darwin's educational philosophy took the view that men and women should have different capabilities, skills, interests, and spheres of action, where the woman's education was designed to support and serve male accomplishment and financial reward, and to relieve him of daily responsibility for children and the chores of life.", "In the context of the times, this program may be read as a modernising influence in the sense that the woman was at least to learn about the \"man's world\", although not be allowed to participate in it.", "The text was written seven years after A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft, which has the central argument that women should be educated in a rational manner to give them the opportunity to contribute to society.Some women of Darwin's era were receiving more substantial education and participating in the broader world.", "An example is Susanna Wright, who was raised in Lancashire and became an American colonist associated with the Midlands Enlightenment.", "It is not known whether Darwin and Wright knew each other, although they definitely knew many people in common.", "Other women who received substantial education and who participated in the broader world (albeit sometimes anonymously) whom Darwin definitely knew were Maria Jacson and Anna Seward." ], [ "Lunar Society", "These dates indicate the year in which Darwin became friends with these people, who, in turn, became members of the Lunar Society.", "The Lunar Society existed from 1765 to 1813.Before 1765:* Matthew Boulton, originally a buckle maker in Birmingham* John Whitehurst of Derby, maker of clocks and scientific instruments, pioneer of geologyAfter 1765:* Josiah Wedgwood, potter 1765* Dr. William Small, 1765, man of science, formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of William and Mary, where Thomas Jefferson was an appreciative pupil* Richard Lovell Edgeworth, 1766, inventor* James Watt, 1767, improver of steam engine* James Keir, 1767, pioneer of the chemical industry* Thomas Day, 1768, eccentric and author* Dr. William Withering, 1775, the death of Dr. Small left an opening for a physician in the group.", "* Joseph Priestley, 1780, experimental chemist and discoverer of many substances.", "* Samuel Galton, 1782, a Quaker gunmaker with a taste for science, took Darwin's place after Darwin moved to Derby.Darwin also established a lifelong friendship with Benjamin Franklin, who shared Darwin's support for the American and French revolutions.", "The Lunar Society was instrumental as an intellectual driving force behind England's Industrial Revolution.The members of the Lunar Society, and especially Darwin, opposed the slave trade.", "He attacked it in ''The Botanic Garden'' (1789–1791), and in ''The Loves of Plants'' (1789), ''The Economy of Vegetation'' (1791), and the ''Phytologia'' (1800)." ], [ "Other activities", "In 1761, Darwin was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.In addition to the Lunar Society, Erasmus Darwin belonged to the influential Derby Philosophical Society, as did his brother-in-law Samuel Fox (see family tree below).", "He experimented with the use of air and gases to alleviate infections and cancers in patients.", "A Pneumatic Institution was established at Clifton in 1799 for clinically testing these ideas.", "He conducted research into the formation of clouds, on which he published in 1788.He also inspired Robert Weldon's Somerset Coal Canal caisson lock.In 1792, Darwin was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.Percy Bysshe Shelley specifically mentions Darwin in the first sentence of the 1818 Preface to ''Frankenstein'' to support his contention that the creation of life is possible.", "His wife Mary Shelley in her introduction to the 1831 edition of ''Frankenstein'' wrote that she overheard her husband talk about Darwin's experiments with Lord Byron about unspecified \"experiments of Dr. Darwin\" that led to the idea for the novel.", "\"Many and long were the conversations between Lord Byron and Shelley, to which I was a devout but nearly silent listener.", "...", "They talked of the experiments of Dr. Darwin, (I speak not of what the Doctor really did, or said that he did, but, as more to my purpose, of what was then spoken of as having been done by him,) who preserved a piece of vermicelli in a glass case, till by some extraordinary means it began to move with voluntary motion.\"", "She confused ''vermicelli'', pasta, for the actual word Darwin and Shelley used, which was ''vorticella'', a miniscule sic wheel animal.", "This was a major mistake or flub.", "As she admitted, everything she knew about science she got from her husband Shelley.", "underlining added=== Cosmological speculation ===Contemporary literature dates the cosmological theories of the Big Bang and Big Crunch to the 19th and 20th centuries.", "However, Erasmus Darwin had speculated on these sorts of events in ''The Botanic Garden, A Poem in Two Parts: Part 1, The Economy of Vegetation, 1791'':=== Inventions ===Darwin was the inventor of several devices, though he did not patent any: he believed this would damage his reputation as a doctor.", "He encouraged his friends to patent their own modifications of his designs.", "* A horizontal windmill, which he designed for Josiah Wedgwood (who would be Charles Darwin's other grandfather, see family tree below).", "* A carriage that would not tip over (1766).", "* A steering mechanism for his carriage, known today as the Ackermann linkage, that would be adopted by cars 130 years later (1759).", "* A speaking machine, which was a mechanical larynx made of wood, silk, and leather and pronounced several sounds so well 'as to deceive all who heard it unseen' (at Clifton in 1799).", "* A canal lift for barges.", "* A minute artificial bird.", "* A copying machine (1778).", "* A variety of weather monitoring machines.=== Rocket engine ===In notes dating to 1779, Darwin made a sketch of a simple hydrogen-oxygen rocket engine, with gas tanks connected by plumbing and pumps to an elongated combustion chamber and expansion nozzle, a concept not to be seen again until one century later." ], [ "Major publications", "* Erasmus Darwin, ''A Botanical Society at Lichfield.", "A System of Vegetables, according to their classes, orders... translated from the 13th edition of Linnaeus' Systema Vegetabiliium''.", "2 vols., 1783, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for Leigh and Sotheby, London.", "* Erasmus Darwin, ''A Botanical Society at Lichfield.", "The Families of Plants with their natural characters...Translated from the last edition of Linnaeus' Genera Plantarum''.", "1787, Lichfield, J. Jackson, for J. Johnson, London.", "* Erasmus Darwin, ''The Botanic Garden, Part I, The Economy of Vegetation''.", "1791 London, J.", "Johnson.", "* Part II, ''The Loves of the Plants''.", "1789, London, J.", "Johnson.", "* Erasmus Darwin, ''Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life'', 1794, Part I. London, J.", "Johnson.", "* Part I–III.", "1796, London, J.", "Johnson.", "* (last two leaves contain a book list, an apology for the work, and an advert for \"Miss Parkers School\")* Erasmus Darwin, ''Phytologia; or, The Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening''.", "1800, London, J.", "Johnson.", "* Erasmus Darwin, ''The Temple of Nature; or, The Origin of Society''.", "1803, London, J. Johnson." ], [ "Family tree", "580px" ], [ "Commemoration", "Erasmus Darwin House, his home in Lichfield, Staffordshire, is a museum dedicated to him and his life's work.", "A secondary school at Burntwood, near Lichfield, was renamed Erasmus Darwin Academy in 2011.A science building on the Clifton campus of Nottingham Trent University is named after him." ], [ "In fiction", "* Charles Sheffield, an author noted largely for hard science fiction, wrote a number of stories featuring Darwin in a role similar to that of Sherlock Holmes.", "These stories were collected in a book, ''The Amazing Dr.", "Darwin''.", "* The forgetting of Erasmus' designs for a rocket is a major plot point in Stephen Baxter's tale of alternate universes, ''Manifold: Origin''.", "* Phrases from Darwin's poem The Botanic Garden are used as chapter headings in ''The Pornographer of Vienna'' by Lewis Crofts.", "* Darwin appears as a character in Sergey Lukyanenko's novel ''New Watch'' as a Dark Other, and a prophet living in Regent's Park Estate." ], [ "See also", "* Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment* History of evolutionary thought" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * === Biographies and criticism ===* * * King-Hele, Desmond.", "1963.", "''Doctor Darwin''.", "Scribner's, N.Y.* King-Hele, Desmond.", "1977.", "''Doctor of Revolution: the life and genius of Erasmus Darwin''.", "Faber, London.", "* King-Hele, Desmond.", "1999.", "''Erasmus Darwin: a life of unequalled achievement'' Giles de la Mare Publishers.", "* King-Hele, Desmond (ed) 2002.", "''Charles Darwin's 'The Life of Erasmus Darwin' '' Cambridge University Press.", "* Krause, Ernst 1879.", "''Erasmus Darwin, with a preliminary notice by Charles Darwin''.", "Murray, London.", "* Pearson, Hesketh.", "1930.", "''Doctor Darwin''.", "Dent, London.", "* Porter, Roy, 1989.", "'Erasmus Darwin: doctor of evolution?'", "in 'History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed.", "James R.", "Moore.", "* * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Darwin, Erasmus.", "(1794–96).", "''Zoonomia''.", "J. Johnson (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )" ], [ "External links", " Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield* * * * Revolutionary Players website* \"Preface and 'a preliminary notice'\" by Charles Darwin in Ernst Krause, ''Erasmus Darwin'' (1879)* Letter from Erasmus Darwin to Dr. William Withering at Mount Holyoke College" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ediacaran" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ediacaran''' period ( ) is a geological period of the Neoproterozoic era that spans 96 million years from the end of the Cryogenian period at 635 Mya, to the beginning of the Cambrian period at 538.8 Mya.", "It is the last period of the Proterozoic eon as well as the last of the so-called \"Precambrian supereon\", before the beginning of the subsequent Cambrian period marks the start of the Phanerozoic eon where recognizable fossil evidence of life becomes common.The Ediacaran period is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia, where trace fossils of a diverse community of previously unrecognized lifeforms (later named the Ediacaran biota) were first discovered by geologist Reg Sprigg in 1946.Its status as an official geological period was ratified in 2004 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), making it the first new geological period declared in 120 years.", "Although the period took namesake from the Ediacara Hills in the Nilpena Ediacara National Park, the type section is actually located in the bed of the Enorama Creek within the Brachina Gorge in the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park, at , approximately southeast of the Ediacara Hills fossil site.The Ediacaran marks the first widespread appearance of complex multicellular fauna following the end of the Cryogenian global glaciation known as the Snowball Earth.", "The relatively sudden evolutionary radiation event, known as the Avalon Explosion, is represented by now-extinct, relatively simple soft-bodied animal phyla such as Proarticulata (bilaterians with simple articulation, e.g.", "''Dickinsonia'' and ''Spriggina''), Petalonamae (sea pen-like animals, e.g.", "''Charnia''), Aspidella (radial-shaped animals, e.g.", "''Cyclomedusa'') and Trilobozoa (animals with tri-radial symmetry, e.g.", "''Tribrachidium'').", "Most of these organisms appeared during or after the Avalon explosion 575 million years ago and died out during the End-Ediacaran extinction event 539 million years ago.", "Forerunners of some modern animal phyla also appeared during this period, including cnidarians and early bilaterians such as Xenacoelomorpha, as well as mollusc-like ''Kimberella''.", "Hard-bodied organisms with mineralized shells or endoskeletons, which can be fossilized and preserved, were yet to evolve and would not appear until the superseding Cambrian Explosion some 35 million years later.The supercontinent Pannotia formed and broke apart by the end of the period.", "The Ediacaran also witnessed several glaciation events, such as the Gaskiers and Baykonurian glaciations.", "The Shuram excursion also occurred during this period, but its glacial origin is unlikely." ], [ "Ediacaran and Vendian", "The Ediacaran Period overlaps but is shorter than the '''Vendian''' Period (650 to 543 million years ago), a name that was earlier, in 1952, proposed by Russian geologist and paleontologist Boris Sokolov.", "The Vendian concept was formed stratigraphically top-down, and the lower boundary of the Cambrian became the upper boundary of the Vendian.Paleontological substantiation of this boundary was worked out separately for the siliciclastic basin (base of the Baltic Stage of the Eastern European Platform) and for the carbonate basin (base of the Tommotian stage of the Siberian Platform).The lower boundary of the Vendian was suggested to be defined at the base of the Varanger (Laplandian) tillites.The Vendian in its type area consists of large subdivisions such as Laplandian, Redkino, Kotlin and Rovno regional stages with the globally traceable subdivisions and their boundaries, including its lower one.The Redkino, Kotlin and Rovno regional stages have been substantiated in the type area of the Vendian on the basis of the abundant organic-walled microfossils, megascopic algae, metazoan body fossils and ichnofossils.The lower boundary of the Vendian could have a biostratigraphic substantiation as well taking into consideration the worldwide occurrence of the Pertatataka assemblage of giant acanthomorph acritarchs." ], [ "Upper and lower boundaries", "The 'golden spike' (bronze disk in the lower section of the image) or 'type section' of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Ediacaran SystemThe 'golden spike' marking the GSSPThe Ediacaran Period (c. 635–538.8 Mya) represents the time from the end of global Marinoan glaciation to the first appearance worldwide of somewhat complicated trace fossils (''Treptichnus pedum'' (Seilacher, 1955)).Although the Ediacaran Period does contain soft-bodied fossils, it is unusual in comparison to later periods because its beginning is not defined by a change in the fossil record.", "Rather, the beginning is defined at the base of a chemically distinctive carbonate layer that is referred to as a \"cap carbonate\", because it caps glacial deposits.This bed is characterized by an unusual depletion of 13C that indicates a sudden climatic change at the end of the Marinoan ice age.", "The lower global boundary stratotype section (GSSP) of the Ediacaran is at the base of the cap carbonate (Nuccaleena Formation), immediately above the Elatina diamictite in the Enorama Creek section, Brachina Gorge, Flinders Ranges, South Australia.The GSSP of the upper boundary of the Ediacaran is the lower boundary of the Cambrian on the SE coast of Newfoundland approved by the International Commission on Stratigraphy as a preferred alternative to the base of the Tommotian Stage in Siberia which was selected on the basis of the ichnofossil ''Treptichnus pedum'' (Seilacher, 1955).", "In the history of stratigraphy it was the first case of usage of bioturbations for the System boundary definition.Nevertheless, the definitions of the lower and upper boundaries of the Ediacaran on the basis of chemostratigraphy and ichnofossils are disputable.Cap carbonates generally have a restricted geographic distribution (due to specific conditions of their precipitation) and usually siliciclastic sediments laterally replace the cap carbonates in a rather short distance but cap carbonates do not occur above every tillite elsewhere in the world.The C-isotope chemostratigraphic characteristics obtained for contemporaneous cap carbonates in different parts of the world may be variable in a wide range owing to different degrees of secondary alteration of carbonates, dissimilar criteria used for selection of the least altered samples, and, as far as the C-isotope data are concerned, due to primary lateral variations of δ l3Ccarb in the upper layer of the ocean.Furthermore, Oman presents in its stratigraphic record a large negative carbon isotope excursion, within the Shuram Formation that is clearly away from any glacial evidence strongly questioning systematic association of negative δ l3Ccarb excursion and glacial events.", "Also, the Shuram excursion is prolonged and is estimated to last for ~9.0 Myrs.As to the ''Treptichnus pedum'', a reference ichnofossil for the lower boundary of the Cambrian, its usage for the stratigraphic detection of this boundary is always risky, because of the occurrence of very similar trace fossils belonging to the Treptichnids group well below the level of ''T.", "pedum'' in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the western United States.", "The stratigraphic range of ''T.", "pedum'' overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain." ], [ "Subdivisions", "The Ediacaran Period is not yet formally subdivided, but a proposed scheme recognises an Upper Ediacaran whose base corresponds with the Gaskiers glaciation, a Terminal Ediacaran Stage starting around , a preceding stage beginning around 575 Ma with the earliest widespread Ediacaran biota fossils; two proposed schemes differ on whether the lower strata should be divided into an Early and Middle Ediacaran or not, because it is not clear whether the Shuram excursion (which would divide the Early and Middle) is a separate event from the Gaskiers, or whether the two events are correlated." ], [ "Absolute dating", "The dating of the rock type section of the Ediacaran Period in South Australia has proven uncertain due to lack of overlying igneous material.", "Therefore, the age range of 635 to 538.8 million years is based on correlations to other countries where dating has been possible.", "The base age of approximately 635 million years is based on U–Pb (uranium–lead) and Re–Os (rhenium–osmium) dating from Africa, China, North America, and Tasmania." ], [ "Biota", "Archaeaspinus, one of the members of the Ediacaran biota which is one of the representatives of the Phylum Proarticulata which also includes Dickinsonia, Karakhtia and numerous other organisms.The fossil record from the Ediacaran Period is sparse, as more easily fossilized hard-shelled animals had yet to evolve.", "The Ediacaran biota include the oldest definite multicellular organisms (with specialized tissues), the most common types of which resemble segmented worms, fronds, disks, or immobile bags.", "''Auroralumina'' was a cnidarian.Most members of the Ediacaran biota bear little resemblance to modern lifeforms, and their relationship even with the immediately following lifeforms of the Cambrian explosion is rather difficult to interpret.", "More than 100 genera have been described, and well known forms include ''Arkarua'', ''Charnia'', ''Dickinsonia'', ''Ediacaria'', ''Marywadea'', ''Cephalonega'', ''Pteridinium'', and ''Yorgia''.", "However, despite the overall enigmaticness of most Ediacaran organisms, some fossils identifiable as hard-shelled agglutinated foraminifera (which are not classified as animals) are known from latest Ediacaran sediments of western Siberia.", "Sponges recognisable as such also lived during the Ediacaran.Four different biotic intervals are known in the Ediacaran, each being characterised by the prominence of a unique ecology and faunal assemblage.", "The first spanned from 635 to around 575 Ma and was dominated by acritarchs known as large ornamented Ediacaran microfossils.", "The second spanned from around 575 to 560 Ma and was characterised by the Avalon biota.", "The third spanned from 560 to 550 Ma; its biota has been dubbed the White Sea biota due to many fossils from this time being found along the coasts of the White Sea.", "The fourth lasted from 550 to 539 Ma and is known as the interval of the Nama biotic assemblage.There is evidence for a mass extinction during this period from early animals changing the environment, dating to the same time as the transition between the White Sea and the Nama-type biotas.", "Alternatively, this mass extinction has also been theorised to have been the result of an anoxic event." ], [ "Astronomical factors", "The relative proximity of the Moon at this time meant that tides were stronger and more rapid than they are now.", "The day was 21.9 ± 0.4 hours, and there were 13.1 ± 0.1 synodic months/year and 400 ± 7 solar days/year." ], [ "Documentaries", "A few English language documentaries have featured the Ediacaran Period and biota:* ''The Time Traveller's Guide To Australia'' (2012, ABC Science; Part 1 of 4).", "* ''The Geological History of Canada'', as part of The Nature of Things series, CBC-SRC; 2011; Eastern Canada.", "* The first episode of a BBC documentary titled ''Life on Earth'', with David Attenborough as narrator.", "* Another documentary narrated by David Attenborough titled ''First Life'' featuring ''Charnia'', ''Dickinsonia'', ''Spriggina'', ''Funisia'', and ''Kimberella'' animated in CGI.", "* ''In our time'' - Ediacara Biota, BBC, 9 July 2009" ], [ "See also", "* ''(with link directory)''* Avalon explosion* End-Ediacaran extinction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Introduction to the Vendian Period* Introduction to the Ediacaran Fauna* transcript – ''Catalyst'' (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)* Mistaken Point Fauna: The Discovery* Earth's oldest animal ecosystem held in fossils at Nilpena Station in SA outback ''ABC News'', 5 August 2013.Accessed 6 August 2013." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Erotica" ], [ "Introduction", "''Fernande'' (1910–1917) French postcard by Jean Agélou'''Erotica''' is literature or art that deals substantively with subject matter that is erotic, sexually stimulating or sexually arousing.", "Some critics regard pornography as a type of erotica, but many consider it to be different.", "Erotic art may use any artistic form to depict erotic content, including painting, sculpture, drama, film or music.", "Erotic literature and erotic photography have become genres in their own right.", "Erotica also exists in a number of subgenres including gay, lesbian, women's, bondage, monster and tentacle erotica.The term ''erotica'' is derived from the feminine form of the ancient Greek adjective: (), from ()—words used to indicate lust, and sexual love.", "'''Curiosa''' are curiosities or rarities, especially unusual or erotic books.", "In the antiquarian book trade, pornographic works are often listed under \"curiosa\", \"erotica\" or \"facetiae\".Ancient erotic sculpture from Ptolomeic Egypt." ], [ "History", "Erotica exists in many different forms, both modern and ancient.", "Erotic art dates back to the Paleolithic times, with cave paintings and carvings of female genitalia being a point of immense interest to prehistorians.", "Ancient Greek and Roman art depicted erotic acts or figures, often using phallic or erotic imagery to convey ideas of fertility.", "Modern depictions of erotic art are often intertwined with erotic photography, including boudoir photography, and erotic film.", "Discussions of modern erotic art are also often merged with discussions on pornography.More specifically, erotic photography found its mass-market roots in pornographic magazines.", "The most iconic of these magazines is Playboy, a men's magazine founded in the 1950s that helped to shape the modern Western perception on sex and sexuality in the media.", "Pornographic magazines could also include boudoir photography or pin-up models, though pin-up models are not definitively sexual by nature.Erotic film has evolved greatly with modern filmmaking capabilities, including developing a large subgenre of cartoon pornography, the most popular form of which is Japanese hentai.", "Erotic film is the form of erotica most often seen as interchangeable with pornography due to their similarities in form and function.Erotic literature also dates back to ancient times, though not quite as far.", "Arguably the most iconic erotic piece of literature, the ''Kama Sutra'' is a Sanskrit text largely describing and depicting ideas of sex, sexuality, love, and human emotion.", "Eroticism in ancient Greece and Rome was not contained to only visual art, as poets such as the Greek Sappho and the Roman Catullus and Ovid wrote erotic verse and lyrical poems.", "Modern erotic literature, often called 'smut', is quite popular, especially among women.", "A popular form of modern erotic literature is fan fiction, or fan-generated content about characters in a pre-existing media series or franchise.", "Stories on online websites like Archive of Our Own and FanFiction.Net account for a large percentage of modern erotic fan fiction literature." ], [ "Views", "The topic of sex is often taboo in modern culture, especially in media.", "Censorship is an issue often faced by creators of erotic work, be it art, film, or literature.", "The legality of creating and publishing erotic works differs in different parts of the word, but it is not uncommon to see heavy regulations placed on the publication of erotic or pornographic media.The legality of cartoon pornography or animated erotic films is one of the most controversial aspects of erotic censorship.", "This is because of the gray area surrounding the portrayal of animated, fictional minors engaging in erotic or sexual acts.", "The legality of pornography with non-animated individuals is only slightly more definitive.", "Legal and moral issues regarding pornography and erotica can tie into arguments regarding the legalization or decriminalization of prostitution and sex work at large, a topic that is hotly debated.", "Pornography is often far less regulated than sex work and has fewer legal barriers to production, though it is still a morally controversial profession to some.In the United Kingdom, the Obscene Publications Act of 1857 made the selling of \"obscene\" materials a statutory offense.", "This act has been criticized heavily, not just in retrospect, but at the time of enacting.", "Topics of erotic media have been brought to U.S. state and federal courts for centuries.", "Some notable cases include People v. Freeman, in which the state of California upheld that hiring actors to engage in sexual activity for the sake of creating erotic films was not considered pornography, and Miller v. California, in which the idea of erotic work providing serious artistic or literary value was introduced to the legal sphere.=== Feminism ===A majority of erotica centers women as the object of sexual desire, demonstrated in the sharp rise of popularity of pornographic magazines centering women in the mid-twentieth century.", "In the 20th century, a cadre of female artists, authors, and other creatives began to create a new kind of erotica.Women's erotica exists to cater for the sexual gratification of women consuming erotic material.", "Feminist erotic media often centers female pleasure instead of catering to the male gaze.", "Feminist erotic art had a boom in the mid-20th century, most iconically transforming the idea of the nude female figure from an object of sexual pleasure to a symbol for a woman's sexual liberation.", "Martha Edelheit was a pioneer of modern women's erotica, flipping the genre on its head by focusing her art on the nude male figure.", "It was not unusual for a man to be seen as an object of sexual desire in erotic media, but these portrayals were often found in gay pornography, and were often created or published by another man.", "Edelheit's work as a woman and as an artist was foundational for modern-day feminist erotic media." ], [ "Erotica and pornography", "A distinction is often made between erotica and pornography (and the lesser-known genre of sexual entertainment, ribaldry), although some viewers may not distinguish between them.", "A key distinction, some have argued, is that pornography's objective is the graphic depiction of sexually explicit scenes.", "At the same time, erotica \"seeks to tell a story that involves sexual themes\" that include a more plausible depiction of human sexuality than in pornography.", "Additionally, works considered degrading or exploitative tend to be classified by those who see them as such, as \"porn\" rather than as \"erotica\" and consequently, pornography is often described as exploitative or degrading.", "Many countries have laws banning or at least regulating what is considered pornographic material, a situation that generally does not apply to erotica.For the anti-pornography activist Andrea Dworkin, \"Erotica is simply high-class pornography; better produced, better conceived, better executed, better packaged, designed for a better class of consumer.\"", "Feminist writer Gloria Steinem distinguishes erotica from pornography, writing: \"Erotica is as different from pornography as love is from rape, as dignity is from humiliation, as partnership is from slavery, as pleasure is from pain.\"", "Steinem's argument hinges on the distinction between reciprocity versus domination, as she writes: \"Blatant or subtle, pornography involves no equal power or mutuality.", "In fact, much of the tension and drama comes from the clear idea that one person is dominating the other.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Eroticism* History of erotic depictions* Homoeroticism* Lists of erotic films* Child erotica* Monster erotica* Lesbian erotica* Women's erotica* Tentacle erotica* Dinosaur erotica* Victorian erotica" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \" What Distinguishes Erotica from Pornography?\"", "– Leon F Seltzer, ''Psychology Today'', 6 April 2011." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Existence" ], [ "Introduction", "The existential quantifier ∃ is often used in logic to express existence.", "'''Existence''' is the state of being real or participating in reality.", "The terms \"'''being'''\", \"reality\", and \"actuality\" are often used as close synonyms.", "Existence contrasts with '''nonexistence''', nothingness, and nonbeing.", "A common distinction is between the existence of an entity and its essence, which refers to the entity's nature or essential qualities.The main philosophical discipline studying existence is called ontology.", "The orthodox view is that it is a second-order property or a property of properties.", "According to this view, to say that a thing exists means that its properties are instantiated.", "A different view holds that existence is a first-order property or a property of individuals.", "This means that existence has the same ontological status as other properties of individuals, like color and shape.", "Meinongians accept this idea and hold that not all individuals have this property: they state that there are some individuals that do not exist.", "This view is rejected by universalists, who see existence as a universal property of every individual.Various types of existence are discussed in the academic literature.", "Singular existence is the existence of individual entities while general existence refers to the existence of concepts or universals.", "Other distinctions are between abstract and concrete existence, between possible, contingent, and necessary existence, and between physical and mental existence.", "A closely related issue is whether different types of entities exist in different ways or to different degrees.A key question in ontology is whether there is a reason for existence in general or why anything at all exists.", "The concept of existence is relevant to various fields, including logic, epistemology, philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and existentialism." ], [ "Definition and related terms", "Existence is the state of being real and to exist means to have being or to participate in reality.", "Existence is what sets real entities apart from imaginary ones and can refer both to individual entities or to the totality of reality.", "The word \"existence\" entered the English language in the late 14th century from old French and has its roots in the medieval Latin term , which means to stand forth, to appear, and to arise.", "Existence is studied by the subdiscipline of metaphysics known as ontology.The terms \"being\", \"reality\", and \"actuality\" are closely related to existence.", "They are usually used as synonyms of \"existence\" but their meanings as technical terms may come apart.", "According to metaphysicist Alexius Meinong, for example, all entities have being but not all have existence.", "He argues that merely possible objects, like Santa Claus, have being but lack existence.", "Ontologist Takashi Yagisawa contrasts existence with reality.", "He sees \"reality\" as the more fundamental term since it characterizes all entities equally and defines existence as a relative term that connects an entity to the world that it inhabits.", "According to Gottlob Frege, actuality is more narrow than existence since only actual entities can produce and undergo changes, in contrast to non-actual existing entities, like numbers and sets.Existence contrasts with nonexistence, which refers to a lack of reality.", "It is controversial whether objects can be divided into existent and nonexistent objects.", "This distinction is sometimes used to explain how it is possible to think of fictional objects, like dragons and unicorns.", "But the concept of nonexistent objects is not generally accepted.", "Closely related contrasting terms are nothingness and nonbeing.Another contrast is between existence and essence.", "Essence refers to the intrinsic nature or defining qualities of an entity.", "The essence of something determines what kind of entity it is and how it differs from other kinds of entities.", "Essence corresponds to what an entity is while existence corresponds to the fact that it is.", "For instance, it is possible to understand what an object is and grasp its nature even if one does not know whether this object exists.Some philosophers, like Edmund Husserl and Quentin Boyce Gibson, hold that ''existence'' is an elementary concept, meaning that it cannot be defined in other terms without involving circularity.", "This would imply that it may be difficult or impossible to characterize existence or to talk about its nature in a non-trivial manner.A closely related issue concerns the distinction between thin and thick concepts of existence.", "Thin concepts understand existence as a logical property that every existing thing shares.", "It does not include any substantial content about the metaphysical implications of having existence.", "An example of a thin concept of existence is to state that existence is the same as the logical property of self-identity.", "Thick concepts of existence encompass a metaphysical analysis of what it means that something exists and what essential features existence implies.", "For example, George Berkeley's claim that ''esse est percipi'' presents a thick concept of existence.", "It can be translated as \"to be is to be perceived\" and highlights the mental nature of all existence.Some philosophers emphasize that there is a difference between entities and what fundamentally makes them the entities they are.", "This distinction was introduced by Martin Heidegger, who calls it the ontological difference and contrasts individual beings with being, the latter of which he presents as the horizon against which beings become the specific beings that they are." ], [ "Theories of the nature of existence", "One of the topics covered by theories of the nature of existence concerns the ontological status of fictional objects like Pegasus.Theories of the nature of existence aim to explain what it means for something to exist.", "The central dispute regarding the nature of existence is whether it should be understood as a property of individuals.The two main theories of existence are first-order theories and second-order theories.", "First-order theories understand existence as a property of individuals.", "Some first-order theories see it as a property of all individuals while others hold that there are some individuals that do not exist.", "Second-order theories hold that existence is a second-order property, that is, a property of properties.A central challenge for the different theories of the nature of existence is to understand how it is possible to coherently deny the existence of something, like the claim that \"Santa Claus does not exist\".", "One difficulty consists in explaining how the name \"Santa Claus\" can be meaningful even though there is no Santa Claus.=== Second-order theories ===Second-order theories are often seen as the orthodox position.", "They understand existence as a second-order property rather than a first-order property.", "For instance, the Empire State Building is an individual object and ''being 443.2 meters tall'' is a first-order property of it.", "''Being instantiated'' is a property of ''being 443.2 meters tall'' and therefore a second-order property.", "According to second-order theories, to talk about existence is to talk about which properties have instances.", "For example, this view states that the sentence \"God exists\" means that \"Godhood is instantiated\" rather than \"God has the property of existing\".A key motivation of second-order theories is that existence is in important ways different from regular properties like ''being a building'' and ''being 443.2 meters tall'': regular properties express what an object is like but existence does not.", "According to this view, existence is more fundamental than regular properties since, without it, objects cannot instantiate any properties.Second-order theorists usually hold that quantifiers rather than predicates express existence.", "Quantifiers are terms that talk about the quantity of objects that have certain properties.", "Existential quantifiers express that there is at least one object, like the expressions like \"some\" and \"there exists\", as in \"some cows eat grass\" and \"there exists an even prime number\".", "In this regard, existence is closely related to counting since to claim that something exists is to claim that the corresponding concept has one or more instances.Second-order views imply that a sentence like \"egg-laying mammals exist\" is misleading since the word \"exist\" is used as a predicate in them.", "They hold instead that their true logical form is better expressed in reformulations like \"there exist entities that are egg-laying mammals\".", "This way, ''existence'' has the role of a quantifier while ''egg-laying mammals'' is the predicate.", "Quantifier constructions can also be used to express negative existential statements.", "For instance, the sentence \"talking tigers do not exist\" can be expressed as \"it is not the case that there exist talking tigers\".Bertrand Russell proposed his theory of descriptions to dissolve paradoxes surrounding negative existential statements.Many ontologists accept that second-order theories provide a correct analysis of many types of existential sentences.", "However, it is controversial whether it is correct for all cases.", "One difficulty is caused by so-called negative singular existentials, which are statements that deny that a particular object exists, like the sentence \"Ronald McDonald does not exist\".", "Singular terms, like Ronald McDonald, seem to refer to individuals, which poses a difficulty since negative singular existentials deny that this individual exists.", "This makes it unclear how the singular term can refer to the individual in the first place.", "One influential solution to this problem was proposed by Bertrand Russell.", "He holds that singular terms do not directly refer to individuals but are instead descriptions of individuals.", "Positive singular existentials affirm that an object matching the descriptions exists while negative singular existentials deny that an object matching the descriptions exists.", "According to this view, the sentence \"Ronald McDonald does not exist\" expresses the idea that \"it is not the case that there is a unique happy hamburger clown\".=== First-order theories ===First-order theories claim that existence is a property of individuals.", "They are less widely accepted than second-order theories but also have some influential proponents.", "There are two types of first-order theories.", "According to Meinongianism, existence is a property of some but not all entities, which implies that there are nonexistent entities.", "According to universalism, existence is a universal property instantiated by every entity.==== Meinongianism ====Meinongianism is a view about existence defended by Meinong and his followers.", "Its main claim is that there are some entities that do not exist, meaning that objecthood is independent of existence.", "Proposed examples of nonexistent objects are merely possible objects, like flying pigs, as well as fictional and mythical objects, like Sherlock Holmes and Zeus.", "According to this view, these objects are real and have being even though they do not exist.", "Meinong states that there is an object for any combination of properties.", "For example, there is an object that only has the single property of ''being a singer'' without any additional properties.", "This means that neither the attribute of ''wearing a dress'' nor the absence of it applies to this object.", "Meinong also includes impossible objects, like round squares.According to Alexius Meinong, there are some entities that do not exist.Meinongians state that sentences describing what Sherlock Holmes and Zeus are like refer to nonexisting objects.", "They are true or false depending on whether these objects have the properties ascribed to them.", "For instance, the sentence \"Pegasus has wings\" is true because ''having wings'' is a property of Pegasus, even though Pegasus lacks the property of existing.One key motivation of Meinongianism is to explain how negative singular existentials, like \"Ronald McDonald does not exist\", can be true.", "Meinongians accept the idea that singular terms, like \"Ronald McDonald\" refer to individuals.", "For them, a negative singular existential is true if the individual it refers to does not exist.Meinongianism has important implications for how to understand quantification.", "According to an influential view defended by Willard Van Orman Quine, the domain of quantification is restricted to existing objects.", "This view implies that quantifiers carry ontological commitments about what exists and what does not exist.", "Meinongianism differs from this view by holding that the widest domain of quantification includes both existing and nonexisting objects.Some aspects of Meinongianism are controversial and have received substantial criticism.", "According to one objection, one cannot distinguish between being an object and being an existing object.", "A closely related criticism rests on the idea that objects cannot have properties if they do not exist.", "A further objection is that Meinongianism leads to an \"overpopulated universe\" since there is an object corresponding to any combination of properties.", "A more specific criticism rejects the idea that there are incomplete and impossible objects.==== Universalism ====Universalists agree with Meinongians that existence is a property of individuals.", "But they deny that there are nonexistent entities.", "They state instead that existence is a universal property: all entities have it, meaning that everything exists.", "One approach is to hold that existence is the same as self-identity.", "According to the law of identity, every object is identical to itself or has the property of self-identity.", "This can be expressed in predicate logic as .An influential argument in favor of universalism rests on the claim that to deny the existence of something is contradictory.", "This conclusion follows from the premises that one can only deny the existence of something by referring to that entity and that one can only refer to entities that exist.Universalists have proposed different ways of interpreting negative singular existentials.", "According to one view, names of fictional entities like \"Ronald McDonald\" refer to abstract objects.", "Abstract objects exist even though they do not exist in space and time.", "This means that, when understood in a strict sense, all negative singular existentials are false, including the claim that \"Ronald McDonald does not exist\".", "However, universalists can interpret such sentences slightly differently in relation to the context.", "In everyday life, for example, people use sentences like \"Ronald McDonald does not exist\" to express the idea that Ronald McDonald does not exist as a concrete object, which is true.", "A different approach is to claim that negative singular existentials lack a truth value since their singular terms do not refer to anything.", "According to this view, they are neither true nor false but meaningless." ], [ "Types of existing entities", "Different types of existing entities are discussed in the academic literature.", "Many discussions revolve around the questions of what those types are, whether entities of a specific type exist, how entities of different types are related to each other, and whether some types are more fundamental than others.", "Examples are questions like whether souls exist, whether there are abstract, fictional, and universal entities, and whether besides the actual world and its objects, there are also possible worlds and objects.=== Singular and general ===One distinction is between singular and general existence.", "Singular existence is the existence of individual entities.", "For example, the sentence \"Angela Merkel exists\" expresses the existence of one particular person.", "General existence pertains to general concepts, properties, or universals.", "For instance, the sentence \"politicians exist\" states that the general term \"politician\" has instances without referring to any one politician in particular.Singular and general existence are closely related to each other and some philosophers have tried to explain one as a special case of the other.", "For example, Frege held that general existence is more basic.", "One argument in favor of this position is that general existence can be expressed in terms of singular existence.", "For instance, the sentence \"Angela Merkel exists\" can be expressed as \"entities exist that are identical to Angela Merkel\", where the expression \"being identical to Angela Merkel\" is understood as a general term.", "A different position is defended by Quine, who gives primacy to singular existence.", "A related question is whether there can be general existence without singular existence.", "According to philosophers like Henry S. Leonard, a property only has general existence if there is at least one actual object that instantiates it.", "A different view, defended by Nicholas Rescher, holds that properties can even exist if they have no actual instances, like the property of ''being a unicorn''.This question has a long philosophical tradition in relation to the existence of universals.", "Platonists claim that universals have general existence as Platonic forms independently of the particulars that instantiate them.", "According to this view, the universal of redness exists independent of whether there are any red objects.", "Aristotelianism also accepts that universals exist but holds that their existence depends on particulars that instantiate them and that they are unable to exist by themselves.", "According to this view, a universal that has no instances in the spacio-temporal world does not exist.", "Nominalists claim that only particulars have existence and deny that universals exist.=== Concrete and abstract ===Another influential distinction in ontology is between concrete and abstract objects.", "Many concrete objects are encountered in regular everyday life, like rocks, plants, and other people.", "They exist in space and time and influence each other: they have causal powers and are affected by other concrete objects.", "Abstract objects exist outside space and time and lack causal powers, like numbers, sets, and types.", "The distinction between concrete and abstract objects is sometimes treated as the most general division of being.There is wide agreement that concrete objects exist but opinions are divided in regard to abstract objects.", "Realists accept the idea that abstract objects have independent existence.", "Some of them claim that abstract objects have the same mode of existence as concrete objects while others maintain that they exist but in a different way.", "Antirealists state that abstract objects do not exist, a view often combined with the idea that existence requires a location in space and time or the ability to causally interact.Fictional objects, like dragons and centaurs, are closely related to abstract objects and pose similar problems.", "However, the two terms are not identical.", "For example, the expression \"the integer between two and three\" refers to a fictional abstract object while the expression \"integer between two and four\" refers to a non-fictional abstract object.", "In a similar sense, there are also concrete fictional objects besides abstract fictional objects, like the winged horse of Bellerophon.=== Possible, contingent, and necessary ===A further distinction is between merely possible, contingent, and necessary existence.", "An entity has necessary existence if it must exist or could not fail to exist.", "Entities that exist but could fail to exist are contingent, while merely possible entities are entities that do not exist but could exist.Most entities encountered in ordinary experience, like telephones, sticks, and flowers, have contingent existence.", "It is an open question whether any entities have necessary existence.", "According to one view, all concrete objects have contingent existence while all abstract objects have necessary existence.", "According to some theorists, one or several necessary beings are required as the explanatory foundation of the cosmos.", "For instance, philosophers like Avicenna and Thomas Aquinas follow this idea and claim that God has necessary existence.", "A few philosophers, like Baruch Spinoza, see God and the world as the same thing and hold that everything has necessary existence.There are many academic debates about whether there are merely possible objects.", "According to actualism, only actual entities have being.", "This includes both contingent and necessary entities but excludes merely possible entities.", "This view is rejected by possibilists, who state that there are also merely possible objects besides actual objects.", "For example, David Lewis argues that possible objects exist in the same way as actual objects.", "According to him, possible objects exist in possible worlds while actual objects exist in the actual world.", "Lewis holds that the only difference between possible worlds and the actual world is the location of the speaker: the term \"actual\" refers to the world of the speaker, similar to how the terms \"here\" and \"now\" refer to the spatial and temporal location of the speaker.=== Physical and mental ===A further distinction is between entities that exist on a physical level in contrast to mental entities.", "Physical entities include objects of regular perception, like stones, trees, and human bodies as well as entities discussed in modern physics, like electrons and protons.", "Physical entities can be observed and measured; they possess mass and a location in space and time.", "Mental entities belong to the realm of the mind, like perceptions, experiences of pleasure and pain as well as beliefs, desires, and emotions.", "They are primarily associated with conscious experiences but also include unconscious states, like unconscious beliefs, desires, and memories.The ontological status of physical and mental entities is a frequent topic in metaphysics and philosophy of mind.", "According to materialists, only physical entities exist on the most fundamental level.", "Materialists usually explain mental entities in terms of physical processes, for example, as brain states or as patterns of neural activation.", "Idealists reject this view and state that mind is the ultimate foundation of existence.", "They hold that physical entities have a derivative form of existence, for instance, that they are mental representations or products of consciousness.", "Dualists, like Rene Descartes, believe that both physical and mental entities exist on the most fundamental level.", "They state that they are connected to one another in various ways but that one cannot be reduced to the other." ], [ "Modes and degrees of existence", "Closely related to the problem of different types of entities is the question of whether they differ also concerning their mode of existence.", "This is the case according to ontological pluralism, which states that entities belonging to different types do not just differ in their essential features but also in the way they exist.This position is sometimes found in theology.", "It states that God is radically different from his creation and emphasizes his uniqueness by holding that the difference affects not just God's features but also God's mode of existence.Another form of ontological pluralism distinguishes the existence of material objects from the existence of spacetime.", "This view holds that material objects have relative existence since they exist in spacetime.", "It further states that the existence of spacetime itself is not relative in this sense since it just exists without existing within another spacetime.The topic of degrees of existence is closely related to the issue of modes of existence.", "This topic is based on the idea that some entities exist to a higher degree or have more being than other entities, similar to how some properties have degrees, like heat and mass.", "According to Plato, for example, unchangeable Platonic forms have a higher degree of existence than physical objects.While the view that there are different types of entities is common in metaphysics, the idea they differ from each other concerning their modes or degrees of existence is not generally accepted.", "For instance, philosopher Quentin Gibson maintains that a thing either exists or does not exist.", "This means that there is no alternative in between and that there are no degrees of existence.", "Peter van Inwagen uses the idea that there is an intimate relation between existence and quantification to argue against different modes of existence.", "Quantification is related to how people count objects.", "Inwagen argues that if there were different modes of entities then people would need different types of numbers to count them.", "Since the same numbers can be used to count different types of entities, he concludes that all entities have the same mode of existence." ], [ "Why anything exists at all", "A central question in ontology is why anything exists at all or why there is something rather than nothing.", "Similar questions are \"why is there a world?\"", "and \"why are there individual things?\".", "These questions focus on the idea that many things that exist are contingent, meaning they could have failed to exist.", "It asks whether this applies to existence as a whole as well or whether there is a reason why something exists instead of nothing.This question is different from scientific questions that seek to explain the existence of one thing, like life, in relation to the existence of another thing, like the primordial soup which may have been its origin.", "It is also different from most religious creation myths that explain the existence of the material world in relation to a god or gods that created it.", "The difference lies in the fact that these theories explain the existence of one thing in terms of the existence of another thing instead of trying to explain existence in general.", "The additional difficulty of the ontological question lies in the fact that one cannot refer to any other existing entity without engaging in circular reasoning.One answer to the question of why there is anything at all is called the statistical argument.", "It is based on the idea that besides the actual world, there are many possible worlds, which differ from the actual world in certain respects.", "For example, the Eiffel Tower exists in the actual world but there are possible worlds without the Eiffel Tower.", "There are countless variations of possible worlds but there is only one possible world that is empty, i.e., that does not contain any entities.", "This means that, if it was up to chance which possible world becomes actual, the chance that there is nothing is exceedingly small.", "A closely related argument in physics explains the existence of the world as the result of random quantum fluctuations.Another response is to deny that a reason or an explanation for existence in general can be found.", "According to this view, existence as a whole is absurd since it is there without a reason for being there.Not all theorists accept this question as a valid or philosophically interesting question.", "Some philosophers, like Graham Priest and Kris McDaniel, have suggested that the term ''nothing'' refers to a global absence, which can itself be understood as a form of existence.", "According to this view, the answer to the question is trivial, since there is always something, even if this something is just a global absence.", "A closely related response is to claim that an empty world is metaphysically impossible.", "According to this view, there is something rather than nothing because it is necessary for some things to exist." ], [ "History", "=== Western philosophy ===Western philosophy originated with the Presocratic philosophers, who explored the foundational principles of all existence.", "Some, like Thales and Heraclitus, suggested that concrete principles, like water or fire, are the root of existence.", "This position was opposed by Anaximander, who held that the source must lie in an abstract principle beyond the world of human perception.Plato argued that different types of entities have different degrees of existence.", "He held that shadows and images exist in a weaker sense than regular material objects.", "He claimed that the unchangeable Platonic forms have the highest type of existence.", "He saw material objects as imperfect and impermanent copies of Platonic forms.Aristotle held that different types of entities have different modes of existence.While Aristotle accepted Plato's idea that forms are different from matter, he challenged the idea that forms have a higher type of existence.", "Instead, he held that forms cannot exist without matter and claimed that different entities have different modes of existence.", "For example, he distinguished between substances and their accidents and between potentiality and actuality.Neoplatonists, like Plotinus, suggested that reality has a hierarchical structure.", "They held that a transcendent entity called \"the One\" or \"the Good\" is responsible for all existence.", "From it emerges ''the intellect'', which in turn gives rise to ''the soul'' and the material world.Anselm of Canterbury is known for his formulation of the ontological argument aiming to prove the existence of God.In medieval philosophy, Anselm of Canterbury formulated the influential ontological argument.", "This argument aims to deduce the existence of God from the concept of God.", "Anselm defined God as the greatest conceivable being.", "He reasoned that an entity that did not exist outside his mind would not be the greatest conceivable being, leading him to the conclusion that God exists.Thomas Aquinas distinguished between the essence of a thing and its existence.", "According to him, the essence of a thing constitutes its fundamental nature.", "He argued that it is possible to understand what an object is and grasp its essence even if one does not know whether this object exists.", "He concluded from this observation that existence is not part of the qualities of an object and should instead be understood as a separate property.", "Aquinas also considered the problem of creation from nothing and claimed that only God has the power to truly bring new entities into existence.", "These ideas later inspired Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's theory of creation.", "He held that to create is to confer actual existence to possible objects.Both David Hume and Immanuel Kant rejected the idea that existence is a property.", "According to Hume, objects are bundles of qualities.", "He held that existence is not a property since there is no impression of existence besides the bundled qualities.", "Kant came to a similar conclusion in his criticism of the ontological argument.", "According to him, this proof fails because one cannot deduce from the definition of a concept whether entities described by this concept exist.", "He held that existence does not add anything to the concept of the object, it only indicates that this concept is instantiated.Franz Brentano defended the idea that all judgments are existential judgments.Franz Brentano agreed with Kant's criticism and his claim that existence is not a real predicate.", "He used this idea to develop his theory of judgments, which states that all judgments are existential judgments: they either affirm or deny the existence of something.", "He stated that judgments like \"some zebras are striped\" have the logical form \"there is a striped zebra\" while judgments like \"all zebras are striped\" have the logical form \"there is not a non-striped zebra\".Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell aimed to refine the idea of what it means that existence is not a regular property.", "They distinguished between regular first-order properties of individuals and second-order properties of other properties.", "According to this view, to talk about existence is to talk about the second-order property of ''being instantiated''.", "For instance, to deny that dinosaurs exist means that the property of being a dinosaur does not have the property of being instantiated.", "According to Russell, the fundamental form of predication happens by applying a predicate to the proper name of an individual, as in the sentence \"Laika is a dog\".", "Russell held that talk of existence in the form of sentences like \"dogs exist\" is less fundamental since it means that there is an individual to which this predicate applies without naming this individual.Willard Van Orman Quine followed Frege and Russell in accepting that existence is a second-order property.", "He drew a close link between existence and the role of quantification in formal logic.", "He applied this idea to scientific theories and stated that a scientific theory is committed to the existence of an entity if the theory quantifies over this entity.", "For example, if a theory in biology claims that \"there are populations with genetic diversity\" then this theory has an ontological commitment to the existence of populations with genetic diversity.Despite the influence of second-order theories, this view was not universally accepted.", "Alexius Meinong rejected it and claimed that existence is a property of individuals and that not all individuals have this property.", "This led him to the thesis that there is a difference between being and existence: all individuals have being but only some of them also exist.", "This implies that there are some things that do not exist, like merely possible objects and impossible objects.=== Eastern philosophy ===Adi Shankara taught that only the divine exists on the most fundamental level and that the impression of a multiplicity of different entities is an illusion.Many schools of thought in Eastern philosophy discuss the problem of existence and its implications.", "For instance, the ancient Hindu school of Samkhya developed a metaphysical dualism which holds that there are two types of existence: pure consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti).", "Samkhya explains the manifestation of the universe as the interaction between these two principles.", "A different approach was developed by Adi Shankara in his school of Advaita Vedanta.", "He defended a metaphysical monism by claiming that the divine (Brahman) is the ultimate reality and the only existent.", "According to this view, the impression that there is a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion (Maya).", "The essential features of ultimate reality are described as Sat Chit Ananda, meaning existence, consciousness, and bliss.A central doctrine in Buddhist philosophy is called the ''three marks of existence''.", "The three marks are aniccā (impermanence), anattā (absence of a permanent self), and dukkha (suffering).", "Aniccā is the doctrine that all of existence is subject to change, meaning that everything transforms at some point and nothing lasts forever.", "Anattā expresses a similar state in relation to persons by claiming that people do not have a permanent identity or a separate self.", "Ignorance about aniccā and anattā is seen as the main cause of dukkha by leading people to form attachments that cause suffering.Laozi saw the dao as a fundamental principle that constitutes the root of all existence.A central idea in many schools of Chinese philosophy, like Laozi's Daoism, is that a fundamental principle known as dao is the source of all existence.", "The term is often translated as \"the Way\" and is understood as a cosmic force that governs the natural order of the world.", "One position in Chinese metaphysics holds that dao is itself a form of being while another contends that it is non-being that gives rise to being.The concept of existence played a central role in Arabic-Persian philosophy.", "Avicenna and Al-Ghazali discussed the relation between existence and essence and held that the essence of an entity is prior to its existence.", "The additional step of instantiating the essence is required for the entity to come into existence.", "Mulla Sadra rejected this priority of essence over existence.", "He argued that essence is only a concept used by the mind to grasp existence.", "Existence, by contrast, encompasses the whole of reality, according to his view." ], [ "In various disciplines", "=== Formal logic ===Formal logic studies which arguments are deductively valid.", "First-order logic is the most commonly used system of formal logic.", "In it, existence is expressed using the existential quantifier ().", "For example, the formula can be used to state that horses exist.", "The variable ''x'' ranges over all elements in the domain of quantification and the existential quantifier expresses that at least one element in this domain is a horse.", "In first-order logic, all singular terms, like names, refer to objects in the domain and imply that the object exists.", "Because of this, one can deduce that (someone is honest) from (Bill is honest).Many logical systems that are based on first-order logic also follow this idea.", "Free logic is an exception since it allows there to be empty names that do not refer to any object in the domain.", "One motivation for this modification is that reasoning is not limited to regular objects but can also be applied to fictional objects.", "In free logic, for instance, one can express that Pegasus is a flying horse using the formula .", "One consequence of this modification is that one cannot infer from this type of statement that something exists.", "This means that the inference from to is invalid in free logic even though it would be valid in first-order logic.", "Free logic uses an additional existence predicate () to express that a singular term refers to an existing object.", "For example, the formula can be used to express that Homer exists while the formula states that Pegasus does not exist.=== Epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language ===The disciplines of epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language aim to understand the nature of knowledge, mind, and language.", "A key issue in these fields is the problem of reference, which concerns the question of how mental or linguistic representations can refer to existing objects.", "Examples of such representations are beliefs, thoughts, perceptions, words, and sentences.", "For instance, in the sentence \"Barack Obama is a Democrat\", the name \"Barack Obama\" refers to a particular individual.", "In relation to perception, the problem of reference concerns the question of whether or to what extent perceptual impressions bring the perceiver in contact with reality by presenting existing objects rather than illusions.Closely related to the problem of reference is the relation between true representations and existence.", "According to truthmaker theory, true representations require a truthmaker, i.e., an entity whose existence is responsible for the fact that the representation is true.", "For example, the sentence \"kangaroos live in Australia\" is true because there are kangaroos in Australia: the existence of these kangaroos is the truthmaker of the sentence.", "Truthmaker theory states that there is a close relation between truth and existence: there exists a truthmaker for every true representation.=== Existentialism ===Existentialism is a school of thought that explores the nature of human existence.", "One of its key ideas is that existence precedes essence, a claim which expresses the notion that existence is more basic than essence and that the nature and purpose of human beings are not pregiven but develop in the process of living.", "According to this view, humans are thrown into a world that lacks preexistent intrinsic meaning.", "They have to determine for themselves what their purpose is and what meaning their life should have.", "Existentialists use this idea to focus on the role of freedom and responsibility in actively shaping one's life." ], [ "See also", "* ''Cogito, ergo sum''* Existence theorem* Solipsism" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * " ], [ "External links", "* The Concept of Existence: History and Definitions from Leading Philosophers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''economy''' is an area of the production, distribution, or trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents in a given geographical location in various countries'''Economy''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Finance and economics", "* Economy, or frugality, the quality of being efficient or frugal in using resources;* Economies of scale, a firm’s average cost savings from greater output* Virtual economy, an economy simulated in a virtual world* World economy, the economy of the world" ], [ "Places", "* Economy, Arkansas, United States* Economy, Indiana, United States* Economy, Missouri, United States* Economy, Nova Scotia, Maritime Canada* Economy, Pennsylvania, United States* Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania, United States" ], [ "People", "* Elizabeth Economy (born 1962), American scholar and China-watcher" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "* ''Economy'' (album), a 2011 album by John Mark McMillan* Economy (Thoreau), a chapter from Henry David Thoreau's book ''Walden''* \"Jazz ist anders\" (Economy), the economy-version of Die Ärzte's album \"Jazz ist anders\"qt" ], [ "Religion", "* Economy (religion), a bishop's discretionary power to relax rules* Economy of Salvation, that part of divine revelation that deals with God’s creation and management of the world, particularly His plan for salvation accomplished through the Church" ], [ "Other uses", "* Economy (basketball), a basketball mathematical statistical formula* Economy class (also called cattle class, scum class, standard class, or steerage class, as well as third class or fourth class on railways, or tourist class on ocean liners), the lowest travel class of seating in air, ferry, maritime, and rail travel* Premium economy, a class of seating in airline travel" ], [ "See also", "* Oikonomos* Economic (cyclecar), a British three-wheeled cyclecar* Economics (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demand-pull inflation" ], [ "Introduction", "Aggregate Demand increasing faster than production'''Demand-pull inflation''' occurs when aggregate demand in an economy is more than aggregate supply.", "It involves inflation rising as real gross domestic product rises and unemployment falls, as the economy moves along the Phillips curve.", "This is commonly described as \"too much money chasing too few goods\".", "More accurately, it should be described as involving \"too much money spent chasing too few goods\", since only money that is spent on goods and services can cause inflation.", "This would not be expected to happen, unless the economy is already at a full employment level.", "It is the opposite of cost-push inflation." ], [ "How it occurs", "In Keynesian theory, increased employment results in increased aggregate demand (AD), which leads to further hiring by firms to increase output.", "Due to capacity constraints, this increase in output will eventually become so small that the price of the good will rise.At first, unemployment will go down, shifting AD1 to AD2, which increases demand (noted as \"Y\") by (Y2 − Y1).", "This increase in demand means more workers are needed, and then AD will be shifted from AD2 to AD3, but this time much less is produced than in the previous shift, but the price level has risen from P2 to P3, a much higher increase in price than in the previous shift.", "This increase in price is what causes inflation in an overheating economy.Demand-pull inflation is in contrast with cost-push inflation, when price and wage increases are being transmitted from one sector to another.", "However, these can be considered as different aspects of an overall inflationary process—demand-pull inflation explains how price inflation starts, and cost-push inflation demonstrates why inflation once begun is so difficult to stop." ], [ "Causes of demand-pull inflation", "* There is a quick increase in consumption and investment along with extremely confident firms.", "* There is a sudden increase in exports due to huge under-valuation of the currency.", "* There is a lot of government spending.", "* The expectation that inflation will rise often leads to a rise in inflation.", "Workers and firms will increase their prices to 'catch up' to inflation.", "* There is excessive monetary growth, when there is too much money in the system chasing too few goods.", "The 'price' of a good will thus increase.", "* There is a rise in population." ], [ "See also", "* Built-in inflation* Cost-push inflation* Demand shock* Triangle model* Demand-pull theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Theory 1 - Demand-pull inflation - is inflation demanding?", ", Bank of Biz/ed" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cost-push inflation" ], [ "Introduction", "Aggregate supply – aggregate demand model illustration of aggregate supply (AS) shifting to AS' and causing price level to increase while output shrinks'''Cost-push inflation''' is a purported type of inflation caused by increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available.", "As businesses face higher prices for underlying inputs, they are forced to increase prices of their outputs.", "It is contrasted with the theory of demand-pull inflation.", "Both accounts of inflation have at various times been put forward, with inconclusive evidence as to which explanation is superior.", "Cost-push inflation can also result from a rise in expected inflation, which in turn the workers will demand higher wages, thus causing inflation.One example of cost-push inflation is the oil crisis of the 1970s, which some economists see as a major cause of the inflation experienced in the Western world in that decade.", "It is argued that this inflation resulted from increases in the cost of petroleum imposed by the member states of OPEC.", "Since petroleum is so important to industrialized economies, a large increase in its price can lead to the increase in the price of most products, raising the price level.", "Some economists argue that such a change in the price level can raise the inflation rate over longer periods, due to adaptive expectations and the price/wage spiral, so that a supply shock can have persistent effects.The existence of cost-push inflation is disputed.", "Dallas S. Batten described it as a myth, writing \"Though the cost-push argument is appealing on the surface, neither economic theory nor empirical evidence indicates that businesses and labor can cause continually rising prices\", and identifying the real cause as \"increased aggregate demand resulting from increased money growth\".Milton Friedman criticised the concept of cost-push inflation, writing \"To each businessman separately it looks as if he has to raise prices because costs have gone up.", "But then, we must ask, 'Why did his costs go up?", "...", "The answer is, because ... total demand all over was increasing.\"", "Friedman wrote, \"the inflation arises from one and only one reason: an increase in a quantity of money.\"" ], [ "See also", "StagflationDemand-pull inflation*Triangle model" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Extractor (mathematics)" ], [ "Introduction", "An -'''extractor''' is a bipartite graph with nodes on the left and nodes on the right such that each node on the left has neighbors (on the right), which has the added property thatfor any subset of the left vertices of size at least , the distribution on right vertices obtained by choosing a random node in and then following a random edge to get a node x on the right side is -close to the uniform distribution in terms of total variation distance.A disperser is a related graph.", "An equivalent way to view an extractor is as a bivariate function : in the natural way.", "With this view it turns out that the extractor property is equivalent to: for any source of randomness that gives bits with min-entropy , the distribution is -close to , where denotes the uniform distribution on .Extractors are interesting when they can be constructed with small relative to and is as close to (the total randomness in the input sources) as possible.Extractor functions were originally researched as a way to ''extract'' randomness from weakly random sources.", "''See'' randomness extractor.Using the probabilistic method it is easy to show that extractor graphs with really good parameters exist.", "The challenge is to find explicit or polynomial time computable examples of such graphs with good parameters.", "Algorithms that compute extractor (and disperser) graphs have found many applications in computer science." ], [ "References", "* Ronen Shaltiel, Recent developments in extractors - a survey" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enterprise resource planning" ], [ "Introduction", " alt=Refer to caption'''Enterprise resource planning''' ('''ERP''') is the integrated management of main business processes, often in real time and mediated by software and technology.", "ERP is usually referred to as a category of business management software—typically a suite of integrated applications—that an organization can use to collect, store, manage and interpret data from many business activities.", "ERP systems can be local-based or cloud-based.", "Cloud-based applications have grown in recent years due to the increased efficiencies arising from information being readily available from any location with Internet access.ERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using common databases maintained by a database management system.", "ERP systems track business resources—cash, raw materials, production capacity—and the status of business commitments: orders, purchase orders, and payroll.", "The applications that make up the system share data across various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, accounting, etc.)", "that provide the data.", "ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside stakeholders.According to Gartner, the global ERP market size is estimated at $35 billion in 2021.Though early ERP systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.The ERP system integrates varied organizational systems and facilitates error-free transactions and production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency.", "However, developing an ERP system differs from traditional system development.ERP systems run on a variety of computer hardware and network configurations, typically using a database as an information repository." ], [ "Origin", "The Gartner Group first used the acronym ERP in the 1990s to include the capabilities of material requirements planning (MRP), and the later manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), as well as computer-integrated manufacturing.", "Without replacing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole that reflected the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.Not all ERP packages are developed from a manufacturing core; ERP vendors variously began assembling their packages with finance-and-accounting, maintenance, and human-resource components.", "By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core enterprise functions.", "Governments and non–profit organizations also began to use ERP systems.", "An \"ERP system selection methodology\" is a formal process for selecting an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system.", "Existing methodologies include: Kuiper's funnel method, Dobrin's three-dimensional (3D) web-based decision support tool, and the Clarkston Potomac methodology." ], [ "Expansion", "ERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s.", "Because of the year 2000 problem many companies took the opportunity to replace their old systems with ERP.ERP systems initially focused on automating back office functions that did not directly affect customers and the public.", "Front office functions, such as customer relationship management (CRM), dealt directly with customers, or e-business systems such as e-commerce and e-government—or supplier relationship management (SRM) became integrated later, when the internet simplified communicating with external parties.", "\"ERP II\" was coined in 2000 in an article by Gartner Publications entitled ''ERP Is Dead—Long Live ERP II''.", "It describes web–based software that provides real–time access to ERP systems to employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers).", "The ERP II role expands traditional ERP resource optimization and transaction processing.", "Rather than just manage buying, selling, etc.—ERP II leverages information in the resources under its management to help the enterprise collaborate with other enterprises.ERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERP.", "Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems.", "Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems.", "ERP II systems are typically used to enable collaborative initiatives such as supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship management (CRM) and business intelligence (BI) among business partner organizations through the use of various electronic business technologies.", "The large proportion of companies are pursuing a strong managerial targets in ERP system instead of acquire a ERP company.Developers now make more effort to integrate mobile devices with the ERP system.", "ERP vendors are extending ERP to these devices, along with other business applications, so that businesses don't have to rely on third-party applications.", "As an example, the e-commerce platform Shopify was able to make ERP tools from Microsoft and Oracle available on its app in October 2021.Technical stakes of modern ERP concern integration—hardware, applications, networking, supply chains.", "ERP now covers more functions and roles—including decision making, stakeholders' relationships, standardization, transparency, globalization, etc." ], [ "Characteristics", "ERP systems typically include the following characteristics:* An integrated system* Operates in (or near) real time* A common database that supports all the applications* A consistent look and feel across modules* Installation of the system with elaborate application/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department, provided the implementation is not done in small steps* Deployment options include: on-premises, cloud hosted, or SaaS" ], [ "Functional areas", "An ERP system covers the following common functional areas.", "In many ERP systems, these are called and grouped together as ERP modules:* Financial accounting: general ledger, fixed assets, payables including vouchering, matching and payment, receivables and collections, cash management, financial consolidation* Management accounting: budgeting, costing, cost management, activity based costing, billing, invoicing (optional)* Human resources: recruiting, training, rostering, payroll, benefits, retirement and pension plans, diversity management, retirement, separation* Manufacturing: engineering, bill of materials, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow management, quality control, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, product life cycle management* Order processing: order to cash, order entry, credit checking, pricing, available to promise, inventory, shipping, sales analysis and reporting, sales commissioning* Supply chain management: supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, product configurator, order to cash, purchasing, inventory, claim processing, warehousing (receiving, putaway, picking and packing)* Project management: project planning, resource planning, project costing, work breakdown structure, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity management* Customer relationship management (CRM): sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center supportCRM systems are not always considered part of ERP systems but rather business support systems (BSS)* Supplier relationship management (SRM): suppliers, orders, payments.", "* Data services: various \"self–service\" interfaces for customers, suppliers and/or employeesManagement of school and educational institutes.", "Contract Management: creating, monitoring, and managing contracts, reducing administrative burdens and minimising legal risks.", "These modules often feature contract templates, electronic signature capabilities, automated alerts for contract milestones, and advanced search functionality.=== GRP - ERP use in government ===Government resource planning (GRP) is the equivalent of an ERP for the public sector and an integrated office automation system for government bodies.", "The software structure, modularization, core algorithms and main interfaces do not differ from other ERPs, and ERP software suppliers manage to adapt their systems to government agencies.Both system implementations, in private and public organizations, are adopted to improve productivity and overall business performance in organizations, but comparisons (private vs. public) of implementations shows that the main factors influencing ERP implementation success in the public sector are cultural." ], [ "Best practices", "Most ERP systems incorporate best practices.", "This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process.", "Systems vary in how conveniently the customer can modify these practices.Use of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as IFRS, Sarbanes-Oxley, or Basel II.", "They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as electronic funds transfer.", "This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses that share that business requirement." ], [ "Connectivity to plant floor information", "ERP systems connect to real–time data and transaction data in a variety of ways.", "These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions.", "'''Direct integration'''—ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering.", "This requires that the vendors offer specific support for the plant floor equipment their customers operate.", "'''Database integration'''—ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database.", "Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database.", "The ERP system reads the information in the table.", "The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration.", "Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.", "'''Enterprise appliance transaction modules (EATM)'''—These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system.", "EATM can employ a staging table, web services, or system–specific program interfaces (APIs).", "An EATM offers the benefit of being an off–the–shelf solution.", "'''Custom–integration solutions'''—Many system integrators offer custom solutions.", "These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs.", "Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation.", "Custom–integrated solutions typically run on workstation or server-class computers." ], [ "Implementation", "ERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices.", "Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes: consulting, customization, and support.", "Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project.", "Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages.", "The typical project for a large enterprise takes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.", "Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years.", "Customization can substantially increase implementation times.Besides that, information processing influences various business functions e.g.", "some large corporations like Walmart use a just in time inventory system.", "This reduces inventory storage and increases delivery efficiency, and requires up-to-date data.", "Before 2014, Walmart used a system called Inforem developed by IBM to manage replenishment.===Process preparation===Implementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes.", "Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure.", "The difficulties could be related to the system, business process, infrastructure, training, or lack of motivation.It is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze processes before they deploy an ERP software.", "Analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization.", "It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system.", "Research indicates that risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:* Linking current processes to the organization's strategy* Analyzing the effectiveness of each process* Understanding existing automated solutionsERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies, and decision centers.", "This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g., linking via master data management) or customizing the system to meet specific needs.A potential disadvantage is that adopting \"standard\" processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage.", "While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.===Configuration===Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the organization wants the system to work, and the way the system is designed to work out of the box.", "ERP systems typically include many configurable settings that in effect modify system operations.", "For example, in the ServiceNow platform, business rules can be written requiring the signature of a business owner within 2 weeks of a newly completed risk assessment.", "The tool can be configured to automatically email notifications to the business owner, and transition the risk assessment to various stages in the process depending on the owner's responses or lack thereof.===Two-tier enterprise resource planning===Two-tier ERP software and hardware lets companies run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level.", "For example, a manufacturing company could use an ERP system to manage across the organization using independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company's customers.", "Each independent center (or) subsidiary may have its own business operations cycles, workflows, and business processes.Given the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional, and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value.", "With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production, or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model—separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems.", "Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.Factors that affect enterprises' adoption of two-tier ERP systems include:* Manufacturing globalization, the economics of sourcing in emerging economies* Potential for quicker, less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries, based on selecting software more suited to smaller companies* Extra effort, (often involving the use of enterprise application integration) is required where data must pass between two ERP systems Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the organization.===Customization===ERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices, and their makers intend that organizations deploy them \"as is\".", "ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that let organizations incorporate their own business rules, but gaps in features often remain even after configuration is complete.ERP customers have several options to reconcile feature gaps, each with their own pros/cons.", "Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered software, writing a homegrown module to work within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system.", "These three options constitute varying degrees of system customization—with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain.", "Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP feature set.", "Key differences between customization and configuration include:* Customization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e.g., setting up cost/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.).", "* The software is designed to handle various configurations and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration.", "* The effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor.", "The effect of customization is less predictable.", "It is the customer's responsibility, and increases testing requirements.", "* Configuration changes survive upgrades to new software versions.", "Some customizations (e.g., code that uses pre–defined \"hooks\" that are called before/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting.", "Other customizations (e.g., those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented.Advantages of customization include:Improving user acceptancePotential to obtain competitive advantage vis-à-vis companies using only standard features.Customization's disadvantages include that it may:* Increase time and resources required to implement and maintain* Hinder seamless interfacing/integration between suppliers and customers due to the differences between systems* Limit the company's ability to upgrade the ERP software in the future* Create overreliance on customization, undermining the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform===Extensions===ERP systems can be extended with third–party software, often via vendor-supplied interfaces.", "Extensions offer features such as:* product data management* product life cycle management* customer relations management* data mining* e-procurement===Data migration===Data migration is the process of moving, copying, and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system.", "Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning.", "Unfortunately, since migration is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention.", "The following steps can structure migration planning:* Identify the data to be migrated.", "* Determine the migration timing.", "* Generate data migration templates for key data components* Freeze the toolset.", "* Decide on the migration-related setup of key business accounts.", "* Define data archiving policies and procedures.Often, data migration is incomplete because some of the data in the existing system is either incompatible or not needed in the new system.", "As such, the existing system may need to be kept as an archived database to refer back to once the new ERP system is in place.===Advantages===The most fundamental advantage of ERP is that the integration of a myriad of business processes saves time and expense.", "Management can make decisions faster and with fewer errors.", "Data becomes visible across the organization.", "Tasks that benefit from this integration include:* Sales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization.", "* Chronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.", "* Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment* Revenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt* Matching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced)ERP systems centralize business data, which:* Eliminates the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems—consolidation of finance, marketing, sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications* Brings legitimacy and transparency to each bit of statistical data* Facilitates standard product naming/coding* Provides a comprehensive enterprise view (no \"islands of information\"), making real–time information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions* Protects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure===Benefits===* ERP creates a more agile company that adapts better to change.", "It also makes a company more flexible and less rigidly structured so organization components operate more cohesively, enhancing the business—internally and externally.", "* ERP can improve data security in a closed environment.", "A common control system, such as the kind offered by ERP systems, allows organizations the ability to more easily ensure key company data is not compromised.", "This changes, however, with a more open environment, requiring further scrutiny of ERP security features and internal company policies regarding security.", "* ERP provides increased opportunities for collaboration.", "Data takes many forms in the modern enterprise, including documents, files, forms, audio and video, and emails.", "Often, each data medium has its own mechanism for allowing collaboration.", "ERP provides a collaborative platform that lets employees spend more time collaborating on content rather than mastering the learning curve of communicating in various formats across distributed systems.", "ERP offers many benefits such as standardization of common processes, one integrated system, standardized reporting, improved key performance indicators (KPI), and access to common data.", "One of the key benefits of ERP; the concept of integrated system, is often misinterpreted by the business.", "ERP is a centralized system that provides tight integration with all major enterprise functions be it HR, planning, procurement, sales, customer relations, finance or analytics, as well to other connected application functions.", "In that sense ERP could be described as a ''centralized integrated enterprise system (CIES)''===Disadvantages=== Customization can be problematic.", "Compared to the best-of-breed approach, ERP can be seen as meeting an organization's lowest common denominator needs, forcing the organization to find workarounds to meet unique demands.", "* Re-engineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.", "* ERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.", "* High ERP switching costs can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power, which can increase support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses.", "* Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.", "* Integration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.", "* Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.", "* Harmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning, and money.", "Critical challenges include disbanding the project team very quickly after implementation, interface issues, lack of proper testing, time zone limitations, stress, offshoring, people's resistance to change, a short hyper-care period, and data cleansing.=== Critical success factors ===Critical success factors are limited number of areas in which results, if satisfactory, will ensure the organization's successful competitive performance.", "The CSF method has helped organizations specify their own critical information needs.", "Achieving satisfactory results in the key areas of critical success factors can ensure competitive advantage leading to improved organizational performance and overcome the challenges faced by organizations.", "Critical success factors theoretical foundation was improved upon, verified, and validated by several researchers, which underscored the importance of CSFs and its application to ERP project implementations.The application of critical success factors can prevent organizations from making costly mistakes, and the effective usage of CSFs can ensure project success and reduce failures during project implementations.", "Some of the important critical success factors related to ERP projects are: Know your data, longer and more integrated testing, utilization of the right people, longer stabilization period (hyper-care), clear communication, early buy-in from business, have a Lean Agile program, less customization, ERP projects must be business-driven and not IT-driven.===Adoption rates===Research published in 2011 based on a survey of 225 manufacturers, retailers and distributors found \"high\" rates of interest and adoption of ERP systems and that very few businesses were \"completely untouched\" by the concept of an ERP system.", "27% of the companies survey had a fully operational system, 12% were at that time rolling out a system and 26% had an existing ERP system which they were extending or upgrading." ], [ "Postmodern ERP", "The term \"postmodern ERP\" was coined by Gartner in 2013, when it first appeared in the paper series \"Predicts 2014\".", "According to Gartner's definition of the postmodern ERP strategy, legacy, monolithic and highly customized ERP suites, in which all parts are heavily reliant on each other, should sooner or later be replaced by a mixture of both cloud-based and on-premises applications, which are more loosely coupled and can be easily exchanged if needed.The basic idea is that there should still be a core ERP solution that would cover most important business functions, while other functions will be covered by specialist software solutions that merely extend the core ERP.", "This concept is similar to the \"best-of-breed\" approach to software execution, but it shouldn't be confused with it.", "While in both cases, applications that make up the whole are relatively loosely connected and quite easily interchangeable, in the case of the latter there is no ERP solution whatsoever.", "Instead, every business function is covered by a separate software solution.There is, however, no golden rule as to what business functions should be part of the core ERP, and what should be covered by supplementary solutions.", "According to Gartner, every company must define their own postmodern ERP strategy, based on company's internal and external needs, operations and processes.", "For example, a company may define that the core ERP solution should cover those business processes that must stay behind the firewall, and therefore, choose to leave their core ERP on-premises.", "At the same time, another company may decide to host the core ERP solution in the cloud and move only a few ERP modules as supplementary solutions to on-premises.The main benefits that companies will gain from implementing postmodern ERP strategy are speed and flexibility when reacting to unexpected changes in business processes or on the organizational level.", "With the majority of applications having a relatively loose connection, it is fairly easy to replace or upgrade them whenever necessary.", "In addition to that, following the examples above, companies can select and combine cloud-based and on-premises solutions that are most suited for their ERP needs.", "The downside of postmodern ERP is that it will most likely lead to an increased number of software vendors that companies will have to manage, as well as pose additional integration challenges for the central IT." ], [ "See also", " List of ERP software packages* Business process management* Comparison of project management software" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " **Henderson, Ian ''ERP from the Frontline'' MBE Making ERP Work***** * * * * ** * * * * Ram, Jiwat, and David Corkindale.", "“Developing a Framework for the Management of Critical Success Factors in Organisational Innovation Projects: A Case of Enterprise Resource Planning Systems.” Integrating Innovation: South Australian Entrepreneurship Systems and Strategies, edited by Göran Roos and Allan O’Connor, University of Adelaide Press, 2015, pp.", "327–54, .", "* Riposo, Jessie, Guy 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Hoffer.", "\"An exploratory case study of enterprise resource planning implementation.\"", "International Journal of Enterprise Information Systems 1, no.", "1 (2005): 23+.", "Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022).", ".", "* W. Yang, H. Liu and J. Shi, \"The design of printing enterprise resources planning (ERP) software,\" 2010 2nd IEEE International Conference on Information Management and Engineering, 2010, pp.", "151–154, .", "* Cronan, Timothy Paul, and David E. Douglas.", "\"Assessing ERP learning (management, business process, and skills) and attitudes.\"", "Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, April–June 2013, 59+.", "Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022).", ".", "* Hayes, David C., James E. Hunton, and Jacqueline L. Reck.", "\"Market Reaction to ERP Implementation Announcements.\"", "Journal of Information Systems 15, no.", "1 (2001): 3.Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022).", ".", "* Alves, Maria do Ceu, and Sergio Ivo Amaral Matos.", "\"ERP adoption by public and private organizations--a comparative analysis of successful implementations.\"", "Journal of Business Economics and Management 14, no.", "3 (2013): 500.Gale Academic OneFile (accessed January 26, 2022).", ".", "* Elsayed, N., Ammar, S., and Mardini, G. H., “The impact of ERP utilisation experience and segmental reporting on corporate performance in the UK context”, ''Enterprise Information Systems'', vol.", "15, no.", "1, pp.", "61–86, 2021..", ".", "* Sutduean, J., Singsa, A., Sriyakul, T., and Jermsittiparsert, K., “Supply Chain Integration, Enterprise Resource Planning, and Organizational Performance: The Enterprise Resource Planning Implementation Approach”, ''Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience'', vol.", "16, no.", "7, pp.", "2975–2981, 2019.. .", "* Alfaris, M. F., Edikuncoro, G. Y., Savitri, A. L., Yogiari, D., and Sulistio, J., “A Literature Review of Sustain Enterprise Resource Planning”, in ''Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series'', 2019, vol.", "598, no.", "1, p. 012128.. .", "* G. Chattopadhyay, \"Development of a learning package for interactive learning in enterprise resources planning (ERP),\" 2004 IEEE International Engineering Management Conference (IEEE Cat.", "No.04CH37574), 2004, pp.", "848–850 Vol.2, .", "* D. Reuther and G. Chattopadhyay, \"Critical factors for enterprise resources planning system selection and implementation projects within small to medium enterprises,\" 2004 IEEE International Engineering Management Conference (IEEE Cat.", "No.04CH37574), 2004, pp.", "851–855 Vol.2, .", "* Lv, T., Zhang, J., and Chen, Y., “Research of ERP Platform based on Cloud Computing”, in ''Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series'', 2018, vol.", "394, no.", "4, p. 042004.. .", "* Hasan, N., Miah, S. J., Bao, Y., and Hoque, M. R., “Factors affecting post-implementation success of enterprise resource planning systems: a perspective of business process performance”, ''Enterprise Information Systems'', vol.", "13, no.", "9, pp.", "1217–1244, 2019.. .", "* * * * * * Sardjono, W., Sudirwan, J., Priatna, W., and Putra, G. R., “Application of factor analysis method to support the users acceptance model of ERP systems implementation”, in ''Journal of Physics: Conference Series'', 2021, vol.", "1836, no.", "1.. .", "* Meiryani, Erick Fernando, Setiani Putri Hendratno, Kriswanto, and Septi Wifasari.", "2021.Enterprise Resource Planning Systems: The Business Backbone.", "2021 The 5th International Conference on E-Commerce, E-Business and E-Government.", "Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 43–48.", "* T. Yang, J. Choi, Z. Xi, Y.", "Sun, C. Ouyang and Y. Huang, \"Research of Enterprise Resource Planning in a Specific Enterprise,\" 2006 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2006, pp.", "418–422, .", "* Komala, A. R. and Gunanda, I., “Development of Enterprise Resource Planning using Blockchain”, in ''Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series'', 2020, vol.", "879, no.", "1, p. 012141.. .", "* Tsai, W.-H., Lee, K.-C., Liu, J.-Y., Lin, S.-J., and Chou, Y.-W., “The influence of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems' performance on earnings management”, ''Enterprise Information Systems'', vol.", "6, no.", "4, pp.", "491–517, 2012..", ".", "* Kapulin, D. V., Russkikh, P. A., and Moor, I.", "A., “Integration capabilities of business process models and ERP-systems”, in ''Journal of Physics: Conference Series'', 2019, vol.", "1333, no.", "7.. .", "* Sebayang, P., Tarigan, Z. J. H., and Panjaitan, T. W. S., “ERP compatibility on business performance through the inventory system and internal integration”, in ''Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series'', 2021, vol.", "1010, no.", "1, p. 012008.. .", "* August-Wilhelm Scheer and Frank Habermann.", "2000.Enterprise resource planning: making ERP a success.", "Communications of the ACM 43, 4 (April 2000), 57–61.", "* Kuldeep Kumar and Jos van Hillegersberg.", "2000.Enterprise resource planning: introduction.", "Communications of the ACM 43, 4 (April 2000), 22–26." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Endocrinology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Endocrinology''' (from ''endocrine'' + ''-ology'') is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones.", "It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones.", "Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology.The endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system.", "Therefore, endocrine glands are regarded as ductless glands.", "Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone." ], [ "The endocrine system", " Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system in the human body.", "This is a system of glands which secrete hormones.", "Hormones are chemicals that affect the actions of different organ systems in the body.", "Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin.", "The endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone (such as thyroid stimulating hormone) will control the action or release of another secondary hormone (such as thyroid hormone).", "If there is too much of the secondary hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone, maintaining homeostasis.In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling (see below), they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function.", "This definition holds for most \"classical\" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell).", "A neuroendocrine signal is a \"classical\" hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on neuroendocrinology).=== Hormones ===Griffin and Ojeda identify three different classes of hormones based on their chemical composition:====Amines====Amines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine (catecholamines), are derived from single amino acids, in this case tyrosine.", "Thyroid hormones such as 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3',5'-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class because they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues.====Peptide and protein====Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three (in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to more than 200 (in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone) amino acid residues and can have a molecular mass as large as 31,000 grams per mole.", "All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas.====Steroid====Steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol.", "Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens.", "Some forms of vitamin D, such as calcitriol, are steroid-like and bind to homologous receptors, but lack the characteristic fused ring structure of true steroids." ], [ "As a profession", "Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the brain, lungs, heart, intestine, skin, and the kidneys), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the ''endocrine organs'', meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion.", "These organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas.An ''endocrinologist'' is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases).===Work===The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties.", "Many diseases are investigated through ''excitation/stimulation'' or ''inhibition/suppression'' testing.", "This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ.", "Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites.", "An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease.", "Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not.", "Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, which may or may not represent disease.Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease.", "Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need lifelong care.", "Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome.", "Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in clinical science and medical research, teaching, and hospital management.===Training===Endocrinologists are specialists of internal medicine or pediatrics.", "Reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily with problems of fertility and menstrual function—often training first in obstetrics.", "Most qualify as an internist, pediatrician, or gynecologist for a few years before specializing, depending on the local training system.", "In the U.S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, pediatrics, or gynecology after medical school is called residency.", "Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, pediatric, or reproductive endocrinology is called a fellowship.", "Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 2 years of fellowship.", "In the US, adult endocrinologists are board certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) or the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM) in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism." ], [ "Diseases and medicine", "===Diseases===:See main article at ''Endocrine diseases''Endocrinology also involves the study of the diseases of the endocrine system.", "These diseases may relate to too little or too much secretion of a hormone, too little or too much action of a hormone, or problems with receiving the hormone.=== Societies and organisations ===Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public.", "The Hormone Foundation is the public education affiliate of The Endocrine Society and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions.", "Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the American Diabetes Association, Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc., and Thyroid Foundation of America.In North America the principal professional organizations of endocrinologists include The Endocrine Society, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, the American Diabetes Association, the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society, and the American Thyroid Association.In Europe, the European Society of Endocrinology (ESE) and the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology (ESPE) are the main organisations representing professionals in the fields of adult and paediatric endocrinology, respectively.In the United Kingdom, the Society for Endocrinology and the British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes are the main professional organisations.The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology is the largest international professional association dedicated solely to paediatric endocrinology.", "There are numerous similar associations around the world." ], [ "History", "Arnold Berthold is known as a pioneer in endocrinology.The earliest study of endocrinology began in China.", "The Chinese were isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and using them for medicinal purposes by 200 BC.", "They used many complex methods, such as sublimation of steroid hormones.", "Another method specified by Chinese texts—the earliest dating to 1110—specified the use of saponin (from the beans of ''Gleditsia sinensis'') to extract hormones, but gypsum (containing calcium sulfate) was also known to have been used.Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al., and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century.In 1849, Arnold Berthold noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour.", "He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and he concluded (erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that \"conditioned\" the blood that, in turn, acted on the body of the cockerel.", "In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood.", "It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals.", "Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in 1935.Graves' disease was named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves, who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835.The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively, and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century.", "Thomas Addison was first to describe Addison's disease in 1849.Thomas AddisonIn 1902 William Bayliss and Ernest Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two.", "The same response could be produced by injecting extract of jejunum mucosa into the jugular vein, showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible.", "They named this substance \"secretin\" and coined the term ''hormone'' for chemicals that act in this way.Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski made the observation in 1889 that removing the pancreas surgically led to an increase in blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death—symptoms of diabetes mellitus.", "In 1922, Banting and Best realized that homogenizing the pancreas and injecting the derived extract reversed this condition.Neurohormones were first identified by Otto Loewi in 1921.He incubated a frog's heart (innervated with its vagus nerve attached) in a saline bath, and left in the solution for some time.", "The solution was then used to bathe a non-innervated second heart.", "If the vagus nerve on the first heart was stimulated, negative inotropic (beat amplitude) and chronotropic (beat rate) activity were seen in both hearts.", "This did not occur in either heart if the vagus nerve was not stimulated.", "The vagus nerve was adding something to the saline solution.", "The effect could be blocked using atropine, a known inhibitor to heart vagal nerve stimulation.", "Clearly, something was being secreted by the vagus nerve and affecting the heart.", "The \"vagusstuff\" (as Loewi called it) causing the myotropic (muscle enhancing) effects was later identified to be acetylcholine and norepinephrine.", "Loewi won the Nobel Prize for his discovery.Recent work in endocrinology focuses on the molecular mechanisms responsible for triggering the effects of hormones.", "The first example of such work being done was in 1962 by Earl Sutherland.", "Sutherland investigated whether hormones enter cells to evoke action, or stayed outside of cells.", "He studied norepinephrine, which acts on the liver to convert glycogen into glucose via the activation of the phosphorylase enzyme.", "He homogenized the liver into a membrane fraction and soluble fraction (phosphorylase is soluble), added norepinephrine to the membrane fraction, extracted its soluble products, and added them to the first soluble fraction.", "Phosphorylase activated, indicating that norepinephrine's target receptor was on the cell membrane, not located intracellularly.", "He later identified the compound as cyclic AMP (cAMP) and with his discovery created the concept of second-messenger-mediated pathways.", "He, like Loewi, won the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work in endocrinology." ], [ "See also", "* Comparative endocrinology* Endocrine disease* Hormone* Hormone replacement therapy* Neuroendocrinology* Pediatric endocrinology* Reproductive endocrinology and infertility* Wildlife endocrinology* Instruments used in endocrinology" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Endocrine system" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''endocrine system''' is a messenger system in an organism comprising feedback loops of hormones that are released by internal glands directly into the circulatory system and that target and regulate distant organs.", "In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.", "In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, pineal, and adrenal glands, and the (male) testicles and (female) ovaries.", "The hypothalamus, pancreas, and thymus also function as endocrine glands, among other functions.", "(The hypothalamus and pituitary glands are organs of the neuroendocrine system.", "One of the most important functions of the hypothalamusit is located in the brain adjacent to the pituitary glandis to link the endocrine system to the nervous system via the pituitary gland.)", "Other organs, such as the kidneys, also have roles within the endocrine system by secreting certain hormones.", "The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology.Glands that signal each other in sequence are often referred to as an axis, such as the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.", "In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions, including bone, kidneys, liver, heart and gonads.", "For example, the kidney secretes the endocrine hormone erythropoietin.", "Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.The endocrine system is contrasted both to exocrine glands, which secrete hormones to the outside of the body, and to the system known as paracrine signalling between cells over a relatively short distance.", "Endocrine glands have no ducts, are vascular, and commonly have intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones.", "In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.Endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine." ], [ "Structure", "===Major endocrine systems===The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops.", "Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.", "* TRH – TSH – T3/T4* GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones* CRH – ACTH – cortisol* Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone* leptin vs. Ghrelin===Glands===Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into interstitial spaces where they are absorbed into blood rather than through a duct.", "The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands.", "The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are two out of the three endocrine glands that are important in cell signaling.", "They are both part of the HPA axis which is known to play a role in cell signaling in the nervous system.Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a key regulator of the autonomic nervous system.", "The endocrine system has three sets of endocrine outputs which include the magnocellular system, the parvocellular system, and autonomic intervention.", "The magnocellular is involved in the expression of oxytocin or vasopressin.", "The parvocellular is involved in controlling the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary.Anterior Pituitary: The main role of the anterior pituitary gland is to produce and secrete tropic hormones.", "Some examples of tropic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland include TSH, ACTH, GH, LH, and FSH.===Cells===There are many types of cells that make up the endocrine system and these cells typically make up larger tissues and organs that function within and outside of the endocrine system.", "* Hypothalamus* Anterior pituitary gland* Pineal gland* Posterior pituitary gland** The posterior pituitary gland is a section of the pituitary gland.", "This organ does not produce any hormone but stores and secretes hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is synthesized by supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and oxytocin which is synthesized by paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus.", "ADH functions to help the body to retain water; this is important in maintaining a homeostatic balance between blood solutions and water.", "Oxytocin functions to induce uterine contractions, stimulate lactation, and allows for ejaculation.", "* Thyroid gland** follicular cells of the thyroid gland produce and secrete T3 and T4 in response to elevated levels of TRH, produced by the hypothalamus, and subsequent elevated levels of TSH, produced by the anterior pituitary gland, which further regulates the metabolic activity and rate of all cells, including cell growth and tissue differentiation.", "* Parathyroid gland** Epithelial cells of the parathyroid glands are richly supplied with blood from the inferior and superior thyroid arteries and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH).", "PTH acts on bone, the kidneys, and the GI tract to increase calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion.", "In addition, PTH stimulates the conversion of Vitamin D to its most active variant, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, which further stimulates calcium absorption in the GI tract.", "* Thymus Gland* Adrenal glands Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla* Pancreas Pancreas contain nearly 1 to 2 million islets of Langerhans (a tissue which consists cells that secrete hormones) and acini.", "Acini secretes digestive enzymes.", "* Alpha cells** The alpha cells of the pancreas secrete hormones to maintain homeostatic blood sugar.", "Insulin is produced and excreted to lower blood sugar to normal levels.", "Glucagon, another hormone produced by alpha cells, is secreted in response to low blood sugar levels; glucagon stimulates glycogen stores in the liver to release sugar into the bloodstream to raise blood sugar to normal levels.", "* Beta cells** 60% of the cells present in islet of Langerhans are beta cells.", "Beta cells secrete insulin.", "Along with glucagon, insulin helps in maintaining glucose levels in our body.", "Insulin decreases blood glucose level ( a hypoglycemic hormone) whereas glucagon increases blood glucose level.", "* Delta cells*** F Cells* Ovaries** Granulosa cells* Testis** Leydig cells" ], [ "Development", "The '''fetal endocrine system''' is one of the first systems to develop during prenatal development.===Adrenal glands===The fetal adrenal cortex can be identified within four weeks of gestation.", "The adrenal cortex originates from the thickening of the intermediate mesoderm.", "At five to six weeks of gestation, the mesonephros differentiates into a tissue known as the genital ridge.", "The genital ridge produces the steroidogenic cells for both the gonads and the adrenal cortex.", "The adrenal medulla is derived from ectodermal cells.", "Cells that will become adrenal tissue move retroperitoneally to the upper portion of the mesonephros.", "At seven weeks of gestation, the adrenal cells are joined by sympathetic cells that originate from the neural crest to form the adrenal medulla.", "At the end of the eighth week, the adrenal glands have been encapsulated and have formed a distinct organ above the developing kidneys.", "At birth, the adrenal glands weigh approximately eight to nine grams (twice that of the adult adrenal glands) and are 0.5% of the total body weight.", "At 25 weeks, the adult adrenal cortex zone develops and is responsible for the primary synthesis of steroids during the early postnatal weeks.===Thyroid gland===The thyroid gland develops from two different clusterings of embryonic cells.", "One part is from the thickening of the pharyngeal floor, which serves as the precursor of the thyroxine (T4) producing follicular cells.", "The other part is from the caudal extensions of the fourth pharyngobranchial pouches which results in the parafollicular calcitonin-secreting cells.", "These two structures are apparent by 16 to 17 days of gestation.", "Around the 24th day of gestation, the foramen cecum, a thin, flask-like diverticulum of the median anlage develops.", "At approximately 24 to 32 days of gestation the median anlage develops into a bilobed structure.", "By 50 days of gestation, the medial and lateral anlage have fused together.", "At 12 weeks of gestation, the fetal thyroid is capable of storing iodine for the production of TRH, TSH, and free thyroid hormone.", "At 20 weeks, the fetus is able to implement feedback mechanisms for the production of thyroid hormones.", "During fetal development, T4 is the major thyroid hormone being produced while triiodothyronine (T3) and its inactive derivative, reverse T3, are not detected until the third trimester.===Parathyroid glands===A lateral and ventral view of an embryo showing the third (inferior) and fourth (superior) parathyroid glands during the 6th week of embryogenesisOnce the embryo reaches four weeks of gestation, the parathyroid glands begins to develop.", "The human embryo forms five sets of endoderm-lined pharyngeal pouches.", "The third and fourth pouch are responsible for developing into the inferior and superior parathyroid glands, respectively.", "The third pharyngeal pouch encounters the developing thyroid gland and they migrate down to the lower poles of the thyroid lobes.", "The fourth pharyngeal pouch later encounters the developing thyroid gland and migrates to the upper poles of the thyroid lobes.", "At 14 weeks of gestation, the parathyroid glands begin to enlarge from 0.1 mm in diameter to approximately 1 – 2 mm at birth.", "The developing parathyroid glands are physiologically functional beginning in the second trimester.Studies in mice have shown that interfering with the HOX15 gene can cause parathyroid gland aplasia, which suggests the gene plays an important role in the development of the parathyroid gland.", "The genes, TBX1, CRKL, GATA3, GCM2, and SOX3 have also been shown to play a crucial role in the formation of the parathyroid gland.", "Mutations in TBX1 and CRKL genes are correlated with DiGeorge syndrome, while mutations in GATA3 have also resulted in a DiGeorge-like syndrome.", "Malformations in the GCM2 gene have resulted in hypoparathyroidism.", "Studies on SOX3 gene mutations have demonstrated that it plays a role in parathyroid development.", "These mutations also lead to varying degrees of hypopituitarism.===Pancreas===The human fetal pancreas begins to develop by the fourth week of gestation.", "Five weeks later, the pancreatic alpha and beta cells have begun to emerge.", "Reaching eight to ten weeks into development, the pancreas starts producing insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.", "During the early stages of fetal development, the number of pancreatic alpha cells outnumbers the number of pancreatic beta cells.", "The alpha cells reach their peak in the middle stage of gestation.", "From the middle stage until term, the beta cells continue to increase in number until they reach an approximate 1:1 ratio with the alpha cells.", "The insulin concentration within the fetal pancreas is 3.6 pmol/g at seven to ten weeks, which rises to 30 pmol/g at 16–25 weeks of gestation.", "Near term, the insulin concentration increases to 93 pmol/g.", "The endocrine cells have dispersed throughout the body within 10 weeks.", "At 31 weeks of development, the islets of Langerhans have differentiated.While the fetal pancreas has functional beta cells by 14 to 24 weeks of gestation, the amount of insulin that is released into the bloodstream is relatively low.", "In a study of pregnant women carrying fetuses in the mid-gestation and near term stages of development, the fetuses did not have an increase in plasma insulin levels in response to injections of high levels of glucose.", "In contrast to insulin, the fetal plasma glucagon levels are relatively high and continue to increase during development.", "At the mid-stage of gestation, the glucagon concentration is 6 μg/g, compared to 2 μg/g in adult humans.", "Just like insulin, fetal glucagon plasma levels do not change in response to an infusion of glucose.", "However, a study of an infusion of alanine into pregnant women was shown to increase the cord blood and maternal glucagon concentrations, demonstrating a fetal response to amino acid exposure.As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during the remaining fetal maturation, the islet cells are relatively immature in their capacity to produce glucagon and insulin.", "This is thought to be a result of the relatively stable levels of fetal serum glucose concentrations achieved via maternal transfer of glucose through the placenta.", "On the other hand, the stable fetal serum glucose levels could be attributed to the absence of pancreatic signaling initiated by incretins during feeding.", "In addition, the fetal pancreatic islets cells are unable to sufficiently produce cAMP and rapidly degrade cAMP by phosphodiesterase necessary to secrete glucagon and insulin.During fetal development, the storage of glycogen is controlled by fetal glucocorticoids and placental lactogen.", "Fetal insulin is responsible for increasing glucose uptake and lipogenesis during the stages leading up to birth.", "Fetal cells contain a higher amount of insulin receptors in comparison to adults cells and fetal insulin receptors are not downregulated in cases of hyperinsulinemia.", "In comparison, fetal haptic glucagon receptors are lowered in comparison to adult cells and the glycemic effect of glucagon is blunted.", "This temporary physiological change aids the increased rate of fetal development during the final trimester.", "Poorly managed maternal diabetes mellitus is linked to fetal macrosomia, increased risk of miscarriage, and defects in fetal development.", "Maternal hyperglycemia is also linked to increased insulin levels and beta cell hyperplasia in the post-term infant.", "Children of diabetic mothers are at an increased risk for conditions such as: polycythemia, renal vein thrombosis, hypocalcemia, respiratory distress syndrome, jaundice, cardiomyopathy, congenital heart disease, and improper organ development.===Gonads===The reproductive system begins development at four to five weeks of gestation with germ cell migration.", "The bipotential gonad results from the collection of the medioventral region of the urogenital ridge.", "At the five-week point, the developing gonads break away from the adrenal primordium.", "Gonadal differentiation begins 42 days following conception.====Male gonadal development====For males, the testes form at six fetal weeks and the sertoli cells begin developing by the eight week of gestation.", "SRY, the sex-determining locus, serves to differentiate the Sertoli cells.", "The Sertoli cells are the point of origin for anti-Müllerian hormone.", "Once synthesized, the anti-Müllerian hormone initiates the ipsilateral regression of the Müllerian tract and inhibits the development of female internal features.", "At 10 weeks of gestation, the Leydig cells begin to produce androgen hormones.", "The androgen hormone dihydrotestosterone is responsible for the development of the male external genitalia.The testicles descend during prenatal development in a two-stage process that begins at eight weeks of gestation and continues through the middle of the third trimester.", "During the transabdominal stage (8 to 15 weeks of gestation), the gubernacular ligament contracts and begins to thicken.", "The craniosuspensory ligament begins to break down.", "This stage is regulated by the secretion of insulin-like 3 (INSL3), a relaxin-like factor produced by the testicles, and the INSL3 G-coupled receptor, LGR8.During the transinguinal phase (25 to 35 weeks of gestation), the testicles descend into the scrotum.", "This stage is regulated by androgens, the genitofemoral nerve, and calcitonin gene-related peptide.", "During the second and third trimester, testicular development concludes with the diminution of the fetal Leydig cells and the lengthening and coiling of the seminiferous cords.====Female gonadal development====For females, the ovaries become morphologically visible by the 8th week of gestation.", "The absence of testosterone results in the diminution of the Wolffian structures.", "The Müllerian structures remain and develop into the fallopian tubes, uterus, and the upper region of the vagina.", "The urogenital sinus develops into the urethra and lower region of the vagina, the genital tubercle develops into the clitoris, the urogenital folds develop into the labia minora, and the urogenital swellings develop into the labia majora.", "At 16 weeks of gestation, the ovaries produce FSH and LH/hCG receptors.", "At 20 weeks of gestation, the theca cell precursors are present and oogonia mitosis is occurring.", "At 25 weeks of gestation, the ovary is morphologically defined and folliculogenesis can begin.Studies of gene expression show that a specific complement of genes, such as follistatin and multiple cyclin kinase inhibitors are involved in ovarian development.", "An assortment of genes and proteins - such as WNT4, RSPO1, FOXL2, and various estrogen receptors - have been shown to prevent the development of testicles or the lineage of male-type cells.===Pituitary gland===The pituitary gland is formed within the rostral neural plate.", "The Rathke's pouch, a cavity of ectodermal cells of the oropharynx, forms between the fourth and fifth week of gestation and upon full development, it gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland.", "By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary vascular system begins to develop.", "During the first 12 weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary undergoes cellular differentiation.", "At 20 weeks of gestation, the hypophyseal portal system has developed.", "The Rathke's pouch grows towards the third ventricle and fuses with the diverticulum.", "This eliminates the lumen and the structure becomes Rathke's cleft.", "The posterior pituitary lobe is formed from the diverticulum.", "Portions of the pituitary tissue may remain in the nasopharyngeal midline.", "In rare cases this results in functioning ectopic hormone-secreting tumors in the nasopharynx.The functional development of the anterior pituitary involves spatiotemporal regulation of transcription factors expressed in pituitary stem cells and dynamic gradients of local soluble factors.", "The coordination of the dorsal gradient of pituitary morphogenesis is dependent on neuroectodermal signals from the infundibular bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4).", "This protein is responsible for the development of the initial invagination of the Rathke's pouch.", "Other essential proteins necessary for pituitary cell proliferation are Fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8), Wnt4, and Wnt5.Ventral developmental patterning and the expression of transcription factors is influenced by the gradients of BMP2 and sonic hedgehog protein (SHH).", "These factors are essential for coordinating early patterns of cell proliferation.Six weeks into gestation, the corticotroph cells can be identified.", "By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary is capable of secreting ACTH.", "Within eight weeks of gestation, somatotroph cells begin to develop with cytoplasmic expression of human growth hormone.", "Once a fetus reaches 12 weeks of development, the thyrotrophs begin expression of Beta subunits for TSH, while gonadotrophs being to express beta-subunits for LH and FSH.", "Male fetuses predominately produced LH-expressing gonadotrophs, while female fetuses produce an equal expression of LH and FSH expressing gonadotrophs.", "At 24 weeks of gestation, prolactin-expressing lactotrophs begin to emerge." ], [ "Function", "===Hormones===A hormone is any of a class of signaling molecules produced by cells in glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.", "Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins).", "The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system.", "The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function.", "This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid changes to the activity of existing proteins, or slower changes in the expression of target genes.", "Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via signal transduction pathways; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells to act within their nuclei.===Cell signalling===The typical mode of cell signalling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs.", "However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling.", "Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.====Autocrine====Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.====Paracrine====Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus.", "Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ.", "An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.====Juxtacrine====Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons.", "The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm." ], [ "Clinical significance", "===Disease===Disability-adjusted life year for endocrine disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002:Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity.Endocrine disease is characterized by misregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic kidney failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre).", "Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction.", "Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.", "Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands.", "Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland.", "Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers.", "Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison's disease, Cushing's disease and Graves' disease.", "Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland.", "Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism.", "Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands.", "Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism.", "Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency.", "Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.", "Graves' disease effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision." ], [ "Other animals", "A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have a hypothalamus–pituitary axis.", "All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form.", "All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers.", "All vertebrates have some form of a renin–angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as a primary mineralocorticoid." ], [ "Additional images", "Blausen_0345_EndocrineSystem_Female2.png\|Female endocrine systemBlausen 0346 EndocrineSystem Male2.png\|Male endocrine system" ], [ "See also", "* Endocrine disease* Endocrinology* List of human endocrine organs and actions* Neuroendocrinology* Nervous system* Paracrine signalling* Releasing hormones* Tropic hormone" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Expander graph" ], [ "Introduction", "In graph theory, an '''expander graph''' is a sparse graph that has strong connectivity properties, quantified using vertex, edge or spectral expansion.", "Expander constructions have spawned research in pure and applied mathematics, with several applications to complexity theory, design of robust computer networks, and the theory of error-correcting codes." ], [ "Definitions", "Intuitively, an expander graph is a finite, undirected multigraph in which every subset of the vertices that is not \"too large\" has a \"large\" boundary.", "Different formalisations of these notions give rise to different notions of expanders: ''edge expanders'', ''vertex expanders'', and ''spectral expanders'', as defined below.A disconnected graph is not an expander, since the boundary of a connected component is empty.", "Every connected graph is an expander; however, different connected graphs have different expansion parameters.", "The complete graph has the best expansion property, but it has largest possible degree.", "Informally, a graph is a good expander if it has low degree and high expansion parameters.===Edge expansion===The ''edge expansion'' (also ''isoperimetric number'' or Cheeger constant) of a graph on vertices is defined as: :where which can also be written as with the complement of and : the edges between the subsets of vertices .In the equation, the minimum is over all nonempty sets of at most vertices and is the ''edge boundary'' of , i.e., the set of edges with exactly one endpoint in .Intuitively, : is the minimum number of edges that need to be cut in order to split the graph in two.The edge expansion normalizes this concept by dividing with smallest number of vertices among the two parts.To see how the normalization can drastically change the value, consider the following example.Take two complete graphs with the same number of vertices and add edges between the two graphs by connecting their vertices one-to-one.The minimum cut will be but the edge expansion will be 1.Notice that in , the optimization can be equivalently done either over or over any non-empty subset, since .", "The same is not true for because of the normalization by .If we want to write with an optimization over all non-empty subsets, we can rewrite it as : ===Vertex expansion===The ''vertex isoperimetric number'' (also ''vertex expansion'' or ''magnification'') of a graph is defined as: where is the ''outer boundary'' of , i.e., the set of vertices in with at least one neighbor in .", "In a variant of this definition (called ''unique neighbor expansion'') is replaced by the set of vertices in with ''exactly'' one neighbor in .The ''vertex isoperimetric number'' of a graph is defined as: where is the ''inner boundary'' of , i.e., the set of vertices in with at least one neighbor in .===Spectral expansion===When is -regular, a linear algebraic definition of expansion is possible based on the eigenvalues of the adjacency matrix of , where is the number of edges between vertices and .", "Because is symmetric, the spectral theorem implies that has real-valued eigenvalues .", "It is known that all these eigenvalues are in and more specifically, it is known that if and only if is bipartite.More formally, we refer to an -vertex, -regular graph with : as an -''graph''.", "The bound given by an -graph on for is useful many contexts, including the expander mixing lemma.Spectral expansion can be ''two-sided'', as above, with , or it can be ''one-sided'', with .", "The latter is a weaker notion that holds also for bipartite graphs and is still useful for many applications, such as the Alon-Chung lemma.Because is regular, the uniform distribution with for all is the stationary distribution of .", "That is, we have , and is an eigenvector of with eigenvalue , where is the degree of the vertices of .", "The ''spectral gap'' of is defined to be , and it measures the spectral expansion of the graph .If we set:as this is the largest eigenvalue corresponding to an eigenvector orthogonal to , it can be equivalently defined using the Rayleigh quotient::where : is the 2-norm of the vector .The normalized versions of these definitions are also widely used and more convenient in stating some results.", "Here one considers the matrix , which is the Markov transition matrix of the graph .", "Its eigenvalues are between −1 and 1.For not necessarily regular graphs, the spectrum of a graph can be defined similarly using the eigenvalues of the Laplacian matrix.", "For directed graphs, one considers the singular values of the adjacency matrix , which are equal to the roots of the eigenvalues of the symmetric matrix ." ], [ "Relationships between different expansion properties", "The expansion parameters defined above are related to each other.", "In particular, for any -regular graph ,:Consequently, for constant degree graphs, vertex and edge expansion are qualitatively the same.===Cheeger inequalities===When is -regular, meaning each vertex is of degree , there is a relationship between the isoperimetric constant and the gap in the spectrum of the adjacency operator of .", "By standard spectral graph theory, the trivial eigenvalue of the adjacency operator of a -regular graph is and the first non-trivial eigenvalue is .", "If is connected, then .", "An inequality due to Dodziuk and independently Alon and Milman states that: In fact, the lower bound is tight.", "The lower bound is achieved in limit for the hypercube , where and .", "The upper bound is (asymptotically) achieved for a cycle, where and .", "A better bound is given in as : These inequalities are closely related to the Cheeger bound for Markov chains and can be seen as a discrete version of Cheeger's inequality in Riemannian geometry.Similar connections between vertex isoperimetric numbers and the spectral gap have also been studied:: : Asymptotically speaking, the quantities , , and are all bounded above by the spectral gap ." ], [ "Constructions", "There are four general strategies for explicitly constructing families of expander graphs.", "The first strategy is algebraic and group-theoretic, the second strategy is analytic and uses additive combinatorics, the third strategy is combinatorial and uses the zig-zag and related graph products, and the fourth strategy is based on lifts.", "Noga Alon showed that certain graphs constructed from finite geometries are the sparsest examples of highly expanding graphs.===Margulis–Gabber–Galil===Algebraic constructions based on Cayley graphs are known for various variants of expander graphs.", "The following construction is due to Margulis and has been analysed by Gabber and Galil.", "For every natural number , one considers the graph with the vertex set , where : For every vertex , its eight adjacent vertices are:Then the following holds:'''Theorem.'''", "For all , the graph has second-largest eigenvalue .===Ramanujan graphs===By a theorem of Alon and Boppana, all sufficiently large -regular graphs satisfy , where is the second largest eigenvalue in absolute value.", "As a direct consequence, we know that for every fixed and , there are only finitely many -graphs.", "Ramanujan graphs are -regular graphs for which this bound is tight, satisfying :Hence Ramanujan graphs have an asymptotically smallest possible value of .", "This makes them excellent spectral expanders.Lubotzky, Phillips, and Sarnak (1988), Margulis (1988), and Morgenstern (1994) show how Ramanujan graphs can be constructed explicitly.In 1985, Alon, conjectured that most -regular graphs on vertices, for sufficiently large , are almost Ramanujan.", "That is, for , they satisfy:.In 2003, Joel Friedman both proved the conjecture and specified what is meant by \"most -regular graphs\" by showing that random -regular graphs have for every with probability , where:A simpler proof of a slightly weaker result was given by Puder.Marcus, Spielman and Srivastava, gave a construction of bipartite Ramanujan graphs based on lifts.=== Zig-Zag product ===Reingold, Vadhan, and Wigderson introduced the zig-zag product in 2003.Roughly speaking, the zig-zag product of two expander graphs produces a graph with only slightly worse expansion.", "Therefore, a zig-zag product can also be used to construct families of expander graphs.", "If is a -graph and is an -graph, then the zig-zag product is a -graph where has the following properties.# If and , then ;# .Specifically,:Note that property (1) implies that the zig-zag product of two expander graphs is also an expander graph, thus zig-zag products can be used inductively to create a family of expander graphs.Intuitively, the construction of the zig-zag product can be thought of in the following way.", "Each vertex of is blown up to a \"cloud\" of vertices, each associated to a different edge connected to the vertex.", "Each vertex is now labeled as where refers to an original vertex of and refers to the th edge of .", "Two vertices, and are connected if it is possible to get from to through the following sequence of moves.# ''Zig'' - Move from to , using an edge of .# Jump across clouds using edge in to get to .# ''Zag'' - Move from to using an edge of .===Lifts===An -lift of a graph is formed by replacing each vertex by vertices, and each edge by a matching between the corresponding sets of vertices.", "The lifted graph inherits the eigenvalues of the original graph, and has some additional eigenvalues.", "Bilu and Linial showed that every -regular graph has a 2-lift in which the additional eigenvalues are at most in magnitude.", "They also showed that if the starting graph is a good enough expander, then a good 2-lift can be found in polynomial time, thus giving an efficient construction of -regular expanders for every .Bilu and Linial conjectured that the bound can be improved to , which would be optimal due to the Alon-Boppana bound.", "This conjecture was proved in the bipartite setting by Marcus, Spielman and Srivastava, who used the method of interlacing polynomials.", "As a result, they obtained an alternative construction of bipartite Ramanujan graphs.", "The original non-constructive proof was turned into an algorithm by Michael B. Cohen.", "Later the method was generalized to -lifts by Hall, Puder and Sawin.===Randomized constructions===There are many results that show the existence of graphs with good expansion properties through probabilistic arguments.", "In fact, the existence of expanders was first proved by Pinsker who showed that for a randomly chosen vertex left regular bipartite graph, for all subsets of vertices with high probability, where is a constant depending on that is .", "Alon and Roichman showed that for every , there is some such that the following holds: For a group of order , consider the Cayley graph on with randomly chosen elements from .", "Then, in the limit of getting to infinity, the resulting graph is almost surely an -expander." ], [ "Applications and useful properties", "The original motivation for expanders is to build economical robust networks (phone or computer): an expander with bounded degree is precisely an asymptotic robust graph with the number of edges growing linearly with size (number of vertices), for all subsets.Expander graphs have found extensive applications in computer science, in designing algorithms, error correcting codes, extractors, pseudorandom generators, sorting networks () and robust computer networks.", "They have also been used in proofs of many important results in computational complexity theory, such as SL = L () and the PCP theorem ().", "In cryptography, expander graphs are used to construct hash functions.In a 2006 survey of expander graphs, Hoory, Linial, and Wigderson split the study of expander graphs into four categories: extremal problems, typical behavior, explicit constructions, and algorithms.", "Extremal problems focus on the bounding of expansion parameters, while typical behavior problems characterize how the expansion parameters are distributed over random graphs.", "Explicit constructions focus on constructing graphs that optimize certain parameters, and algorithmic questions study the evaluation and estimation of parameters.===Expander mixing lemma===The expander mixing lemma states that for an -graph, for any two subsets of the vertices , the number of edges between and is approximately what you would expect in a random -regular graph.", "The approximation is better the smaller is.", "In a random -regular graph, as well as in an Erdős–Rényi random graph with edge probability , we expect edges between and .More formally, let denote the number of edges between and .", "If the two sets are not disjoint, edges in their intersection are counted twice, that is,: Then the expander mixing lemma says that the following inequality holds::Many properties of -graphs are corollaries of the expander mixing lemmas, including the following.", "* An independent set of a graph is a subset of vertices with no two vertices adjacent.", "In an -graph, an independent set has size at most .", "* The chromatic number of a graph , , is the minimum number of colors needed such that adjacent vertices have different colors.", "Hoffman showed that , while Alon, Krivelevich, and Sudakov showed that if , then* The diameter of a graph is the maximum distance between two vertices, where the distance between two vertices is defined to be the shortest path between them.", "Chung showed that the diameter of an -graph is at most===Expander walk sampling===The Chernoff bound states that, when sampling many independent samples from a random variable in the range , with high probability the average of our samples is close to the expectation of the random variable.", "The expander walk sampling lemma, due to and , states that this also holds true when sampling from a walk on an expander graph.", "This is particularly useful in the theory of derandomization, since sampling according to an expander walk uses many fewer random bits than sampling independently.=== AKS sorting network and approximate halvers ===Sorting networks take a set of inputs and perform a series of parallel steps to sort the inputs.", "A parallel step consists of performing any number of disjoint comparisons and potentially swapping pairs of compared inputs.", "The depth of a network is given by the number of parallel steps it takes.", "Expander graphs play an important role in the AKS sorting network, which achieves depth .", "While this is asymptotically the best known depth for a sorting network, the reliance on expanders makes the constant bound too large for practical use.Within the AKS sorting network, expander graphs are used to construct bounded depth -halvers.", "An -halver takes as input a length permutation of and halves the inputs into two disjoint sets and such that for each integer at most of the smallest inputs are in and at most of the largest inputs are in .", "The sets and are an -halving.Following , a depth -halver can be constructed as follows.", "Take an vertex, degree bipartite expander with parts and of equal size such that every subset of vertices of size at most has at least neighbors.The vertices of the graph can be thought of as registers that contain inputs and the edges can be thought of as wires that compare the inputs of two registers.", "At the start, arbitrarily place half of the inputs in and half of the inputs in and decompose the edges into perfect matchings.", "The goal is to end with roughly containing the smaller half of the inputs and containing roughly the larger half of the inputs.", "To achieve this, sequentially process each matching by comparing the registers paired up by the edges of this matching and correct any inputs that are out of order.", "Specifically, for each edge of the matching, if the larger input is in the register in and the smaller input is in the register in , then swap the two inputs so that the smaller one is in and the larger one is in .", "It is clear that this process consists of parallel steps.After all rounds, take to be the set of inputs in registers in and to be the set of inputs in registers in to obtain an -halving.", "To see this, notice that if a register in and in are connected by an edge then after the matching with this edge is processed, the input in is less than that of .", "Furthermore, this property remains true throughout the rest of the process.", "Now, suppose for some that more than of the inputs are in .", "Then by expansion properties of the graph, the registers of these inputs in are connected with at least registers in .", "Altogether, this constitutes more than registers so there must be some register in connected to some register in such that the final input of is not in , while the final input of is.", "This violates the previous property however, and thus the output sets and must be an -halving." ], [ "See also", "Algebraic connectivityZig-zag productSuperstrong approximationSpectral graph theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Textbooks and surveys===* * * * * ===Research articles===* * * * .", "* .", "* .", "* * * * ===Recent Applications===" ], [ "External links", " Brief introduction in Notices of the American Mathematical Society* Introductory paper by Michael Nielsen* Lecture notes from a course on expanders (by Nati Linial and Avi Wigderson)* Lecture notes from a course on expanders (by Prahladh Harsha)* Definition and application of spectral gap" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "England" ], [ "Introduction", "'''England''' is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.", "The country is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers roughly 62%, and over 100 smaller adjacent islands.", "It has land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, and is otherwise surrounded by the North Sea to the east, the English Channel to the south, the Celtic Sea to the south-west, and the Irish sea to the west.", "Continental Europe lies to the south-east, and Ireland to the west.", "The population was 56,490,048 at the 2021 census.", "London is both the largest city and the capital.The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic, but takes its name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries.", "England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century.", "The Kingdom of England, which included Wales after 1535, ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707 when the Acts of Union put the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year into effect; this resulted in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland that created the Kingdom of Great Britain.England is the origin of many well-known worldwide exports, including the English language, the English legal system (which served as the basis for the common law systems of many other countries), association football, and the Church of England; its parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.", "The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.", "England is home to the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world: the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, and the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209.Both universities are ranked among the most prestigious in the world.England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills and plains, especially in the centre and south.", "Upland and mountainous terrain is mostly found in the north and west, including Dartmoor, the Lake District, the Pennines, and the Shropshire Hills.", "The country's capital is London, the greater metropolitan of which has a population of 14.2 million as of 2021, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area.", "England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the centre, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire and the Humber, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.==Toponymy==The name \"England\" is derived from the Old English name , which means \"land of the Angles\".", "The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages.", "The Angles came from the Anglia peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area (present-day German state of Schleswig-Holstein) of the Baltic Sea.", "The earliest recorded use of the term, as \"\", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''.", "The term was then used to mean \"the land inhabited by the English\", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the ''Chronicle'' stated that King Malcolm III went \"out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland\", thus using it in the more ancient sense.The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, ''Germania'', in which the Latin word is used.", "The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an ''angular'' shape.", "How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons, came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain ''Angli Saxones'' or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany.", "In Scottish Gaelic, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is \"\".", "A romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, , and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend.", "''Albion'' is also applied to England in a more poetic capacity, though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory and antiquity===Stonehenge, a Neolithic monumentThe earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of ''Homo antecessor'', dating to approximately 780,000 years ago.", "The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago.", "Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years.", "After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained.", "Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula.", "The sea level was lower than the present day and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia.As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.", "It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge (phase III) and Avebury were constructed.", "By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores.", "The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.The Battersea Shield is one of the most significant pieces of ancient Celtic art found in Britain.During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe.", "Brythonic was the spoken language during this time.", "Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's there were around 20 tribes in the area.", "Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans.", "Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes.The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province.", "The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus.", "Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street.", "The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000.This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk.", "In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later.There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier.", "According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church.", "There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.", "By 410, during the decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.", "Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished.", "This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology.", "Local \"congregations\" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church.===Middle Ages===Replica of the 7th-century ceremonial Sutton Hoo helmet from the Kingdom of East AngliaRoman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, Angles, Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province.", "These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over the course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country.", "Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brittonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century.", "Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age.", "Details of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain are consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control.", "Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in the conquered territories by Anglo-Saxon paganism, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597.Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about tonsures (clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice.During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex.", "Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued.", "The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.", "In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex.", "Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia.", "Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw.", "This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953.A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway.", "However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, fought on Saint Crispin's Day and concluded with an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' WarA dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman Conquest in 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy.", "The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.", "This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine.", "They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V. The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the ''Magna Carta'', an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen.", "Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage.", "The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.", "During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and of France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War.", "The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants.Between 1453 and 1487, a civil war known as the War of the Roses waged between the two branches of the royal family, the Yorkists and Lancastrians.", "Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.===Early modern period===The Tudor period saw the gradual evolution of England's medieval army into a larger force supported by powerful ships and gun forts.", "Under the Tudor dynasty, art and commerce flourished.", "England began to develop naval skills, and exploration intensified in the Age of Discovery.", "Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England.", "In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological.", "He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts.", "There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I.", "The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.", "The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor age and the reign of Elizabeth I (\"the Virgin Queen\").", "Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, poetry, music and literature.Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke.", "The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship.", "With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East.", "The East India Company would become the most powerful corporation in history.", "England was also at war with Spain.", "An armada sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy.", "The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather, and better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English fleets.", "This failure did not end the threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in 1596 and 1597, but both were driven back by storms.", "England during this period had a centralised, well managed, and effective government after vast Tudor reforms.===Union with Scotland===The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating a personal union.", "He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law.", "Under the auspices of James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611.It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.The English Restoration restored the monarchy under King Charles II and peace after the English Civil War.Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively.", "This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland.", "The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth.", "Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed.", "After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration.", "With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of Charles II.", "After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power.", "This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689.Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament.", "Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.", "With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the city of London, but it was rebuilt shortly afterward with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren.", "By the mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – the Tories and Whigs.", "Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, during the Revolution of 1688 invited the Dutch Prince William of Orange to defeat James and become the king.", "Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons.", "Under the Stuart dynasty England expanded in trade, finance and prosperity.", "The Royal Navy developed Europe's largest merchant fleet.", "After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.===Late modern and contemporary periods===The River Thames during the Georgian period from the Terrace of Somerset House looking towards St. Paul's, Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire.", "Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.", "The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain.", "In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – the Stockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public.The Battle of Trafalgar was a naval engagement between the Royal Navy and the combined fleets of France and Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Birmingham and Manchester, with the latter the world's first industrial city.", "England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution, under George III and William Pitt the Younger.", "The regency of George IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture.", "During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east; however, this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British: at sea by Horatio Nelson, and on land by Arthur Wellesley.", "The major victory at the Battle of Trafalgar confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century.", "The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the English, Scots and Welsh.The Victorian era is often cited as a Golden Age.", "Painting done by William Powell Frith to show cultural divisions.", "London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious.", "Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity.", "Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies.", "Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies.", "Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz.", "Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel.", "Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, providing publicly funded health care to all permanent residents free at the point of need.", "Combined, these prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century.Since the 20th century, there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent.", "Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry.", "As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union.", "Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.", "England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom.", "Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.", "There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum." ], [ "Governance", "===Politics===The Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United KingdomEngland is part of the United Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system.", "There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.", "Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England.", "Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments.In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 members of parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.", "England is represented by 345 MPs from the Conservative Party, 179 from the Labour Party, seven from the Liberal Democrats, one from the Green Party, and the Speaker of the House.Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom – Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland – each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England.", "Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a 2004 referendum, this has not been carried out.===Law===The leftThe English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana).", "Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland.", "The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent – ''stare decisis'' – to the facts before them.The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases.", "The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales.", "It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords.", "A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.The Secretary of State for Justice is the minister responsible to Parliament for the judiciary, the court system and prisons and probation in England.", "Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006.The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it one of the highest incarceration rates in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.His Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing 81,309 prisoners in England and Wales .===Subdivisions===The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division, controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government.Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48 ceremonial counties.", "These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference.", "Of these, 38 developed gradually since the Middle Ages; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996.Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally.", "Some counties, such as Herefordshire, are only divided further into civil parishes.", "The royal county of Berkshire and the metropolitan counties have different types of status to other ceremonial counties.The second tier is made up of combined authorities and the 27 county-tier shire counties.", "In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier.England is also divided into local government districts.", "The district can align to a ceremonial county, or be a district tier within a shire county, be a royal or metropolitan borough, have borough or city status, or be a unitary authority.At the community level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with their own councils; in Greater London only one such parish, Queen's Park, exists after they were abolished in 1965 until legislation allowed their recreation in 2007.====London====From 1994 until the early 2010s England was divided for a few purposes into regions; a 1998 referendum for the London Region created the London Assembly two years later.", "A failed 2004 North East England devolution referendum cancelled further regional assembly devolution with the regional structure outside London abolished.Ceremonially and administratively, the region is divided between the City of London and Greater London; these are further divided into the 32 London Boroughs and the 25 Wards of the City of London." ], [ "Geography", "===Landscape and rivers===The Malvern Hills located in the English counties of Worcestershire and Herefordshire.", "The hills have been designated by the Countryside Agency as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.", "Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly.", "It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom: to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales.England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to the European continent.", "It is separated from France (Hauts-de-France) by a sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone.", "England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.The ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively.", "At , the Severn is the longest river flowing through England.", "It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore (a tidal bore), which can reach in height.", "However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is in length.The village of Glenridding and Ullswater in Cumbria.There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District.", "Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country.", "The northern uplands include the Pennines, a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and the Cheviot Hills, straddling the border between England and Scotland.", "The highest point in England, at , is Scafell Pike in the Lake District.", "The Shropshire Hills are near Wales while Dartmoor and Exmoor are two upland areas in the south-west of the country.", "The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the Tees–Exe line.The Pennines, known as the \"backbone of England\", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago.", "Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal.", "There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire.", "The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers.", "They contain two national parks, the Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District.", "In the West Country, Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite.The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover.", "This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain, Somerset Levels, South Coast Plain and The Fens.===Climate===England has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than in winter and not much higher than in summer.", "The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable.", "The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month.", "Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October.", "Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream.", "Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country.", "Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was on 19 July 2022 at Coningsby, Lincolnshire, while the lowest was on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire.===Nature and wildlife===The Eurasian wren , a common bird in EnglandThe fauna of England is similar to that of other areas in the British Isles with a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats.", "National nature reserves in England are designated by Natural England as key places for wildlife and natural features in England.", "They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations.", "NNRs are managed on behalf of the nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members of The Wildlife Trusts partnership, the National Trust, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.", "There are 229 NNRs in England covering .", "Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals..The Environment Agency is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England.", "The Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.Red deer in Richmond Park.", "The park was created by Charles I in the 17th century as a deer park.England has a temperate oceanic climate in most areas, lacking extremes of cold or heat, but does have a few small areas of subarctic and warmer areas in the South West.", "Towards the North of England the climate becomes colder and most of England's mountains and high hills are located here and have a major impact on the climate and thus the local fauna of the areas.", "Deciduous woodlands are common across all of England and provide a great habitat for much of England's wildlife, but these give way in northern and upland areas of England to coniferous forests (mainly plantations) which also benefit certain forms of wildlife.", "Some species have adapted to the expanded urban environment, particularly the red fox, which is the most successful urban mammal after the brown rat, and other animals such as common wood pigeon, both of which thrive in urban and suburban areas.===Major conurbations===The Greater London Built-up Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world.", "It is considered a global city and has a population larger than any other country in the United Kingdom besides England itself.", "Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands.", "There are 50 settlements which have designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has 66.While many cities in England are quite large, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham, population size is not a prerequisite for city status.", "Traditionally the status was given to towns with diocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester." ], [ "Economy", "England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £34,690.HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and economic policy.", "Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.London is the financial capital of England and the United Kingdom.The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy.", "England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the software industry.", "London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.", "London is the largest financial centre in Europe and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.London has also been named as the fastest growing technology hub in Europe, with England having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of $1 billion or more.", "The Bank of England, founded in 1694 as private banker to the government of England and a state-owned institution since 1946, is the United Kingdom's central bank.", "The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the UK.", "The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.Aston Martin manufacture luxury vehicles in England.England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy.", "Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year.", "The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, automotives, crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.", "The creative industries accounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.", "Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the remainder to arable crops.", "The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and sugar beets.", "England retains a significant fishing industry.", "Its fleets bring home a variety of fish, ranging from sole to herring.", "England is also rich in natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, and silica.===Science and technology===Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science.\|232x232pxProminent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, Alan Turing, Stephen Hawking, Edward Jenner, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Joseph Priestley, Thomas Young, Christopher Wren and Richard Dawkins.England was a leading centre of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century.", "As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.", "Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.", "Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830.With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.", "The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have \"saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history.", "\"Inventions and discoveries of the English include the jet engine; the first industrial spinning machine; the first computer and the first modern computer; the World Wide Web along with HTML; the first successful human blood transfusion; the motorised vacuum cleaner; the lawn mower; the seat belt; the hovercraft; the electric motor; steam engines; and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory.", "Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity.", "Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, \"cat's eye\" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences.", "Founded on 28 November 1660, It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.", "The Royal Institution of Great Britain was founded in 1799 by leading English scientists, including Henry Cavendish.", "Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins in 1668.Scientific research and development remains important in the universities of England, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.", "Cambridge is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.", "In 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (after the United States and China).", "Scientific journals produced in England include ''Nature'', the ''British Medical Journal'' and ''The Lancet''.", "The Department for Science, Innovation and Technology, Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology, and Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation has responsibility for science in England.===Transport===The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England.", "The department is run by the Secretary of State for Transport.England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure.", "There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border.", "The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of .", "Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.", "London St Pancras International is one of London's main domestic and international transport hubs providing both commuter rail and high-speed rail services across the UK and to Paris, Lille and Brussels.Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include Arriva, FirstGroup, Go-Ahead Group, Mobico Group, Rotala and Stagecoach Group.", "Bus Rapid Transit originated in England with the Runcorn Busway opening in 1971.The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England.", "National Cycle Route offers cycling routes nationally.Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.Much of Britain's of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively.", "There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain from 2024.The Office of Rail and Road is responsible for the economic and safety regulation of England's railways.", "Crossrail was Europe's largest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost, opened in 2022.High Speed 2, a new high-speed north–south railway line, is under construction.There is a rapid transit network in two English cities: the London Underground, and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and Sunderland.", "There are several extensive tram networks, such as the Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram, West Midlands Metro, Nottingham Express Transit, and Tramlink in South London.", "England also has extensive domestic and international aviation links.", "The largest airport is Heathrow, which is the world's second busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including from Liverpool to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and Hull to the Netherlands and Belgium.", "There are around of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal & River Trust, however, water transport is very limited.", "The River Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.===Energy===Den Brook, Devon.", "The UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.\|leftSuccessive governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.", "Notably, the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.", "Wind power contributed 26.8% of UK electricity generation in 2022.England is home to Hornsea 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world, situated in waters roughly 89 kilometres off the coast of Yorkshire.The Climate Change Act 2008 was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties.", "It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally.", "It represents the first global legally binding climate change mitigation target set by a country.", "UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, while meeting energy demand.", "Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs.The current energy policy is the responsibility of the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero and Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero.", "The Minister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growth is responsible for green finance, climate science and innovation, and low carbon generation.", "In 2022, the United Kingdom was ranked 2 out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index.", "A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050." ], [ "Healthcare", "William Beveridge's 1942 report ''Social Insurance and Allied Services'' served as the basis for the post-World War II welfare state.The National Health Service (NHS), is the publicly funded healthcare system responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country.", "The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946.It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge.", "The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments, and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health.", "Most of the expenditure of the department is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.Regulatory bodies such as the General Medical Council and the Nursing and Midwifery Council are organised on a UK-wide basis, as are non-governmental bodies such as the Royal Colleges.The average life expectancy is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.", "The south of England has a higher life expectancy than the north, but regional differences seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years." ], [ "Demography", "===Population===metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties, colour-coded to show populationPopulation of England and Wales by administrative areas.", "Their size shows their population, with some approximation.", "Each group of squares in the map key is 20% of total number of districts.With over 56 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.", "England taken as a unit and measured against international states would be the 26th largest country by population in the world.The English people are British people.", "There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.", "Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain.", "Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.", "There has been significant Irish migration.", "The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans and Poles.", "Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.", "About 0.7% are Chinese.", "2.90% of the population are black, from Africa and the Caribbean, especially former British colonies.", "In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families, and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.", "About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.England contains one indigenous national minority, the Cornish people, recognised by the UK government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2014.===Language===LanguageNative speakers(thousands)English46,937Polish529Punjabi272Urdu266Bengali216Gujarati212Arabic152French145Portuguese131Welsh8Cornish0.6Other2,267Population'''51,006'''English, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated in what is now England, where it remains the principal tongue.", "According to a 2011 census, it is spoken well or very well by 98% of the population.", "Due in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial ''lingua franca''.English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing.", "There is no legislation mandating an official language for England, but English is the only language used for official business.", "Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.As well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish and Welsh.", "Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived, and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.", "It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall, and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.State schools teach students a second language or third language from the ages of seven, most commonly French, Spanish or German.", "It was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home, the most common being Punjabi and Urdu.", "However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.", "In 2022, British Sign Language became an official language of England when the British Sign Language Act 2022 came into effect.===Religion===In the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7% answered that they had no religion, 5% specified that they were Muslim, while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2% did not give an answer.", "Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England.", "The established church of England is the Church of England, which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.", "The church regards itself as both Catholic and Protestant.There are High Church and Low Church traditions and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement.", "The monarch of the United Kingdom is the supreme governor of the Church of England, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers).", "It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head.", "Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.Westminster Abbey is a notable example of English Gothic architecture.", "The coronation of the British monarch traditionally takes place at the Abbey.The second-largest Christian denomination is the Catholic Church.", "Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).", "There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV, while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.", "It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and among tin miners in Cornwall.", "There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.The patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England.", "There are many other English and associated saints, including Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket.", "There are non-Christian religions practised.", "Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, and were allowed back in 1656.Especially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration.", "Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.", "Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined, introduced from India and Southeast Asia.A small minority of the population practise ancient Pagan religions.", "Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Neopagan witchcraft, Druidry, and Heathenry.", "According to the 2011 census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England, including 11,026 Wiccans.", "24.7% of people in England declared no religion, compared with 14.6% in 2001.Norwich had the highest such proportion at 42.5%, followed by Brighton and Hove at 42.4%." ], [ "Education", "The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.", "State-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.", "Education is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education.Children between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school.", "Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16.State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach the National Curriculum; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.The University of Oxford was founded in 1096, making it the world's second-oldest university.The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intake grammar schools to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven-plus exam.", "Around 7.2 per cent of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.", "Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations.", "Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years.", "Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site.", "A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university.", "Further education covers a wide curriculum of study and apprenticeships, including T-levels, BTEC, NVQ and others.", "Tertiary colleges provide both academic and vocational courses.===Higher education===Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree.", "There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions.", "The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.", "Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover tuition fees and living costs.", "The first degree offered to undergraduates is the bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete.", "Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or a doctorate, which takes three or more years.England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world.", "As of 2023, four England-based universities, the University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Imperial College London, and University College London, are ranked among the top ten in the 2023 ''QS World University Rankings''.", "The University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, and the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, are the two oldest universities in the English-speaking world.The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.", "The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the ''Financial Times''.", "Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class, upper second class, lower second class, third, and unclassified.", "The King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.", "Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions." ], [ "Culture", "===Architecture===Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; among the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.", "With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.", "It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans.", "Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.", "Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.Bodiam Castle is a 14th-century moated castle near Robertsbridge in East Sussex.Early medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing.", "Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno–Saxon monasticism, to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings.", "After the Norman conquest in 1066 various castles were created; the best known include the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.Throughout the Plantagenet era, an English Gothic architecture flourished, with prime examples including the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster.", "Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches.", "Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically.", "In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, the English Baroque style of architect Christopher Wren being particularly championed.Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this.", "With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched.", "In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace.", "Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.===Gardens===The landscape garden at Stourhead.", "Inspired by the great landscape artists of the seventeenth century, the landscape garden was described as a \"living work of art\" when first opened in the 1750s.Landscape gardening, as developed by Capability Brown and William Kent, set an international trend for the English landscape garden.", "Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits.", "The English garden presented an idealized view of nature.", "At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.By the end of the 18th century, the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul.", "It also had a major influence on the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.", "The English landscape garden was centred on the English country house and manor houses.English Heritage and the National Trust preserve great gardens and landscape parks throughout the country.", "The RHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by the Royal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.===Folklore===Robin Hood and Maid Marian with Richard I of EnglandEnglish folklore developed over many centuries.", "Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions.", "Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves.", "While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion.", "The legends featuring Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood, and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham, are among the best-known of these.During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the Arthurian myth.", "These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources, featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot.", "These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's (''History of the Kings of Britain'').Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries.", "On 5 November people celebrate Bonfire Night to commemorate the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes.", "There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.", "There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.===Cuisine===Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.", "During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with increasing urbanisation.", "The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in ''Restaurant''s best restaurant in the world charts.English foods: clockwise from top lefttea cakes, cheeses, wines and ciderTraditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy.", "Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms and eggs).", "Various meat pies are consumed, such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (usually eaten cold) and the Cornish pasty.Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole.", "Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew originating in the northwest.", "Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester, Wensleydale, Double Gloucester and Blue Stilton.", "Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created, such as chicken tikka masala and balti.", "Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding.", "Sweet pastries include scones served with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as sweet or spiced biscuits.Common non-alcoholic drinks include tea and coffee; frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wine, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale.===Visual arts===''The Hay Wain'' by John Constable, 1821, is an archetypal English painting.The Lady of Shalott'' by John William Waterhouse, 1888, in the Pre-Raphaelite styleThe earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags.", "With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm.", "There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough.", "During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009.Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter.", "Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court; portrait painting, which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, and natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this.", "Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson.", "The 18th century saw the founding of the Royal Academy; a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed, with Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds becoming two of England's most treasured artists.In the 19th century, John Constable and J. M. W. Turner were major landscape artists.", "The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, led by artists such as Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais, revived the Early Renaissance style with their vivid and detailed style.", "William Morris and other English artists pioneered the Arts and Crafts movement.", "Prominent among 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.", "The Royal Society of Arts is an organisation committed to the arts.===Literature, poetry, and philosophy===Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative ''The Canterbury Tales''.Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin.", "The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem ''Beowulf'' and the secular prose of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', along with Christian writings such as ''Judith'', Cædmon's ''Hymn'' and hagiographies.", "Following the Norman conquest Latin continued among the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of ''The Canterbury Tales'', along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland.", "William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages.", "Julian of Norwich, who wrote ''Revelations of Divine Love'', was a prominent Christian mystic.", "With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared.", "William Shakespeare, whose works include ''Hamlet'', ''Romeo and Juliet'', ''Macbeth'', and ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.", "Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract.", "Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings.", "Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth, while John Milton authored ''Paradise Lost'' during the Restoration.Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham.", "More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.", "The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded.", "The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related.", "Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics.", "Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll.", "Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.===Performing arts===The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music.", "It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities.", "Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as are John Playford's ''The Dancing Master'' and Robert Harley's ''Roxburghe Ballads'' collections.", "Some of the best-known songs are ''Greensleeves'', ''Pastime with Good Company'', ''Maggie May'' and ''Spanish Ladies'' among others.", "Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as ''Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary'', ''Roses Are Red'', ''Jack and Jill'', ''London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle'' and ''Humpty Dumpty''.", "Traditional English Christmas carols include \"We Wish You a Merry Christmas\", \"The First Noel\", \"I Saw Three Ships\" and \"God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen\".Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period and Thomas Arne who was well known for his patriotic song Rule, Britannia!.", "German-born George Frideric Handel spent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon in Britain, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratorios, ''The Messiah'', ''Solomon'', ''Water Music'', and ''Music for the Royal Fireworks''.The Beatles are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music.Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912.The English Musical Renaissance was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at the Royal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences.", "There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others.", "Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for ''The Piano'', and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide.In popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time.", "Acts such as the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones and Def Leppard are among the highest-selling recording artists in the world.", "Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep.The Royal Albert Hall.", "Since the hall's opening in 1871, the world's leading artists from many performance genres have appeared on its stage.", "Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals.", "England was at the forefront of the illegal, free rave movement from the late 1980s, which inspired the pan-European culture of teknivals.", "The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community.", "It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe.", "After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the UK, attracting over 80,000 visitors.The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden.", "The Proms is a major annual cultural event in the English calendar.", "The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies.", "The Royal Academy of Music is the oldest conservatoire in the UK, founded in 1822, receiving its royal charter in 1830.England is home to numerous major orchestras such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra.", "Other forms of entertainment that originated in England include the circus and the pantomime.===Cinema===Peter O'Toole as T. E. Lawrence in David Lean's 1962 epic ''Lawrence of Arabia''England has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis.", "Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers.", "Hitchcock's ''The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog'' (1926) helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 ''Blackmail'' is often regarded as the first British sound feature film.Major film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton.", "Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (''Harry Potter'' and ''James Bond'').", "Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.", "Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935.The Hammer Horror films starring Christopher Lee saw the production of the first gory horror films showing blood and guts in colour.The BFI Top 100 British films includes ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.", "English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films.", "The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Richard Curtis.", "Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch, Lena Headey, Felicity Jones, Emilia Clarke, Lashana Lynch, and Emma Watson.", "Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011.The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.", "Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events.", "The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include ''Alice in Wonderland'', ''The Jungle Book'' and ''Winnie the Pooh''.===Sites and institutions===Natural History Museum in LondonEnglish Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England.", "It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.", "A non-governmental charity, the National Trust holds a complementary role, focussed on landscapes and country houses.", "17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.", "Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, the Tower of London, the Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Blenheim Palace and the Lake District.London's British Museum holds more than seven million objects, one of the largest and most comprehensive collections in the world, illustrating and documenting global human culture from its beginnings to the present.", "The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats, including around 25 million books.", "The National Gallery in Trafalgar Square houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the Turner Prize.The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility for cultural property and heritage.", "A blue plaque, the oldest historical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event.", "In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England.", "Entry to most museums and galleries is free.", "London is one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities in Europe.", "It is considered a global centre of finance, art and culture.=== Media ===MediaCity in Manchester is the largest media-production facility in Europe.The BBC, founded in 1922, is a publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.", "It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.", "The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC.", "It is the world's largest of any kind.", "It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre.", "The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.", "National newspapers produced in England include ''The Times'', ''The Guardian'', ''The Daily Telegraph'', and the ''Financial Times''.Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation include ''Nature'', ''New Scientist'', ''The Spectator'', ''New Statesman,'' ''Prospect'', ''NME'' and ''The Economist''.", "The Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility over media and broadcasting in England.=== Sport ===Queen Elizabeth II presenting the World Cup trophy to 1966 World Cup winning England captain Bobby MooreEngland has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world.", "Sports originating in England include association football, cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash, rounders, hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting.", "It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.Football is the most popular of these sports.", "The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872.Referred to as the \"home of football\" by FIFA, England hosted and won the 1966 FIFA World Cup.", "With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK.", "England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football: Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857, is the world's oldest club.", "The England women's national football team won the UEFA Euro 2022, hosted by England.Wembley Stadium, home of the England football team, during the UEFA Women's Euro 2022 final.", "At 90,000 capacity, it is the biggest stadium in the UK and the second-largest stadium in Europe.Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald.", "The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team.", "One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882.Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the \"Mecca of Cricket\".", "After winning the 2019 Cricket World Cup, England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union, and cricket.William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games.", "London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012.England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years.", "The 2022 Commonwealth Games was held in Birmingham.", "It was the third Commonwealth Games to be hosted in England, following London 1934 and Manchester 2002.Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.", "The top level of club participation is the English Premiership.", "The England national rugby union team competes in the annual Six Nations Championship.", "England have won the championship on 29 occasions (as well as sharing 10 victories), winning the Grand Slam 14 times and the Triple Crown 26 times, making them the most successful outright winners in the tournament's history.", "They are currently the only team from the Northern Hemisphere to win several Rugby World Cups.Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895.The England national rugby league team are ranked third in the world and first in Europe.", "Since 2008, the national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups.", "Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship.", "Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria.Golf has been prominent in England, due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland.", "There are professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour.", "The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland.", "The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder.Tennis was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.", "Wimbledon has a major place in the English cultural calendar.Former Formula One world champion Nigel Mansell driving at Silverstone in 1990.The circuit hosted the first ever World Championship Formula One race in 1950.In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies.Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing.", "The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April.", "It is the most watched horse race in the UK, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship.", "It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations.", "England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several world champions.Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, it is a traditional pub game.", "Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is snooker, and England has produced several world champions.", "The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup." ], [ "National symbols", "The Royal Arms of EnglandThe St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century.", "Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa.", "The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean.A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries, and became associated with Saint George.", "Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.", "During the English Civil War and Interregnum, the New Model Army's standards and the Commonwealth's Great Seal both incorporated the flag of Saint George.The Tudor rose, England's national floral emblemThere are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England.", "The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.", "It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians.", "It is also known as the ''Rose of England''.", "The oak tree is a symbol of England: the Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II after his father's execution, when he hid in an oak to avoid detection by the parliamentarians before safely reaching exile.The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with Richard the Lionheart in 1198.It is blazoned as ''gules, three lions passant guardant or'' and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England.", "England does not have an official national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has ''God Save the King''.", "However, ''Jerusalem'', ''Land of Hope and Glory'' (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games), and ''I Vow to Thee, My Country'' are often considered unofficial English national anthems.", "England's National Day is 23 April which is Saint George's Day: Saint George is the patron saint of England." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of England* Outline of the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " English Heritage – national body protecting English heritage* Natural England – wildlife and the natural world of England* VisitEngland – English tourist board* BBC News – England – news items from BBC News relating to England* GOV.UK – official website of the British Government*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Union" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Union''' ('''EU''') is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe.", "The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of over 448million.", "The EU has often been described as a ''sui generis'' political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.Containing 5.8% of the world population in 2020, EU member states generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around trillion in 2022, constituting approximately one sixth of global nominal GDP.", "Additionally, all EU states except Bulgaria have a very high Human Development Index according to the United Nations Development Programme.", "Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one.", "EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development.", "Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area.", "The eurozone is a group composed of the 20 EU member states that have fully implemented the economic and monetary union and use the euro currency.", "Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence.", "It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20.Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower.The EU was established, along with its citizenship, when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was incorporated as an international legal juridical person upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009.Its beginnings can be traced to the Inner Six states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern European integration in 1948, and to the Western Union, the International Authority for the Ruhr, the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community, which were established by treaties.", "These increasingly amalgamated bodies grew, with their legal successor the EU, both in size through the accessions of a further 22 states from 1973 to 2013, and in power through acquisitions of policy areas.In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.", "The United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU, in 2020; ten countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it." ], [ "History", "===Background: World Wars and aftermath===Internationalism and visions of European unity had been around since well before the 19th century, but gained particularly as a reaction to World War I and its aftermath.", "In this light first advances for the idea of European integration were made.", "In 1920 John Maynard Keynes proposed a European customs union for the struggling post-war European economies, and in 1923 the oldest organization for European integration, the Paneuropean Union was founded, led by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, who later would found in June 1947 the European Parliamentary Union (EPU).", "As French prime minister and follower of the Paneuropean Union Aristide Briand (Nobel Peace Prize laureate for the Locarno Treaties) delivered a widely recognized speech at the League of Nations in Geneva on 5 September 1929 for a federal Europe to secure Europe and settle the historic Franco-German enmity.With large scale war being waged in Europe once again in the 1930s and becoming World War II, the question of what to fight against and what for, had to be agreed on.", "A first agreement was the Declaration of St James's Palace of 1941, when Europe's resistance gathered in London.", "This was expanded on by the 1941 Atlantic Charter, establishing the Allies and their common goals, inciting a new wave of global international institutions like the United Nations (founded 1945) or the Bretton Woods System (1944).During the 1943 Moscow Conference and Tehran Conference plans to establish joint institutions for a post-war world and Europe became increasingly an agenda.", "This led to a decision at the Yalta Conference in 1944 to form a European Advisory Commission, later replaced by the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Allied Control Council, following the German surrender and the Potsdam Agreement in 1945.By the end of the war European integration became seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which caused the war.", "On 19 September 1946 in a much recognized speech Winston Churchill reiterated his calls since 1930 for a \"European Union\" and \"Council of Europe\", at the University of Zürich, coincidentally parallel to the Hertenstein Congress of the Union of European Federalists, one of the then founded and later constituting members of the European Movement.One month later the French Union was installed by the new Fourth French Republic to direct the decolonization of its colonies so that they would become parts of a European community.Though by 1947 a growing rift between the western Allied Powers and the Soviet Union became evident as a result of the rigged 1947 Polish legislative election, which constituted an open breach of the Yalta Agreement.", "This was followed by the announcement of the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947, and on 4 March 1947, the signing of the Treaty of Dunkirk between France and the United Kingdom for mutual assistance, in the event of future military aggression against any of the pair.", "The rationale for the treaty was the threat of a potential future military attack, specifically a Soviet one in practice, though publicised under the disguise of a German one, according to the official statements.Immediately following the February 1948 coup d'état by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the London Six-Power Conference was held, resulting in the Soviet boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the Cold War.", "The remainder of the year 1948 marked the beginning of institutionalised European integration.===Initial years and the Paris Treaty (19481957)===The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration.", "In March 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed, establishing the Western Union (WU), followed by the International Authority for the Ruhr.", "Furthermore, the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded in 1948 to manage the Marshall Plan, triggering as a Soviet response formation of the Comecon.", "The ensuing Hague Congress of May 1948 was a pivotal moment in European integration, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International, the College of Europe and most importantly to the foundation of the Council of Europe on 5 May 1949 (which is now Europe day).", "The Council of Europe was one of the first institutions to bring the sovereign nations of (then only Western) Europe together, raising great hopes and fevered debates in the following two years for further European integration.", "It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving for example the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950.Essential for the actual birth of the institutions of the EU was the Schuman Declaration on 9 May 1950 (the day after the fifth Victory in Europe Day) and the decision by six nations (France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany and Italy) to follow Schuman and draft the Treaty of Paris.", "This treaty was created in 1952 the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was built on the International Authority for the Ruhr, installed by the Western Allies in 1949 to regulate the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr area in West Germany.", "Backed by the Marshall Plan with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organization, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the European Commission and Parliament.", "Founding fathers of the European Union understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely.In parallel with Schuman, the Pleven Plan of 1951 tried but failed to tie the institutions of the developing European community under the European Political Community, which was to include the also proposed European Defence Community, an alternative to West Germany joining NATO which was established in 1949 under the Truman Doctrine.", "In 1954 the Modified Brussels Treaty transformed the Western Union into the Western European Union (WEU).", "West Germany eventually joined 1955 both WEU and NATO, prompting the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as an institutional framework for its military domination in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.", "Assessing the progress of European integration the Messina Conference was held in 1955, ordering the Spaak report, which in 1956 recommended the next significant steps of European integration.===Treaty of Rome (19581972)===Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Rome (1957), establishing the ECCIn 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union.", "They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear power.", "Both treaties came into force in 1958.Although the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly.", "The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch (Hirsch Commission).", "The OEEC was in turn reformed in 1961 into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its membership was extended to states outside of Europe, the United States and Canada.", "During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power.", "Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached, and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the ''European Communities''.", "Jean Rey presided over the first merged commission (Rey Commission).===First enlargement and European co-operation (19731993)===Gerald Ford and the American delegation at the CSCE (1975)In 1973, the communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.", "Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum.", "The ''Ostpolitik'' and the ensuing détente led to establishment of a first truly pan-European body, the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), predecessor of the modern Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).", "In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.", "Greece joined in 1981.In 1985, Greenland left the Communities, following a dispute over fishing rights.", "During the same year, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.", "In 1986, the Single European Act was signed.", "Portugal and Spain joined in 1986.In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the communities as part of a reunified Germany.=== Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice (19932004) ===Maastricht Treaty (1992), establishing the EUThe European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Horst Köhler, Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993.The treaty also gave the name ''European Community'' to the EEC, even if it was referred to as such before the treaty.", "With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993.The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.", "In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states.", "Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 20 countries.", "The euro currency became the second-largest reserve currency in the world.", "In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the union.===Treaty of Lisbon and Brexit (2004present)===Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Lisbon (2007)The ancient Roman Agora in Athens illuminated with a Next Generation EU signIn 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members.", "Later that year, Slovenia adopted the euro, followed by Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015.On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU.", "In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent president of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy.In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having \"contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe\".", "In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the Eurozone countries, increasing migration from Africa and Asia, and the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU.", "A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held in 2016, with 51.9 per cent of participants voting to leave.", "The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017, initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU; following extensions to the process, the UK left the European Union on 31 January 2020, though most areas of EU law continued to apply to the UK for a transition period which lasted until 31 December 2020.The early 2020s saw Denmark abolishing one of its three opt-outs and Croatia adopting the Euro.After the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the EU leaders agreed for the first time to create common debt to finance the European Recovery Program called Next Generation EU (NGEU).On 24 February 2022, after massing on the borders of Ukraine, the Russian Armed Forces undertook an attempt for a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.", "The European Union imposed heavy sanctions on Russia and agreed on a pooled military aid package to Ukraine for lethal weapons funded via the European Peace Facility off-budget instrument.Preparing the Union for a new great enlargement is a political priority for the Union, with the goal of achieving over 35 member states by 2030.Institutional and budgetary reforms are being discussed in order to the Union to be ready for the new members.===Timeline===" ], [ "Politics <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"competence\"></span>", "The European Union operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making, and according to the principle of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone).", "Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms.", "Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states.", "Lobbying at the EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process.===Budget===The European Union had an agreed budget of billion in 2022, The EU had a long-term budget of €1,082.5 billion for the period 2014–2020, representing 1.02% of the EU-28's GNI.", "In 1960, the budget of the European Community was 0.03 per cent of GDP.Of this, €54bn subsidised agriculture enterprise, €42bn was spent on transport, building and the environment, €16bn on education and research, €13bn on welfare, €20bn on foreign and defence policy, €2bn in finance, €2bn in energy, €1.5bn in communications, and €13bn in administration.In November 2020, two members of the union, Hungary and Poland, blocked approval to the EU's budget at a meeting in the Committee of Permanent Representatives (Coreper), citing a proposal that linked funding with adherence to the rule of law.", "The budget included a COVID-19 recovery fund of billion.", "The budget may still be approved if Hungary and Poland withdraw their vetoes after further negotiations in the council and the European Council.Bodies combatting fraud have also been established, including the European Anti-fraud Office and the European Public Prosecutor's Office.", "The latter is a decentralized independent body of the European Union (EU), established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 22 of the 27 states of the EU following the method of enhanced cooperation.", "The European Public Prosecutor's Office investigate and prosecute fraud against the budget of the European Union and other crimes against the EU's financial interests including fraud concerning EU funds of over €10,000 and cross-border VAT fraud cases involving damages above €10 million.===Governance===Member states retain in principle all powers except those that they have agreed collectively to delegate to the Union as a whole, though the exact delimitation has on occasions become a subject of scholarly or legal disputes.In certain fields, members have awarded exclusive competence and exclusive mandate to the Union.", "These are areas in which member states have entirely renounced their own capacity to enact legislation.", "In other areas, the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate.", "While both can legislate, the member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not.", "In other policy areas, the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.", "That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area.", "Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area.", "The distribution of competences in various policy areas between member states and the union is divided into the following three categories:The European Union has seven principal decision-making bodies, its institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors.", "Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union).", "The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank.", "The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union.", "The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors.", "There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.===Branches of power=======Executive branch====The European Union executive branch is organized as a directorial system, where the executive power is jointly exercised by several people.", "The executive branch consists of the European Council and European Commission.The European Council sets the broad political direction to the EU.", "It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the president of the European Council (presently Charles Michel), the president of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government).", "The high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy (presently Josep Borrell) also takes part in its meetings.", "Described by some as the union's \"supreme political leadership\", it is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.", "Its leadership role involves solving disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolving any political crises or disagreements over controversial issues and policies.", "It acts as a \"collective head of state\" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).", "Tasks for the president of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU, driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them.", "The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU and based in Strasbourg.The European Commission acts both as the EU's executive arm, responsible for the day-to-day running of the EU, and also the legislative initiator, with the sole power to propose laws for debate.", "The commission is 'guardian of the Treaties' and is responsible for their efficient operation and policing.", "It has 27 European commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.", "The leader of the 27 is the president of the European Commission (presently Ursula von der Leyen for 20192024), proposed by the European Council, following and taking into account the result of the European elections, and is then elected by the European Parliament.", "The President retains, as the leader responsible for the entire cabinet, the final say in accepting or rejecting a candidate submitted for a given portfolio by a member state, and oversees the commission's permanent civil service.", "After the President, the most prominent commissioner is the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy, who is ''ex-officio'' a vice-president of the European Commission and is also chosen by the European Council.", "The other 25 commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated president.", "The 27 commissioners as a single body are subject to approval (or otherwise) by a vote of the European Parliament.", "All commissioners are first nominated by the government of the respective member state.====Legislative branch====Roberta Metsola, President of the European ParliamentThe council, as it is now simply called (also called the Council of the European Union and the \"Council of Ministers\", its former title), forms one half of the EU's legislature.", "It consists of a representative from each member state's government and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed.", "Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.", "In addition to the legislative functions, members of the council also have executive responsibilities, such as the development of a Common Foreign and Security Policy and the coordination of broad economic policies within the Union.", "The Presidency of the council rotates between member states, with each holding it for six months.", "Beginning on 1 July 2022, the position is held by the Czech Republic.The European Parliament is one of three legislative institutions of the EU, which together with the Council of the European Union is tasked with amending and approving the European Commission's proposals.", "705 members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation.", "MEPs are elected on a national basis and they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality.", "Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.", "In the ordinary legislative procedure, the European Commission proposes legislation, which requires the joint approval of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union to pass.", "This process applies to nearly all areas, including the EU budget.", "The parliament is the final body to approve or reject the proposed membership of the commission, and can attempt motions of censure on the commission by appeal to the Court of Justice.", "The president of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally.", "The president and vice-presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.====Judicial branch====Koen Lenaerts, President of the Court of JusticeThe judicial branch of the European Union is formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court.", "The Court of Justice is the supreme court of the European Union in matters of European Union law.", "As a part of the CJEU, it is tasked with interpreting EU law and ensuring its uniform application across all EU member states under Article 263 of the Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).", "The Court was established in 1952, and is based in Luxembourg.", "It is composed of one judge per member state – currently 27 – although it normally hears cases in panels of three, five or fifteen judges.", "The Court has been led by president Koen Lenaerts since 2015.The CJEU is the highest court of the European Union in matters of Union law.", "Its case-law provides that EU law has supremacy over any national law that is inconsistent with EU law.", "It is not possible to appeal against the decisions of national courts in the CJEU, but rather national courts refer questions of EU law to the CJEU.", "However, it is ultimately for the national court to apply the resulting interpretation to the facts of any given case.", "Although, only courts of final appeal are bound to refer a question of EU law when one is addressed.", "The treaties give the CJEU the power for consistent application of EU law across the EU as a whole.", "The court also acts as an administrative and constitutional court between the other EU institutions and the Member States and can annul or invalidate unlawful acts of EU institutions, bodies, offices and agencies.The General Court is a constituent court of the European Union.", "It hears actions taken against the institutions of the European Union by individuals and member states, although certain matters are reserved for the Court of Justice.", "Decisions of the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice, but only on a point of law.", "Prior to the coming into force of the Lisbon Treaty on 1 December 2009, it was known as the Court of First Instance.====Additional branches====Christine Lagarde, President of the European Central Bank The European Central Bank (ECB) is one of the institutions of the monetary branch of the European Union, the prime component of the Eurosystem and the European System of Central Banks.", "It is one of the world's most important central banks.", "The ECB Governing Council makes monetary policy for the Eurozone and the European Union, administers the foreign exchange reserves of EU member states, engages in foreign exchange operations, and defines the intermediate monetary objectives and key interest rate of the EU.", "The ECB Executive Board enforces the policies and decisions of the Governing Council, and may direct the national central banks when doing so.", "The ECB has the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes.", "Member states can issue euro coins, but the volume must be approved by the ECB beforehand.", "The bank also operates the TARGET2 payments system.", "The European System of Central Banks (ESCB) consists of the ECB and the national central banks (NCBs) of all 27 member states of the European Union.", "The ESCB is not the monetary authority of the eurozone, because not all EU member states have joined the euro.", "The ESCB's objective is price stability throughout the European Union.", "Secondarily, the ESCB's goal is to improve monetary and financial cooperation between the Eurosystem and member states outside the eurozone.The European Court of Auditors (ECA) is the auditory branch of the European Union.", "It was established in 1975 in Luxembourg in order to improve EU financial management.", "It has 27 members (1 from each EU member-state) supported by approximately 800 civil servants.", "The European Personnel Selection Office (EPSO) is the civil service branch of the European Union, and is responsible for selecting staff to work for the institutions and agencies of the European Union including the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors, the European External Action Service, the Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Ombudsman.", "Each institution is then able to recruit staff from among the pool of candidates selected by EPSO.", "On average, EPSO receives around 60,000–70,000 applications a year with around 1,500–2,000 candidates recruited by the European Union institutions.", "The European Ombudsman is the ombudsman branch of the European Union that holds the institutions, bodies and agencies of the EU to account, and promotes good administration.", "The Ombudsman helps people, businesses and organisations facing problems with the EU administration by investigating complaints, as well as by proactively looking into broader systemic issues.", "The current Ombudsman is Emily O'Reilly.", "The European Public Prosecutor's Office (EPPO) is the prosecutory branch of the European Union with juridical personality, established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 22 of the 27 states of the EU following the method of enhanced cooperation.", "It is based in Kirchberg, Luxembourg City alongside the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors.===Law===Organigram of the political system of the UnionConstitutionally, the EU bears some resemblance to both a confederation and a federation, but has not formally defined itself as either.", "(It does not have a formal constitution: its status is defined by the Treaty of European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union).", "It is more integrated than a traditional confederation of states because the general level of government widely employs qualified majority voting in some decision-making among the member states, rather than relying exclusively on unanimity.", "It is less integrated than a federal state because it is not a state in its own right: sovereignty continues to flow 'from the bottom up', from the several peoples of the separate member states, rather than from a single undifferentiated whole.", "This is reflected in the fact that the member states remain the 'masters of the Treaties', retaining control over the allocation of competences to the union through constitutional change (thus retaining so-called ''Kompetenz-kompetenz''); in that they retain control of the use of armed force; they retain control of taxation; and in that they retain a right of unilateral withdrawal under Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union.", "In addition, the principle of subsidiarity requires that only those matters that need to be determined collectively are so determined.Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.", "The direct effect and supremacy doctrines were not explicitly set out in the European Treaties but were developed by the Court of Justice itself over the 1960s, apparently under the influence of its then most influential judge, Frenchman Robert Lecourt.", "The question whether the secondary law enacted by the EU has a comparable status in relation to national legislation, has been a matter of debate among legal scholars.====Primary law====The European Union is based on a series of treaties.", "These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.", "These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals.", "These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.", "The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.====Secondary law====The main legal acts of the European Union come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions.", "Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures, and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.", "Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result.", "The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.", "When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.", "Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation.", "They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state.", "They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions.", "Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.===Foreign relations===Josep Borrell, High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy\|alt=Portrait of Josep BorrellForeign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU's common commercial policy.", "Steps for more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies.", "In 1987 the European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act.", "EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.The stated aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.", "The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue.", "The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment.", "The high representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.", "The EEAS serves as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement.", "The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.", "This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as \"soft power\", as opposed to military \"hard power\".==== Humanitarian aid ====The European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or \"ECHO\", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries.", "In 2012, its budget amounted to million, 51 per cent of the budget went to Africa and 20 per cent to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20 per cent to the Middle East and Mediterranean.Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70 per cent) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30 per cent).", "The EU's external action financing is divided into 'geographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.", "The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95 per cent of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.", "The European Development Fund (EDF, billion for the period 2008–2013 and billion for the period 2014–2020) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7 per cent target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4 per cent and five had met or exceeded the 0.7 per cent target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.==== International cooperation and development partnerships ====Eastern Partnership Summit 2017, BrusselsThe European Union uses foreign relations instruments like the European Neighbourhood Policy which seeks to tie those countries to the east and south of the European territory of the EU to the union.", "These countries, primarily developing countries, include some who seek to one day become either a member state of the European Union, or more closely integrated with the European Union.", "The EU offers financial assistance to countries within the European Neighbourhood, so long as they meet the strict conditions of government reform, economic reform and other issues surrounding positive transformation.", "This process is normally underpinned by an Action Plan, as agreed by both Brussels and the target country.Union for the Mediterranean meeting in BarcelonaThere is also the worldwide European Union Global Strategy.", "International recognition of sustainable development as a key element is growing steadily.", "Its role was recognised in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro.", "Other key global agreements are the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015).", "The SDGs recognise that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnership – in order to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity.EU development action is based on the European Consensus on Development, which was endorsed on 20 December 2005 by EU Member States, the council, the European Parliament and the commission.", "It is applied from the principles of Capability approach and Rights-based approach to development.", "Funding is provided by the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance and the Global Europe programmes.Partnership and cooperation agreements are bilateral agreements with non-member nations.===Defence===Map showing European membership of the EU and NATOMilitary StaffThe predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.", "22 EU members are members of NATO and Sweden is in the process of accession while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.", "The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, closed in 2011 as its role had been transferred to the EU.", "Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that \"the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO\".", "To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process.", "After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.", "The EU Strategic Compass adopted in 2022 reaffirmed the bloc's partnership with NATO, committed to increased military mobility and formation of a 5,000-strong EU Rapid Deployment CapacitySince the withdrawal of the United Kingdom, France is the only member officially recognised as a nuclear weapon state and the sole holder of a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.", "France and Italy are also the only EU countries that have power projection capabilities outside of Europe.", "Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium participate in NATO nuclear sharing.", "Most EU member states opposed the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty.EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia.", "EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff.", "The European Union Military Staff is the highest military institution of the European Union, established within the framework of the European Council, and follows on from the decisions of the Helsinki European Council (10–11 December 1999), which called for the establishment of permanent political-military institutions.", "The European Union Military Staff is under the authority of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and the Political and Security Committee.", "It directs all military activities in the EU context, including planning and conducting military missions and operations in the framework of the Common Security and Defence Policy and the development of military capabilities, and provides the Political and Security Committee with military advice and recommendations on military issues.", "In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.The European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) is an agency of the EU aiming to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration.", "The EU also operates the European Travel Information and Authorisation System, the Entry/Exit System, the Schengen Information System, the Visa Information System and the Common European Asylum System which provide common databases for police and immigration authorities.", "The impetus for the development of this co-operation was the advent of open borders in the Schengen Area and the associated cross-border crime." ], [ "Member states", "File:Member States of the European Union (polar stereographic projection) EN.svg\|thumb\|right\|upright=2\|Map showing the member states of the European Union (clickable)poly 230 284 229 287 233 291 237 284 241 287 242 293 248 302 250 305 252 306 263 312 263 311 258 307 259 305 249 295 245 290 246 285 251 288 257 286 263 287 270 287 273 289 274 285 276 284 272 281 271 277 268 279 262 279 258 275 254 272 252 271 247 274 246 278 244 279 244 283 239 284 237 281 236 283 232 282 230 284 Croatiapoly 261 28 273 39 279 59 284 61 286 66 271 97 275 105 275 116 284 122 308 111 320 83 308 75 310 71 302 60 305 54 297 46 298 36 290 32 291 16 282 16 277 22 280 28 275 33 270 32 264 26 Finlandpoly 260 29 259 38 252 37 252 42 248 41 244 54 238 64 238 72 235 77 237 83 226 83 223 100 227 106 230 111 227 115 229 121 223 127 220 141 229 160 227 163 231 173 238 171 238 168 242 164 250 164 254 135 261 130 262 117 252 115 257 93 270 83 271 66 279 59 273 39 Swedenpoly 312 142 307 131 311 123 294 123 279 132 280 142 290 137 295 138 304 141 Estoniapoly 310 164 319 155 318 148 313 142 295 140 298 153 288 149 282 142 277 161 295 158 Latviapoly 288 180 295 184 301 184 309 178 307 170 312 168 308 162 294 157 279 161 279 174 289 174 Lithuaniapoly 300 198 294 182 290 180 270 183 265 184 264 179 250 182 248 186 238 190 238 197 234 199 239 203 241 223 249 225 251 229 255 226 261 230 265 232 268 235 270 237 273 235 276 240 281 237 283 237 289 236 296 242 297 239 297 234 301 223 305 222 304 217 301 214 296 201 Polandpoly 254 250 257 245 261 244 269 236 272 235 276 240 279 238 289 235 297 243 274 250 269 253 269 257 259 254 Slovakiapoly 299 251 291 245 270 252 269 257 258 252 249 268 254 271 260 279 268 278 275 274 290 272 294 258 Hungarypoly 355 291 354 280 361 274 355 269 349 272 346 270 343 259 332 248 330 243 328 242 324 247 314 250 312 248 301 250 294 255 292 265 288 271 282 274 288 281 293 284 293 288 296 290 302 287 301 291 308 294 308 297 317 297 322 297 329 295 339 287 347 288 Romaniapoly 309 327 312 322 309 318 305 316 305 310 308 305 302 298 304 294 309 295 310 298 328 297 340 287 354 291 350 297 352 301 348 304 355 309 348 314 347 311 340 316 339 317 339 321 329 324 323 321 316 325 Bulgariapoly 308 383 305 376 306 374 293 368 294 359 289 351 289 344 294 339 295 333 301 332 304 328 310 326 317 326 322 322 329 325 340 321 340 316 342 319 340 328 328 329 320 331 325 335 339 340 336 342 348 344 350 348 347 358 344 353 348 352 349 348 343 347 345 344 334 341 335 338 328 335 317 341 313 337 311 342 320 350 332 359 339 365 358 359 340 377 331 380 335 376 337 378 342 373 340 370 345 372 353 362 337 366 328 363 327 367 320 367 326 372 319 374 320 382 334 393 355 393 372 372 372 378 368 383 368 377 364 384 365 390 361 387 355 396 340 400 339 395 329 397 329 393 332 392 320 380 314 384 311 378 Greecepoly 419 384 415 381 421 378 421 373 428 371 435 365 430 374 434 376 424 383 Cypruspoly 236 248 224 238 221 231 225 227 236 221 240 220 249 225 254 226 260 231 266 230 267 236 261 243 249 245 244 243 Czech Republicpoly 198 263 201 257 204 260 207 258 213 260 224 255 233 248 238 248 241 244 245 244 248 246 255 246 253 250 256 254 250 265 249 268 238 272 229 271 220 268 218 263 210 264 208 266 Austriapoly 249 267 253 273 242 279 244 284 236 282 230 281 227 277 229 271 238 272 Sloveniapoly 179 298 180 293 174 292 176 287 173 283 178 282 178 278 176 275 181 274 185 273 189 269 189 273 195 273 197 269 199 272 204 269 207 267 210 265 218 263 220 269 230 271 226 281 219 283 222 289 219 290 220 297 231 304 236 319 247 323 253 325 250 327 274 341 273 349 269 341 260 341 257 348 262 355 261 358 257 360 257 364 251 371 248 369 244 377 244 378 244 386 237 386 237 383 230 381 222 375 219 376 219 370 226 368 238 370 245 367 250 365 253 358 248 346 246 347 241 342 241 341 237 340 234 336 230 332 224 331 184 357 181 355 183 343 182 333 185 333 190 329 193 330 196 339 194 340 193 352 224 331 211 317 209 317 203 309 204 308 202 298 190 292 184 297 Italyrect 224 394 251 405 Maltapoly 14 333 21 334 24 337 27 339 29 333 36 329 33 325 40 319 39 311 43 312 49 298 57 295 54 292 55 289 43 284 42 281 39 280 36 291 36 292 19 313 24 314 20 317 23 318 19 324 19 327 Portugalpoly 41 358 38 355 35 355 37 345 32 338 28 338 29 333 37 329 33 326 39 319 39 311 42 312 49 300 56 295 55 292 54 290 43 283 39 280 42 270 39 269 45 266 50 268 51 264 58 266 69 274 71 272 80 279 89 280 95 283 99 287 102 287 114 299 119 301 120 298 124 301 124 304 127 305 135 308 140 309 140 314 145 339 140 337 133 343 126 339 116 349 113 342 120 345 128 337 132 335 136 338 143 335 139 312 136 316 131 317 128 317 114 320 116 322 104 331 100 338 106 345 98 346 92 353 92 356 85 354 76 361 73 357 71 361 66 357 53 354 53 357 46 355 Spainpoly 100 286 111 297 118 300 119 298 126 302 128 302 128 305 139 307 140 301 144 298 152 296 155 300 157 298 165 304 169 305 189 328 195 318 195 306 192 312 188 311 187 327 170 305 178 298 180 294 173 292 176 288 174 284 179 281 176 276 179 272 175 266 170 267 175 262 180 258 178 255 182 256 186 244 190 240 178 234 173 232 169 227 169 225 165 225 162 220 157 216 155 212 151 212 147 218 142 222 137 221 137 224 133 223 125 220 121 218 124 225 121 230 113 227 111 223 107 224 101 223 97 223 97 232 109 241 111 251 115 258 107 284 Francepoly 202 178 209 178 211 181 218 182 216 185 218 187 231 181 235 184 231 187 238 189 238 197 235 201 238 203 240 222 236 220 234 224 223 228 221 230 224 238 232 247 224 255 217 258 211 259 207 257 203 261 199 256 189 255 183 256 185 244 190 241 181 235 178 224 181 214 180 207 185 201 190 195 192 187 197 187 199 189 202 186 Germanypoly 177 225 174 229 172 235 180 237 180 229 Luxembourgpoly 155 210 157 220 166 225 175 232 173 226 178 225 177 215 171 210 164 212 160 209 Belgiumpoly 191 188 178 189 162 209 167 209 171 207 170 210 179 215 180 207 188 204 184 200 188 198 Netherlandspoly 201 177 209 177 222 181 228 176 227 159 219 170 221 177 216 175 214 163 218 158 215 143 202 157 Denmarkpoly 102 181 92 179 82 181 79 179 75 173 78 168 89 162 84 159 89 151 98 154 100 153 97 150 104 146 109 147 100 156 108 166 106 174 103 177 Irelanddesc bottom-leftThrough successive enlargements, the EU and its predecessors have grown from the six founding states of the EEC to members.", "Countries accede to the union by becoming a party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership.", "This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as \"pooling of sovereignty\".", "In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the union.", "Examples of such alliances include the Baltic Assembly, the Benelux Union, the Bucharest Nine, the Craiova Group, the EU Med Group, the Lublin Triangle, the New Hanseatic League, the Three Seas Initiative, the Visegrád Group, and the Weimar Triangle.To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen.", "These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law.", "Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.", "The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.+ State Accession to EU Accession to EU predecessor Population Area Population density MEPs People/MEP 19 Founder (1993) 21 17 12 6 21 Founder (1993) 14 7 14 Founder (1993) 79 Founder (1993) 96 Founder (1993) 21 21 Founder (1993) 13 Founder (1993) 76 8 11 Founder (1993) 6 6 Founder (1993) 29 52 Founder (1993) 21 33 14 8 Founder (1993) 59 21 27 total 705 ===Subdivisions===Subdivisions of member-states are based on the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), a geocode standard for statistical purposes.", "The standard, adopted in 2003, is developed and regulated by the European Union, and thus only covers the member states of the EU in detail.", "The Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics is instrumental in the European Union's Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund delivery mechanisms and for locating the area where goods and services subject to European public procurement legislation are to be delivered.===Schengen Area===Map of the Schengen Area The Schengen Area is an area comprising 27 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders.", "Being an element within the wider area of freedom, security and justice policy of the EU, it mostly functions as a single jurisdiction under a common visa policy for international travel purposes.", "The area is named after the 1985 Schengen Agreement and the 1990 Schengen Convention, both signed in Schengen, Luxembourg.", "Of the 27 EU member states, 23 participate in the Schengen Area.", "Of the four EU members that are not part of the Schengen Area, three—Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Romania—are legally obligated to join the area in the future; Ireland maintains an opt-out, and instead operates its own visa policy.", "The four European Free Trade Association (EFTA) member states, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland, are not members of the EU, but have signed agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement.", "Also, three European microstates—Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City—maintain open borders for passenger traffic with their neighbours, and are therefore considered ''de facto'' members of the Schengen Area due to the practical impossibility of travelling to or from them without transiting through at least one Schengen member country.===Candidate countries===There are nine countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.", "Norway, Switzerland and Iceland have submitted membership applications in the past, but subsequently frozen or withdrawn them.", "Additionally Kosovo is officially recognised as a potential candidate, and submitted a membership application.===Former members===Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty provides the basis for a member to leave the EU.", "Two territories have left the union: Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985; the United Kingdom formally invoked Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union in 2017, and became the only sovereign state to leave when it withdrew from the EU in 2020." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic map of Europe (EU highlighted)The EU's member states cover an area of , and therefore a large part of the European continent.", "The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, above sea level.", "The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark, and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at below sea level.", "The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is long.In addition to national territories in Europe, there are 32 special territories of members of the European Economic Area, not all of which are part of the EU.", "The largest by area is Greenland, which is not part of the EU but whose citizens are EU citizens, while the largest by population are the Canary Islands off Africa, which are part of the EU and the Schengen area.", "French Guiana in South America is part of the EU and the Eurozone, as is Mayotte, north of Madagascar.===Climate===A Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of Europe (including non-EU member states)The climate of the European Union is of a temperate, continental nature, with a maritime climate prevailing on the western coasts and a mediterranean climate in the south.", "The climate is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which warms the western region to levels unattainable at similar latitudes on other continents.", "Western Europe is oceanic, while eastern Europe is continental and dry.", "Four seasons occur in western Europe, while southern Europe experiences a wet season and a dry season.", "Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer months.", "The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing westerlies, with higher amounts also seen in the Alps.===Environment===Increase of average yearly temperature in selected cities in Europe (1900–2017)In 1957, when the European Economic Community was founded, it had no environmental policy.", "Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.", "According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.", "Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.", "In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures.", "The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe.", "More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g.", "the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States.", "This international dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme, which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide.", "The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.", "EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy.", "In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20 per cent of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 per cent compared to 1990 levels.", "In 2017, the EU emitted 9.1 per cent of global greenhouse-gas emissions.", "The European Union claims that already in 2018, its GHG emissions were 23% lower than in 1990.The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy.", "The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city.", "In the 2019 elections to the European Parliament, the green parties increased their power, possibly because of the rise of post materialist values.", "Proposals to reach a zero carbon economy in the European Union by 2050 were suggested in 2018 – 2019.Almost all member states supported that goal at an EU summit in June 2019.The Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, and Poland disagreed.", "In June 2021, the European Union passed a European Climate Law with targets of 55% GHG emissions reduction by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2050.Also in the same year, the European Union and the United States pledged to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030.The pledge is considered as a big achievement for climate change mitigation." ], [ "Economy", "GDP (PPP) per capita in 2021 (including non-EU countries)The gross domestic product (GDP), a measure of economic activity, of EU member states was US$16.64 trillion in 2022, around 16.6 percent of the world GDP.", "There is a significant variation in GDP per capita between and within individual EU states.", "The difference between the richest and poorest regions (281 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2017, from 31 per cent (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average () to 253 per cent (Luxembourg), or from to .EU member states own the estimated third largest after the United States (trillion) and China (trillion) net wealth in the world, equal to around one sixth (trillion) of the trillion global wealth.", "Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 had their headquarters in the EU.", "In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 per cent while inflation was at 2.2 per cent, and the account balance at −0.9 per cent of GDP.", "The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around in 2021.===Economic and monetary union===Economic and Monetary Union The Euro is the official currency in 20 member states of the EU.", "The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969.In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union.", "The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.", "To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level, as agreed in the European Fiscal Pact.====Capital Markets Union and financial institutions====European Investment Bank.Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.", "Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow.", "Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom.", "The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority.", "To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the central bank.", "The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.====Eurozone and banking union====Euro banknotes from the ''Europa'' series (since 2013)In 1999, the currency union started to materialise through introducing a common accounting (virtual) currency in eleven of the member states.", "In 2002, it was turned into a fully-fledged conventible currency, when euro notes and coins were issued, while the phaseout of national currencies in the eurozone (consisting by then of 12 member states) was initiated.", "The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 20 countries.The 20 EU member states known collectively as the eurozone have fully implemented the currency union by superseding their national currencies with the euro.", "The currency union represents 345million EU citizens.", "The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the ECB.", "The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability.", "It is at the centre of the Eurosystem, which comprehends all the Eurozone national central banks.", "The ECB is also the central institution of the Banking Union established within the eurozone, as the hub of European Banking Supervision.", "There is also a Single Resolution Mechanism in case of a bank default.===Trade===As a political entity, the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO).", "Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states.====Single market====European Single Market The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU, The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis.", "While services account for 60 per cent to 70 per cent of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas.", "This lacuna has been addressed by the Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006 which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.", "According to the treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.====Customs union====European Customs Union The customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market.", "Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally.", "The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.", "Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.The European Union Association Agreement does something similar for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those countries.The European Union represents all its members at the World Trade Organization (WTO), and acts on behalf of member states in any disputes.", "When the EU negotiates trade related agreement outside the WTO framework, the subsequent agreement must be approved by each individual EU member state government.====External trade====EU Free trade agreementsThe European Union has concluded free trade agreements (FTAs) and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.", "The European Union's services trade surplus rose from $16 billion in 2000 to more than $250 billion in 2018.In 2020, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic, China became the EU's largest trading partner, displacing the United States.", "The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and in 2008 was the largest importer of goods and services.", "Internal trade between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to trade such as tariffs and border controls.", "In the eurozone, trade is helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst most members.===Competition and consumer protection===The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.", "In 2001 the commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (General Electric and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority.", "Another high-profile case, against Microsoft, resulted in the commission fining Microsoft over million following nine years of legal action.===Energy===Energy Community.The total energy supply of the EU was 59 billion GJ in 2019, about 10.2 per cent of the world total.", "Approximately three fifths of the energy available in the EU came from imports (mostly of fossil fuels).", "Renewable energy contributed 18.1 per cent of the EU's total energy supply in 2019, and 11.1 per cent of the final energy consumption.The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community.", "The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82 per cent of their oil, 57 per cent of their natural gas and 97.48 per cent of their uranium Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas, and coal in this respect.", "demands.", "The three largest suppliers of natural gas to the European Union are Russia, Norway and Algeria, that amounted for about three quarters of the imports in 2019.There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce.", "However, in May 2022, it was reported that the European Union is preparing another sanction against Russia over its invasion of Ukraine.", "It is expected to target Russian oil, Russian and Belarusian banks, as well as individuals and companies.", "According to an article by Reuters, two diplomats stated that the European Union may impose a ban on imports of Russian oil by the end of 2022.In May 2022, the EU Commission published the 'RePowerEU' initiative, a €300 billion plan outlining the path towards the end of EU dependence on Russian fossil fuels by 2030 and the acceleration on the clean energy transition.=== Transport ===Map of the Trans-European Transport NetworkThe European Union manages cross-border road, railway, airport and water infrastructure through the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T), created in 1990, and the Trans-European Combined Transport network.", "TEN-T comprises two network layers: the Core Network, which is to be completed by 2030; and the Comprehensive Network, which is to be completed by 2050.The network is currently made up of 9 core corridors: the Baltic–Adriatic Corridor, the North Sea–Baltic Corridor, the Mediterranean Corridor, the Orient/East–Med Corridor, the Scandinavian–Mediterranean Corridor, the Rhine–Alpine Corridor, the Atlantic Corridor, the North Sea–Mediterranean Corridor, and the Rhine–Danube Corridor.", "Road transportation was organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European road network.", "Bundesautobahn 7 is the longest national motorway in the EU at 963 km (598 mi).Satellite photo of the Port of RotterdamMaritime transportation is organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European Inland Waterway network, and the Trans-European Seaport network.", "European seaports are categorized as international, community, or regional.", "The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest in the EU, and the world's largest seaport outside of East Asia, located in and near the city of Rotterdam, in the province of South Holland in the Netherlands.", "The European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), founded in 2002 in Lisbon, Portugal, is charged with reducing the risk of maritime accidents, marine pollution from ships and the loss of human lives at sea by helping to enforce the pertinent EU legislation.Air transportation is organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European Airport network.", "European airports are categorized as international, community, or regional.", "The Charles de Gaulle Airport is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of Paris, in France.", "The European Common Aviation Area (ECAA) is a single market in aviation.", "ECAA agreements were signed on 5 May 2006 in Salzburg, Austria between the EU and some third countries.", "The ECAA liberalises the air transport industry by allowing any company from any ECAA member state to fly between any ECAA member states airports, thereby allowing a \"foreign\" airline to provide domestic flights.", "The Single European Sky (SES) is an initiative that seeks to reform the European air traffic management system through a series of actions carried out in four different levels (institutional, operational, technological and control and supervision) with the aim of satisfying the needs of the European airspace in terms of capacity, safety, efficiency and environmental impact.", "Civil aviation safety is under the responsibility of the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).", "It carries out certification, regulation and standardisation and also performs investigation and monitoring.", "The idea of a European-level aviation safety authority goes back to 1996, but the agency was only legally established in 2002, and began operating in 2003.Rail transportation is organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European Rail network, made up of the high-speed rail network and the conventional rail network.", "The Gare du Nord railway station is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of Paris, in France.", "Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) with the goal of greatly enhancing safety, increase efficiency of train transports and enhance cross-border interoperability.", "This is done by replacing former national signalling equipment and operational procedures with a single new Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems.", "This system is conducted by the European Union Agency for Railways (ERA).===Telecommunications and space===Mobile communication roaming charges are abolished throughout the EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.Galileo control centre in OberpfaffenhofenThe European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA), headquartered in Prague, Czech Republic, was established in 2021 to manage the European Union Space Programme in order to implement the pre-existing ''European Space Policy'', established on 22 May 2007 between the EU and the European Space Agency (ESA), known collectively as the ''European Space Council''.", "This was the first common political framework for space activities established by the EU.", "Each member state has pursued to some extent their own national space policy, though often co-ordinating through the ESA.", "Günter Verheugen, the European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry, has stated that even though the EU is \"a world leader in the technology, it is being put on the defensive by the United States and Russia and that it only has about a 10-year technological advantage on China and India, which are racing to catch up.", "\"Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the EU through the ESA, operated by the EUSPA, with two ground operations centres in Fucino, Italy, and Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany.", "The €10 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei.", "One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European political and military authorities do not have to rely on the US GPS, or the Russian GLONASS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time.", "The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) is a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) developed by the ESA and EUROCONTROL.", "Currently, it supplements the GPS by reporting on the reliability and accuracy of their positioning data and sending out corrections.", "The system will supplement Galileo in a future version.", "The Copernicus Programme is the EU's Earth observation programme coordinated and managed by EUSPA in partnership with ESA.", "It aims at achieving a global, continuous, autonomous, high quality, wide range Earth observation capacity, providing accurate, timely and easily accessible information to, among other things, improve the management of the environment, understand and mitigate the effects of climate change, and ensure civil security.===Agriculture and fisheries===The EU's exclusive economic zone (EEZ).", "At 25 million square kilometres, it is the largest in the world.The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the agricultural policy of the European Union.", "It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes.", "It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost (from 73% in 1985 to 37% in 2017) and consider rural development in its aims.", "It has, however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost and its environmental and humanitarian effects.Likewise, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is the fisheries policy of the European Union.", "It sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch each type of fish, as well as encouraging the fishing industry by various market interventions and fishing subsidies.", "It was introduced in 2009 with the Treaty of Lisbon, which formally enshrined fisheries conservation policy as one of the handful of \"exclusive competences\" reserved for the European Union.===Regional development===Classification of regions from 2021 to 2027 The five European Structural and Investment Funds are supporting the development of the EU regions, primarily the underdeveloped ones, located mostly in the states of central and southern Europe.", "Another fund (the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance) provides support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard.", "Demographic transition to a society of ageing population, low fertility-rates and depopulation of non-metropolitan regions is tackled within this policies.===Labour===The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country.", "This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.", "The EU seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 6.7 per cent in September 2018.The euro area unemployment rate was 8.1 per cent.", "Among the member states, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in the Czech Republic (2.3 per cent), Germany and Poland (both 3.4 per cent), and the highest in Spain (14.9 per cent) and Greece (19.0 in July 2018).The European Union has long sought to mitigate the effects of free markets by protecting workers' rights and preventing social and environmental dumping.", "To this end it has adopted laws establishing minimum employment and environmental standards.", "These included the Working Time Directive and the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive.", "The European Directive about Minimum Wage, which looks to lift minimum wages and strengthen collective bargaining was approved by the European Parliament in September 2022.=== Social rights and equality ===The EU has also sought to coordinate the social security and health systems of member states to facilitate individuals exercising free movement rights and to ensure they maintain their ability to access social security and health services in other member states.", "Since 2019 there has been a European commissioner for equality and the European Institute for Gender Equality has existed since 2007.A Directive on countering gender-based violence has been proposed.", "In September 2022, a European Care strategy was approved in order to provide \"quality, affordable and accessible care services\".", "The European Social Charter is the main body that recognises the social rights of European citizens.In 2020, the first ever European Union Strategy on LGBTIQ equality was approved under Helena Dalli mandate.", "In December 2021, the commission announced the intention of codifying a union-wide law against LGBT hate crimes.===Freedom, security and justice===The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union contains a wide range of political, social, and economic rights for EU citizens.Since the creation of the European Union in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs; initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism.", "Accordingly, the union has legislated in areas such as extradition, family law, asylum law, and criminal justice.The EU has also established agencies to co-ordinate police, prosecution and civil litigations across the member states: Europol for police co-operation, CEPOL for training of police forces and the Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors and courts.", "It also operates the EUCARIS database of vehicles and drivers, the Eurodac, the European Criminal Records Information System, the European Cybercrime Centre, FADO, PRADO and others.Prohibitions against discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.", "In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.", "The treaties declare that the European Union itself is \"founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail.\"", "By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexism in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.", "The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged.", "It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the \"constitutional traditions common to the member states\".", "The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.Signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership.", "Previously, the EU itself could not accede to the convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede.", "The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the convention while the latter formally permits it.The EU is independent from the Council of Europe, although they share purpose and ideas, especially on the rule of law, human rights and democracy.", "Furthermore, the European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, as well as the source of law for the Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by the Council of Europe.", "The EU has also promoted human rights issues in the wider world.", "The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition.", "Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.", "On 19 October 2020, the European Union revealed new plans to create a legal structure to act against human rights violations worldwide.", "The new plan was expected to provide the European Union with greater flexibility to target and sanction those responsible for serious human rights violations and abuses around the world." ], [ "Demographics", "NUTS3 region, 2017, including non-EU countriesThe population of the EU in 2021 was about 447 million people, corresponding to 5.8 per cent of the world population.", "The population density across the EU was 106 inhabitants per square kilometre, which is more than the world average.", "It is highest in areas in central and western Europe, sometimes referred to as the \"blue banana\", while Sweden and Finland in the north are much more sparsely populated.The total population of the EU has been slightly decreasing for several years, contracting by 0.04 per cent in 2021.This is due to a low birth rate of about 1.5 children per woman, less than the world average of 2.3.In total, 4.1 million babies were born in the EU in 2021.Immigration to Europe partially compensates for the natural population decrease.5.3 per cent of the people residing in the EU are not EU citizens (a person who has the citizenship of an EU member state is automatically also an EU citizen).", "There were 31 non-EU citizenships that each accounted for at least 1 per cent of non-EU citizens living in the EU, of which the largest were Moroccan, Turkish, Syrian and Chinese.", "Around 1.9 million people immigrated to one of the EU member states from a non-EU country during 2020, and a total of 956 000 people emigrated from a member state to go to a non-EU country during the same year.===Urbanisation===The Paris metropolitan area is the most populous urban area in the EU.More than two thirds (68.2%) of EU inhabitants lived in urban areas in 2020, which is slightly less than the world average.", "Cities are largely spread out across the EU with a large grouping in and around the Benelux.", "The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over 1million.", "With a population of over 13 million, Paris is the largest metropolitan area and the only megacity in the EU.", "Paris is followed by Madrid, Barcelona, Berlin, the Ruhr, Milan, and Rome, all with a metropolitan population of over 4million.The EU also has numerous polycentric urbanised regions like Rhine-Ruhr (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.", "), Randstad (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.", "), Frankfurt Rhine-Main (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, Mainz et al.", "), the Flemish Diamond (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.)", "and Upper Silesian area (Katowice, Ostrava et al.", ").===Languages===+ Official languages by percentage of speakers, 2012 Language Native speakers Total German18%32% French13%26% Italian12%16% Spanish8%15% Polish8%9% Romanian5%5% Dutch4%5% Greek3%4% Hungarian3%3% Portuguese2%3% Czech2%3% Swedish2%3% Bulgarian2%2% English1%51% Slovak1%2% Danish1%1% Finnish1%1% Lithuanian1%1% Croatian1%1% Slovene<1%<1% Estonian<1%<1% Irish<1%<1% Latvian<1%<1% Maltese<1%<1%The EU has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish.", "Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.", "Most EU institutions use only a handful of working languages: the European Commission conducts its internal business in three ''procedural languages'': English, French, and German; the Court of Justice uses French as the working language, and the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English.", "Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.The most widely spoken language in the EU is English; the language is spoken by 44 per cent of the population (2016 data) and studied by 95 per cent of school students, although following the withdrawal of the United Kingdom less than 1 per cent of the population speak it natively.", "German and French are spoken by 36 per cent and 30 per cent of the population.", "More than half (56 per cent) of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.Luxembourgish (in Luxembourg) and Turkish (in Cyprus) are the only two national languages that are not official languages of the EU.", "Catalan, Galician and Basque are not recognised official languages of the EU but have official status in Spain.", "Therefore, official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages.", "There are about 150 regional and minority languages in the EU, spoken by up to 50 million people.", "The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage.", "The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.===Religion===+ Religious affiliation in the EU (2015) Affiliation Per cent of EU population Christian Catholic Protestant Eastern Orthodox Other Christian Muslim Other faiths Irreligious Non-believer/Agnostic Atheist The EU has no formal connection to any religion.", "Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the \"status under national law of churches and religious associations\" as well as that of \"philosophical and non-confessional organisations\".", "The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the \"cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe\".", "Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or a god, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.Christians in the EU include Catholics of both Roman and Eastern Rite, numerous Protestant denominations with Lutherans, Anglicans, and Reformed forming the majority of Protestant affiliations, and the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million, and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.", "The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population.Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 per cent of EU citizens believed in a god, 27 per cent in \"some sort of spirit or life force\", and 18 per cent had no form of belief.", "Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years.", "The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16 per cent) and the Czech Republic (19 per cent).", "The most religious countries were Malta (95 per cent, predominantly Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90 per cent of citizens professing a belief in God.", "Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those \"positioning themselves on the right of the political scale\".===Education and research===Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Renaissance humanist after whom the Erasmus Programme is namedBasic education is an area where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments.", "In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility.", "The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987.In its first 20 years, it supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and became a symbol of European student life.There are similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013.These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.", "Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984.The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research.", "The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.", "EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.===Health===Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that \"A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities\".", "The European Commission's Directorate-General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries.", "A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.The life expectancy in the EU was 80.1 year at birth in 2021, among the highest in the world and around nine years higher than the world average.", "In general, life expectancy is lower in Eastern Europe than in Western Europe.", "In 2018, the EU region with the highest life expectancy was Madrid, Spain at 85.2 years, followed by the Spanish regions of La Rioja and Castilla y León both at 84.3 years, Trentino in Italy at 84.3 years and Île-de-France in France at 84.2 years." ], [ "Culture", "Cultural co-operation between member states has been an interest of the European Union since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.", "Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven-year programme, the European Cultural Month event, and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra.", "The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city.===Sport===Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU.", "There are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU member state citizenship.The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity.", "This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.", "The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.===Symbols===Europa and the Bull on a Greek vase, .", "Tarquinia National Museum, ItalyThe flag of Europe consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background.", "Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present European Union, in 1986.The Council of Europe gave the flag a symbolic description in the following terms, though the official symbolic description adopted by the EU omits the reference to the \"Western world\":''United in Diversity'' was adopted as the motto of the union in 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils.", "Since 1985, the flag day of the union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration).", "The anthem of the EU is an instrumental version of the prelude to the ''Ode to Joy'', the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony.", "The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe.", "Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present union.", "Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the EU's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of euro banknotes.", "The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne () and later recognised as ''Pater Europae'' (\"Father of Europe\"), has a symbolic relevance to Europe.", "The commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification.", "Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts led by young people.=== Media ===Euronews headquarters in Lyon, FranceMedia freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights.", "Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a \"key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU\".The majority of media in the European Union are national-orientated, although some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, Eurosport, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe.", "Arte is a public Franco-German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts.", "80 per cent of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ''ARTE GEIE'' and the channel's European partners.The MEDIA Programme of the European Union has supported the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991.It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.===Influence===European emblem emblazoned on the Eiffel TowerThe European Union has had a significant positive economic effect on most member states.", "According to a 2019 study of the member states who joined from 1973 to 2004, \"without European integration, per capita incomes would have been, on average, approximately 10% lower in the first ten years after joining the EU\".", "Greece was the exception reported by the study, which analysed up to 2008, \"to avoid confounding effects from the global financial crisis\".", "A 2021 study in the ''Journal of Political Economy'' found that the 2004 enlargement had aggregate beneficial economic effects on all groups in both the old and new member states.", "The largest winners were the new member states, in particular unskilled labour in the new member states.The European Union is frequently cited as having made a major contribution to peace in Europe, in particular by pacifying border disputes, and to the spread of democracy, especially by encouraging democratic reforms in aspiring Eastern European member states after the collapse of the USSR.", "Scholar Thomas Risse wrote in 2009, \"there is a consensus in the literature on Eastern Europe that the EU membership perspective had a huge anchoring effects for the new democracies.\"", "However, R. Daniel Kelemen argues that the EU has proved beneficial to leaders who are overseeing democratic backsliding, as the EU is reluctant to intervene in domestic politics, gives authoritarian governments funds which they can use to strengthen their regimes, and because freedom of movement within the EU allows dissenting citizens to leave their backsliding countries.", "At the same time, the union might provide through Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union an external constraint that prevents electoral autocracies, currently Hungary, from progressing into closed autocracies." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of the European Union* Special territories of members of the European Economic Area* List of country groupings* List of multilateral free-trade agreements* Euroscepticism* Pan-European nationalism* Brexit withdrawal agreement* EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement* African Union" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Works cited ===* * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Excerpt and text search.", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * Historical Archives of the European Union * European Union.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* The European Union: Questions and Answers.", "Congressional Research Service.", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ericales" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ericales''' are a large and diverse order of dicotyledons.", "Species in this order have considerable commercial importance including for tea, persimmon, blueberry, kiwifruit, Brazil nuts, argan, and azalea.", "The order includes trees, bushes, lianas, and herbaceous plants.", "Together with ordinary autophytic plants, the Ericales include chlorophyll-deficient mycoheterotrophic plants (e.g., ''Sarcodes sanguinea'') and carnivorous plants (e.g., genus ''Sarracenia'').Many species have five petals, often grown together.", "Fusion of the petals as a trait was traditionally used to place the order in the subclass Sympetalae.Mycorrhizal associations are quite common among the order representatives, and three kinds of mycorrhiza are found exclusively among Ericales (namely, ericoid, arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhiza).", "In addition, some families among the order are notable for their exceptional ability to accumulate aluminum.Ericales are a cosmopolitan order.", "Areas of distribution of families vary largely – while some are restricted to tropics, others exist mainly in Arctic or temperate regions.", "The entire order contains over 8,000 species, of which the Ericaceae account for 2,000–4,000 species (by various estimates)." ], [ "Economic importance", "The most commercially used plant in the order is tea (''Camellia sinensis'') from the family Theaceae.", "The order also includes some edible fruits, including kiwifruit (esp.", "''Actinidia deliciosa''), persimmon (genus ''Diospyros''), blueberry, huckleberry, cranberry, Brazil nut, and Mamey sapote.", "The order also includes shea (''Vitellaria paradoxa''), which is the major dietary lipid source for millions of sub-Saharan Africans.", "Many Ericales species are cultivated for their showy flowers: well-known examples are azalea, rhododendron, camellia, heather, polyanthus, cyclamen, phlox, and busy Lizzie." ], [ "Gallery of photos", "Balsam I IMG 9566.jpg\|''Impatiens balsamina''Primula rosea I IMG 7210.jpg\|''Primula rosea''Fuyu persimmon fruits, one cut open.jpg\|''Diospyros kaki'' or oriental persimmon of ''Diospyros'' genus and ''Ericaceae'' family" ], [ "Classification", "500x500pxThese families are recognized in the APG III system as members of the Ericales:* Family Actinidiaceae (kiwifruit family)* Family Balsaminaceae (balsam family)''Impatiens balsamina'' from the Balsaminaceae * Family Clethraceae (clethra family)* Family Cyrillaceae (cyrilla family)* Family Diapensiaceae* Family Ebenaceae (ebony and persimmon family)* Family Ericaceae (heath, rhododendron, and blueberry family)* Family Fouquieriaceae (ocotillo family)* Family Lecythidaceae (Brazil nut family)* Family Marcgraviaceae* Family Mitrastemonaceae* Family Pentaphylacaceae* Family Polemoniaceae (phlox family)* Family Primulaceae (primrose and snowbell family) * Family Roridulaceae* Family Sapotaceae (sapodilla family)* Family Sarraceniaceae (American pitcher plant family)* Family Sladeniaceae* Family Styracaceae (silverbell family)* Family Symplocaceae (sapphireberry family)* Family Tetrameristaceae* Family Theaceae (tea and camellia family)Likely phylogenetic relationships between the families of the Ericales:" ], [ "Previously included families", "These families are not recognized in the APG III system but have been in common use in the recent past:* Family Myrsinaceae (cyclamen and scarlet pimpernel family) → Primulaceae* Family Pellicieraceae → Tetrameristaceae* Family Maesaceae → Primulaceae* Family Ternstroemiaceae → Pentaphylacaceae* Family Theophrastaceae → PrimulaceaeThese make up an early diverging group of asterids.", "Under the Cronquist system, the Ericales included a smaller group of plants, which were placed among the Dilleniidae:* Family Ericaceae* Family Cyrillaceae* Family Clethraceae* Family Grubbiaceae* Family Empetraceae* Family Epacridaceae* Family Pyrolaceae* Family Monotropaceae" ], [ "See also", "''Paradinandra''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Sapir" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Sapir''' (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States.Sapir was born in German Pomerania, in what is now northern Poland.", "His family emigrated to the United States of America when he was a child.", "He studied Germanic linguistics at Columbia, where he came under the influence of Franz Boas, who inspired him to work on Native American languages.", "While finishing his Ph.D. he went to California to work with Alfred Kroeber documenting the indigenous languages there.", "He was employed by the Geological Survey of Canada for fifteen years, where he came into his own as one of the most significant linguists in North America, the other being Leonard Bloomfield.", "He was offered a professorship at the University of Chicago, and stayed for several years continuing to work for the professionalization of the discipline of linguistics.", "By the end of his life he was professor of anthropology at Yale.", "Among his many students were the linguists Mary Haas and Morris Swadesh, and anthropologists such as Fred Eggan and Hortense Powdermaker.With his linguistic background, Sapir became the one student of Boas to develop most completely the relationship between linguistics and anthropology.", "Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views.", "This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the \"Sapir–Whorf\" hypothesis.", "In anthropology Sapir is known as an early proponent of the importance of psychology to anthropology, maintaining that studying the nature of relationships between different individual personalities is important for the ways in which culture and society develop.Among his major contributions to linguistics is his classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas, upon which he elaborated for most of his professional life.", "He played an important role in developing the modern concept of the phoneme, greatly advancing the understanding of phonology.Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of historical linguistics to languages of indigenous peoples because they were believed to be more primitive than the Indo-European languages.", "Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of comparative linguistics were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages.", "In the 1929 edition of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' he published what was then the most authoritative classification of Native American languages, and the first based on evidence from modern comparative linguistics.", "He was the first to produce evidence for the classification of the Algic, Uto-Aztecan, and Na-Dene languages.", "He proposed some language families that are not considered to have been adequately demonstrated, but which continue to generate investigation such as Hokan and Penutian.He specialized in the study of Athabascan languages, Chinookan languages, and Uto-Aztecan languages, producing important grammatical descriptions of Takelma, Wishram, Southern Paiute.", "Later in his career he also worked with Yiddish, Hebrew, and Chinese, as well as Germanic languages, and he also was invested in the development of an International Auxiliary Language." ], [ "Life", "===Childhood and youth===Sapir was born into a family of Lithuanian Jews in Lauenburg (now Lębork) in the Province of Pomerania where his father, Jacob David Sapir, worked as a cantor.", "The family was not Orthodox, and his father maintained his ties to Judaism through its music.", "The Sapir family did not stay long in Pomerania and never accepted German as a nationality.", "Edward Sapir's first language was Yiddish, and later English.", "In 1888, when he was four years old, the family moved to Liverpool, England, and in 1890 to the United States, to Richmond, Virginia.", "Here Edward Sapir lost his younger brother Max to typhoid fever.", "His father had difficulty keeping a job in a synagogue and finally settled in New York on the Lower East Side, where the family lived in poverty.", "As Jacob Sapir could not provide for his family, Sapir's mother, Eva Seagal Sapir, opened a shop to supply the basic necessities.", "They formally divorced in 1910.After settling in New York, Edward Sapir was raised mostly by his mother, who stressed the importance of education for upward social mobility, and turned the family increasingly away from Judaism.", "Even though Eva Sapir was an important influence, Sapir received his lust for knowledge and interest in scholarship, aesthetics, and music from his father.", "At age 14 Sapir won a Pulitzer scholarship to the prestigious Horace Mann high school, but he chose not to attend the school which he found too posh, going instead to DeWitt Clinton High School, and saving the scholarship money for his college education.", "Through the scholarship Sapir supplemented his mother's meager earnings.===Columbia===Sapir entered Columbia in 1901, still paying with the Pulitzer scholarship.", "Columbia at this time was one of the few elite private universities that did not limit admission of Jewish applicants with implicit quotas around 12 percent—approximately 40% of incoming students at Columbia were Jewish.", "Sapir earned both a B.A.", "(1904) and an M.A.", "(1905) in Germanic philology from Columbia, before embarking on his Ph.D. in Anthropology which he completed in 1909.====College====Columbia University library in 1903Sapir emphasized language study in his college years at Columbia, studying Latin, Greek, and French for eight semesters.", "From his sophomore year he additionally began to focus on Germanic languages, completing coursework in Gothic, Old High German, Old Saxon, Icelandic, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish.", "Through Germanics professor William Carpenter, Sapir was exposed to methods of comparative linguistics that were being developed into a more scientific framework than the traditional philological approach.", "He also took courses in Sanskrit, and complemented his language studies by studying music in the department of the famous composer Edward MacDowell (though it is uncertain whether Sapir ever studied with MacDowell himself).", "In his last year in college Sapir enrolled in the course \"Introduction to Anthropology\", with Professor Livingston Farrand, who taught the Boas \"four field\" approach to anthropology.", "He also enrolled in an advanced anthropology seminar taught by Franz Boas, a course that would completely change the direction of his career.====Influence of Boas====Franz BoasAlthough still in college, Sapir was allowed to participate in the Boas graduate seminar on American Languages, which included translations of Native American and Inuit myths collected by Boas.", "In this way Sapir was introduced to Indigenous American languages while he kept working on his M.A.", "in Germanic linguistics.", "Robert Lowie later said that Sapir's fascination with indigenous languages stemmed from the seminar with Boas in which Boas used examples from Native American languages to disprove all of Sapir's common-sense assumptions about the basic nature of language.", "Sapir's 1905 Master's thesis was an analysis of Johann Gottfried Herder's ''Treatise on the Origin of Language'', and included examples from Inuit and Native American languages, not at all familiar to a Germanicist.", "The thesis criticized Herder for retaining a Biblical chronology, too shallow to allow for the observable diversification of languages, but he also argued with Herder that all of the world's languages have equal aesthetic potentials and grammatical complexity.", "He ended the paper by calling for a \"very extended study of all the various existing stocks of languages, in order to determine the most fundamental properties of language\" – almost a program statement for the modern study of linguistic typology, and a very Boasian approach.In 1906 he finished his coursework, having focused the last year on courses in anthropology and taking seminars such as Primitive Culture with Farrand, Ethnology with Boas, Archaeology and courses in Chinese language and culture with Berthold Laufer.", "He also maintained his Indo-European studies with courses in Celtic, Old Saxon, Swedish, and Sanskrit.", "Having finished his coursework, Sapir moved on to his doctoral fieldwork, spending several years in short-term appointments while working on his dissertation.====Early fieldwork====Tony Tillohash with family.", "Tillohash was Sapir's collaborator on the famous description of the Southern Paiute languageSapir's first fieldwork was on the Wishram Chinook language in the summer of 1905, funded by the Bureau of American Ethnology.", "This first experience with Native American languages in the field was closely overseen by Boas, who was particularly interested in having Sapir gather ethnological information for the Bureau.", "Sapir gathered a volume of Wishram texts, published 1909, and he managed to achieve a much more sophisticated understanding of the Chinook sound system than Boas.", "In the summer of 1906 he worked on Takelma and Chasta Costa.", "Sapir's work on Takelma became his doctoral dissertation, which he defended in 1908.The dissertation foreshadowed several important trends in Sapir's work, particularly the careful attention to the intuition of native speakers regarding sound patterns that later would become the basis for Sapir's formulation of the phoneme.In 1907–1908 Sapir was offered a position at the University of California at Berkeley, where Boas' first student Alfred Kroeber was the head of a project under the California state survey to document the Indigenous languages of California.", "Kroeber suggested that Sapir study the nearly extinct Yana language, and Sapir set to work.", "Sapir worked first with Betty Brown, one of the language's few remaining speakers.", "Later he began work with Sam Batwi, who spoke another dialect of Yana, but whose knowledge of Yana mythology was an important fount of knowledge.", "Sapir described the way in which the Yana language distinguishes grammatically and lexically between the speech of men and women.The collaboration between Kroeber and Sapir was made difficult by the fact that Sapir largely followed his own interest in detailed linguistic description, ignoring the administrative pressures to which Kroeber was subject, among them the need for a speedy completion and a focus on the broader classification issues.", "In the end Sapir didn't finish the work during the allotted year, and Kroeber was unable to offer him a longer appointment.Disappointed at not being able to stay at Berkeley, Sapir devoted his best efforts to other work, and did not get around to preparing any of the Yana material for publication until 1910, to Kroeber's deep disappointment.Sapir ended up leaving California early to take up a fellowship at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught Ethnology and American Linguistics.", "At Pennsylvania he worked closely with another student of Boas, Frank Speck, and the two undertook work on Catawba in the summer of 1909.Also in the summer of 1909, Sapir went to Utah with his student J. Alden Mason.", "Intending originally to work on Hopi, he studied the Southern Paiute language; he decided to work with Tony Tillohash, who proved to be the perfect informant.", "Tillohash's strong intuition about the sound patterns of his language led Sapir to propose that the phoneme is not just an abstraction existing at the structural level of language, but in fact has psychological reality for speakers.Tillohash became a good friend of Sapir, and visited him at his home in New York and Philadelphia.", "Sapir worked with his father to transcribe a number of Southern Paiute songs that Tillohash knew.", "This fruitful collaboration laid the ground work for the classical description of the Southern Paiute language published in 1930, and enabled Sapir to produce conclusive evidence linking the Shoshonean languages to the Nahuan languages – establishing the Uto-Aztecan language family.", "Sapir's description of Southern Paiute is known by linguistics as \"a model of analytical excellence\".At Pennsylvania, Sapir was urged to work at a quicker pace than he felt comfortable.", "His \"Grammar of Southern Paiute\" was supposed to be published in Boas' ''Handbook of American Indian Languages'', and Boas urged him to complete a preliminary version while funding for the publication remained available, but Sapir did not want to compromise on quality, and in the end the ''Handbook'' had to go to press without Sapir's piece.", "Boas kept working to secure a stable appointment for his student, and by his recommendation Sapir ended up being hired by the Canadian Geological Survey, who wanted him to lead the institutionalization of anthropology in Canada.", "Sapir, who by then had given up the hope of working at one of the few American research universities, accepted the appointment and moved to Ottawa.===In Ottawa===In the years 1910–25 Sapir established and directed the Anthropological Division in the Geological Survey of Canada in Ottawa.", "When he was hired, he was one of the first full-time anthropologists in Canada.", "He brought his parents with him to Ottawa, and also quickly established his own family, marrying Florence Delson, who also had Lithuanian Jewish roots.", "Neither the Sapirs nor the Delsons were in favor of the match.", "The Delsons, who hailed from the prestigious Jewish center of Vilna, considered the Sapirs to be rural upstarts and were less than impressed with Sapir's career in an unpronounceable academic field.", "Edward and Florence had three children together: Herbert Michael, Helen Ruth, and Philip.====Canada's Geological Survey====As director of the Anthropological division of the Geological Survey of Canada, Sapir embarked on a project to document the Indigenous cultures and languages of Canada.", "His first fieldwork took him to Vancouver Island to work on the Nootka language.", "Apart from Sapir the division had two other staff members, Marius Barbeau and Harlan I. Smith.", "Sapir insisted that the discipline of linguistics was of integral importance for ethnographic description, arguing that just as nobody would dream of discussing the history of the Catholic Church without knowing Latin or study German folksongs without knowing German, so it made little sense to approach the study of Indigenous folklore without knowledge of the indigenous languages.", "At this point the only Canadian first nation languages that were well known were Kwakiutl, described by Boas, Tshimshian and Haida.", "Sapir explicitly used the standard of documentation of European languages, to argue that the amassing knowledge of indigenous languages was of paramount importance.", "By introducing the high standards of Boasian anthropology, Sapir incited antagonism from those amateur ethnologists who felt that they had contributed important work.", "Unsatisfied with efforts by amateur and governmental anthropologists, Sapir worked to introduce an academic program of anthropology at one of the major universities, in order to professionalize the discipline.Sapir enlisted the assistance of fellow Boasians: Frank Speck, Paul Radin and Alexander Goldenweiser, who with Barbeau worked on the peoples of the Eastern Woodlands: the Ojibwa, the Iroquois, the Huron and the Wyandot.", "Sapir initiated work on the Athabascan languages of the Mackenzie valley and the Yukon, but it proved too difficult to find adequate assistance, and he concentrated mainly on Nootka and the languages of the North West Coast.During his time in Canada, together with Speck, Sapir also acted as an advocate for Indigenous rights, arguing publicly for introduction of better medical care for Indigenous communities, and assisting the Six Nation Iroquois in trying to recover eleven wampum belts that had been stolen from the reservation and were on display in the museum of the University of Pennsylvania.", "(The belts were finally returned to the Iroquois in 1988.)", "He also argued for the reversal of a Canadian law prohibiting the Potlatch ceremony of the West Coast tribes.====Work with Ishi====Alfred Kroeber and IshiIn 1915 Sapir returned to California, where his expertise on the Yana language made him urgently needed.", "Kroeber had come into contact with Ishi, the last native speaker of the Yahi language, closely related to Yana, and needed someone to document the language urgently.", "Ishi, who had grown up without contact with European-Americans, was monolingual in Yahi and was the last surviving member of his people.", "He had been adopted by the Kroebers, but had fallen ill with tuberculosis, and was not expected to live long.", "Sam Batwi, the speaker of Yana who had worked with Sapir, was unable to understand the Yahi variety, and Krober was convinced that only Sapir would be able to communicate with Ishi.", "Sapir traveled to San Francisco and worked with Ishi over the summer of 1915, having to invent new methods for working with a monolingual speaker.", "The information from Ishi was invaluable for understanding the relation between the different dialects of Yana.", "Ishi died of his illness in early 1916, and Kroeber partly blamed the exacting nature of working with Sapir for his failure to recover.", "Sapir described the work: \"I think I may safely say that my work with Ishi is by far the most time-consuming and nerve-racking that I have ever undertaken.", "Ishi's imperturbable good humor alone made the work possible, though it also at times added to my exasperation\".====Moving on====Margaret Mead decades after her affair with SapirThe First World War took its toll on the Canadian Geological Survey, cutting funding for anthropology and making the academic climate less agreeable.", "Sapir continued work on Athabascan, working with two speakers of the Alaskan languages Kutchin and Ingalik.", "Sapir was now more preoccupied with testing hypotheses about historical relationships between the Na-Dene languages than with documenting endangered languages, in effect becoming a theoretician.", "He was also growing to feel isolated from his American colleagues.", "From 1912 Florence's health deteriorated due to a lung abscess, and a resulting depression.", "The Sapir household was largely run by Eva Sapir, who did not get along well with Florence, and this added to the strain on both Florence and Edward.", "Sapir's parents had by now divorced and his father seemed to develop psychosis, which made it necessary for him to leave Canada for Philadelphia, where Edward continued to support him financially.", "Florence was hospitalized for long periods both for her depressions and for the lung abscess, and she died in 1924 due to an infection following surgery, providing the final incentive for Sapir to leave Canada.", "When the University of Chicago offered him a position, he happily accepted.During his period in Canada, Sapir came into his own as the leading figure in linguistics in North America.", "Among his substantial publications from this period were his book on ''Time Perspective in the Aboriginal American Culture'' (1916), in which he laid out an approach to using historical linguistics to study the prehistory of Native American cultures.", "Particularly important for establishing him in the field was his seminal book ''Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech'' (1921), which was a layman's introduction to the discipline of linguistics as Sapir envisioned it.", "He also participated in the formulation of a report to the American Anthropological Association regarding the standardization of orthographic principles for writing Indigenous languages.While in Ottawa, he also collected and published French Canadian Folk Songs, and wrote a volume of his own poetry.", "His interest in poetry led him to form a close friendship with another Boasian anthropologist and poet, Ruth Benedict.", "Sapir initially wrote to Benedict to commend her for her dissertation on \"The Guardian Spirit\", but soon realized that Benedict had published poetry pseudonymously.", "In their correspondence the two critiqued each other's work, both submitting to the same publishers, and both being rejected.", "They also were both interested in psychology and the relation between individual personalities and cultural patterns, and in their correspondences they frequently psychoanalyzed each other.", "However, Sapir often showed little understanding for Benedict's private thoughts and feelings, and particularly his conservative gender ideology jarred with Benedict's struggles as a female professional academic.", "Though they were very close friends for a while, it was ultimately the differences in worldview and personality that led their friendship to fray.Before departing Canada, Sapir had a short affair with Margaret Mead, Benedict's protégé at Columbia.", "But Sapir's conservative ideas about marriage and the woman's role were anathema to Mead, as they had been to Benedict, and as Mead left to do field work in Samoa, the two separated permanently.", "Mead received news of Sapir's remarriage while still in Samoa, and burned their correspondence there on the beach.===Chicago years===Settling in Chicago reinvigorated Sapir intellectually and personally.", "He socialized with intellectuals, gave lectures, participated in poetry and music clubs.", "His first graduate student at Chicago was Li Fang-Kuei.", "The Sapir household continued to be managed largely by Grandmother Eva, until Sapir remarried in 1926.Sapir's second wife, Jean Victoria McClenaghan, was sixteen years younger than he.", "She had first met Sapir when a student in Ottawa, but had since also come to work at the University of Chicago's department of Juvenile Research.", "Their son Paul Edward Sapir was born in 1928.Their other son J. David Sapir became a linguist and anthropologist specializing in West African Languages, especially Jola languages.", "Sapir also exerted influence through his membership in the Chicago School of Sociology, and his friendship with psychologist Harry Stack Sullivan.===At Yale===From 1931 until his death in 1939, Sapir taught at Yale University, where he became the head of the Department of Anthropology.", "He was invited to Yale to found an interdisciplinary program combining anthropology, linguistics and psychology, aimed at studying \"the impact of culture on personality\".", "While Sapir was explicitly given the task of founding a distinct anthropology department, this was not well received by the department of sociology who worked by William Graham Sumner's \"Evolutionary sociology\", which was anathema to Sapir's Boasian approach, nor by the two anthropologists of the Institute for Human Relations Clark Wissler and G. P. Murdock.", "Sapir never thrived at Yale, where as one of only four Jewish faculty members out of 569 he was denied membership to the faculty club where the senior faculty discussed academic business.At Yale, Sapir's graduate students included Morris Swadesh, Benjamin Lee Whorf, Mary Haas, Charles Hockett, and Harry Hoijer, several of whom he brought with him from Chicago.", "Sapir came to regard a young Semiticist named Zellig Harris as his intellectual heir, although Harris was never a formal student of Sapir.", "(For a time he dated Sapir's daughter.)", "In 1936 Sapir clashed with the Institute for Human Relations over the research proposal by anthropologist Hortense Powdermaker, who proposed a study of the black community of Indianola, Mississippi.", "Sapir argued that her research should be funded instead of the more sociological work of John Dollard.", "Sapir eventually lost the discussion and Powdermaker had to leave Yale.During his tenure at Yale, Sapir was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the United States National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society.In the summer of 1937 while teaching at the Linguistic Institute of the Linguistic Society of America in Ann Arbor, Sapir began having problems with a heart condition that had been diagnosed a couple of years earlier.", "In 1938, he had to take a leave from Yale, during which Benjamin Lee Whorf taught his courses and G. P. Murdock advised some of his students.", "After Sapir's death in 1939, G. P. Murdock became the chair of the anthropology department.", "Murdock, who despised the Boasian paradigm of cultural anthropology, dismantled most of Sapir's efforts to integrate anthropology, psychology, and linguistics." ], [ "Anthropological thought", "Sapir's anthropological thought has been described as isolated within the field of anthropology in his own days.", "Instead of searching for the ways in which culture influences human behavior, Sapir was interested in understanding how cultural patterns themselves were shaped by the composition of individual personalities that make up a society.", "This made Sapir cultivate an interest in individual psychology and his view of culture was more psychological than many of his contemporaries.", "It has been suggested that there is a close relation between Sapir's literary interests and his anthropological thought.", "His literary theory saw individual aesthetic sensibilities and creativity to interact with learned cultural traditions to produce unique and new poetic forms, echoing the way that he also saw individuals and cultural patterns to dialectically influence each other." ], [ "Breadth of languages studied", "Sapir's special focus among American languages was in the Athabaskan languages, a family which especially fascinated him.", "In a private letter, he wrote: \"Dene is probably the son-of-a-bitchiest language in America to actually ''know''...most fascinating of all languages ever invented.\"", "Sapir also studied the languages and cultures of Wishram Chinook, Navajo, Nootka, Colorado River Numic, Takelma, and Yana.", "His research on Southern Paiute, in collaboration with consultant Tony Tillohash, led to a 1933 article which would become influential in the characterization of the phoneme.Although noted for his work on American linguistics, Sapir wrote prolifically in linguistics in general.", "His book ''Language'' provides everything from a grammar-typological classification of languages (with examples ranging from Chinese to Nootka) to speculation on the phenomenon of language drift, and the arbitrariness of associations between language, race, and culture.", "Sapir was also a pioneer in Yiddish studies (his first language) in the United States (cf.", "''Notes on Judeo-German phonology'', 1915).Sapir was active in the international auxiliary language movement.", "In his paper \"The Function of an International Auxiliary Language\", he argued for the benefits of a regular grammar and advocated a critical focus on the fundamentals of language, unbiased by the idiosyncrasies of national languages, in the choice of an international auxiliary language.He was the first Research Director of the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), which presented the Interlingua conference in 1951.He directed the Association from 1930 to 1931, and was a member of its Consultative Counsel for Linguistic Research from 1927 to 1938.Sapir consulted with Alice Vanderbilt Morris to develop the research program of IALA." ], [ "Selected publications", "===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * * ===Essays and articles===* * * * * *** ** * * * * * * * ===Biographies===* * * * * ===Correspondence===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " National Academy of Sciences biography* Robert Throop and Lloyd Gordon Ward: Mead Project 2.0 at spartan.ac.brocku.ca* Interlingua: Communication Sin Frontiera.", "Biographia, Edward Sapir ***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "English" ], [ "Introduction", "'''English''' usually refers to:* English language* English people'''English''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Culture, language and peoples", "* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England* ''English'', an Amish term for non-Amish, regardless of ethnicity" ], [ "Media", "* ''English'' (2013 film), a Malayalam-language film* ''English'' (novel), a Chinese book by Wang Gang** ''English'' (2018 film), a Chinese adaptation* ''The English'' (TV series), a 2022 Western-genre miniseries" ], [ "People and fictional characters", "* English (surname), a list of people and fictional characters* English Fisher (1928–2011), American boxing coach* English Gardner (born 1992), American track and field sprinter* English McConnell (1882–1928), Irish footballer* Aiden English, a ring name of Matthew Rehwoldt (born 1987), American former professional wrestler * Ben English, stage name of Derek Hay (born 1964), British porn actor" ], [ "Places in the United States", "* English, Indiana* English, Kentucky* English, Brazoria County, Texas* English, Red River County, Texas* English, West Virginia" ], [ "Sport", "* English (cue sports term), side spin on the cue ball" ], [ "See also", "* Englisch, a surname* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Easter egg" ], [ "Introduction", "Decorated Easter eggsEaster egg of the Ukrainian variety with the Paschal greeting \"Christ is Risen!\"", "A chocolate Easter egg'''Easter eggs''', also called '''Paschal eggs''', are eggs that are decorated for the Christian feast of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus.", "As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season).", "The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to use dye and paint chicken eggs.Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected.", "In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.", "\"This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches.", "Additionally, the widespread usage of Easter eggs, according to mediaevalist scholars, is due to the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion.A modern custom in some places is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in coloured foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate." ], [ "History", "The practice of decorating eggshells is quite ancient, with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old.", "In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago.", "These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean.Red-coloured Easter egg with Christian cross, from the Saint Kosmas Aitolos Greek Orthodox MonasteryEggs in Christianity carry a Trinitarian symbolism as shell, yolk, and albumen are three parts of one egg.", "According to many sources, the Christian custom of Easter eggs was adopted from Persian Nowruz tradition into the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained them with red colouring \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion\".", "The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce.", "Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that \"use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity.", "From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe.\"", "Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dyeing the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow.Peter Gainsford maintains that the association between eggs and Easter most likely arose in western Europe during the Middle Ages as a result of the fact that Catholic Christians were prohibited from eating eggs during Lent, but were allowed to eat them when Easter arrived.Influential 19th century folklorist and philologist Jacob Grimm speculates, in the second volume of his ''Deutsche Mythologie'', that the folk custom of Easter eggs among the continental Germanic peoples may have stemmed from springtime festivities of a Germanic goddess known in Old English as Ēostre (namesake of modern English ''Easter'') and possibly known in Old High German as ''Ostara'' (and thus namesake of Modern German 'Easter').", "However, despite Grimm's speculation, there is no evidence to connect eggs with a speculative deity named Ostara.", "The use of eggs as favors or treats at Easter originated when they were prohibited during Lent.", "A common practice in England in the medieval period was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began.", "People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast.Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent.", "These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny.", "They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest." ], [ "Traditions and customs", "Croatian Easter basketBlessing of Easter foods in PolandRed coloured Easter eggs===Lenten tradition===The Easter egg tradition may also have merged into the celebration of the end of the privations of Lent.", "Traditionally, eggs are among the foods forbidden fast days, including all of Lent, an observance which continues among the Eastern Christian Churches but has fallen into disuse in Western Christianity (although something similar has recently been instituted by a few as the \"Daniel Fast\").Historically, it has been traditional to use up all of the household's eggs before Lent began.This established the tradition of Pancake Day being celebrated on Shrove Tuesday.", "This day, the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday when Lent begins, is also known as Mardi Gras, a French phrase which translates as \"Fat Tuesday\" to mark the last consumption of eggs and dairy before Lent begins.In the Orthodox Church, Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, rather than Wednesday, so the household's dairy products would be used up in the preceding week, called Cheesefare Week.Easter mona with chocolate or natural boiled eggsDuring Lent, since chickens would not stop producing eggs during this time, a larger than usual store might be available at the end of the fast.", "This surplus, if any, had to be eaten quickly to prevent spoiling.", "Then, with the coming of Easter, the eating of eggs resumes.", "Some families cook a special meatloaf with eggs in it to be eaten with the Easter dinner.One would have been forced to hard boil the eggs that the chickens produced so as not to waste food, and for this reason the Spanish dish hornazo (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard-boiled eggs as a primary ingredient.", "In Spain it is common for godparents to give a Easter mona to their godchildren during Easter period.", "In Hungary, eggs are used sliced in potato casseroles around the Easter period.===Symbolism and related customs===Some Christians symbolically link the cracking open of Easter eggs with the empty tomb of Jesus.In the Orthodox churches, Easter eggs are blessed by the priest at the end of the Paschal Vigil (which is equivalent to Holy Saturday), and distributed to the faithful.", "The egg is seen by followers of Christianity as a symbol of resurrection: while being dormant it contains a new life sealed within it.Similarly, in the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, the so-called święconka, i.e.", "blessing of decorative baskets with a sampling of Easter eggs and other symbolic foods, is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday.During Paschaltide, in some traditions the Pascal greeting with the Easter egg is even extended to the deceased.", "On either the second Monday or Tuesday of Pascha, after a memorial service people bring blessed eggs to the cemetery and bring the joyous paschal greeting, \"Christ has risen\", to their beloved departed (see Radonitza).In Greece, women traditionally dye the eggs with onion skins and vinegar on Thursday (also the day of Communion).", "These ceremonial eggs are known as kokkina avga.", "They also bake tsoureki for the Easter Sunday feast.", "Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread).In Egypt, it is a tradition to decorate boiled eggs during Sham el-Nessim holiday, which falls every year after the Eastern Christian Easter.Coincidentally, every Passover, Jews place a hard-boiled egg on the Passover ceremonial plate, and the celebrants also eat hard-boiled eggs dipped in salt water as part of the ceremony.=== Colouring ===Easter eggs before and after colouringHeated wax paint used to decorate traditional Easter Eggs in the Czech RepublicThe dyeing of Easter eggs in different colours is commonplace, with colour being achieved through boiling the egg in natural substances (such as, onion peel (brown colour), oak or alder bark or walnut nutshell (black), beet juice (pink) etc.", "), or using artificial colourings.A greater variety of colour was often provided by tying on the onion skin with different coloured woollen yarn.", "In the North of England these are called pace-eggs or paste-eggs, from a dialectal form of Middle English ''pasche''.", "King Edward I's household accounts in 1290 list an item of 'one shilling and sixpence for the decoration and distribution of 450 Pace-eggs!", "', which were to be coloured or gilded and given to members of the royal household.", "Traditionally in England, eggs were wrapped in onion skins and boiled to make their shells look like mottled gold, or wrapped in flowers and leaves first in order to leave a pattern, which parallels a custom practised in traditional Scandinavian culture.", "Eggs could also be drawn on with a wax candle before staining, often with a person's name and date on the egg.", "Pace Eggs were generally eaten for breakfast on Easter Sunday breakfast.", "Alternatively, they could be kept as decorations, used in egg-jarping (egg tapping) games, or given to Pace Eggers.", "In more recent centuries in England, eggs have been stained with coffee grains or simply boiled and painted in their shells.In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ—the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead.", "The tradition of red easter eggs was used by the Russian Orthodox Church.", "The tradition to dyeing the easter eggs in an Onion tone exists in the cultures of Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Czechia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, and Israel.", "The colour is made by boiling onion peel in water.===Patterning===When boiling them with onion skins, leaves can be attached prior to dyeing to create leaf patterns.", "The leaves are attached to the eggs before they are dyed with a transparent cloth to wrap the eggs with like inexpensive muslin or nylon stockings, leaving patterns once the leaves are removed after the dyeing process.", "These eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods.", "Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.Pysanky are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method.", "The word comes from the verb ''pysaty'', \"to write\", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax.", "Lithuanians create intricately detailed margučiai using a hot wax application and dipping method, and also by dipping the eggs first and then etching designs into the shells.Decorating eggs for Easter using wax resistant batik is a popular method in some other eastern European countries.=== Use of Easter eggs in decorations ===In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and/or painting and used as decoration around the house.", "Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying \"Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is\", breaking and eating them.", "This also happens in Georgia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, North Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine.", "In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other's egg with their own.", "The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future.In Germany, eggs decorate trees and bushes as Easter egg trees, and in several areas public wells as Osterbrunnen.There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have ''krashanky'' on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass.", "The number of the ''krashanky'' equalled the number of departed family members.File:Pysanky2011.JPG\|Ukrainian Easter eggsFile:Sorbische Ostereier.jpg\|Easter eggs from SorbsFile:Marguciai2.2007-04-21.jpg\|Easter eggs from LithuaniaFile:Sleepingbeauty.jpg\|Perforated egg from Germany, Sleeping BeautyFile:Egg dekorerte.jpg\|Norwegian Easter eggsFile:Ostereier-Griechenland.JPG\|Easter eggs from GreeceFile:Pisanki ażurowe.jpg\|Perforated eggsFile:Oeuf de paque.JPG\|Easter eggs from FranceFile:White House Easter Egg Roll.jpg\|American Easter egg from the White House Washington, D.C.File:Oeufs.jpg\|Pace eggs boiled with onion skins and leaf patterns.File:Red and blue Easter eggs.jpg\|Easter eggs decorated with strawFile:04 Easter eggs at a Cultural Miner's House in Sanok.JPG\|Easter egg from PolandFile:Washi Egg Japan US 2.png\|Washi egg from JapanPLEASE DO NOT ADD MORE PICTURES TO THIS GALLERY BECAUSE THIS GALLERY HAS REACHED ITS MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF PICTURES" ], [ "Easter egg games", "Easter egg hunt=== Egg hunts ===An egg hunt is a game in which decorated eggs, which may be hard-boiled chicken eggs, chocolate eggs, or artificial eggs containing candies, are hidden for children to find.", "The eggs often vary in size, and may be hidden both indoors and outdoors.", "When the hunt is over, prizes may be given for the largest number of eggs collected, or for the largest or the smallest egg.Some central European nations (Czechs and Slovaks etc.)", "have a tradition of gathering eggs by gaining them from the females in return of whipping them with a pony-tail shaped whip made out of fresh willow branches and splashing them with water, by the Ruthenians called ''polivanja'', which is supposed to give them health and beauty.Cascarones, a Latin American tradition now shared by many US States with high Hispanic demographics, are emptied and dried chicken eggs stuffed with confetti and sealed with a piece of tissue paper.", "The eggs are hidden in a similar tradition to the American Easter egg hunt and when found the children (and adults) break them over each other's heads.In order to enable children to take part in egg hunts despite visual impairment, eggs have been created that emit various clicks, beeps, noises, or music so that visually impaired children can easily hunt for Easter eggs.=== Egg rolling ===Egg rolling is also a traditional Easter Egg game played with eggs at Easter.", "In the United Kingdom, Germany, and other countries children traditionally rolled eggs down hillsides at Easter.", "This tradition was taken to the New World by European settlers, and continues to this day each Easter with an Easter egg roll on the White House lawn.", "Rutherford B. Hayes started the tradition of the Easter Egg Roll at the White House.", "The Easter Monday Egg Roll was normally held at the United States Capitol, however, by the mid-1870s, Congress passed a law forbidding the Capitol's grounds to be used for the activity due to the toll it was taking on the landscape.", "The law was enforced in 1877, but the rain that year canceled all outdoor activities.", "In 1878, Hayes was approached by many young Easter Egg rollers who asked for the event to be held at the White House.", "He invited any children who wanted to roll eggs to come to the White House in order to do so.", "The tradition still occurs every year on the South Lawn of the White House.", "Now, there are many other games and activities that take place such as \"Egg Picking\" and \"Egg Ball\".", "Different nations have different versions of the Easter Egg roll game.=== Egg tapping ===Eggs after an egg tapping competition (red wins)In the North of England, during Eastertide, a traditional game is played where hard boiled ''pace eggs'' are distributed and each player hits the other player's egg with their own.", "This is known as \"egg tapping\", \"egg dumping\", or \"egg jarping\".", "The winner is the holder of the last intact egg.", "The annual egg jarping world championship is held every year over Easter in Peterlee, Durham.It is also practiced in Italy (where it is called ''scuccetta''), Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia (where it is called ''turčanje'' or ''trkanje''), Ukraine, Russia, and other countries.", "In parts of Austria, Bavaria and German-speaking Switzerland it is called ''Ostereiertitschen'' or ''Eierpecken''.", "In parts of Europe it is also called ''epper'', presumably from the German name , meaning \"offering\" and in Greece it is known as ''tsougrisma''.", "In South Louisiana, this practice is called pocking eggs and is slightly different.", "The Louisiana Creoles hold that the winner eats the eggs of the losers in each round.In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings.=== Egg dance ===Egg dance is a traditional Easter game in which eggs are laid on the ground or floor and the goal is to dance among them without damaging any eggs which originated in Germany.=== Pace egg plays ===The Pace Egg plays are traditional village plays, with a rebirth theme.", "The drama takes the form of a combat between the hero and villain, in which the hero is killed and brought back to life.", "The plays take place in England during Easter.In some countries like Sweden, Norway, Poland and Germany eggs are used as a table decoration hanging on a tree-branch." ], [ "Variants", "=== Chocolate ===Chocolate eggs first appeared at the court of Louis XIV in Versailles and in 1725 the widow Giambone in Turin started producing chocolate eggs by filling empty chicken egg shells with molten chocolate.", "In 1873, J.S.", "Fry & Sons produced the first hollow chocolate egg using egg moulds.", "Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, Cadbury created the modern chocolate Easter egg after developing a pure cocoa butter that could be moulded into smooth shapes.In Western cultures, the giving of chocolate eggs is now commonplace, with 80 million Easter eggs sold in the UK alone.", "Formerly, the containers Easter eggs were sold in contained large amounts of plastic, although in the United Kingdom this has gradually been replaced with recyclable paper and cardboard.File:Easter-Chocolate-egg-bunny.jpg\|Chocolate Easter egg bunnyFile:Easter egg with candy.jpg\|Easter egg with candyFile:Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny.jpg\|Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny with Easter eggs=== Marzipan eggs ===In the Indian state of Goa, the Goan Catholic version of marzipan is used to make easter eggs.", "In the Philippines, mazapán de pili (Spanish for \"pili marzipan\") is made from pili nuts.File:Marzipan easter eggs.jpg\|Marzipan easter eggs=== Artificial eggs ===The jewelled Easter eggs made by the Fabergé firm for the two last Russian Tsars are regarded as masterpieces of decorative arts.", "Most of these creations themselves contained hidden surprises such as clock-work birds, or miniature ships.In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries' folk traditions, Easter eggs are carved from wood and hand-painted, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common.Easter eggs are frequently depicted in sculpture, including a sculpture of a pysanka standing in Vegreville, Alberta.File:Fabergé egg Rome 05.JPG\|Fabergé eggFile:Huevo de chocolate en Bariloche (Argentina).jpg\|Giant easter egg, Bariloche, ArgentinaFile:Vegreville Pysanka.jpg\|Giant pysanka from Vegreville, Alberta, CanadaFile:Zagrebacko uskrsnje jaje 4 050409.jpg\|Giant easter egg or ''pisanica'' in Zagreb, CroatiaFile:Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin 2014 P01.JPG\|Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin, PolandFile:Oul uriaş din Suceava2.jpg\|Giant easter egg in Suceava, Romania" ], [ "Legends", "Maria Magdalene, 1899 by Viktor M. Vasnetsov, depicted as one of the Myrrhbearers===Christian traditions===While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ.A different, but not necessarily conflicting legend concerns Mary Magdalene's efforts to spread the Gospel.", "According to this tradition, after the Ascension of Jesus, Mary went to the Emperor of Rome and greeted him with \"Christ has risen,\" whereupon he pointed to an egg on his table and stated, \"Christ has no more risen than that egg is red.\"", "After making this statement it is said the egg immediately turned blood red.Red Easter eggs, known as () in Greece and ''krashanki'' in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples.", "The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods.", "Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross.", "The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia.In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil.", "The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them.=== Parallels in other faiths ===Eggs at the Iranian NowruzThe egg is widely used as a symbol of the start of new life, just as new life emerges from an egg when the chick hatches out.Painted eggs are used at the Iranian spring holidays, the Nowruz that marks the first day of spring or Equinox, and the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar.", "It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous/following day depending on where it is observed.", "The painted eggs symbolize fertility and are displayed on the Nowruz table, called Haft-Seen together with various other symbolic objects.", "There are sometimes one egg for each member of the family.", "The ancient Zoroastrians painted eggs for Nowruz, their New Year celebration, which falls on the Spring equinox.", "The tradition continues among Persians of Islamic, Zoroastrian, and other faiths today.", "The Nowruz tradition has existed for at least 2,500 years.", "The sculptures on the walls of Persepolis show people carrying eggs for Nowruz to the king.The Neopagan holiday of Ostara occurs at roughly the same time as Easter.", "While it is often claimed that the use of painted eggs is an ancient, pre-Christian component of the celebration of Ostara, there are no historical accounts that ancient celebrations included this practice, apart from the Old High German lullaby which is believed by most to be a modern fabrication.", "Rather, the use of painted eggs has been adopted under the assumption that it might be a pre-Christian survival.", "In fact, modern scholarship has been unable to trace any association between eggs and a supposed goddess named Ostara before the 19th century, when early folklorists began to speculate about the possibility.There are good grounds for the association between hares (later termed Easter bunnies) and bird eggs, through folklore confusion between hares' forms (where they raise their young) and plovers' nests.In Judaism, a hard-boiled egg is an element of the Passover Seder, representing festival sacrifice.", "The children's game of hunting for the afikomen (a half-piece of matzo) has similarities to the Easter egg hunt tradition, by which the child who finds the hidden matzah will be awarded a prize.", "In other homes, the children hide the afikoman and a parent must look for it; when the parents give up, the children demand a prize for revealing its location." ], [ "See also", " Balut* Century egg* Chinese red eggs* Cascarón* Easter Bilby* Egg decorating in Slavic culture* Festum Ovorum* Kinder Surprise* List of egg dishes* List of foods with religious symbolism* Resurrection of Jesus* Salted duck egg* Sham El Nessim* Smoked egg* Tea egg* Vegreville egg* Washi eggs" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Easter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Easter''', also called '''Pascha''' (Aramaic, Greek, Latin) or '''Resurrection Sunday''', is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary .", "It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus Christ, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a 40-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance.Easter-observing Christians commonly refer to the week before Easter as Holy Week, which in Western Christianity begins on Palm Sunday (marking the entrance of Jesus in Jerusalem), includes Spy Wednesday (on which the betrayal of Jesus is mourned), and contains the days of the Easter Triduum including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper, as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus.", "In Eastern Christianity, the same days and events are commemorated with the names of days all starting with \"Holy\" or \"Holy and Great\"; and Easter itself might be called \"Great and Holy Pascha\", \"Easter Sunday\", \"Pascha\" or \"Sunday of Pascha\".", "In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the 50th day, Pentecost Sunday.", "In Eastern Christianity, the Paschal season ends with Pentecost as well, but the leave-taking of the Great Feast of Pascha is on the 39th day, the day before the Feast of the Ascension.Easter and its related holidays are moveable feasts, not falling on a fixed date; its date is computed based on a lunisolar calendar (solar year plus Moon phase) similar to the Hebrew calendar.", "The First Council of Nicaea (325) established only two rules, namely independence from the Hebrew calendar and worldwide uniformity.", "No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies.", "It has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March.", "Even if calculated on the basis of the Gregorian calendar, the date of that full moon sometimes differs from that of the astronomical first full moon after the March equinox.The English term is derived from the Saxon spring festival ''Ēostre''; Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by its name (Hebrew: ''pesach'', Aramaic: ''pascha'' are the basis of the term Pascha), by its origin (according to the synoptic Gospels, both the crucifixion and the resurrection took place during the week of Passover) and by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar.", "In most European languages, both the Christian Easter and the Jewish Passover are called by the same name; and in the older English versions of the Bible, as well, the term Easter was used to translate Passover.", "Easter traditions vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services or late-night vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, flowering the cross, the wearing of Easter bonnets by women, clipping the church, and the decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb).", "The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Western Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide.", "Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include Easter parades, communal dancing (Eastern Europe), the Easter Bunny and egg hunting.", "There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture." ], [ "Etymology", "The modern English term ''Easter'', cognate with modern Dutch and German , developed from an Old English word that usually appears in the form , , or ; but also as , ; and or .", "Bede provides the only documentary source for the etymology of the word, in his eighth-century ''The Reckoning of Time''.", "He wrote that (Old English for 'Month of Ēostre', translated in Bede's time as \"Paschal month\") was an English month, corresponding to April, which he says \"was once called after a goddess of theirs named Ēostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month\".In Latin and Greek, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called (Greek: ), a word derived from Aramaic (), cognate to the Hebrew ().", "The word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt.", "As early as the 50s of the 1st century, Paul the Apostle, writing from Ephesus to the Christians in Corinth, applied the term to Christ, and it is unlikely that the Ephesian and Corinthian Christians were the first to hear Exodus 12 interpreted as speaking about the death of Jesus, not just about the Jewish Passover ritual.", "In most languages, Germanic languages such as English being exceptions, the feast is known by names derived from the Greek and Latin .", "Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration.", "Others call the holiday \"Resurrection Sunday\" or \"Resurrection Day\", after the Greek day." ], [ "Theological significance", "Easter celebrates Jesus' supernatural resurrection from the dead, which is one of the chief tenets of the Christian faith.", "Paul writes that, for those who trust in Jesus's death and resurrection, \"death is swallowed up in victory.\"", "The First Epistle of Peter declares that God has given believers \"a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead\".", "Christian theology holds that, through faith in the working of God, those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation, and can hope to be physically resurrected to dwell with him in the Kingdom of Heaven.Easter is linked to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection.", "According to the three Synoptic Gospels, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the upper room during the Last Supper he prepared himself and his disciples for his death.", "He identified the bread and cup of wine as his body, soon to be sacrificed, and his blood, soon to be shed.", "The Apostle Paul states, in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, \"Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast—as you really are.", "For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed.\"", "This refers to the requirement in Jewish law that Jews eliminate all , or leavening, from their homes in advance of Passover, and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb." ], [ "Early Christianity", "The Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples.", "The early Christians, too, would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus's death and subsequent resurrection.As the Gospels assert that both the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus during the week of Passover, the first Christians timed the observance of the annual celebration of the resurrections in relation to Passover.", "Direct evidence for a more fully formed Christian festival of Pascha (Easter) begins to appear in the mid-2nd century.", "Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd-century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one.", "Evidence for another kind of annually recurring Christian festival, those commemorating the martyrs, began to appear at about the same time as the above homily.While martyrs' days (usually the individual dates of martyrdom) were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish lunisolar calendar.", "This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish, period, but does not leave the question free of doubt.The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of pre-Christian custom, \"just as many other customs have been established\", stating that neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival.", "Although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed." ], [ "Date", "Passover Lamb, a concept integral to the foundation of EasterEaster and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons).", "Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar.", "The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council.", "No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies.", "(See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.)", "In particular, the Council did not decree that Easter must fall on Sunday, but this was already the practice almost everywhere.In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a Sunday between 22 March and 25 April, within about seven days after the astronomical full moon.", "The following day, Easter Monday, is a legal holiday in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions.Eastern Orthodox Christians base Paschal date calculations on the Julian calendar.", "Because of the thirteen-day difference between the calendars between 1900 and 2099, 21 March corresponds, during the 21st century, to 3 April in the Gregorian calendar.", "Since the Julian calendar is no longer used as the civil calendar of the countries where Eastern Christian traditions predominate, Easter varies between 4 April and 8 May in the Gregorian calendar.", "Because the Julian \"full moon\" is always several days after the astronomical full moon, the Eastern Easter is also often later, relative to the visible lunar phases, than Western Easter.Among the Oriental Orthodox, some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter, as for other fixed and moveable feasts, is the same as in the Western church.=== Computations ===Icon of the Resurrection by an unknown 17th-century Bulgarian artistIn 725, Bede succinctly wrote, \"The Sunday following the full Moon which falls on or after the equinox will give the lawful Easter.\"", "However, this does not precisely reflect the ecclesiastical rules.", "The full moon referred to (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but the 14th day of a lunar month.", "Another difference is that the astronomical equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on 19, 20 or 21 March, while the ecclesiastical date is fixed by convention on 21 March.In addition, the lunar tables of the Julian calendar are currently five days behind those of the Gregorian calendar.", "Therefore, the Julian computation of the Paschal full moon is a full five days later than the astronomical full moon.", "The result of this combination of solar and lunar discrepancies is divergence in the date of Easter in most years (see table).Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles.", "The lunar year consists of 30-day and 29-day lunar months, generally alternating, with an embolismic month added periodically to bring the lunar cycle into line with the solar cycle.", "In each solar year (1 January to 31 December inclusive), the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling in the 29-day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive is designated as the paschal lunar month for that year.Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the paschal lunar month's 14th day.", "The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days.", "Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls on a date from 8 March to 5 April inclusive, the paschal full moon (the 14th of that lunar month) must fall on a date from 22 March to 18 April inclusive.The Gregorian calculation of Easter was based on a method devised by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio) for adjusting the epacts of the Moon, and has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries which celebrate national holidays at Easter.", "For the British Empire and colonies, a determination of the date of Easter Sunday using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe.", "This was designed to match exactly the Gregorian calculation.=== Controversies over the date ===A five-part Russian Orthodox icon depicting the Easter story.", "Eastern Orthodox Christians use a different computation for the date of Easter than the Western churches.The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter of contention.", "By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that the celebration of the holiday was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition.", "The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Easter controversies, arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated.The term \"Quartodeciman\" refers to the practice of ending the Lenten fast on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, \"the 's passover\".", "According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Apostle) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome).", "The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread), wishing to associate Easter with Sunday.", "Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled.Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism.", "According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday.", "Polycrates (), however, wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism.", "Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus.Quartodecimanism seems to have lingered into the 4th century, when Socrates of Constantinople recorded that some Quartodecimans were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom and that some were harassed by Nestorius.It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice continued.", "But both those who followed the Nisan 14 custom, and those who set Easter to the following Sunday, had in common the custom of consulting their Jewish neighbors to learn when the month of Nisan would fall, and setting their festival accordingly.", "By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with the custom of relying on the Jewish community to determine the date of Easter.", "The chief complaint was that the Jewish communities sometimes erred in setting Passover to fall before the Northern Hemisphere spring equinox.", "The Sardica paschal table confirms these complaints, for it indicates that the Jews of some eastern Mediterranean city (possibly Antioch) fixed Nisan 14 on dates well before the spring equinox on multiple occasions.Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations.", "Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error.=== First Council of Nicaea (325 AD) ===''The Resurrection of Jesus Christ'', fresco by Piero della Francesca, 1463This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common.", "This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used.", "Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:Canons and sermons condemning the custom of computing Easter's date based on the Jewish calendar indicate that this custom (called \"protopaschite\" by historians) did not die out at once, but persisted for a time after the Council of Nicaea.Dionysius Exiguus, and others following him, maintained that the 318 bishops assembled at Nicaea had specified a particular method of determining the date of Easter; subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition.", "In any case, in the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative.", "The Alexandrian system, however, was not immediately adopted throughout Christian Europe.", "Following Augustalis' treatise (On the Measurement of Easter), Rome retired the earlier 8-year cycle in favor of Augustalis' 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle, which it used until 457.It then switched to Victorius of Aquitaine's adaptation of the Alexandrian system.Because this Victorian cycle differed from the unmodified Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal full moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative \"Latin\" and \"Greek\" dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued.", "The Alexandrian rules were adopted in the West following the tables of Dionysius Exiguus in 525.Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle.", "From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive.", "This 84-year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries.", "Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method.", "Since 1582, when the Roman Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while most of Europe used the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed.The Greek island of Syros, whose population is divided almost equally between Catholics and Orthodox, is one of the few places where the two Churches share a common date for Easter, with the Catholics accepting the Orthodox date—a practice helping considerably in maintaining good relations between the two communities.", "Conversely, Orthodox Christians in Finland celebrate Easter according to the Western Christian date.=== Proposed reforms of the date ===In the 20th and 21st centuries, some individuals and institutions have propounded changing the method of calculating the date for Easter, the most prominent proposal being the Sunday after the second Saturday in April.", "Despite having some support, proposals to reform the date have not been implemented.", "An Orthodox congress of Eastern Orthodox bishops, which included representatives mostly from the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Serbian Patriarch, met in Constantinople in 1923, where the bishops agreed to the Revised Julian calendar.The original form of this calendar would have determined Easter using precise astronomical calculations based on the meridian of Jerusalem.", "However, all the Eastern Orthodox countries that subsequently adopted the Revised Julian calendar adopted only that part of the revised calendar that applied to festivals falling on fixed dates in the Julian calendar.", "The revised Easter computation that had been part of the original 1923 agreement was never permanently implemented in any Orthodox diocese.In the United Kingdom, Parliament passed the Easter Act 1928 to change the date of Easter to be the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April (or, in other words, the Sunday in the period from 9 to 15 April).", "However, the legislation has not been implemented, although it remains on the Statute book and could be implemented, subject to approval by the various Christian churches.At a summit in Aleppo, Syria, in 1997, the World Council of Churches (WCC) proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced the present divergent practices of calculating Easter with modern scientific knowledge taking into account actual astronomical instances of the spring equinox and full moon based on the meridian of Jerusalem, while also following the tradition of Easter being on the Sunday following the full moon.", "The recommended World Council of Churches changes would have sidestepped the calendar issues and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches.", "The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, and despite repeated calls for reform, it was not ultimately adopted by any member body.In January 2016, the Anglican Communion, Coptic Orthodox Church, Greek Orthodox Church, and Roman Catholic Church again considered agreeing on a common, universal date for Easter, while also simplifying the calculation of that date, with either the second or third Sunday in April being popular choices.In November 2022, the Patriarch of Constantinople said that conversations between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Churches had begun to determine a common date for the celebration of Easter.", "The agreement is expected to be reached for the 1700th anniversary of the Council of Nicaea in 2025.=== Table of the dates of Easter by Gregorian and Julian calendars ===The WCC presented comparative data of the relationships:" ], [ "Position in the church year", "=== Western Christianity ===In most branches of Western Christianity, Easter is preceded by Lent, a period of penitence that begins on Ash Wednesday, lasts 40 days (not counting Sundays), and is often marked with fasting.", "The week before Easter, known as Holy Week, is an important time for observers to commemorate the final week of Jesus' life on earth.", "The Sunday before Easter is Palm Sunday, with the Wednesday before Easter being known as Spy Wednesday (or Holy Wednesday).", "The last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday (sometimes referred to as Silent Saturday).Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the Last Supper and the crucifixion.", "Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum (Latin for \"Three Days\").", "Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the Easter Vigil.The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called Easter Week or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with \"Easter\", e.g.", "Easter Monday (a public holiday in many countries), Easter Tuesday (a much less widespread public holiday), etc.", "Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday ''after'' Easter Sunday.", "The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday.", "Eastertide, or Paschaltide, the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of Pentecost, seven weeks later.=== Eastern Christianity ===In Eastern Christianity, the spiritual preparation for Easter/Pascha begins with Great Lent, which starts on Clean Monday and lasts for 40 continuous days (including Sundays).", "Great Lent ends on a Friday, and the next day is Lazarus Saturday.", "The Vespers which begins Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues through the following week.The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, which is the last service of the Lenten Triodion and is timed so that it ends a little before midnight on Holy Saturday night.", "At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins, consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy.The liturgical season from Easter to the Sunday of All Saints (the Sunday after Pentecost) is known as the Pentecostarion (the \"50 days\").", "The week which begins on Easter Sunday is called Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday.", "The Afterfeast of Easter lasts 39 days, with its Apodosis (leave-taking) on the day before the Feast of the Ascension.", "Pentecost Sunday is the 50th day from Easter (counted inclusively).", "In the Pentecostarion published by Apostoliki Diakonia of the Church of Greece, the Great Feast Pentecost is noted in the synaxarion portion of Matins to be the 8th Sunday of Pascha.", "However, the Paschal greeting of \"Christ is risen!\"", "is no longer exchanged among the faithful after the Apodosis of Pascha." ], [ "Liturgical observance", "Christian worshippers attend an Easter Sunday church service at St James's Church in London.", "The cross in the chancel is draped with a white shroud, symbolizing the resurrection.=== Western Christianity ===The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians.", "The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and some Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil which follows an ancient liturgy involving symbols of light, candles and water and numerous readings form the Old and New Testament.Services continue on Easter Sunday and in a number of countries on Easter Monday.", "In parishes of the Moravian Church, as well as some other denominations such as the Methodist Churches, there is a tradition of Easter Sunrise Services often starting in cemeteries in remembrance of the biblical narrative in the Gospels, or other places in the open where the sunrise is visible.In some traditions, Easter services typically begin with the Paschal greeting: \"Christ is risen!\"", "The response is: \"He is risen indeed.", "Alleluia!", "\"=== Eastern Christianity ===flash-illuminated; all electric lighting is off, and only the oil lamps in front of the Iconostasis remain lit.", "(St. George Greek Orthodox Church, Adelaide).Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholics and Byzantine Rite Lutherans have a similar emphasis on Easter in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar.Preparation for Easter begins with the season of Great Lent, which begins on Clean Monday.", "While the end of Lent is Lazarus Saturday, fasting does not end until Easter Sunday.", "The Orthodox service begins late Saturday evening, observing the Jewish tradition that evening is the start of liturgical holy days.The church is darkened, then the priest lights a candle at midnight, representing the resurrection of Jesus Christ.", "Altar servers light additional candles, with a procession which moves three times around the church to represent the three days in the tomb.", "The service continues early into Sunday morning, with a feast to end the fasting.", "An additional service is held later that day on Easter Sunday.=== Non-observing Christian groups ===Many Puritans saw traditional feasts of the established Anglican Church, such as All Saints' Day and Easter, as abominations because the Bible does not mention them.", "Conservative Reformed denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America likewise reject the celebration of Easter as a violation of the regulative principle of worship and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin.Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), as part of their historic ''testimony against times and seasons'', do not celebrate or observe Easter or any traditional feast days of the established Church, believing instead that \"every day is the Lord's Day,\" and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days.", "During the 17th and 18th centuries, Quakers were persecuted for this non-observance of Holy Days.Groups such as the Restored Church of God reject the celebration of Easter, seeing it as originating in a pagan spring festival adopted by the Roman Catholic Church.Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a similar view, observing a yearly commemorative service of the Last Supper and the subsequent execution of Christ on the evening of Nisan 14 (as they calculate the dates derived from the lunar Hebrew calendar).", "It is commonly referred to by many Witnesses as simply \"The Memorial\".", "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that such verses as and constitute a commandment to remember the death of Christ though not the resurrection." ], [ "Easter celebrations around the world", "In countries where Christianity is a state religion, or those with large Christian populations, Easter is often a public holiday.", "As Easter always falls on a Sunday, many countries in the world also recognize Easter Monday as a public holiday.", "Some retail stores, shopping malls, and restaurants are closed on Easter Sunday.", "Good Friday, which occurs two days before Easter Sunday, is also a public holiday in many countries, as well as in 12 U.S. states.", "Even in states where Good Friday is not a holiday, many financial institutions, stock markets, and public schools are closed – the few banks that are normally open on regular Sundays are closed on Easter.Boris Kustodiev's ''Pascha Greetings'' (1912) shows traditional Russian ''khristosovanie'' (exchanging a triple kiss), with such foods as red eggs, kulich and paskha in the background.In the Nordic countries Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Easter Monday are public holidays, and Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays.", "In Denmark, Iceland and Norway Maundy Thursday is also a public holiday.", "It is a holiday for most workers, except those operating some shopping malls which keep open for a half-day.", "Many businesses give their employees almost a week off, called Easter break.", "Schools are closed between Palm Sunday and Easter Monday.", "According to a 2014 poll, 6 of 10 Norwegians travel during Easter, often to a countryside cottage; 3 of 10 said their typical Easter included skiing.In the Netherlands both Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are national holidays.", "Like first and second Christmas Day, they are ''both'' considered Sundays, which results in a first and a second Easter Sunday, after which the week continues to a Tuesday.In Greece Good Friday and Saturday as well as Easter Sunday and Monday are traditionally observed public holidays.", "It is custom for employees of the public sector to receive Easter bonuses as a gift from the state.In Commonwealth nations Easter Day is rarely a public holiday, as is the case for celebrations which fall on a Sunday.", "In the United Kingdom both Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays, except for Scotland, where only Good Friday is a bank holiday.", "In Canada, Easter Monday is a statutory holiday for federal employees.", "In the Canadian province of Quebec, either Good Friday or Easter Monday are statutory holidays (although most companies give both).In Australia, Easter is associated with harvest time.", "Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays across all states and territories.", "\"Easter Saturday\" (the Saturday before Easter Sunday) is a public holiday in every state except Tasmania and Western Australia, while Easter Sunday itself is a public holiday only in New South Wales.", "Easter Tuesday is additionally a conditional public holiday in Tasmania, varying between award, and was also a public holiday in Victoria until 1994.In the United States, because Easter falls on a Sunday, which is already a non-working day for federal and state employees, it has not been designated as a federal or state holiday.", "Easter parades are held in many American cities, involving festive strolling processions.=== Easter eggs ======= Traditional customs ====The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth.", "In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection.", "The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion.", "As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb.", "The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs.In the Eastern Orthodox Church Easter eggs are blessed by a priest both in families' baskets together with other foods forbidden during Great Lent and alone for distribution or in church or elsewhere.File:Pasxalina abga.jpg\|Traditional red Easter eggs for blessing by a priestFile:2004 Velikden Pascha Gorazd Andrej Timkovic Presov monastyr.jpg\|A priest blessing baskets with Easter eggs and other foods forbidden during Great LentFile:Expedition 51 Soyuz Blessing (NHQ201704190004).jpg\|A priest distributing blessed Easter eggs after blessing the Soyuz rocketEaster eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life among the Eastern Orthodox but also in folk traditions in Slavic countries and elsewhere.", "A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs.", "The celebrated House of Fabergé workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916.==== Modern customs ====A modern custom in the Western world is to substitute decorated chocolate, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jellybeans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent.File:Easter eggs - straw decoration.jpg\|Easter eggs, a symbol of the empty tomb, are a popular cultural symbol of Easter.File:Candy eggs in an Easter basket.JPG\|Marshmallow rabbits, candy eggs and other treats in an Easter basketFile:Easter-egg-3195.jpg\|An Easter egg decorated with the Easter BunnyManufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, British chocolate company Cadbury sponsors the annual Easter egg hunt which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the United Kingdom.", "On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children.===== Easter Bunny =====In some traditions, the children put out their empty baskets for the Easter bunny to fill while they sleep.", "They wake to find their baskets filled with candy eggs and other treats.", "A custom originating in Germany, the Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic Easter gift-giving character analogous to Santa Claus in American culture.", "Many children around the world follow the tradition of coloring hard-boiled eggs and giving baskets of candy.", "Historically, foxes, cranes and storks were also sometimes named as the mystical creatures.", "Since the rabbit is a pest in Australia, the Easter Bilby is available as an alternative." ], [ "Music", "* Marc-Antoine Charpentier: ''Messe pour le samedi de Pâques'', for soloists, chorus and continuo, H.8 (1690).", " ''Prose pour le jour de Pâques'', for 3 voices and continuo, H.13 (1670) ''Chant joyeux du temps de Pâques'', for soloists, chorus, 2 treble viols, and continuo, H.339 (1685).", " ''O filii à 3 voix pareilles'', for 3 voices, 2 flutes, and continuo, H.312 (1670).", " ''Pour Pâques'', for 2 voices, 2 flutes, and continuo, H.308 (1670).", " ''O filii pour les voix, violons, flûtes et orgue'', for soloists, chorus, flutes, strings, and continuo, H.356 (1685?).", "* Louis-Nicolas Clérambault: ''Motet pour le Saint jour de Pâques'', in F major, opus 73* André Campra: ''Au Christ triomphant'', cantata for Easter* Dieterich Buxtehude: Cantatas BuxWV 15 and BuxWV 62* Carl Heinrich Graun: ''Easter Oratorio''* Henrich Biber: ''Missa Christi resurgentis'' C.3 (1674)* Michael Praetorius: ''Easter Mass''* Johann Sebastian Bach: ''Christ lag in Todesbanden'', BWV 4; ''Der Himmel lacht!", "Die Erde jubilieret'', BWV 31; ''Oster-Oratorium'', BWV 249.", "* Georg Philipp Telemann: more than 100 cantatas for Eastertide.", "* Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens: ''Sonata n° 2 \"O Filii\", Sonata n° 3 \"Pascale\"'', for organ.", "* Charles Gounod: ''Messe solennelle de Pâques'' (1883).", "* Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: ''La Grande Pâque russe'', symphonic overture (1888).", "* Sergueï Vassilievitch Rachmaninov: ''Suite pour deux pianos n°1 – Pâques'', op.", "5, n° 4 (1893)." ], [ "See also", "* Divine Mercy Sunday* Life of Jesus in the New Testament* List of Easter films* List of Easter hymns* List of Easter television episodes* Movable Eastern Christian Observances* Regina Caeli* :Category:Film portrayals of Jesus' death and resurrection" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Greek words (Wiktionary): Πάσχα (Easter) vs. πάσχα (Passover) vs. πάσχω (to suffer)===Liturgical===* Liturgical Resources for Easter* Holy Pascha: The Resurrection of Our Lord (Orthodox icon and synaxarion)===Traditions===* Roman Catholic View of Easter (from the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'')===Calculating===* A Perpetual Easter and Passover Calculator Julian and Gregorian Easter for any year plus other info* Orthodox Paschal Calculator Julian Easter and associated festivals in Gregorian calendar 1583–4099" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euphoria (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euphoria''' is an emotional and mental state defined as a sense of great happiness and well-being.", "'''Euphoria''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Biology", "* ''Euphoria'' (beetle), a genus of scarab beetles* ''Euphoria'', a genus name previously used for the longan and other trees" ], [ "Music", "=== Groups ===* Euphoria (American band), a folk-rock/sunshine pop band from New York, or their eponymous 1969 album* Euphoria (Australian band), a 1990s Australian pop/dance trio* Euphoria (Canadian band), an active Canadian dance music project, or their eponymous 1999 album* Euphoria (Indian band), an active Indian rock group formed in 1989* Eu Phoria, a Japanese all-girl pop/rock band formed in 2002=== Albums ===* ''Euphoria'' (Claire Richards album), 2023* ''Euphoria'' (CNBLUE album), 2016* ''Euphoria'' (Dead Man album) or the title song, 2008* ''Euphoria'' (Def Leppard album), 1999* ''Euphoria'' (Enrique Iglesias album), 2010* ''Euphoria'' (Leftover Salmon album) or the title song, 1997* ''Euphoria'' (Ruslana album), 2012* ''Euphoria'' (Vinnie Vincent album) or the title song, 1997* ''Euphoria'' (compilations), a dance-music series, 1999–2004* ''Euphoria'', by Surfact, 2009* ''Euphoria (Original Score from the HBO Series)'', by Labrinth, 2019* ''Euforia'' (La Mafia album), 1998* ''Euforia – Helen Sjöholm sjunger Billy Joel'', or the title song, by Helen Sjöholm, 2010=== Songs ===* \"Euphoria\" (Angels & Airwaves song), 2021* \"Euphoria\" (BTS song), 2018* \"Euphoria\" (Loreen song), Swedish entry and winner of Eurovision 2012* \"Euphoria\" (The Perry Twins song), 2018* \"Euphoria\" (Usher song), 2012* \"Euphoria\", by Collide from ''Some Kind of Strange'', 2003* \"Euphoria\", by DJ Tiësto from ''Parade of the Athletes'', 2004* \"Euphoria\", by Don Toliver from ''Heaven or Hell'', 2020* \"Euphoria\", by Killing Joke from ''Pylon'', 2015* \"Euphoria\", by Kyle Ward from the video game series ''In the Groove''* \"Euphoria\", by Muse from ''Will of the People'', 2022* \"Euphoria\", by Sarah Slean from ''The Baroness'', 2008* \"Euphoria\", by Sirenia from ''An Elixir for Existence'', 2004* \"Euphoria\", by W.A.S.P.", "from ''Unholy Terror'', 2001* \"Euphoria\", by the Youngbloods from ''Earth Music'', 1968* \"Euphoria\", by the Holy Modal Rounders from their self-titled first album, 1964* \"Euphoria (Firefly)\", by Delerium from ''Karma'', 1997* \"Euphoria\", by Michael Jackson from ''Music & Me'', 1973* \"Euforia\" (song), a 2023 song by Annalisa" ], [ "Film and television", "''Euphoria'' (2006 film), a 2006 Russian dramatic film by Ivan Vyrypaev''Euphoria'' (2017 film), a 2017 film by Swedish director Lisa Langseth''Euphoria'' (2018 film), a 2018 Italian film''Euphoria'' (Israeli TV series), a 2012–2013 Israeli television series''Euphoria'' (American TV series), a 2019 American series based on the Israeli series\"Euphoria, Part 1\" and \"Euphoria, Part 2\" (2006), a two-part episode of the American television series ''House''''Eufòria'', a Catalan music talent show" ], [ "Computing", " Euphoria (software), a game animation engine software by NaturalMotion* Euphoria (programming language), an interpreted programming language" ], [ "Sports", "* New York Euphoria (formerly \"Team Euphoria\"), a team in the Lingerie Football League* WWC Euphoria, an event of World Wrestling Council* Euforia (wrestler) (born 1974), Mexican professional wrestler" ], [ "Others", "* 4-Methylaminorex (commonly known as \"Euphoria\" or \"U4EA\"), a stimulant drug with effects comparable to methamphetamine* ''Euphoria'', a 2014 novel by Lily King" ], [ "See also", "* Euphoric (disambiguation)* ''Euphorbia'', a plant genus''UFOria'', 1985 American comedy film Uforia Audio Network, American radio network* ''Ufouria: The Saga'', 1991 video game" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euclid" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Euclid''' (; ; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician.", "Considered the \"father of geometry\", he is chiefly known for the ''Elements'' treatise, which established the foundations of geometry that largely dominated the field until the early 19th century.", "His system, now referred to as Euclidean geometry, involved new innovations in combination with a synthesis of theories from earlier Greek mathematicians, including Eudoxus of Cnidus, Hippocrates of Chios, and Theaetetus.", "With Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga, Euclid is generally considered among the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, and one of the most influential in the history of mathematics.Very little is known of Euclid's life, and most information comes from the scholars Proclus and Pappus of Alexandria many centuries later.", "Medieval Islamic mathematicians invented a fanciful biography, and medieval Byzantine and early Renaissance scholars mistook him for the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara.", "It is now generally accepted that he spent his career in Alexandria and lived around 300 BC, after Plato's students and before Archimedes.", "There is some speculation that Euclid studied at the Platonic Academy and later taught at the Musaeum; he is regarded as bridging the earlier Platonic tradition in Athens with the later tradition of Alexandria.In the ''Elements'', Euclid deduced the theorems from a small set of axioms.", "He also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour.", "In addition to the ''Elements'', Euclid wrote a central early text in the optics field, ''Optics'', and lesser-known works including ''Data'' and ''Phaenomena''.", "Euclid's authorship of two other texts—''On Divisions of Figures'', ''Catoptrics''—has been questioned.", "He is thought to have written many now lost works." ], [ "Life", "===Traditional narrative===Detail of Raphael's impression of Euclid, teaching students in ''The School of Athens'' (1509–1511)The English name 'Euclid' is the anglicized version of the Ancient Greek name ().", "It is derived from 'eu-' (εὖ; 'well') and 'klês' (-κλῆς; 'fame'), meaning \"renowned, glorious\".", "In English, by metonymy, 'Euclid' can mean his most well-known work, Euclid's ''Elements'', or a copy thereof, and is sometimes synonymous with 'geometry'.As with many ancient Greek mathematicians, the details of Euclid's life are mostly unknown.", "He is accepted as the author of four mostly extant treatises—the ''Elements'', ''Optics'', ''Data'', ''Phaenomena''—but besides this, there is nothing known for certain of him.", "The traditional narrative mainly follows the 5th century AD account by Proclus in his ''Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's Elements'', as well as a few anecdotes from Pappus of Alexandria in the early 4th century.According to Proclus, Euclid lived shortly after several of Plato's ( BC) followers and before the mathematician Archimedes ( BC); specifically, Proclus placed Euclid during the rule of Ptolemy I ( BC).", "Euclid's birthdate is unknown; some scholars estimate around 330 or 325 BC, but others refrain from speculating.", "It is presumed that he was of Greek descent, but his birthplace is unknown.Proclus held that Euclid followed the Platonic tradition, but there is no definitive confirmation for this.", "It is unlikely he was contemporary with Plato, so it is often presumed that he was educated by Plato's disciples at the Platonic Academy in Athens.", "Historian Thomas Heath supported this theory, noting that most capable geometers lived in Athens, including many of those whose work Euclid built on; Sialaros considers this a mere conjecture.", "In any event, the contents of Euclid's work demonstrate familiarity with the Platonic geometry tradition.In his ''Collection'', Pappus mentions that Apollonius studied with Euclid's students in Alexandria, and this has been taken to imply that Euclid worked and founded a mathematical tradition there.", "The city was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, and the rule of Ptolemy I from 306 BC onwards gave it a stability which was relatively unique amid the chaotic wars over dividing Alexander's empire.", "Ptolemy began a process of hellenization and commissioned numerous constructions, building the massive Musaeum institution, which was a leading center of education.", "Euclid is speculated to have been among the Musaeum's first scholars.Euclid's date of death is unknown; it has been speculated that he died .===Identity and historicity===Domenico Maroli's 1650s painting ''Euclid of Megara Dressing as a Woman to Hear Socrates Teach in Athens''.", "At the time, Euclid the philosopher and Euclid the mathematician were wrongly considered the same person, so this painting includes mathematical objects on the table.Euclid is often referred to as 'Euclid of Alexandria' to differentiate him from the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara, a pupil of Socrates included in dialogues of Plato with whom he was historically conflated.", "Valerius Maximus, the 1st century AD Roman compiler of anecdotes, mistakenly substituted Euclid's name for Eudoxus (4th century BC) as the mathematician to whom Plato sent those asking how to double the cube.", "Perhaps on the basis of this mention of a mathematical Euclid roughly a century early, Euclid became mixed up with Euclid of Megara in medieval Byzantine sources (now lost), eventually leading Euclid the mathematician to be ascribed details of both men's biographies and described as ().", "The Byzantine scholar Theodore Metochites () explicitly conflated the two Euclids, as did printer Erhard Ratdolt's 1482 of Campanus of Novara's Latin translation of the ''Elements''.", "After the mathematician appended most of the extant biographical fragments about either Euclid to the preface of his 1505 translation of the ''Elements'', subsequent publications passed on this identification.", "Later Renaissance scholars, particularly Peter Ramus, reevaluated this claim, proving it false via issues in chronology and contradiction in early sources.", "Medieval Arabic sources give vast amounts of information concerning Euclid's life, but are completely unverifiable.", "Most scholars consider them of dubious authenticity; Heath in particular contends that the fictionalization was done to strengthen the connection between a revered mathematician and the Arab world.", "There are also numerous anecdotal stories concerning to Euclid, all of uncertain historicity, which \"picture him as a kindly and gentle old man\".", "The best known of these is Proclus' story about Ptolemy asking Euclid if there was a quicker path to learning geometry than reading his ''Elements'', which Euclid replied with \"there is no royal road to geometry\".", "This anecdote is questionable since a very similar interaction between Menaechmus and Alexander the Great is recorded from Stobaeus.", "Both accounts were written in the 5th century AD, neither indicates its source, and neither appears in ancient Greek literature.Any firm dating of Euclid's activity is called into question by a lack of contemporary references.", "The earliest original reference to Euclid is in Apollonius' prefatory letter to the ''Conics'' (early 2nd century BC): \"The third book of the Conics contains many astonishing theorems that are useful for both the syntheses and the determinations of number of solutions of solid loci.", "Most of these, and the finest of them, are novel.", "And when we discovered them we realized that Euclid had not made the synthesis of the locus on three and four lines but only an accidental fragment of it, and even that was not felicitously done.\"", "The ''Elements'' is speculated to have been at least partly in circulation by the 3rd century BC, as Archimedes and Apollonius take several of its propositions for granted; however, Archimedes employs an older variant of the theory of proportions than the one found in the ''Elements''.", "The oldest physical copies of material included in the ''Elements'', dating from roughly 100 AD, can be found on papyrus fragments unearthed in an ancient rubbish heap from Oxyrhynchus, Roman Egypt.", "The oldest extant direct citations to the ''Elements'' in works whose dates are firmly known are not until the 2nd century AD, by Galen and Alexander of Aphrodisias; by this time it was a standard school text.", "Some ancient Greek mathematicians mention Euclid by name, but he is usually referred to as \"ὁ στοιχειώτης\" (\"the author of ''Elements''\").", "In the Middle Ages, some scholars contended Euclid was not a historical personage and that his name arose from a corruption of Greek mathematical terms." ], [ "Works", "=== ''Elements'' ===papyrus fragment of Euclid's ''Elements'' dated to .", "Found at Oxyrhynchus, the diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.Euclid is best known for his thirteen-book treatise, the ''Elements'' (; ), considered his ''magnum opus''.", "Much of its content originates from earlier mathematicians, including Eudoxus, Hippocrates of Chios, Thales and Theaetetus, while other theorems are mentioned by Plato and Aristotle.", "It is difficult to differentiate the work of Euclid from that of his predecessors, especially because the ''Elements'' essentially superseded much earlier and now-lost Greek mathematics.", "The classicist Markus Asper concludes that \"apparently Euclid's achievement consists of assembling accepted mathematical knowledge into a cogent order and adding new proofs to fill in the gaps\" and the mathematician Serafina Cuomo described it as a \"reservoir of results\".", "Despite this, Sialaros furthers that \"the remarkably tight structure of the ''Elements'' reveals authorial control beyond the limits of a mere editor\".The ''Elements'' does not exclusively discuss geometry as is sometimes believed.", "It is traditionally divided into three topics: plane geometry (books 1–6), basic number theory (books 7–10:) and solid geometry (books 11–13)—though book 5 (on proportions) and 10 (on irrational lines) do not exactly fit this scheme.", "The heart of the text is the theorems scattered throughout.", "Using Aristotle's terminology, these may be generally separated into two categories: \"first principles\" and \"second principles\".", "The first group includes statements labeled as a \"definition\" ( or ), \"postulate\" (), or a \"common notion\" (); only the first book includes postulates—later known as axioms—and common notions.", "The second group consists of propositions, presented alongside mathematical proofs and diagrams.", "It is unknown if Euclid intended the ''Elements'' as a textbook, but its method of presentation makes it a natural fit.", "As a whole, the authorial voice remains general and impersonal.====Contents====+ Euclid's postulates and common notions Postulates Let the following be postulated: 1 To draw a straight line from any point to any point 2 To produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line 3 To describe a circle with any centre and distance 4 That all right angles are equal to one another 5 That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles Common notions 1 Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another 2 If equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal 3 If equals be subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal 4 Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another 5 The whole is greater than the partBook 1 of the ''Elements'' is foundational for the entire text.", "It begins with a series of 20 definitions for basic geometric concepts such as lines, angles and various regular polygons.", "Euclid then presents 10 assumptions (see table, right), grouped into five postulates (axioms) and five common notions.", "These assumptions are intended to provide the logical basis for every subsequent theorem, i.e.", "serve as an axiomatic system.", "The common notions exclusively concern the comparison of magnitudes.", "While postulates 1 through 4 are relatively straight forward, the 5th is known as the parallel postulate and particularly famous.Book 1 also includes 48 propositions, which can be loosely divided into those concerning basic theorems and constructions of plane geometry and triangle congruence (1–26); parallel lines (27–34); the area of triangles and parallelograms (35–45); and the Pythagorean theorem (46–48).", "The last of these includes the earliest surviving proof of the Pythagorean theorem, described by Sialaros as \"remarkably delicate\".Book 2 is traditionally understood as concerning \"geometric algebra\", though this interpretation has been heavily debated since the 1970s; critics describe the characterization as anachronistic, since the foundations of even nascent algebra occurred many centuries later.", "The second book has a more focused scope and mostly provides algebraic theorems to accompany various geometric shapes.", "It focuses on the area of rectangles and squares (see Quadrature), and leads up to a geometric precursor of the law of cosines.Book 3 focuses on circles, while the 4th discusses regular polygons, especially the pentagon.", "Book 5 is among the work's most important sections and presents what is usually termed as the \"general theory of proportion\".", "Book 6 utilizes the \"theory of ratios\" in the context of plane geometry.", "It is built almost entirely of its first proposition: \"Triangles and parallelograms which are under the same height are to one another as their bases\".From Book 7 onwards, the mathematician notes that \"Euclid starts afresh.", "Nothing from the preceding books is used\".", "Number theory is covered by books 7 to 10, the former beginning with a set of 22 definitions for parity, prime numbers and other arithmetic-related concepts.", "Book 7 includes the Euclidean algorithm, a method for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers.", "The 8th book discusses geometric progressions, while book 9 includes the proposition, now called Euclid's theorem, that there are infinitely many prime numbers.Of the ''Elements'', book 10 is by far the largest and most complex, dealing with irrational numbers in the context of magnitudes.The five Platonic solids, foundational components of solid geometry which feature in Books 11–13The final three books (11–13) primarily discuss solid geometry.", "By introducing a list of 37 definitions, Book 11 contextualizes the next two.", "Although its foundational character resembles Book 1, unlike the latter it features no axiomatic system or postulates.", "The three sections of Book 11 include content on solid geometry (1–19), solid angles (20–23) and parallelepipedal solids (24–37).=== Other works ===Euclid's construction of a regular dodecahedronIn addition to the ''Elements'', at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day.", "They follow the same logical structure as ''Elements'', with definitions and proved propositions.", "* ''Catoptrics'' concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors, though the attribution is sometimes questioned.", "* The ''Data'' (), is a somewhat short text which deals with the nature and implications of \"given\" information in geometrical problems.", "* ''On Divisions'' () survives only partially in Arabic translation, and concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given ratios.", "It includes thirty-six propositions and is similar to Apollonius' ''Conics''.", "* The ''Optics'' () is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective.", "It includes an introductory discussion of geometrical optics and basic rules of perspective.", "* The ''Phaenomena'' () is a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is similar to ''On the Moving Sphere'' by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC.=== Lost works ===Four other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost.", "* The ''Conics'' () was a four-book survey on conic sections, which was later superseded by Apollonius' more comprehensive treatment of the same name.", "The work's existence is known primarily from Pappus, who asserts that the first four books of Apollonius' ''Conics'' are largely based on Euclid's earlier work.", "Doubt has been cast on this assertion by the historian , owing to sparse evidence and no other corroboration of Pappus' account.", "* The ''Pseudaria'' (; ), was—according to Proclus in (70.1–18)—a text in geometrical reasoning, written to advise beginners in avoiding common fallacies.", "Very little is known of its specific contents aside from its scope and a few extant lines.", "* The ''Porisms'' (; ) was, based on accounts from Pappus and Proclus, probably a three-book treatise with approximately 200 propositions.", "The term 'porism' in this context does not refer to a corollary, but to \"a third type of proposition—an intermediate between a theorem and a problem—the aim of which is to discover a feature of an existing geometrical entity, for example, to find the centre of a circle\".", "The mathematician Michel Chasles speculated that these now-lost propositions included content related to the modern theories of transversals and projective geometry.", "* The ''Surface Loci'' () is of virtually unknown contents, aside from speculation based on the work's title.", "Conjecture based on later accounts has suggested it discussed cones and cylinders, among other subjects.=== Collections ===Euclid's works can be found in cultural institutions across the world.", "Many of these editions are digitised and available for public consultation.", "* University College London holds c.500 works of Euclid, including 63 editions published before 1580.The majority of the collection is from the library of John Thomas Graves, who bequeathed his books to the University in 1870.The collection has been digitised through the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Library." ], [ "Legacy", "Oliver Byrne's 1847 colored edition of the ''Elements''Euclid is generally considered with Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga as among the greatest mathematicians of antiquity.", "Many commentators cite him as one of the most influential figures in the history of mathematics.", "The geometrical system established by the ''Elements'' long dominated the field; however, today that system is often referred to as 'Euclidean geometry' to distinguish it from other non-Euclidean geometries discovered in the early 19th century.", "Among Euclid's many namesakes are the European Space Agency's (ESA) Euclid spacecraft, the lunar crater Euclides, and the minor planet 4354 Euclides.The ''Elements'' is often considered after the Bible as the most frequently translated, published, and studied book in the Western World's history.", "With Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'', the ''Elements'' is perhaps the most successful ancient Greek text, and was the dominant mathematical textbook in the Medieval Arab and Latin worlds.The first English edition of the ''Elements'' was published in 1570 by Henry Billingsley and John Dee.", "The mathematician Oliver Byrne published a well-known version of the ''Elements'' in 1847 entitled ''The First Six Books of the Elements of Euclid in Which Coloured Diagrams and Symbols Are Used Instead of Letters for the Greater Ease of Learners'', which included colored diagrams intended to increase its pedagogical effect.", "David Hilbert authored a modern axiomatization of the ''Elements''." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===:'''Books'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * :'''Articles'''* * * * * * * :'''Online'''* * " ], [ "External links", "; Works * * * Euclid Collection at University College London (c.500 editions of works by Euclid), available online through the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Digital Library.", "* Scans of Johan Heiberg's edition of Euclid at wilbourhall.org; The ''Elements''* PDF copy, with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages, University of Texas.", "* All thirteen books, in several languages as Spanish, Catalan, English, German, Portuguese, Arabic, Italian, Russian and Chinese." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Errol Morris" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Errol Mark Morris''' (born February 5, 1948) is an American film director known for documentaries that interrogate the epistemology of their subjects, and the invention of the Interrotron device for his style of filmmaking.", "In 2003, his documentary film ''The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara'' won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.", "His film ''The Thin Blue Line'' placed fifth on a ''Sight & Sound'' poll of the greatest documentaries ever made.", "Morris is known for making films about unusual subjects; ''Fast, Cheap & Out of Control'' interweaves the stories of a wild animal trainer, a topiary gardener, a robot scientist and a naked mole rat specialist." ], [ "Early life and education", "Morris was born on February 5, 1948, into a Jewish family in Hewlett, New York.", "His father died when he was two and he was raised by his mother, a piano teacher.", "He had one older brother, Noel, who was a computer programmer.", "After being treated for strabismus in childhood, Morris refused to wear an eye patch.", "As a consequence, he has limited sight in one eye and lacks normal stereoscopic vision.In the 10th grade, Morris attended The Putney School, a boarding school in Vermont.", "He began playing the cello, spending a summer in France studying music under the acclaimed Nadia Boulanger, who also taught Morris's future collaborator Philip Glass.", "Describing Morris as a teenager, Mark Singer wrote that he \"read with a passion the 14-odd ''Oz'' books, watched a lot of television, and on a regular basis went with a doting but not quite right maiden aunt ('I guess you'd have to say that Aunt Roz was somewhat demented') to Saturday matinées, where he saw such films as ''This Island Earth'' and ''Creature from the Black Lagoon''—horror movies that, viewed again 30 years later, still seem scary to him.", "\"=== College ===Morris attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison, graduating in 1969 with a Bachelor of Arts in history.", "For a brief time, Morris held small jobs, first as a cable-television salesman, and then as a term-paper writer.", "His unorthodox approach to applying for graduate school included \"trying to get accepted at different graduate schools just by showing up on their doorstep.\"", "Having unsuccessfully approached both the University of Oxford and Harvard University, Morris was able to talk his way into Princeton University, where he began studying the history of science, a topic in which he had \"absolutely no background.\"", "His concentration was in the history of physics, and he was bored and unsuccessful in the prerequisite physics classes he had to take.", "This, together with his antagonistic relationship with his advisor Thomas Kuhn ('You won't even look through my telescope.'", "And his response was 'Errol, it's not a telescope, it's a kaleidoscope.')", "ensured that his stay at Princeton would be short.Morris left Princeton in 1972, enrolling at Berkeley as a doctoral student in philosophy.", "At Berkeley, he once again found that he was not well-suited to his subject.", "\"Berkeley was just a world of pedants.", "It was truly shocking.", "I spent two or three years in the philosophy program.", "I have very bad feelings about it\", he later said." ], [ "Career", "After leaving UC Berkeley, he became a regular at the Pacific Film Archive.", "As Tom Luddy, the director of the archive at the time, later remembered: \"He was a film noir nut.", "He claimed we weren't showing the real film noir.", "So I challenged him to write the program notes.", "Then, there was his habit of sneaking into the films and denying that he was sneaking in.", "I told him if he was sneaking in he should at least admit he was doing it.", "\"===Unfinished project on Ed Gein===Inspired by Hitchcock's ''Psycho'', Morris visited Plainfield, Wisconsin in 1975, where he conducted multiple interviews with Ed Gein, the infamous body snatcher who resided at Mendota State Hospital in Madison.", "He later made plans with German film director Werner Herzog, whom Tom Luddy had introduced to Morris, to return in the summer of 1975 to secretly open the grave of Gein's mother to test their theory that Gein himself had already dug her up.", "Herzog arrived on schedule, but Morris had second thoughts and was not there.", "Herzog did not open the grave.", "Morris later returned to Plainfield, this time staying for almost a year, conducting hundreds of hours of interviews.", "Despite this, his plans to either write a book or make a film (which he would call ''Digging up the Past'') were left unfinished at the time.", "In an October 2023 interview with Letterboxd, Morris mentioned that he has since returned to the project, saying \"I started rewatching Psycho, because I’m making a movie about Ed Gein.", "\"In the fall of 1976, Herzog visited Plainfield again, this time to shoot part of his film ''Stroszek''.===First films===Morris accepted $2,000 from Herzog and used it to take a trip to Vernon, Florida.", "Vernon was nicknamed \"Nub City\" because its residents participated in a particularly gruesome form of insurance fraud in which they deliberately amputated a limb to collect the insurance money.", "Morris's second documentary was about the town and bore its name, although it made no mention of Vernon as \"Nub City\", but instead explored other idiosyncrasies of the town's residents.", "Morris made this omission because he received death threats while doing research; the town's residents were afraid that Morris would reveal their secret.After spending two weeks in Vernon, Morris returned to Berkeley and began working on a script for a work of fiction that he called ''Nub City.''", "After a few unproductive months, he happened upon a headline in the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' that read, \"450 Dead Pets Going to Napa Valley.\"", "Morris left for Napa Valley and began working on the film that would become his first feature, ''Gates of Heaven'', which premiered in 1978.Herzog had said he would eat his shoe if Morris completed the documentary.", "After the film premiered, Herzog publicly followed through on the bet by cooking and eating his shoe, which was documented in the short film ''Werner Herzog Eats His Shoe'' by Les Blank.", "''Gates of Heaven'' was given a limited release in the spring of 1981.Critic Roger Ebert was and remained a champion of the film, including it on his all-time top-10 best films list.", "Morris returned to Vernon in 1979 and again in 1980, renting a house in town and conducting interviews with the town's citizens.", "''Vernon, Florida'' premiered at the 1981 New York Film Festival.", "''Newsweek'' called it, \"a film as odd and mysterious as its subjects, and quite unforgettable.\"", "The film, like ''Gates of Heaven'', suffered from poor distribution.", "It was released on video in 1987, and DVD in 2005.After finishing ''Vernon, Florida'', Morris tried to get funding for a variety of projects.", "The ''Road'' story was about an interstate highway in Minnesota; one project was about Robert Golka, the creator of laser-induced fireballs in Utah; and another story was about Centralia, Pennsylvania, the coal town in which an inextinguishable subterranean fire ignited in 1962.He eventually got funding in 1983 to write a script about John and Jim Pardue, Missouri bank robbers who had killed their father and grandmother and robbed five banks.", "Morris's pitch went, \"The great bank-robbery sprees always take place at a time when something is going wrong in the country.", "Bonnie and Clyde were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without the Depression as a backdrop.", "The Pardue brothers were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without Vietnam.\"", "Morris wanted Tom Waits and Mickey Rourke to play the brothers, and he wrote the script, but the project eventually failed.", "Morris worked on writing scripts for various other projects, including a pair of ill-fated Stephen King adaptations.In 1984, Morris married Julia Sheehan, whom he had met in Wisconsin while researching Ed Gein and other serial killers.", "He would later recall an early conversation with Julia: \"I was talking to a mass murderer but I was thinking of you,\" he said, and instantly regretted it, afraid that it might not have sounded as affectionate as he had wished.", "But Julia was actually flattered: \"I thought, really, that was one of the nicest things anyone ever said to me.", "It was hard to go out with other guys after that.", "\"===''The Thin Blue Line''===In 1985, Morris became interested in Dr. James Grigson, a psychiatrist in Dallas.", "Under Texas law, the death penalty can only be issued if the jury is convinced that the defendant is not only guilty, but will commit further violent crimes in the future if he is not put to death.", "Grigson had spent 15 years testifying for such cases, and he almost invariably gave the same damning testimony, often saying that it is \"one hundred per cent certain\" that the defendant would kill again.", "This led to Grigson being nicknamed \"Dr.", "Death.\"", "Through Grigson, Morris met the subject of his next film, 36-year-old Randall Dale Adams.Adams was serving a life sentence that had been commuted from a death sentence on a legal technicality for the 1976 murder of Robert Wood, a Dallas police officer.", "Adams told Morris that he had been framed, and that David Harris, who was present at the time of the murder and was the principal witness for the prosecution, had in fact killed Wood.", "Morris began researching the case because it related to Dr. Grigson.", "He was at first unconvinced of Adams's innocence.", "After reading the transcripts of the trial and meeting David Harris at a bar, however, Morris was no longer so sure.At the time, Morris had been making a living as a private investigator for a well-known private detective agency that specialized in Wall Street cases.", "Bringing together his talents as an investigator and his obsessions with murder, narration, and epistemology, Morris went to work on the case in earnest.", "Unedited interviews in which the prosecution's witnesses systematically contradicted themselves were used as testimony in Adams's 1986 ''habeas corpus'' hearing to determine if he would receive a new trial.", "David Harris famously confessed, in a roundabout manner, to killing Wood.Although Adams was finally found innocent after years of being processed by the legal system, the judge in the ''habeas corpus'' hearing officially stated that, \"much could be said about those videotape interviews, but nothing that would have any bearing on the matter before this court.\"", "Regardless, ''The Thin Blue Line'', as Morris's film would be called, was popularly accepted as the main force behind getting its subject, Randall Adams, out of prison.", "As Morris said of the film, \"''The Thin Blue Line'' is two movies grafted together.", "On one simple level is the question, Did he do it, or didn't he?", "And on another level, ''The Thin Blue Line'', properly considered, is an essay on false history.", "A whole group of people, literally everyone, believed a version of the world that was entirely wrong, and my accidental investigation of the story provided a different version of what happened.", "\"''The Thin Blue Line'' ranks among the most critically acclaimed documentaries ever made.", "According to a survey by ''The Washington Post'', the film made dozens of critics' top ten lists for 1988, more than any other film that year.", "It won the documentary of the year award from both the New York Film Critics Circle and the National Society of Film Critics.", "Despite its widespread acclaim, it was not nominated for an Oscar, which created a small scandal regarding the nomination practices of the academy.", "The academy cited the film's genre of \"non-fiction\", arguing that it was not actually a documentary.", "It was the first of Morris's films to be scored by Philip Glass.=== ''A Brief History of Time'', ''Fast Cheap & Out of Control'' and later films ===Morris wanted to make a film about what happened to Albert Einstein's brain and approached Steven Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment about it.", "Gordon Freeman had acquired the rights to Stephen Hawking's bestseller ''A Brief History of Time'' and Spielberg suggested Morris direct it.", "After reading Hawking's book, Morris agreed to direct a documentary adaptation of it, as he had studied the philosophy of science at Princeton.", "Morris's film ''A Brief History of Time'' is less an adaptation of Hawking's book than a portrait of the scientist.", "It combines interviews with Hawking, his colleagues and his family with computer animations and clips from movies like Disney's ''The Black Hole''.", "Morris said he was \"very moved by Hawking as a man\", calling him \"immensely likable, perverse, funny...and yes, he's a genius.", "\"Morris's ''Fast, Cheap & Out of Control'' interweaves interviews with a wild animal trainer, a topiary gardener, a robot scientist and a naked mole rat specialist with stock footage, cartoons and clips from film serials.", "In a profile of Morris, Roger Ebert said of the film \"If I had to describe it, I'd say it's about people who are trying to control things - to take upon themselves the mantle of God.\"", "Morris agreed there was a \"Frankenstein element\", adding \"They're all involved in some very odd inquiry about life.", "It sounds horribly pretentious laid out that way, but there's something mysterious in each of the stories, something melancholy as well as funny.", "And there's an edge of mortality.", "For the end of the movie I showed the gardener clipping the top of his camel, clipping in a heavenly light, and then walking away in the rain.", "You know that this garden is not going to last much longer than the gardener's lifetime.\"", "The film was scored by Caleb Sampson of the Alloy Orchestra and photographed by Robert Richardson.", "Morris dedicated the film to his mother and stepfather, who had recently died.", "It was named by several critics as one of the best films of 1997.In 2002, Morris was commissioned to make a short film for the 75th Academy Awards.", "He was hired based on his advertising resume, not his career as a director of feature-length documentaries.", "Those interviewed ranged from Laura Bush to Iggy Pop to Kenneth Arrow to Morris's 15-year-old son Hamilton.", "Morris was nominated for an Emmy for this short film.", "He considered editing this footage into a feature-length film, focusing on Donald Trump discussing ''Citizen Kane'' (this segment was later released on the second issue of ''Wholphin'').", "Morris went on to make a second short for the 79th Academy Awards in 2007, this time interviewing the various nominees and asking them about their Oscar experiences.In early 2010, a new Morris documentary was submitted to several film festivals, including Toronto International Film Festival, Cannes Film Festival, and Telluride Film Festival.", "The film, ''Tabloid'', features interviews with Joyce McKinney, a former Miss Wyoming, who was convicted ''in absentia'' for the kidnap and indecent assault of a Mormon missionary in England during 1977.=== ''The Fog of War'' ===In 2003, Morris won the Oscar for Best Documentary for ''The Fog of War'', a film about the career of Robert S. McNamara, the Secretary of Defense during the Vietnam War under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.", "In the haunting opening about McNamara's relationship with U.S. General Curtis LeMay during World War II, Morris brings out complexities in the character of McNamara, which shaped McNamara's positions in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War.", "Like his earlier documentary, ''The Thin Blue Line,'' ''The Fog of War'' included extensive use of re-enactments, a technique which many had believed was inappropriate for documentaries prior to his Oscar win.=== Commercials ===Although Morris has achieved fame as a documentary filmmaker, he is also an accomplished director of television commercials.", "In 2002, Morris directed a series of television ads for Apple Computer as part of a popular \"Switch\" campaign.", "The commercials featured ex-Windows users discussing their various bad experiences that motivated their own personal switches to Macintosh.", "One commercial in the series, starring Ellen Feiss, a high-schooler friend of his son Hamilton Morris, became an Internet meme.", "Morris has directed hundreds of commercials for various companies and products, including Adidas, AIG, Cisco Systems, Citibank, Kimberly-Clark's Depend brand, Levi's, Miller High Life, Nike, PBS, The Quaker Oats Company, Southern Comfort, EA Sports, Toyota and Volkswagen.", "Many of these commercials are available on his website.In July 2004, Morris directed another series of commercials in the style of the \"Switch\" ads.", "This campaign featured Republicans who voted for Bush in the 2000 election giving their personal reasons for voting for Kerry in 2004.Upon completing more than 50 commercials, Morris had difficulty getting them on the air.", "Eventually, the liberal advocacy group MoveOn PAC paid to air a few of the commercials.", "Morris also wrote an editorial for ''The New York Times'' discussing the commercials and Kerry's losing campaign.In late 2004, Morris directed a series of noteworthy commercials for Sharp Electronics.", "The commercials enigmatically depicted various scenes from what appeared to be a short narrative that climaxed with a car crashing into a swimming pool.", "Each commercial showed a slightly different perspective on the events, and each ended with a cryptic weblink.", "The weblink was to a fake webpage advertising a prize offered to anyone who could discover the secret location of some valuable urns.", "It was in fact an alternate reality game.", "The original commercials can be found on Morris's website.Morris directed a series of commercials for Reebok that featured six prominent National Football League (NFL) players.", "The 30-second promotional videos were aired during the 2006 NFL season.In 2013, Morris stated that he has made around 1,000 commercials during his career.", "Since then he has continued in the field, including a 2019 campaign for Chipotle.In 2015, Morris made commercials for medical technology firm Theranos, and interviewed its founder, Elizabeth Holmes.", "After the company fell in disgrace, Morris was criticized by ''The Telegraph'' for seeming \"captivated\" by Holmes, and for contributing to Holmes' mythical persona as a visionary.", "In a 2019 ''New Yorker'' interview, Morris reflected, \"To me, what really is interesting about Elizabeth Holmes ... did she really see herself as a fraud?", "Was it calculation?", "I have a hard time squaring that with my own experience.", "Could I have been self-deceived, delusional?", "You betcha.", "I'm no different than the next guy.", "I'd like to think I'm a little different.", "But I'm still fascinated by her.", "\"=== Writings and documentary shorts ===Morris has also written long-form journalism, exploring different areas of interest and published on ''The New York Times'' website.", "A collection of these essays, titled ''Believing is Seeing: Observations on the Mysteries of Photography,'' was published by Penguin Press on September 1, 2011.In November 2011, Morris premiered a documentary short titled \"The Umbrella Man\"—featuring Josiah \"Tink\" Thompson—about the Kennedy assassination on ''The New York Times'' website.In 2012, Morris published his second book, ''A Wilderness of Error: The Trials of Jeffrey MacDonald'', about Jeffrey MacDonald, the Green Beret physician convicted of killing his wife and two daughters on February 17, 1970.Morris first became interested in the case in the early 1990s and believes that MacDonald is not guilty after undertaking extensive research.", "Morris explained in a July 2013 interview, prior to the reopening of the case: \"What happened here is wrong.", "It's wrong to convict a man under these circumstances.", "And if I can help correct that, I will be a happy camper.\"", "He now states that he does not believe that Macdonald is guilty, but thinks it possible that Macdonald is guilty." ], [ "Style and legacy", "To conduct interviews, Morris invented a machine, called the Interrotron, which allows the interviewer and his subject to make eye-contact with each other while both staring through the camera lens itself.", "He explains the device as follows:Author Marsha McCreadie, in her book ''Documentary Superstars: How Today's Filmmakers Are Reinventing the Form'', had paired Morris with Werner Herzog as practitioners and visionaries in their approach in documentary filmmaking.Morris employs the use of narrative elements within his films.", "These include but are not limited to: stylized lighting, musical score, and re-enactment.", "The use of these elements is rejected by many documentary filmmakers who followed the cinema vérité style of the previous generations.", "Cinema vérité is characterized by its rejection of artistic additions to documentary film.", "While Morris faced backlash from many of the older-era filmmakers, his style has been embraced by the younger generations of filmmakers, as the use of re-enactment is present in many contemporary documentary films.Morris advocates the reflexive style of documentary filmmaking.", "In Bill Nichols's book ''Introduction to Documentary'' he states that reflexive documentary \"speaks not only about the historical world but about the problems and issues of representing it as well.\"", "Morris uses his films not only to portray social issues and non-fiction events but also to comment on the reliability of documentary making itself.His style has been spoofed in the mockumentary series ''Documentary Now''.Even when interviewing controversial figures, Morris does not generally believe in adversarial interviews:" ], [ "Filmography", "===Feature films===''Gates of Heaven'' (1978)''Vernon, Florida'' (1981)''The Thin Blue Line'' (1988)''The Dark Wind'' (1991), fiction movie''A Brief History of Time'' (1991)''Fast, Cheap & Out of Control'' (1997) ''Mr.", "Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr.'' (1999)''The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara'' (2003)''Standard Operating Procedure'' (2008)''Tabloid'' (2010)''The Act of Killing'' (executive producer) (2012)''The Unknown Known'' (2013)''The Look of Silence'' (executive producer) (2014)''Happy Father's Day'' (video) (2015)''Uncle Nick'' (executive producer) (2015)''The B-Side: Elsa Dorfman's Portrait Photography'' (2016)''National Bird'' (executive producer) (2016)''American Dharma'' (2018)''Enemies of the State'' (executive producer) (2020)''My Psychedelic Love Story'' (2020)''The Pigeon Tunnel'' (2023)===Short films===''Survivors'' (2008)''They Were There'' (Documentary short) (2011)''El Wingador'' (Documentary short) (2012)''Three Short Films About Peace'' (2014)''Leymah Gbowee: The Dream'' (Documentary short) (2014)===Television===''Errol Morris Interrotron Stories: Digging Up the Past'' (TV miniseries documentary) (1995)''First Person'' (TV series documentary) (17 episodes) (2000)''Op-Docs'' (TV series documentary trilogy)''The Umbrella Man'' about Umbrella man (JFK assassination) (2011)''November 22, 1963'' (2013)''A Demon in the Freezer'' (2016)''P.O.V.''", "(executive producer) (2014–2016)''It's Not Crazy, It's Sports'' (TV documentary series) (2015)''The Subterranean Stadium'' (TV movie) (2015)''The Streaker'' (TV movie) (2015)''The Heist'' (TV movie) (2015)''Most Valuable Whatever'' (TV movie) (2015)''Chrome'' (TV movie) (2015)''Being Mr. Met'' (TV movie) (2015)''Zillow Hiram's Home'' (TV movie) (2016)''Wormwood'' (miniseries) (2017)''A Wilderness of Error'' (docuseries on FX) (2020)" ], [ "Accolades", "''Gates of Heaven'' (1978) was long featured on Roger Ebert's list of the ten greatest films ever made.", "Golden Horse for Best Foreign Film at the Taiwan International Film Festival for ''The Thin Blue Line'' (1988)New York Film Critics Circle and the National Society of Film Critics Best Documentary for ''The Thin Blue Line'' (1988)Washington Post Best Film of the Year for ''The Thin Blue Line'' (1988)Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture, from the Mystery Writers of America, for ''The Thin Blue Line'' (1989)Guggenheim Fellowship (1989)MacArthur Fellowship (1989)Emmy for Best Commercial for PBS commercial \" Photobooth\" (2001)In December 2001, the United States' National Film Preservation Foundation announced that Morris's ''The Thin Blue Line'' would be one of the 25 films selected that year for preservation in the National Film Registry at the Library of Congress, bringing the total at the time to 325.", "2002 International Documentary Association list of the 20 all-time best documentaries: ''The Thin Blue Line'' (#2), ''Fast, Cheap & Out of Control'' (#14)Best Documentary of the Year awards for ''The Fog of War'' (2003): the National Board of Review, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, the Chicago Film Critics, and the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics.", "In 2003, ''The Guardian'' put him seventh in its list of the world's 40 best active directors.", "Academy Award for Documentary Feature ''The Fog of War'' (2004)Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2007)Jury Grand Prix Silver Bear at the 2008 Berlin International Film Festival for ''Standard Operating Procedure''Columbia Journalism Award (2013)In 2019, ''The Fog of War'' was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".===Honorary degrees===Middlebury College, Hon.", "D.F.A.", "(2010)Brandeis University, Hon.", "D.H.L.", "(2011)University of Wisconsin–Madison, Hon.", "D.H.L.", "(2013)" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===*''A Wilderness of Error: The Trials of Jeffrey MacDonald'' (Penguin Press, 4 September 2012)''The Ashtray (Or the Man Who Denied Reality)'' (University of Chicago Press, 2018)===Articles===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Errol Morris discusses his career on the 7th Avenue Project radio show* Errol Morris (Jonathan Crow, Allmovie)* Errol Morris (Nina Rehfeld, GreenCine)* ''Voices on Antisemitism'' Interview with Errol Morris from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum* Werner Herzog in conversation with Errol Morris (''The Believer'')* The Unknown Known: Errol Morris's New Doc Tackles Unrepentant Iraq War Architect Donald Rumsfeld, a video interview on ''Democracy Now!", "''* Bannon & The F You Presidency (with Errol Morris) (Stay Tuned with Preet)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ethan Allen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ethan Allen''' ( – February 12, 1789) was an American farmer, businessman, land speculator, philosopher, writer, lay theologian, American Revolutionary War patriot, and politician.", "He is best known as one of the founders of Vermont and for the capture of Fort Ticonderoga early in the Revolutionary War.", "He was the brother of Ira Allen and the father of Frances Allen.Allen was born in rural Connecticut and had a frontier upbringing, but he also received an education that included some philosophical teachings.", "In the late 1760s, he became interested in the New Hampshire Grants, buying land there and becoming embroiled in the legal disputes surrounding the territory.", "Legal setbacks led to the formation of the Green Mountain Boys, whom Allen led in a campaign of intimidation and property destruction to drive New York settlers from the Grants.", "He and the Green Mountain Boys seized the initiative early in the Revolutionary War and captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775.In September 1775, Allen led a failed attempt on Montreal which resulted in his capture by British authorities.", "He was imprisoned aboard Royal Navy ships, then paroled in New York City, and finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778.Upon his release, Allen returned to the New Hampshire Grants which had declared independence in 1777, and he resumed political activity in the territory, continuing resistance to New York's attempts to assert control over the territory.", "Allen lobbied Congress for Vermont's official state recognition, and he participated in controversial negotiations with the British over the possibility of Vermont becoming a separate British province.Allen wrote accounts of his exploits in the war that were widely read in the 19th century, as well as philosophical treatises and documents relating to the politics of Vermont's formation.", "His business dealings included successful farming operations, one of Connecticut's early iron works, and land speculation in the Vermont territory.", "Allen and his brothers purchased tracts of land that became Burlington, Vermont.", "He was married twice, fathering eight children." ], [ "Early life", "Litchfield, ConnecticutAllen was born in Litchfield, Connecticut Colony, the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen, both descended from English Puritans.", "The family moved to the town of Cornwall shortly after his birth due to his father's quest for freedom of religion during the Great Awakening.", "As a boy, Allen already excelled at quoting the Bible and was known for disputing the meaning of passages.", "He had five brothers (Heman, Heber, Levi, Zimri, and Ira) and two sisters (Lydia and Lucy).", "His brothers Ira and Heman were also prominent figures in the early history of Vermont.The town of Cornwall was frontier territory in the 1740s, but it began to resemble a town by the time that Allen was a teenager, with wood-frame houses beginning to replace the rough cabins of the early settlers.", "Joseph Allen was one of the wealthier landowners in the area by the time of his death in 1755.He ran a successful farm and had served as town selectman.", "Allen began studies under a minister in the nearby town of Salisbury with the goal of gaining admission to Yale College.=== First marriage and early adulthood ===Allen was forced to end his studies upon his father's death.", "He volunteered for militia service in 1757 in response to the French siege of Fort William Henry, but his unit received word that the fort had fallen while they were en route, and they turned back.", "The French and Indian War continued over the next several years, but Allen did not participate in any further military activities and is presumed to have tended his farm.", "In 1762, he became part owner of an iron furnace in Salisbury.", "He also married Mary Brownson from Roxbury in July 1762, who was five years his senior.", "They first settled in Cornwall, but moved the following year to Salisbury with their infant daughter Loraine.", "They bought a small farm and proceeded to develop the iron works.", "The expansion of the iron works was apparently costly to Allen; he was forced to sell off portions of the Cornwall property to raise funds, and eventually sold half of his interest in the works to his brother Heman.", "The Allen brothers sold their interest in the iron works in October 1765.By most accounts, Allen's first marriage was unhappy.", "His wife was rigidly religious, prone to criticizing him, and barely able to read and write.", "In contrast, his behavior was sometimes quite flamboyant, and he maintained an interest in learning.", "Nevertheless, they remained together until Mary's death in 1783.They had five children together, only two of whom reached adulthood.Allen and his brother Heman went to the farm of a neighbor whose pigs had escaped onto their land, and they seized the pigs.", "The neighbor sued to have the animals returned to him; Allen pleaded his own case and lost.", "Allen and Heman were fined ten shillings, and the neighbor was awarded another five shillings in damages.", "He was also called to court in Salisbury for inoculating himself against smallpox, a procedure that required the sanction of the town selectmen.Allen met Thomas Young when he moved to Salisbury, a doctor living and practicing just across the provincial boundary in New York.", "Young taught him a great deal about philosophy and political theory, while Allen shared his appreciation of nature and life on the frontier with Young.", "They eventually decided to collaborate on a book intended as an attack on organized religion, as Young had convinced Allen to become a Deist.", "They worked on the manuscript until 1764, when Young moved away from the area taking the manuscript with him.", "Allen recovered the manuscript many years later, after Young's death.", "He expanded and reworked the material, and eventually published it as ''Reason: the Only Oracle of Man''.Heman remained in Salisbury where he ran a general store until his death in 1778, but Allen's movements are poorly documented over the next few years.", "He lived in Northampton, Massachusetts in the spring of 1766, where his son Joseph was born and where he invested in a lead mine.", "The authorities asked him to leave Northampton in July 1767, though no official reason is known.", "Biographer Michael Bellesiles suggests that religious differences and Allen's tendency to be disruptive may have played a role in his departure.", "Allen briefly returned to Salisbury before settling in Sheffield, Massachusetts with his younger brother Zimri.", "It is likely that his first visits to the New Hampshire Grants occurred during these years.", "Sheffield was the family home for ten years, although Allen was often absent for extended periods." ], [ "New Hampshire Grants", "New Hampshire Governor Benning WentworthNew Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth was selling land grants west of the Connecticut River as early as 1749, an area to which New Hampshire had always laid claim.", "Many of these grants were sold at relatively low prices to land speculators, with Wentworth also reserving for himself a share of each grant.", "In 1764, King George issued an order resolving the competing claims of New York and New Hampshire in favor of New York.", "New York had issued land grants that overlapped some of those sold by Wentworth, and authorities there insisted that holders of the Wentworth grants pay a fee to New York to have their grants validated.", "This fee approached the original purchase price, and many of the holders were land-rich and cash-poor, so there was a great deal of resistance to the demand.", "By 1769, the situation had deteriorated to the point that surveyors and other figures of New York authority were being physically threatened and driven from the area.The Catamount Tavern in the 19th centuryA few of the holders of Wentworth grants were from northwestern Connecticut, and some of them were related to Allen, including Remember Baker and Seth Warner.", "In 1770, a group of them asked him to defend their case before New York's Supreme Court.", "Allen hired Jared Ingersoll to represent the grant-holder interest in the trial, which began in July 1770 and pitted Allen against politically powerful New York grant-holders, including New York's Lieutenant Governor Colden, James Duane who was prosecuting the case, and Robert Livingston, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who was presiding over the case.", "The trial was brief and the outcome unsurprising, as the court refused to allow the introduction of Wentworth's grants as evidence, citing their fraudulently issued nature.", "Duane visited Allen and offered him payments \"for going among the people to quiet them\".", "Allen denied taking any money and claimed that Duane was outraged and left with veiled threats, indicating that attempts to enforce the judgment would be met with resistance.Many historians believe that Allen took these actions because he already held Wentworth grants of his own, although there is no evidence that he was issued any such grants until after he had been asked to take up the defense at the trial.", "He acquired grants from Wentworth to about in Poultney and Castleton prior to the trial.===Green Mountain Boys===The flag of the Green Mountain BoysOn Allen's return to Bennington, the settlers met at the Catamount Tavern to discuss their options.", "These discussions resulted in the formation of the Green Mountain Boys in 1770, with local militia companies in each of the surrounding towns.", "Allen was named their Colonel Commandant, and cousins Seth Warner and Remember Baker were captains of two of the companies.", "Further meetings resulted in creating committees of safety; they also laid down rules to resist New York's attempts to establish its authority.", "These included not allowing New York's surveyors to survey ''any'' land in the Grants, not just land owned through the Wentworth grants.", "Allen participated in some of the actions to drive away surveyors, and he also spent much time exploring the territory.", "He sold some of his Connecticut properties and began buying land farther north in the territory, which he sold at a profit as the southern settlements grew and people began to move farther north.Friction increased with the provincial government in October 1771, when Allen and a company of Green Mountain Boys drove off a group of Scottish settlers near Rupert.", "Allen detained two of the settlers and forced them to watch them burn their newly constructed cabins.", "Allen then ordered them to \"go your way now, and complain to that damned scoundrel your Governor, God damn your Governor, Laws, King, Council, and Assembly\".", "The settlers protested his language but Allen continued the tirade, threatening to send any troops from New York to Hell.", "In response, New York Governor William Tryon issued warrants for the arrests of those responsible, and eventually put a price of £20 (around £3.3k today, or $4.4k) on the heads of six participants, including Allen.", "Allen and his comrades countered by issuing offers of their own.The situation deteriorated further over the next few years.", "Governor Tryon and the Green Mountain Boys exchanged threats, truce offers, and other writings, frequently written by Allen in florid and didactic language while the Green Mountain Boys continued to drive away surveyors and incoming tenants.", "Most of these incidents did not involve bloodshed, although individuals were at times manhandled, and the Green Mountain Boys sometimes did extensive property damage when driving tenants out.", "By March 1774, the harsh treatment of settlers and their property prompted Tryon to increase some of the rewards to £100.===Onion River Company===Allen joined his cousin Remember Baker and his brothers Ira, Heman, and Zimri to form the Onion River Company in 1772, a land-speculation organization devoted to purchasing land around the Winooski River, which was known then as the Onion River.", "The success of this business depended on the defense of the Wentworth grants.", "Early purchases included about from Edward Burling and his partners; they sold land at a profit to Thomas Chittenden, among others, and their land became the city of Burlington.The outrage of the Wentworth proprietors was renewed in 1774 when Governor Tryon passed a law containing harsh provisions clearly targeted at the actions of the \"Bennington Mob\".", "Vermont historian Samuel Williams called it \"an act which for its savage barbarity is probably without parallel in the legislation of any civilized country\".", "Its provisions included the death penalty for interfering with a magistrate, and outlawing meetings of more than three people \"for unlawful purposes\" in the Grants.", "The Green Mountain Boys countered with rules of their own, forbidding anyone in the Grants from holding \"any office of honor or profit under the colony of N. York\".Allen spent much of the summer of 1774 writing ''A Brief Narrative of the Proceedings of the Government of New York Relative to Their Obtaining the Jurisdiction of that Large District of Land to the Westward of the Connecticut River'', a 200-page polemic arguing the position of the Wentworth proprietors.", "He had it printed in Connecticut and began selling and giving away copies in early 1775.Historian Charles Jellison describes it as \"rebellion in print\".===Westminster massacre===Allen traveled into the northern parts of the Grants early in 1775 for solitude and to hunt for game and land opportunities.", "A few days after his return, news came that blood had finally been shed over the land disputes.", "Most of the resistance activity had taken place on the west side of the Green Mountains until then, but a small riot broke out in Westminster on March 13 and led to the deaths of two men.", "Allen and a troop of Green Mountain Boys traveled to Westminster where the town's convention adopted a resolution to draft a plea to the King to remove them \"out of so oppressive a jurisdiction\".", "It was assigned to a committee which included Allen.", "The American Revolutionary War began less than a week after the Westminster convention ended, while Allen and the committee worked on their petition." ], [ "Revolutionary War", "===Capture of Fort Ticonderoga===Allen received a message from members of an irregular Connecticut militia in late April, following the battles of Lexington and Concord, that they were planning to capture Fort Ticonderoga and requesting his assistance in the effort.", "Allen agreed to help and began rounding up the Green Mountain Boys, and 60 men from Massachusetts and Connecticut met with Allen in Bennington on May 2, where they discussed the logistics of the expedition.", "By May 7, these men joined Allen and 130 Green Mountain Boys at Castleton.", "They elected Allen to lead the expedition, and they planned a dawn raid for May 10.Two small companies were detached to procure boats, and Allen took the main contingent north to Hand's Cove in Shoreham to prepare for the crossing.Engraving of Benedict ArnoldOn the afternoon of May 9, Benedict Arnold unexpectedly arrived, flourishing a commission from the Massachusetts Committee of Safety.", "He asserted his right to command the expedition, but the men refused to acknowledge his authority and insisted that they would follow only Allen's lead.", "Allen and Arnold reached an accommodation privately, the essence of which was that Arnold and Allen would both be at the front of the troops when they attacked the fort.The troops procured a few boats around 2 a.m. for the crossing, but only 83 men made it to the other side of the lake before Allen and Arnold decided to attack, concerned that dawn was approaching.", "The small force marched on the fort in the early dawn, surprising the lone sentry, and Allen went directly to the fort commander's quarters, seeking to force his surrender.", "Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham was awakened by the noise, and called to wake the fort's commander Captain William Delaplace.", "He demanded to know by what authority the fort was being entered, and Allen said, \"In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!\"", "Delaplace finally emerged from his chambers and surrendered his sword, and the rest of the fort's garrison surrendered without firing a shot.", "The only casualty had been a British soldier who became concussed when Allen hit him with a cutlass, hitting the man's hair comb and saving his life.=== Raids on St. John ===On the following day, a detachment of the Boys under Seth Warner's command went to nearby Fort Crown Point and captured the small garrison there.", "On May 14, following the arrival of 100 men recruited by Arnold's captains, and the arrival of a schooner and some bateaux that had been taken at Skenesboro, Arnold and 50 of his men sailed north to raid Fort St. John, on the Richelieu River downstream from the lake, where a small British warship was reported by the prisoners to be anchored.", "Arnold's raid was a success; he seized the sloop , supplies, and a number of bateaux.Allen, shortly after Arnold's departure on the raid, decided, after his successes at the southern end of the lake, to take and hold Fort St. John himself.", "To that end, he and about 100 Boys climbed into four bateaux, and began rowing north.", "After two days without significant food (which they had forgotten to provision in the boats), Allen's small fleet met Arnold's on its way back to Ticonderoga near the foot of the lake.", "Arnold generously opened his stores to Allen's hungry men, and tried to dissuade Allen from his objective, noting that it was likely the alarm had been raised and troops were on their way to St. John.", "Allen, likely both stubborn in his determination, and envious of Arnold, persisted.When Allen and his men landed above St. John and scouted the situation, they learned that a column of 200 or more regulars was approaching.", "Rather than attempt an ambush on those troops, which significantly outnumbered his tired company, Allen withdrew to the other side of the river, where the men collapsed with exhaustion and slept without sentries through the night.", "They were awakened when British sentries discovered them and began firing grapeshot at them from across the river.", "The Boys, in a panic, piled into their bateaux and rowed with all speed upriver.", "When the expedition returned to Ticonderoga two days later, some of the men were greatly disappointed that they felt they had nothing to show for the effort and risks they took, but the capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point proved to be important in the Revolutionary War because it secured protection from the British to the North and provided vital cannon for the colonial army.===Promoting an invasion===Following Allen's failed attempt on St. John, many of his men drifted away, presumably drawn by the needs of home and farm.", "Arnold then began asserting his authority over Allen for control of Ticonderoga and Crown Point.", "Allen publicly announced that he was stepping down as commander, but remained hopeful that the Second Continental Congress was going to name \"a commander for this department ...", "Undoubtedly, we shall be rewarded according to our merit\".", "Congress, for its part, at first not really wanting any part of the affair, effectively voted to strip and then abandon the forts.", "Both Allen and Arnold protested these measures, pointing out that doing so would leave the northern border wide open.", "They both also made proposals to Congress and other provincial bodies for carrying out an invasion of Quebec.", "Allen, in one instance, wrote that \"I will lay my life on it, that with fifteen hundred men, and a proper artillery, I will take Montreal\".", "Allen also attempted correspondence with the people of Quebec and with the Indians living there in an attempt to sway their opinion toward the revolutionary cause.On June 22, Allen and Seth Warner appeared before Congress in Philadelphia, where they argued for the inclusion of the Green Mountain Boys in the Continental Army.", "After deliberation, Congress directed General Philip Schuyler, who had been appointed to lead the Army's Northern Department, to work with New York's provincial government to establish (and pay for) a regiment consisting of the Boys, and that they be paid Army rates for their service at Ticonderoga.", "On July 4, Allen and Warner made their case to New York's Provincial Congress, which, despite the fact that the Royal Governor had placed a price on their heads, agreed to the formation of a regiment.", "Following a brief visit to their families, they returned to Bennington to spread the news.", "Allen went to Ticonderoga to join Schuyler, while Warner and others raised the regiment.===Allen loses command of the Boys===When the regimental companies in the Grants had been raised, they held a vote in Dorset to determine who would command the regiment.", "By a wide margin, Seth Warner was elected to lead the regiment.", "Brothers Ira and Heman were also given command positions, but Allen was not given any position at all in the regiment.", "The thorough rejection stung; Allen wrote to Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull, \"How the old men came to reject me I cannot conceive inasmuch as I saved them from the incroachments of New York.", "\"The rejection likely had several causes.", "The people of the Grants were tired of the disputes with New York, and they were tired of Allen's posturing and egotistic behavior, which the success at Ticonderoga had enhanced.", "Finally, the failure of the attempt on St. John's was widely seen as reckless and ill-advised, attributes they did not appreciate in a regimental leader.", "Warner was viewed as a more stable and quieter choice, and was someone who also commanded respect.", "The history of Warner's later actions in the revolution (notably at Hubbardton and Bennington) may be seen as a confirmation of the choice made by the Dorset meeting.", "In the end, Allen took the rejection in stride, and managed to convince Schuyler and Warner to permit him to accompany the regiment as a civilian scout.===Capture===Engraving depicting Allen before his captors in MontrealThe American invasion of Quebec departed from Ticonderoga on August 28.On September 4, the army had occupied the Île aux Noix in the Richelieu River, a few miles above Fort St. John, which they then prepared to besiege.", "On September 8, Schuyler sent Allen and Massachusetts Major John Brown, who had also been involved in the capture of Ticonderoga, into the countryside between St. John and Montreal to spread the word of their arrival to the habitants and the Indians.", "They were successful enough in gaining support from the inhabitants that Quebec's governor, General Guy Carleton, reported that \"they have injured us very much\".When he returned from that expedition eight days later, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery had assumed command of the invasion due to Schuyler's illness.", "Montgomery, likely not wanting the troublemaker in his camp, again sent Allen out, this time to raise a regiment of French-speaking Canadiens.", "Accompanied by a small number of Americans, he again set out, traveling through the countryside to Sorel, before turning to follow the Saint Lawrence River up toward Montreal, recruiting upwards of 200 men.On September 24, he and Brown, whose company was guarding the road between St. John's and Montreal, met at Longueuil, and, according to Allen's account of the events, came up with a plan in which both he and Brown would lead their forces to attack Montreal.", "Allen and about 100 men crossed the Saint Lawrence that night, but Brown and his men, who were to cross the river at La Prairie, did not.", "General Carleton, alerted to Allen's presence, mustered every man he could, and, in the Battle of Longue-Pointe, scattered most of Allen's force, and captured him and about 30 men.", "His capture ended his participation in the revolution until 1778, as he was imprisoned by the British.", "General Schuyler, upon learning of Allen's capture, wrote, \"I am very apprehensive of disagreeable consequences arising from Mr. Allen's imprudence.", "I always dreaded his impatience and imprudence.\"" ], [ "Imprisonment", "Much of what is known of Allen's captivity is known only from his own account of the time; where contemporary records are available, they tend to confirm those aspects of his story.Allen was first placed aboard , a brig anchored at Montreal.", "He was kept in solitary confinement and chains, and General Richard Prescott had, according to Allen, ordered him to be treated \"with much severity\".", "In October 1775, ''Gaspée'' went downriver, and her prisoners were transferred to the merchant vessel ''Adamant'', which then sailed for England.", "Allen wrote of the voyage that he \"was put under the power of an English Merchant from London, whose name was Brook Watson: a man of malicious and cruel disposition\".On arrival at Falmouth, England, after a crossing under filthy conditions, Allen and the other prisoners were imprisoned in Pendennis Castle, Cornwall.", "At first his treatment was poor, but Allen wrote a letter, ostensibly to the Continental Congress, describing his conditions and suggesting that Congress treat the prisoners it held the same way.", "Unknown to Allen, British prisoners now included General Prescott, captured trying to escape from Montreal, and the letter came into the hands of the British cabinet.", "Also faced with opposition within the British establishment to the treatment of captives taken in North America, King George decreed that the men should be sent back to America and treated as prisoners of war.In January 1776, Allen and his men were put on board HMS ''Soledad'', which sailed for Cork, Ireland.", "The people of Cork, when they learned that the famous Ethan Allen was in port, took up a collection to provide him and his men with clothing and other supplies.", "Much of the following year was spent on prison ships off the American coast.", "At one point, while aboard HMS ''Mercury'', she anchored off New York, where, among other visitors, the captain entertained William Tryon; Allen reports that Tryon glanced at him without any sign of recognition, although it is likely the New York governor knew who he was.", "In August 1776, Allen and other prisoners were temporarily put ashore in Halifax, owing to extremely poor conditions aboard ship; due to food scarcity, both crew and prisoners were on short rations, and scurvy was rampant.", "By the end of October, Allen was again off New York, where the British, having secured the city, moved the prisoners on-shore, and, as he was considered an officer, gave Allen limited parole.", "With the financial assistance of his brother Ira, he lived comfortably, if out of action, until August 1777.Allen then learned of the death of his young son Joseph due to smallpox.According to another prisoner's account, Allen wandered off after learning of his son's death.", "He was arrested for violating his parole, and placed in solitary confinement.", "There Allen remained while Vermont declared independence, and John Burgoyne's campaign for the Hudson River met a stumbling block near Bennington in August 1777.On May 3, 1778, he was transferred to Staten Island.", "Allen was admitted to General John Campbell's quarters, where he was invited to eat and drink with the general and several other British field officers.", "He stayed there for two days and was treated politely.", "On the third day Allen was exchanged for Colonel Archibald Campbell, who was conducted to the exchange by Colonel Elias Boudinot, the American commissary general of prisoners appointed by General George Washington.", "Following the exchange, Allen reported to Washington at Valley Forge.", "On May 14, he was breveted a colonel in the Continental Army in \"reward of his fortitude, firmness and zeal in the cause of his country, manifested during his long and cruel captivity, as well as on former occasions,\" and given military pay of $75 per month.", "The brevet rank, however, meant that there was no active role, until called, for Allen.", "Allen's services were never requested, and eventually the payments stopped." ], [ "Vermont Republic", "===Return home===Following his visit to Valley Forge, Allen traveled to Salisbury, arriving on May 25, 1778.There he learned that his brother Heman had died just the previous week and that his brother Zimri, who had been caring for Allen's family and farm, had died in the spring following his capture.", "The death of Heman, with whom Allen had been quite close, hit him quite hard.Allen then set out for Bennington, where news of his impending return preceded him, and he was met with all of the honor due to a military war hero.", "There he learned that the Vermont Republic had declared independence in 1777, that a constitution had been drawn up, and that election had been held.", "Allen wrote of this homecoming that \"we passed the flowing bowl, and rural felicity, sweetened with friendship, glowed in every countenance\".", "The next day he went to Arlington to see his family and his brother Ira, whose prominence in Vermont politics had risen considerably during Allen's captivity.===Politics===George ClintonAllen spent the next several years involved in Vermont's political and military matters.", "While his family remained in Arlington, he spent most of his time either in Bennington or on the road, where he could avoid his wife's nagging.", "Shortly after his arrival, Vermont's Assembly passed the Banishment Act, a sweeping measure allowing for the confiscation and auction by the republic of property owned by known Tories.", "Allen was appointed to be one of the judges responsible for deciding whose property was subject to seizure under the law.", "(This law was so successful at collecting revenue that Vermont did not impose any taxes until 1781.)", "Allen personally escorted some of those convicted under the law to Albany, where he turned them over to General John Stark for transportation to the British lines.", "Some of these supposed Tories protested to New York Governor George Clinton that they were actually dispossessed Yorkers.", "Clinton, who considered Vermont to still be a part of New York, did not want to honor the actions of the Vermont tribunals; Stark, who had custody of the men, disagreed with Clinton.", "Eventually the dispute made its way to George Washington, who essentially agreed with Stark since he desperately needed the general's services.", "The prisoners were eventually transported to West Point, where they remained in \"easy imprisonment\".While Allen's service as a judge in Vermont was brief, he continued to ferret out Tories and report them to local Boards of Confiscation for action.", "He was so zealous in these efforts that they also included naming his own brother Levi, who was apparently trying to swindle Allen and Ira out of land at the time.", "This action was somewhat surprising, as Levi had not only attempted to purchase Allen's release while he was in Halifax, but he had also traveled to New York while Allen was on parole there and furnished him with goods and money.", "Allen and Levi engaged in a war of words, many of which were printed in the ''Connecticut Courant'', even after Levi crossed British lines.", "They would eventually reconcile in 1783.Early in 1779, Governor Clinton issued a proclamation stating that the state of New York would honor the Wentworth grants, if the settlers would recognize New York's political jurisdiction over the Vermont territory.", "Allen wrote another pamphlet in response, entitled ''An Address to the Inhabitants of the State of Vermont; with Remarks on a Proclamation under the Hand of his Excellency George Clinton, Esq; Governor of the State of New York''.", "In typical style, Allen castigated the governor for issuing \"romantic proclamations ... calculated to deceive woods people\", and for his \"folly and stupidity\".", "Clinton's response, once he recovered his temper, was to issue another proclamation little different from the first.", "Allen's pamphlet circulated widely, including among members of Congress, and was successful in casting the Vermonters' case in a positive light.In a dispatch to Clinton from Westminster, two prisoners from New York sentenced after Allen’s intervention pleaded with the governor to free them from being at “the disposal of Ethan which is more to be dreaded than Death with all its Terrors.”In 1779, Allen published the account of his time in captivity, ''A Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity ...", "Containing His Voyages and Travels, With the most remarkable Occurrences respecting him and many other Continental Prisoners of Observations.", "Written by Himself and now published for the Information of the Curious in all Nations''.", "First published as a serial by the ''Pennsylvania Packet'', the book was an instant best-seller; it is still available today.", "While largely accurate, it notably omits Benedict Arnold from the capture of Ticonderoga, and Seth Warner as the leader of the Green Mountain Boys.=== Negotiations with the British ===Allen appeared before the Continental Congress as early as September 1778 on behalf of Vermont, seeking recognition as an independent state.", "He reported that due to Vermont's expansion to include border towns from New Hampshire, Congress was reluctant to grant independent statehood to Vermont.", "Between 1780 and 1783, Allen participated, along with his brother Ira, Vermont Governor Thomas Chittenden, and others, in negotiations with Frederick Haldimand, the governor of Quebec, that were ostensibly about prisoner exchanges, but were really about establishing Vermont as a new British province and gaining military protection for its residents.", "The negotiations, once details of them were published, were often described by opponents of Vermont statehood as treasonous, but no such formal charges were ever laid against anyone involved." ], [ "Later years", "As the war had ended with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, and the United States, operating under the Articles of Confederation, resisted any significant action with respect to Vermont, Allen's historic role as an agitator became less important, and his public role in Vermont's affairs declined.", "Vermont's government had also become more than a clique dominated by the Allen and Chittenden families due to the territory's rapid population growth.In 1782, Allen's brother Heber died at the relatively young age of 38.Allen's wife Mary died in June 1783 of consumption, to be followed several months later by their first-born daughter Loraine.", "While they had not always been close, and Allen's marriage had often been strained, Allen felt these losses deeply.", "A poem he wrote memorializing Mary was published in the ''Bennington Gazette''.===Publication of ''Reason''===CFI's LibraryIn these years, Allen recovered from Thomas Young's widow, who was living in Albany, the manuscript that he and Young had worked on in his youth and began to develop it into the work that was published in 1785 as ''Reason: the Only Oracle of Man''.", "The work was a typical Allen polemic, but its target was religious, not political.", "Specifically targeted against Christianity, it was an unbridled attack against the Bible, established churches, and the powers of the priesthood.", "As a replacement for organized religion, he espoused a mixture of deism, Spinoza's naturalist views, and precursors of Transcendentalism, with man acting as a free agent within the natural world.", "While historians disagree over the exact authorship of the work, the writing contains clear indications of Allen's style.The book was a complete financial and critical failure.", "Allen's publisher had forced him to pay the publication costs up front, and only 200 of the 1,500 volumes printed were sold.", "(The rest were eventually destroyed by a fire at the publisher's house.)", "The theologically conservative future president of Yale, Timothy Dwight, opined that \"the style was crude and vulgar, and the sentiments were coarser than the style.", "The arguments were flimsy and unmeaning, and the conclusions were fastened upon the premises by mere force.\"", "Allen took the financial loss and the criticism in stride, observing that most of the critics were clergymen, whose livelihood he was attacking.===Second marriage===Allen met his second wife, a young widow named Frances \"Fanny\" Montresor Brush Buchanan, early in 1784; and after a brief courtship, they wed on February 16, 1784.Fanny came from a notably Loyalist background (including Crean Brush, notorious for acts during the Siege of Boston, from whom she inherited land in Vermont), but they were both smitten, and the marriage was a happy one.", "They had three children: Fanny (1784–1819), Hannibal Montresor (1786–1813), and Ethan Alphonso (1789–1855).", "Fanny had a settling effect on Allen; for the remainder of his years he did not embark on many great adventures.The notable exception to this was when land was claimed by the Connecticut-based owners of the Susquehanna Company, who had been granted titles to land claimed by Connecticut in the Wyoming Valley, in an area that is now Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.", "The area was also claimed by Pennsylvania, which refused to recognize the Connecticut titles.", "Allen, after being promised land, traveled to the area and began stirring up not just Pennsylvania authorities but also his long-time nemesis, Governor Clinton of New York, by proposing that a new state be carved out of the disputed area and several counties of New York.", "The entire affair was more bluster than anything else, and was resolved amicably when Pennsylvania agreed to honor the Connecticut titles.Allen was also approached by Daniel Shays in 1786 for support in what became the Shays's Rebellion in western Massachusetts.", "He was unsupportive of the cause, in spite of Shays's offer to crown him \"king of Massachusetts\"; he felt that Shays was just trying to erase unpayable debts.In his later years, independent Vermont continued to experience rapid population growth, and Allen sold a great deal of his land, but also reinvested much the proceeds in more land.", "A lack of cash, complicated by Vermont's currency problems, placed a strain on Fanny's relatively free hand on spending, which was further exacerbated by the cost of publishing ''Reason'', and of the construction of a new home near the mouth of the Onion River.", "He was threatened with debtors' prison on at least one occasion, and was at times reduced to borrowing money and calling in old debts to make ends meet.Allen and his family moved to Burlington in 1787, which was no longer a small frontier settlement but a small town, and much more to Allen's liking than the larger community that Bennington had become.", "He frequented the tavern there, and began work on ''An Essay on the Universal Plenitude of Being'', which he characterized as an appendix to ''Reason''.", "This essay was less polemic than many of his earlier writings.", "Allen affirmed the perfection of God and His creation, and credited intuition as well as reason as a way to bring Man closer to the universe.", "The work was not published until long after his death, and is primarily of interest to students of Transcendentalism, a movement the work foreshadows.=== Death ===On February 11, 1789, Allen traveled to South Hero, Vermont with one of his workers to visit his cousin, Ebenezer Allen, and to collect a load of hay.", "After an evening spent with friends and acquaintances, he spent the night there and set out the next morning for home.", "While accounts of the return journey are not entirely consistent, Allen apparently suffered an apoplectic fit en route and was unconscious by the time they returned home.", "Allen died at home several hours later, without ever regaining consciousness.", "He was buried four days later in the Green Mount Cemetery in Burlington.", "The funeral was attended by dignitaries from the Vermont government and by large numbers of common folk who turned out to pay respects to a man many considered their champion.Allen's death made nationwide headlines.", "The ''Bennington Gazette'' wrote of the local hero, \"the patriotism and strong attachment which ever appeared uniform in the breast of this ''Great Man'', was worth of his exalted character; the public have to lament the loss of a man who has rendered them great service\".", "Although most obituaries were positive, a number of clergymen expressed different sentiments.", "\"Allen was an ignorant and profane Deist, who died with a mind replete with horror and despair\" was the opinion of Newark, New Jersey's Reverend Uzal Ogden.", "Yale's Timothy Dwight expressed satisfaction that the world no longer had to deal with a man of \"peremptoriness and effrontery, rudeness and ribaldry\".", "It is not recorded what New York Governor Clinton's reaction was to the news." ], [ "Family", "Allen's widow Fanny gave birth to a son, Ethan Alphonso, on October 24, 1789.She eventually remarried.", "Allen's two youngest sons went on to graduate from West Point and serve in the United States Army.", "H.M. Allen was the 7th graduate, a member of the Class of 1804, and served until 1813.E.A.", "Allen was the 22nd graduate, a member of the Class of 1806, and served until 1821.His daughter Fanny achieved notice when she converted to Catholicism and entered a convent.", "Two of his grandsons were Henry Hitchcock, Attorney General of Alabama, and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who served as a Union Army general in the American Civil War.", "Reportedly General Hitchcock strongly resembled his famous grandfather.", "Two of Henry Hitchcock's sons were Henry Hitchcock and Ethan Allan Hitchcock.File:Ira Allen 1941.5.3.jpg\|Ira AllenFile:Fanny Allen.gif\|Fanny AllenFile:Henry Hitchcock (Alabama).jpg\|Alabama Attorney General Henry HitchcockFile:Gen Ethan Allen Hitchcock.jpg\|Union General Ethan Allen HitchcockImage:Henry Hitchcock (1829-1902).jpg\|Henry HitchcockFile:EAHitchcock-SecInterior.jpg\|Ethan Allen Hitchcock" ], [ "Disappearance of his grave marker", "Sometime in the early 1850s, the original plaque marking Allen's grave disappeared; its original text was preserved by early war historian Benson Lossing in the 1840s.", "The inscription read:In 1858, the Vermont Legislature authorized the placement of a 42-foot (13 m) column of Vermont granite in the cemetery, with the following inscription:The exact location within the cemetery of his remains is unknown.", "While there is a vault beneath the 1858 cenotaph, it contains a time capsule from the time of the monument's erection.", "According to the official 1858 report on the Ethan Allen monument, the funeral of Ethan Allen had taken place within Green Mount Cemetery; however the reason his remains had not been found at his memorial plaque {tablet} was because \"... by the fact that some twenty years since, the dead of the Allen family had been arranged in a square enclosed by stone posts and chains, by Herman Allen, the nephew of Ethan Allen, and this tablet, then ''lying upon a dilapidated wall of brick work'', was ''reconstructed with cut stone work'', and it is presumed that, as a matter of convenience in giving a regular form to the enclosure, was ''removed some feet from its original position'' ...\" It was thus apparent it was actually a cenotaph tomb reconstruction that Benson Lossing sketched and presumed to be the actual tomb of Ethan Allen in his 1850 ''The Pictorial Field-book of the Revolution''." ], [ "Likenesses", "Sculpture of Allen by Larkin Goldsmith MeadNo likenesses of Allen made from life have been found, in spite of numerous attempts to locate them.", "Efforts by members of the Vermont Historical Society and other historical groups through the years have followed up on rumored likenesses, only to come up empty.", "Photographs of Allen's grandson, General Ethan Allen Hitchcock, are extant, and, Hitchcock's mother said that he bore a strong resemblance to her father.", "The nearest potential images included one claimed to be by noted Revolutionary War era engraver Pierre Eugene du Simitiere that turned out to be a forgery, and a reference to a portrait possibly by Ralph Earl that has not been found (as of Stewart Holbrook's writing in 1940).", "Alexander Graydon, with whom Allen was paroled during his captivity in New York, described him like this:His figure was that of a robust, large-framed man, worn down by confinement and hard fare; but he was now recovering his flesh and spirits; and a suit of blue clothes, with a gold laced hat that had been presented to him by the gentlement of Cork, enabled him to make a very passable appearance for a rebel colonel ...", "I have seldom met with a man, possessing, in my opinion, a stronger mind, or whose mode of expression was more vehement and oratorical.", "Notwithstanding that Allen might have had something of the insubordinate, lawless frontier spirit in his composition ... he appeared to me to be a man of generosity and honor." ], [ "Memorials", "Monument to Allen in Green Mount CemeteryAllen's final home, on the Onion River (now called the Winooski River), is a part of the Ethan Allen Homestead and Museum.", "Situated in Burlington, Allen's homestead is open for viewing via guided tours.Two ships of the United States Navy were named USS ''Ethan Allen'' in his honor, as were two 19th-century fortifications: a Civil War fort in Arlington County, Virginia and a cavalry outpost in Colchester and Essex, Vermont.", "The Vermont Army National Guard's facility in Jericho, Vermont is called the Camp Ethan Allen Training Site.", "A statue of Allen represents Vermont in National Statuary Hall of the United States Capitol.", "A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve commemorating his capture bears his name.The ''Spirit of Ethan Allen III'' is a tour boat operating on Lake Champlain.", "Allen's name is the trademark of the furniture and housewares manufacturer, Ethan Allen Inc., which was founded in 1932 in Beecher Falls, Vermont.", "The ''Ethan Allen Express'', an Amtrak train running from New York City to Burlington, Vermont, is also named after him.The Ethan Allen School was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988." ], [ "Publications", "Allen is known to have written the following publications:* The 1779 edition of Allen's ''Narrative''.", "* An 1849 edition of Allen's ''Narrative''.", "* A 2000 edition of Allen's ''Narrative'' available at Amazon in March 2009* * * * The essay is reprinted in four sections in this bound edition of ''The Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries'': Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bellesiles, Michael A.", "''Revolutionary Outlaws: Ethan Allen and the Struggle for Independence on the Early American Frontier'' (University of Virginia Press, 1993)* Duffy, John J., and H. Nicholas Muller III.", "''Inventing Ethan Allen'' (University Press of New England, 2014) 285 pp.", "* * Jellison, Charles Albert.", "''Ethan Allen: frontier rebel'' (Countryman Press, 1974), popular biography* McWilliams, John.", "\"The Faces of Ethan Allen: 1760–1860.\"", "''New England Quarterly'' (1976): 257–282..* 331pp* Rife, Clarence W. \"Ethan Allen, an Interpretation.\"", "''New England Quarterly'' (1929) 2#4 pp: 561–584..* Shapiro, Darline.", "\"Ethan Allen: Philosopher-Theologian to a Generation of American Revolutionaries.\"", "''William and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American History'' (1964): 236–255..===Primary sources===* " ], [ "External links", " * * Essay on natural religion by Allen: ''Reason: The Only Oracle of Man'', published 1784 * Statue of Ethan Allen in the United States Capitol* * * * \"2000 Years of Disbelief: Ethan Allen\" by James A. Haught, in Daylight Atheism, March 30, 2020*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ecuador''' ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the '''Republic of Ecuador''' (, which literally translates as \"Republic of the Equator\"; Quechua: ''Ikwayur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Ekuatur Nunka''), is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west.", "Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about west of the mainland.", "The country's capital is Quito, but its largest city is Guayaquil.The territories of modern-day Ecuador were once home to a variety of indigenous peoples that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century.", "The territory was colonized by Spanish Empire during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, from which it emerged as a sovereign state in 1830.The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador's ethnically diverse population, with most of its million people being mestizos, followed by large minorities of Europeans, Native American, African, and Asian descendants.", "Spanish is the official language spoken by a majority of the population, although 13 native languages are also recognized, including Quechua and Shuar.Ecuador is a representative democratic presidential republic and a developing country whose economy is highly dependent on exports of commodities, primarily petroleum and agricultural products.", "The country is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States, Mercosur, PROSUR, and the Non-Aligned Movement.", "According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, between 2006 and 2016, poverty decreased from 36.7% to 22.5% and annual per capita GDP growth was 1.5 percent (as compared to 0.6 percent over the prior two decades).", "At the same time, the country's Gini index of economic inequality improved from 0.55 to 0.47.One of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, Ecuador hosts many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands.", "In recognition of its unique ecological heritage, the new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable rights of nature." ], [ "Etymology", "The country's name means \"Equator\" in Spanish, truncated from the Spanish official name, ''República del Ecuador'' ( \"Republic of the Equator\"), derived from the former Ecuador Department of Gran Colombia established in 1824 as a division of the former territory of the Royal Audience of Quito.", "Quito, which remained the capital of the department and republic, is located only about , of a degree, south of the equator." ], [ "History", "===Pre-Inca era===A Venus (2,300-2,000 BCE) of the Valdivia culture (from Santa Elena Province) displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Florence.Figure of the Jama Coaque culture (300 BCE-800 CE) (from Manabí Province).", "Walters Art Museum.Ruins of Ingapirca, was an outpost and supplier for the Incan troops, and also was a coricancha, a place of worship to the Sun (Inti), the main godVarious peoples had settled in the area of future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas.", "The archeological evidence suggests that the Paleo-Indians' first dispersal into the Americas occurred near the end of the last glacial period, around 16,500–13,000 years ago.", "The first people who reached Ecuador may have journeyed by land from North and Central America or by boat down the Pacific Ocean coastline.Even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments.", "The people of the coast combined agriculture with fishing, hunting, and gathering; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life; and peoples of the Amazon basin relied on hunting and gathering, in some cases combined with agriculture and arboriculture.Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus (near present-day Quito), and the Cañari (near present-day Cuenca).", "Each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests.In the highland Andes mountains, where life was more sedentary, groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages; thus the first nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals formed.", "Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, groups of nations formed confederations.When the Incas arrived, they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers—Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Capac—to absorb them into the Inca Empire.", "People belonging to the confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, and north Argentina.", "Similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion.", "Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language.In contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile.", "Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior and resorted to guerrilla tactics.", "As a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon Basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered.", "The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force.", "The Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist both Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their languages and cultures well into the 21st century.Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Inca Empire was involved in a civil war.", "The untimely death of both the heir Ninan Cuyochi and the Emperor Huayna Capac, from a European disease that spread into Ecuador, created a power vacuum between two factions and led to a civil war.", "The army stationed north headed by Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother.", "In 1532, a small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro reached Cajamarca and lured Atahualpa into a trap (battle of Cajamarca).", "Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he made good his promise of filling a room full of gold.", "But, after a mock trial, the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by strangulation.===Spanish colonization===The colonial Quito, capital of the Real Audiencia of Quito, today a UNESCO World Heritage Site.New infectious diseases such as smallpox, endemic to the Europeans, caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule, as they had no immunity.", "At the same time, the natives were forced into the ''encomienda'' labor system for the Spanish.", "In 1563, Quito became the seat of a real audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada.The 1797 Riobamba earthquake, which caused up to 40,000 casualties, was studied by Alexander von Humboldt, when he visited the area in 1801–1802.After nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Quito still remained small with a population of 10,000 people.", "On 10 August 1809, the city's ''criollos'' called for independence from Spain (first among the peoples of Latin America).", "They were led by Juan Pío Montúfar, Quiroga, Salinas, and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo.", "Quito's nickname, \"''Luz de América''\" (\"Light of America\"), is based on its leading role in trying to secure an independent, local government.", "Although the new government lasted no more than two months, it had important repercussions and was an inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of Spanish America.", "Today, 10 August is celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday.===Independence===Venezuelan independence hero Antonio José de SucreThe Guayaquil Conference between the two main Hispanic South American independence heroes, in which they debated, San Martín wanted a monarchical unified South America, while Bolívar wanted a republican unified South America.On 9 October 1820, the Department of Guayaquil became the first territory in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain, and it spawned most of the Ecuadorian coastal provinces, establishing itself as an independent state.", "Its inhabitants celebrated what is now Ecuador's official Independence Day on 24 May 1822.The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha, near Quito.", "Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar's Republic of Gran Colombia, also including modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama.", "In 1830, Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic.", "Two years later, it annexed the Galapagos Islands.The 19th century was marked by instability for Ecuador with a rapid succession of rulers.", "The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan-born Juan José Flores, who was ultimately deposed.", "Leaders who followed him included Vicente Rocafuerte; José Joaquín de Olmedo; José María Urbina; Diego Noboa; Pedro José de Arteta; Manuel de Ascásubi; and Flores's own son, Antonio Flores Jijón, among others.", "The conservative Gabriel García Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church.", "In the late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.Ecuador abolished slavery in 1851.The descendants of enslaved Ecuadorians are among today's Afro-Ecuadorian population.===Liberal Revolution===The Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners.", "This liberal wing retained power until the military \"Julian Revolution\" of 1925.The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians, such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra.===Loss of claimed territories since 1830===After Ecuador's separation from Colombia on 13 May 1830, its first President, General Juan José Flores, laid claim to the territory that had belonged to the Real Audiencia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito.", "He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees, or ''real cedulas'', that delineated the borders of Spain's former overseas colonies.", "In the case of Ecuador, Flores based Ecuador's ''de jure'' claims on the Real Cedulas of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829) which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui.", "In addition, Ecuador's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the Wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire.", "Moreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on 16 February 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain, whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito.Ecuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in 1904 through a series of peaceful treaties, and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942.===Struggle for independence===During the struggle for independence, before Peru or Ecuador became independent nations, a few areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada – Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén – declared themselves independent from Spain.", "A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martín decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén with the intention of using these towns as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then to liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador).", "It was common knowledge among the top officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martín wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it.", "However, Bolívar's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia, out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador.", "San Martín's plans were thwarted when Bolívar, with the help of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and the Gran Colombian liberation force, descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia.In the south, Ecuador had ''de jure'' claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as Tumbes which lay between the Zarumilla and Tumbes rivers.", "In Ecuador's southern Andes Mountain region where the Marañon cuts across, Ecuador had ''de jure'' claims to an area it called Jaén de Bracamoros.", "These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar on 17 December 1819, during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created.", "Tumbes declared itself independent from Spain on 17 January 1821, and Jaén de Bracamoros on 17 June 1821, without any outside help from revolutionary armies.", "However, that same year, 1821, Peruvian forces participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both Jaén and Tumbes.", "Some Peruvian generals, without any legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia, had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of the Gran Colombia, feeling that Ecuador was once part of the Inca Empire.On 28 July 1821, Peruvian independence was proclaimed in Lima by San Martín, and Tumbes and Jaén, which were included as part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force, had the whole region swear allegiance to the new Peruvian flag and incorporated itself into Peru.", "Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the return of Jaén and Tumbes for almost a decade, then finally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaén, Tumbes, and part of Mainas, declared war.", "President and General José de La Mar, who was born in Ecuador, believing his opportunity had come to annex the District of Ecuador to Peru, personally, with a Peruvian force, invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on 28 November 1828.The war ended when a triumphant heavily outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui dated 27 February 1829, led by Antonio José de Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar.", "This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil dated 22 September 1829, whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes, Jaén, and Maynas.", "Through protocolized meetings between representatives of Peru and Gran Colombia, the border was set as Tumbes river in the west and in the east the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them.", "However, what was pending was whether the new border around the Jaén region should follow the Chinchipe River or the Huancabamba River.", "According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén, alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations – Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.Map of the former Gran Colombia in 1824 (named in its time as Colombia), the Gran Colombia covered all the colored region.The Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on 13 May 1830.After Ecuador's separation, the Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota.", "The Venezuelan born President of Ecuador, the general Juan José Flores, with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on 20 December 1830, since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of the South as far back as April 1830.Moreover, the Cauca region, throughout its long history, had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador.", "Also, the Cauca region, which included such cities as Pasto, Popayán, and Buenaventura, had always been dependent on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito.Fruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogotá and Quito, where the government of Bogotá did not recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832.In five months, New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to fight against their fellow countrymen.", "Seeing that his officers were rebelling, mutinying, and changing sides, President Flores had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New Granada.", "The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New Granada (modern Colombia), the government of Bogotá recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the border was to follow the Ley de División Territorial de la República de Colombia (Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia) passed on 25 June 1824.This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquetá river.", "Later, Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia, while reorganizing its government, unlawfully made its eastern border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayán extended its control all the way to the Napo River.====Struggle for possession of the Amazon Basin====South America (1879): All land claims by Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia in 1879When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru contested Ecuador's claims with the newly discovered ''Real Cedula'' of 1802, by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru.", "During colonial times this was to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin.", "Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument, which had nothing to do with political borders.", "Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil.", "This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers.Peru began occupying the missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region, which it began calling Loreto, with its capital in Iquitos.", "During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range.", "Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers.", "Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon-Amazon river.", "Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos.", "Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860, since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders, but returned Guayaquil after a few months.", "The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910, but to no avail.In the early part of the 20th century, Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbours through negotiation.", "On 6 May 1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar-Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru's earlier Treaty with Brazil back on 23 October 1851.Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed 15 July 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers.", "In this way, Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting itself off from Brazil.", "Later, a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru, over Peru's claims to the Caquetá region, which ended with Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon-Lozano Treaty on 24 March 1922.Ecuador protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916.On 21 July 1924, the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration.", "Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on 30 September 1935.The negotiations turned into intense arguments during the next 7 months and finally on 29 September 1937, the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations.Four years later in 1941, amid fast-growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River, war broke out with Peru.", "Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaén, and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers.", "In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries.", "Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces.", "Hostilities erupted on 5 July 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops.", "Finally, on 23 July 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro.Map of Ecuadorian land claims after 1916During the course of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims.", "The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops.", "After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations, all fighting came to a stop.", "Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on 29 January 1942, in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favoring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end.The 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military-civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador's government.", "However, a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon.", "In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed.", "The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter.In 1978, the city of Quito and the Galápagos Islands were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, making the first two properties in the world to become listed sites.Ecuadorian troops during the Cenepa WarMirage F.1JA (FAE-806) was one aircraft involved in the claimed shooting down of two Peruvian Sukhoi Su-22 on 10 February 1995.The Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote ''Cordillera del Cóndor'' region in southern Ecuador.", "This caused a long-simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries; first a border skirmish in January–February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador.", "Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa War.", "Sixto Durán Ballén, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador.", "Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the \"''Cain de Latinoamérica''\", a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis.Ecuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on 26 October 1998, which ended hostilities, and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere's longest running territorial dispute.", "The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States of America) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the ''Cordillera del Cóndor''.", "While Ecuador had to give up its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza – focal point of the war – had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict.", "The final border demarcation came into effect on 13 May 1999, and the multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on 17 June 1999.===Military governments (1972–79)===In 1972, a \"revolutionary and nationalist\" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra.", "The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina.", "He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by another military government.", "That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council.", "The Supreme Council included two other members: General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Pintado.", "The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections.", "Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister, proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections.", "This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office.=== Return to democracy (1979–present) ===Elections were held on 29 April 1979, under a new constitution.", "Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president, garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian history.", "He took office on 10 August as the first constitutionally elected president, after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships.", "In 1980, he founded the ''Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia'' (People, Change, and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the ''Concentración de Fuerzas Populares'' (Popular Forces Concentration).", "He governed until 24 May 1981, when he died, along with his wife and the minister of defense Marco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border.", "Many people believe that he was assassinated by the CIA, given the multiple death threats against him because of his reformist agenda, the deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation, and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident.", "Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado.In 1984 León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party was elected president.", "Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática, or ID) party won the presidency in 1988, winning the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party).", "His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade.", "The Borja government negotiated the disbanding of the small terrorist group, \"¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!\"", "(\"Alfaro Lives, Dammit!", "\"), named after Eloy Alfaro.", "However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID party, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999.President Lenín Moreno, first lady Rocío González Navas and his predecessor Rafael Correa, 3 April 2017\|250x250pxA notable event was the Cenepa War fought between Ecuador and Peru in 1995.Ecuador adopted the United States dollar on 13 April 2000 as its national currency and on 11 September, the country eliminated the Ecuadorian sucre, in order to stabilize the country's economy.", "The US Dollar has been the only official currency of Ecuador since then.The emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years.", "The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and the historical exploitation by the land-holding elite.", "Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office.", "The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005.Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place In the election of 2006, Rafael Correa gained the presidency.", "In January 2007, several left-wing political leaders of Latin America, his future allies, attended his swearing-in ceremony.", "Endorsed in a 2008 referendum, a new constitution implemented leftist reforms.", "In December 2008, Correa declared Ecuador's national debt illegitimate, based on the argument that it was odious debt contracted by prior corrupt and despotic regimes.", "He announced that the country would default on over $3 billion worth of bonds, and he succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60% by fighting creditors in international courts.", "He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009.Correa's administration reduced the high levels of poverty and unemployment in Ecuador.Correa's three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by his former Vice President Lenín Moreno's four years as president (2017–21).", "After being elected in 2017, President Moreno's government adopted economically liberal policies, such as reduction of public spending, trade liberalization, and flexibility of the labour code.", "Ecuador also left the left-wing Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (Alba) in August 2018.The Productive Development Act introduced an austerity policy, and reduced the previous development and redistribution policies.", "Regarding taxes, the authorities aimed to \"encourage the return of investors\" by granting amnesty to fraudsters and proposing measures to reduce tax rates for large companies.", "In addition, the government waived the right to tax increases in raw material prices and foreign exchange repatriations.", "In October 2018, Moreno cut diplomatic relations with the Maduro administration of Venezuela, a close ally of Correa.", "The relations with the United States improved significantly under Moreno.", "In June 2019, Ecuador agreed to allow US military planes to operate from an airport on the Galapagos Islands.", "In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and U.S. president in 17 years.", "A series of protests began on 3 October 2019 against the end of fuel subsidies and austerity measures adopted by Moreno.", "On 10 October, protesters overran the capital Quito causing the Government of Ecuador to relocate to Guayaquil.", "but later returned to Quito.", "On 14 October 2019, the government restored fuel subsidies and withdrew an austerity package, which ended nearly two weeks of protests.Outgoing President Guillermo Lasso (center) with President-elect Daniel Noboa (right) at the latter's inauguration in November 2023.In the 11 April 2021 election, conservative former banker Guillermo Lasso took 52.4% of the vote, compared to 47.6% for left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, who was supported by exiled former president Correa.", "Lasso had finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections.", "On 24 May 2021, Lasso was sworn in, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years.", "Lasso's party CREO Movement, and its ally the Social Christian Party (PSC) won only 31 parliamentary seats out of 137, while Arauz's Union for Hope (UNES) won 49 seats, which meant Lasso needed support from the Izquierda Democrática and the indigenist Pachakutik parties to push through his legislative agenda.In October 2021, Lasso declared a 60-day state of emergency to combat crime and drug-related violence, including the numerous bloody clashes between rival groups in the state prisons.", "Lasso proposed a series of constitutional changes to enhance his government's ability to respond to crime.", "In a referendum in February 2023, voters overwhelmingly rejected his proposed changes, which weakened Lasso's political standing.On 15 October 2023, centrist candidate Daniel Noboa won the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González.", "On 23 November 2023, Noboa was sworn in.In January 2024, Noboa declared an \"internal armed conflict\" against organised crime, in response to the escape of imprisoned leader of the Los Choneros cartel, José Adolfo Macías Villamar (also known as \"Fito\"), and an armed attack at a public television channel." ], [ "Government and politics", "The Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government: the ''Executive Branch'', the ''Legislative Branch'', the ''Judicial Branch'', the ''Electoral Branch'', and ''Transparency and Social Control''.Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected president for a four-year term.", "The president of Ecuador exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito.", "The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008.Since 1936, voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18–65, optional for all other citizens.The executive branch includes 23 ministries.", "Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected.", "The National Assembly of Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December.", "There are thirteen permanent committees.", "Members of the National Court of Justice are appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine-year terms.===Executive branch===Palacio de Carondelet, seat of the President of EcuadorThe executive branch is led by the president.", "The president is accompanied by the vice-president, elected for four years (with the ability to be re-elected only once).", "As head of state and chief government official, he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of national coordinators, ministers, ministers of State and public servants.", "The executive branch defines foreign policy, appoints the Chancellor of the Republic, as well as ambassadors and consuls, being the ultimate authority over the Armed Forces of Ecuador, National Police of Ecuador, and appointing authorities.", "The acting president's wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador.===Legislative branch===The legislative branch is embodied by the National Assembly, which is headquartered in the city of Quito in the Legislative Palace, and consists of 137 assemblymen, divided into ten committees and elected for a four-year term.", "Fifteen national constituency elected assembly, two Assembly members elected from each province and one for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 150,000, according to the latest national population census.", "In addition, statute determines the election of assembly of regions and metropolitan districts.===Judicial branch===Ecuador's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council, and also includes the National Court of Justice, provincial courts, and lower courts.", "Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council.The National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years.", "Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code.", "These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits.The justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender.", "Auxiliary organs are as follows: notaries, court auctioneers, and court receivers.", "Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians.===Electoral branch===The electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur.", "Its main functions are to organize, control elections, and punish the infringement of electoral rules.", "Its main body is the National Electoral Council, which is based in the city of Quito, and consists of seven members of the political parties most voted, enjoying complete financial and administrative autonomy.", "This body, along with the electoral court, forms the ''Electoral Branch'' which is one of Ecuador's five branches of government.===Transparency and social control branch===The Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council for Citizen Participation and Social Control, an ombudsman, the Comptroller General of the State, and the superintendents.", "Branch members hold office for five years.", "This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly, as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country.===Foreign affairs===Ecuadorian President Lenín Moreno with U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, 20 July 2019Ecuador joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1973 and suspended its membership in 1992.Under President Rafael Correa, the country returned to OPEC before leaving again in 2020 under the instruction of President Moreno, citing its desire to increase crude oil exportation to gain more revenue.Ecuador has maintained a research station in Antarctica for peaceful scientific study as a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty.", "Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues.", "Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, the Andean Community of Nations, and the Bank of the South (Spanish: ''Banco del Sur'' or ''BancoSur'').In 2017, the Ecuadorian parliament adopted a ''law on human mobility''.The International Organization for Migration lauded Ecuador as the first state to have established the promotion of the concept of universal citizenship in its constitution, aiming to promote the universal recognition and protection of the human rights of migrants.", "In March 2019, Ecuador withdrew from the Union of South American Nations.===Human rights===Poor class neighborhoods in GuayaquilA 2003 Amnesty International report was critical that there were scarce few prosecutions for human rights violations committed by security forces, and those only in police courts, which are not considered impartial or independent.", "There are allegations that the security forces routinely torture prisoners.", "There are reports of prisoners having died while in police custody.", "Sometimes the legal process can be delayed until the suspect can be released after the time limit for detention without trial is exceeded.", "Prisons are overcrowded and conditions in detention centers are \"abominable\".UN's Human Rights Council's (HRC) Universal Periodic Review (UPR) has treated the restrictions on freedom of expression and efforts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions for the expression of opinions, and delay in implementing judicial reforms.", "Ecuador rejected the recommendation on decriminalization of libel.According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) former president Correa intimidated journalists and subjected them to \"public denunciation and retaliatory litigation\".", "The sentences to journalists were years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants had been pardoned.", "Correa stated he was only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements.According to HRW, Correa's government weakened the freedom of press and independence of the judicial system.", "In Ecuador's current judicial system, judges are selected in a contest of merits, rather than government appointments.", "However, the process of selection has been criticized as biased and subjective.", "In particular, the final interview is said to be given \"excessive weighing\".", "Judges and prosecutors that made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits had received permanent posts, while others with better assessment grades had been rejected.The laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate.", "In the first half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down.", "People engaging in public protests against environmental and other issues are prosecuted for \"terrorism and sabotage\", which may lead to an eight-year prison sentence.According to Freedom House, restrictions on the media and civil society have decreased since 2017.In October 2022, the United Nations expressed concerns about the dire situation in various detention centers and prisons, and the human rights of those deprived of liberty in Ecuador.===Administrative divisions===Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces (), each with its own administrative capital:Provinces of Ecuador===Regions and planning areas===Cabellera de la Virgen waterfall in Baños de Agua Santa, Tungurahua ProvinceRegionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital, Quito.In Ecuador, there are seven regions, or zones, each shaped by the following provinces:* Region 1 (42,126 km2, or 16,265 mi2): Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, and Sucumbios.", "Administrative city: Ibarra* Region 2 (43,498 km2, or 16,795 mi2): Pichincha, Napo, and Orellana.", "Administrative city: Tena* Region 3 (44,710 km2, or 17,263 mi2): Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Pastaza, and Cotopaxi.", "Administrative city: Riobamba* Region 4 (22,257 km2, or 8,594 mi2): Manabí and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas.", "Administrative city: Ciudad Alfaro* Region 5 (38,420 km2, or 14,834 mi2): Santa Elena, Guayas, Los Ríos, Galápagos, and Bolívar.", "Administrative city: Milagro* Region 6 (38,237 km2, or 14,763 mi2): Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago.", "Administrative city: Cuenca* Region 7 (27,571 km2, or 10,645 mi2): El Oro, Loja, and Zamora Chinchipe.", "Administrative city: LojaQuito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts.", "Galápagos, despite being included within Region 5, is also under a special unit." ], [ "Military", "Ecuadorian Air Force (FAE)The Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas de la Republica de Ecuador), consists of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory.Due to the continuous border disputes with Peru, finally settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes.", "In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%.The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) located in Quito is in charge of graduating army officers.", "The Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates navy officers.", "The Air Academy \"Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates air force officers." ], [ "Geography", "Ecuadorian topographyHistorically famous Cotopaxi VolcanoNapo Wildlife Center in the Yasuní National ParkAccording to the CIA, Ecuador has a total area of , including the Galápagos Islands.", "Of this, is land and water.", "The total area, according to the Ecuadorian government's foreign ministry, is .", "The Galápagos Islands are sometimes considered part of Oceania, which would thus make Ecuador a transcontinental country under certain definitions.", "Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay, Suriname, Guyana and French Guiana in South America.Ecuador lies between latitudes 2°N and 5°S,bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has of coastline.", "It has of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north (with a border) and Peru in the east and south (with a border).", "It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator.The country has four main geographic regions:* '''La Costa''', or \"the coast\": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the west of the Andean range – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas and Santa Elena.", "It is the country's most fertile and productive land, and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations of the companies Dole and Chiquita.", "This region is also where most of Ecuador's rice crop is grown.", "The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries.", "The largest coastal city is Guayaquil.", "* '''La Sierra''', or \"the highlands\": The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces – Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua.", "This land contains most of Ecuador's volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks.", "Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua.", "The largest Sierran city is Quito.", "* '''La Amazonía''', also known as ''El Oriente'', or \"the east\": The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces – Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe.", "This region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living traditionally.", "It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies.", "The population is primarily mixed Amerindian Shuar, Huaorani and Kichua, although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little-contacted.", "The largest city in the Oriente Lago Agrio in Sucumbíos.", "* '''La Región Insular''' is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.Ecuador's capital and second largest city is Quito, which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region.", "It is the second-highest capital city with an elevation of 2,850 meters.", "Ecuador's largest city is Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province.", "Cotopaxi, just south of Quito, is one of the world's highest active volcanoes.", "The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,268 m, or 20,560 ft, above sea level), Ecuador's tallest mountain, is the most distant point from the center of the Earth on the Earth's surface because of the ellipsoid shape of the planet.The Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacific, including the north–south rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas, Chone, Guayas, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes.===Climate===There is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude.", "It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands.", "The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season.", "The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones.Because of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year.", "Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours.The country has seen its seven glaciers lose 54.4% of their surface in forty years.", "Research predicts their disappearance by 2100.The cause is climate change, which threatens both the fauna and flora and the population.===Biodiversity===Ecuador is one of the most megadiverse countries in the world, it also has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation, and is one of the highest endemism worldwide.", "In the image, a pale-mandibled aracari in the Mindo-Nambillo Ecological Reserve.Ecuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International, and it has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation.Ecuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos.", "In addition to more than 16,000 species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles, 138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of butterfly.", "The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna, as the famous place of birth to Darwin's Theory of Evolution, and as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Ecuador has the first constitution to recognize the rights of nature.", "The protection of the nation's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of \"Buen Vivir\", or good living, Objective 4, \"Guarantee the rights of nature\", Policy 1: \"Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered a strategic sector\".Western Santa Cruz tortoise in the Galápagos IslandsAs of the writing of the plan in 2008, 19% of Ecuador's land area was in a protected area; however, the plan also states that 32% of the land must be protected in order to truly preserve the nation's biodiversity.", "Current protected areas include 11 national parks, 10 wildlife refuges, 9 ecological reserves, and other areas.", "A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area (6,295 km2, or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as Amerindian tribes) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands.", "Eligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected, among other factors.", "Ecuador had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.66/10, ranking it 35th globally out of 172 countries.Despite being on the UNESCO list, the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem.", "Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples.", "One of the best known examples is the Texaco-Chevron case.", "This American oil company operated in the Ecuadorian Amazon region between 1964 and 1992.During this period, Texaco drilled 339 wells in 15 petroleum fields and abandoned 627 toxic wastewater pits.", "It is now known that these highly polluting and now obsolete technologies were used as a way to reduce expenses.In 2022 the supreme court of Ecuador decided that \"under no circumstances can a project be carried out that generates excessive sacrifices to the collective rights of communities and nature.\"", "It also required the government to respect the opinion of Indigenous peoples about different industrial projects on their land." ], [ "Economy", "GDP per capita development of EcuadorEcuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products.", "The country is classified as an upper-middle-income country.", "Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between 2000 and 2006.From 2007 to 2012, Ecuador's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which was 3.5%, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC).", "Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the crisis.", "In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%.", "In 2011, its GDP grew at 8% and ranked third highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st).", "Between 1999 and 2007, GDP doubled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE.The inflation rate until January 2008, was about 1.14%, the highest in the past year, according to the government.", "The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent.", "Unemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies.", "From this point, unemployment rates started a downward trend: 7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012.The extreme poverty rate declined significantly between 1999 and 2010.In 2001, it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population.", "This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction (before 2000, the Ecuadorian ''sucre'' was prone to rampant inflation).", "However, starting in 2008, with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending, mainly in education and health.The United States dollar is the common currency circulating in Ecuador.Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance.", "Since the late 1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels .", "In late 2021, Ecuador had to declare a Force majeure for oil exports due to erosion near key pipelines (privately owned OCP pipeline and state-owned SOTE pipeline) in the Amazon.", "It lasted about three weeks, totalling just over $500 million economic losses, before their production returned to its normal level of in early 2022.The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006.The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative, amounting to $2.842 million.", "The trade balance with the United States, Chile, the European Union, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico is positive.", "The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia, and Asia is negative.Puerto de Santa Ana in Guayaquil, real estate center for the upper classIn the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (first place worldwide in export), flowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa.", "Ecuador also produces coffee, rice, potatoes, cassava (manioc, tapioca), plantains and sugarcane; cattle, sheep, pigs, beef, pork and dairy products; fish, and shrimp; and balsa wood.", "The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves.", "Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin.The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably.", "This city is also the largest business center of the country.", "Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market.", "Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially.", "These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more.", "A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca.", "Incomes from tourism has been increasing during the last few years due to promotion programs from Government, highlighting the variety of climates and the biodiversity of Ecuador.Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur.", "It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean and other multilateral agencies.", "In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF, thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country.The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank.===Sciences and research===EXA's first satellite, NEE-01 PegasusEcuador was placed in 96th position of innovation in technology in a 2013 World Economic Forum study.", "Ecuador was ranked 104th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito.", "Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Labandera, a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar, a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas, a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy.The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering.", "Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology.", "The antivirus program ''Checkprogram'', banking protection system ''MdLock'', and Core Banking Software ''Cobis'' are products of Ecuadorian development.===Tourism===Cuenca, a UNESCO World Heritage cityBañosEcuador is a country with vast natural wealth.", "The diversity of its four regions has given rise to thousands of species of flora and fauna.", "It has approximately 1640 kinds of birds.", "The species of butterflies border 4,500, the reptiles 345, the amphibians 358, and the mammals 258, among others.", "Ecuador is considered one of the 17 countries where the planet's highest biodiversity is concentrated, being also the largest country with diversity per km2 in the world.", "Most of its fauna and flora live in 26 protected areas by the state.The country has two cities with UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Quito and Cuenca, as well as two natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Galapagos Islands and Sangay National Park, in addition to one World Biosphere Reserve, such as the Cajas Massif.", "Culturally, the Toquilla straw hat and the culture of the Zapara indigenous people are recognized.", "The most popular sites for national and foreign tourists have different nuances due to the various tourist activities offered by the country.Among the main tourist destinations are:Nature attractions: Galápagos Islands, Yasuni National Park, El Cajas National Park, Sangay National Park, Podocarpus National Park, Vilcabamba, Baños de Agua Santa.", "Cultural attractions: Historic center of Quito, Ciudad Mitad del Mundo, Ingapirca, Historic center of Cuenca, Latacunga and its Mama Negra festival.", "Snowy mountains: Antisana volcano, Cayambe volcano, Chimborazo volcano, Cotopaxi volcano, Illinizas volcanoes.", "Beaches: Atacames, Bahía de Caráquez, Crucita, Esmeraldas, Manta, Montañita, Playas, Salinas===Transport===Trolebús bus rapid transit system that runs through Quito.", "It is the principal BRT in Ecuador.Railways in Ecuador The rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters.The roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement.", "The major routes are Pan American (under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of four lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja).", "In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are the Route Espondilus or Ruta del Sol (oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon backbone (which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities of it).Another major project is developing the road Manta – Tena, the highway Guayaquil – Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo, Riobamba – Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park).", "Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia – San Vincente Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast.Cuenca's tramway is the largest public transport system in the city and the first modern tramway in Ecuador.", "It was inaugurated on 8 March 2019.It has and 27 stations.", "It will transport 120,000 passagers daily.", "Its route starts in the south of Cuenca and ends in the north at the Parque Industrial neighbourhood.The Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization.", "In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal, once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance.", "However, the main road leading from Quito city center to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014, making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour.", "Quito's old city-center airport is being turned into parkland, with some light industrial use." ], [ "Demographics", "Population pyramid in 2020Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse and the estimates put Ecuador's population at .", "The largest ethnic group () is the ''Mestizos'', who are mixed race people of Amerindian and European descent, typically from Spanish colonists, in some cases this term can also include Amerindians that are culturally more Spanish influenced, and constitute about 71% of the population (although including the Montubio, a term used for coastal Mestizo population, brings this up to about 79%).The White Ecuadorians are a minority accounting for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador, primarily around the urban areas.", "Even though Ecuador's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain, today Ecuador's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly from Spain with people from Italy, Germany, France, and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century.", "In addition, there is a small European Jewish (Ecuadorian Jews) population, which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil.Ecuador also has a small population of Asian origins, mainly those from West Asia, like the economically well off descendants of Lebanese and Palestinian immigrants, who are either Christian or Muslim (see Islam in Ecuador), and an East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.Amerindians account for 7% of the current population.", "The mostly rural Montubio population of the coastal provinces of Ecuador, who might be classified as Pardo account for 7.4% of the population.The Afro-Ecuadorians are a minority population (7%) in Ecuador, that includes the Mulattos and ''zambos'', and are largely based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantly Mestizo provinces of Coastal Ecuador – Guayas and Manabi.", "In the Highland Andes where a predominantly Mestizo, white and Amerindian population exist, the African presence is almost non-existent except for a small community in the province of Imbabura called Chota Valley.", "5,000 Romani people live in Ecuador.===Language=== Spanish is the official language in Ecuador.", "It is spoken as a first (93%) or second language (6%) by the vast majority of its population.", "In 1991 Northern Kichwa (Quechua) and other pre-colonial American languages were spoken by 2,500,000.Ethnologues estimate that the country has about 24 living indigenous languages.", "Among the 24 are Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani).", "Use of these Amerindian languages is gradually diminishing and being replaced by Spanish.Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish as their first language, with its ubiquity permeating and dominating most of the country.", "Despite its small size the country has a marked diversity in Spanish accents that vary widely among regions.", "Ecuadorian Spanish idiosyncrasies reflect the ethnic and racial populations that originated and settled the distinct areas of the country.The three main regional variants are:* Equatorial Pacific Spanish or Equatorial Coastal Spanish* Andean Spanish* Amazonic Spanish===Religion===According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics.", "Among the people who have a religion, 80.44% are Catholic, 11.30% are Evangelical Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).In the rural parts of Ecuador, Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized into a local form of folk Catholicism.", "Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.Colonial Jesuit Convent of QuitoThere is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, Amerindian religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Baháʼí.", "According to their own estimates, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accounts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 members at the end of 2012.According to their own sources, in 2017 there were 92,752 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country.The History of the Jews in Ecuador goes back to the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Until the 20th century the mayority were Sephardic with many Anusim (Crypto-Jews) among them.", "Ashkenazi Jews arrived mostly as refugees after the ascendance of National Socialism in Germany in 1933, with 3000 Jews in Ecuador in 1940.At its peak, in 1950, the Jewish population of Ecuador was estimated at 4,000, but then diminished to some 290 around 2020, forming one of the smallest Jewish communities in South America.", "Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country for the United States or Israel.", "Today the Jewish Community of Ecuador (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito.", "There are very small communities in Cuenca.", "The \"Comunidad de Culto Israelita\" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil.", "This community works independently from the \"Jewish Community of Ecuador\" and is composed of only 30 people.===Health===Hospital Docente de Calderón, in QuitoThe current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967.The Ministry of the Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans.", "The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic.The philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population, and its main plan of action lies around communitarian health and preventive medicine.", "Many American medical groups often conduct medical missions away from the big cities to provide medical health to poor communities.The public healthcare system allows patients to be treated without an appointment in public general hospitals by general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient clinic (''Consulta Externa'') at no cost.", "This is done in the four basic specialties of pediatric, gynecology, clinic medicine, and surgery.", "There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular group of the population, or provide better treatment in some medical specialties.Although well-equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecology, clinical medicine, and surgery.Community health care centers (Centros de Salud) are found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas.", "These are day hospitals that provide treatment to patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours.The doctors assigned to rural communities, where the Amerindian population can be substantial, have small clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major cities.", "The treatment in this case respects the culture of the community.The public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service, which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers.", "Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system.", "The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security (IESS) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation.Ecuador currently ranks 20, in most efficient health care countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000.Ecuadorians have a life expectancy of 77.1 years.", "The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births, a major improvement from approximately 76 in the early 1980s and 140 in 1950.23% of children under five are chronically malnourished.", "Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water, and its supply is provided by mean of water tankers.", "There are 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people.", "Basic health care, including doctor's visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008.However, some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients.", "Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population.Between 2008 and 2016, new public hospitals have been built.", "In 2008, the government introduced universal and compulsory social security coverage.", "In 2015, corruption remains a problem.", "Overbilling is recorded in 20% of public establishments and in 80% of private establishments.===Education===University of the Arts in GuayaquilThe Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a \"basic level of education\", which is estimated at nine school years.", "In 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of children stayed in school until the fifth grade / age 10.The cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the government, but families often face significant additional expenses such as fees and transportation costs.Provision of public schools falls far below the levels needed, and class sizes are often very large, and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education.", "In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school.", "In a 2015 report, The Ministry of Education states that in 2014 the mean number of school years completed in rural areas is 7.39 as compared to 10.86 in urban areas.=== Largest cities ===The five largest cities in the country are Quito (2.78 million inhabitants), Guayaquil (2.72 million inhabitants), Cuenca (636,996 inhabitants), Santo Domingo (458,580 inhabitants), and Ambato (387,309 inhabitants).", "The most populated metropolitan areas of the country are those of Guayaquil, Quito, Cuenca, Manabí Centro (Portoviejo-Manta) and Ambato.===Immigration and emigration===Ecuador houses a small East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.In the early years of World War II, Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants, and in 1939, when several South American countries refused to accept 165 Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship ''Koenigstein'', Ecuador granted them entry permits.Migration from Lebanon to Ecuador started as early as 1875.Early impoverished migrants tended to work as independent sidewalk vendors, rather than as wage workers in agriculture or others' businesses.", "Though they emigrated to escape Ottoman Turkish religious oppression, they were called \"Turks\" by Ecuadorians because they carried Ottoman passports.", "There were further waves of immigration in the first half of the 20th century; by 1930, there were 577 Lebanese immigrants and 489 of their descendants residing in the country.", "A 1986 estimate from Lebanon's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated 100,000 Lebanese descendants.", "They reside mostly in Quito and Guayaquil.", "They are predominantly Roman Catholics.In the early 1900s there was immigration from Italians, Germans, Portuguese, French, Britons, Irish and Greeks.", "The town of Ancón experienced of wave of immigration from the UK starting in 1911, when the Government of Ecuador conceded 98 mines, occupying an area of 38,842 hectares, to the British oil company Anglo Ecuadorian Oilfields.", "Today, the Anglo American Oilfields or Anglo American plc is the world's largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a major producer of diamonds, copper, nickel, iron ore and steelmaking coal.", "Alberto Spencer is one famed Briton that hailed from Ancon.", "The town has now become an attraction due to the austere British homes in \"El Barrio Ingles\" situated in a contrasting tropical setting.In the 1950s the Italians were the third largest national group in terms of numbers of immigrants.", "It can be noted that, after World War I, people from Liguria, still constituted the majority of the flow, even though they then represented only one third of the total number of immigrants in Ecuador.", "This situation came from the improvement of the economic situation in Liguria.", "The classic paradigm of the Italian immigrant today was not that of the small trader from Liguria as it had been before; those who emigrated to Ecuador were professionals and technicians, employees and religious people from South-Central Italy.", "It must be remembered that many immigrants, a remarkable number of Italians among them, moved to the Ecuadorian port from Peru to escape from the Peruvian war with Chile.", "The Italian government came to be more interested in the emigration phenomenon in Ecuador because of the necessity of finding an outlet for the large number of immigrants who traditionally went to the United States but who could no longer enter this country because of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 that restricted immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans as well as other \"undesirables\".Most of these communities and their descendants are located in the Guayas region of the country.Throughout the 20th century, immigration also came from other Latin American countries due to civil wars, economic crises, and dictatorships.", "The most notable are those coming from Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay.", "Starting from 2002, there has been an exponential and significant growth in Colombian and Venezuelan refugees.", "Colombians have historically found refuge in its neighboring country during times of civil unrest.", "Recently, Venezuelans have become a notable presence in Ecuadorian cities as many flee the economic and political Venezuelan crisis.", "Authorities argue that an estimated 350,000 to 400,000 Colombians live in Ecuador, porous borders and lack of formal registration disallow concrete numbers.From 2007, the Ecuador government created multiple initiatives to attract Ecuadorians abroad mostly from the United States, Italy, and Spain to return after many left during the 90s economic crisis or La Decada Perdida.", "These policies resulted in the rapid and significant rise in the flow of returning nationals, most notably during the 2008 economic crisis that affected Europe and North America.In recent years, Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates." ], [ "Culture", "Cañari children with the typical Andean indigenous clothesEcuador's mainstream culture is defined by its ''mestizo'' majority, and, like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by African elements.", "The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499.A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and, in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World War.Huaorani man with the typical Amazonian indigenous clothesEcuador's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own native cultures, particularly the more remote Amerindian communities of the Amazon basin.", "Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population and as a first or second language by more than 98%.", "Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language.", "Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.===Media======Music===The music of Ecuador has a long history.", "Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music.", "In Ecuador it is the \"national genre of music\".", "Through the years, many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music.", "There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba (highly established in Afro-Ecuadorian societies), and so on.", "Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures.", "One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito.", "It is originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura).", "Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities.", "According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista's birthday.", "This important date was established by the Spaniards on 24 June, coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi.===Cuisine===Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic / racial communities.", "Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three-course meal of soup, a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert and coffee to finish.In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp, and ''ceviche'' being an integral part of the diet.", "Beef is also notably consumed in the coastal region, traditional dishes are churrasco and arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) served with fried plantain.", "The latter is an emblematic dish of the city of Guayaquil.", "Meat based dishes have their origins in the cattle ranching culture of the Montubio people.Ceviche is an indispensable coastal dish with pre-incan origins.", "It is often served with fried plantain (chifles or patacones), popcorn, or tostado.", "Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are quite frequent in the coastal region reflecting the West African roots of many of its citizens.", "Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular in the northern coast centering around the city of Esmeraldas.", "The coast is also a leading producer of bananas, cocoa beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mango, and passion fruit, among other products.Pan de yuca, analogous with the Brazilian pão de queijo, is served with \"yogur persa\" and is often eaten as a snack in many coastal cities.", "Its origin comes from the Persian and Middle Eastern populations that settled the coast.In the highland region, various dishes of pork, chicken, and ''cuy'' (guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and mote) or potatoes.", "The consumption of \"Cuy\" or Guinea Pig, de rigueur in mostly indigenous communities, reflects the predominantly native character of the highlands.", "Considered a delicacy it is often characterized as having a mild pork flavor.In the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the ''yuca'', elsewhere called cassava.", "Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.===Literature===Juan MontalvoEarly literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age.", "One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo, an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s.", "Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua.", "The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language.", "The history behind the Inca drama \"Ollantay\", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo.", "Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned.", "The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript.", "The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the \"Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa\", a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa.Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre, born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan de Velasco, born in Riobamba in 1727.Famous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include Eugenio Espejo, a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled ''Victoria de Junin''; Juan Montalvo, a prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera, famous for his work \"Cumanda\" or \"Tragedy among Savages\" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Juan A. Martinez with ''A la Costa''; Dolores Veintimilla; and others.Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poets Medardo Angel Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade, Emanuel Xavier and Luis Alberto Costales; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel ''Huasipungo'', translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio.===Art===criolla Yapanga from colonial Quito, in 1783, by Vicente Albán.", "Museo de América, Madrid.The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the ''Escuela Quiteña'' (Quito School), which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito.", "Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín, and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constanté, Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutierrez, Félix Arauz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; Teddy Cobeña from expressionism and figurative style and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style.", "The Amerindian people of Tigua, Ecuador, are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.===Sports===220x220pxThe most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is soccer.", "Its best known professional teams include; Emelec from Guayaquil, Liga De Quito from Quito; Barcelona S.C. from Guayaquil, the most popular team in Ecuador, also the team with most local championships; Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca.", "Currently the most successful football team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the ''Copa Libertadores'', the ''Copa Sudamericana'', and the ''Recopa Sudamericana''; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup.", "The Estadio Monumental Isidro Romero Carbo is the tenth largest football stadium in South America.", "The Ecuador national football team has appeared at four FIFA World Cups." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Ecuador-related articles* * Outline of Ecuador" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ades, H. and Graham, M. (2010) ''The Rough Guide to Ecuador'', Rough Guides* Becker, M. (2008) ''Indians and Leftists in the Making of Ecuador's Modern Indigenous Movements'', Duke University Press Books* Becker, M. and Clark, A. K. (2007) ''Highland Indians and the State in Modern Ecuador'', University of Pittsburgh Press* Blakenship, J.", "(2005) ''Cañar: A Year in the Highlands of Ecuador'', University of Texas Press* Brown, J. and Smith, J.", "(2009) ''Moon Guidebook: Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands'', Avalon Travel Publishing* Crowder, N. (2009) ''Culture Shock!", "Ecuador: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette'', Marshall Cavendish Corporation* Gerlach, A.", "(2003) ''Indians, Oil, and Politics: A Recent History of Ecuador'', SR Books* Handelsman, M. H. (2008) ''Culture and Customs of Ecuador'', Greenwood* Hurtado, O.", "(2010) ''Portrait of a Nation: Culture and Progress in Ecuador'', Madison Books* O'Connor, E. (2007) ''Gender, Indian, Nation: The Contradictions of Making Ecuador, 1830–1925'', University of Arizona Press* Pineo, R. (2007) ''Ecuador and the United States: Useful Strangers'', University of Georgia Press* Roos, W. and Van Renterghem, O.", "(2000) ''Ecuador in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture'', Latin America Bureau* Sawyer, S. (2004) ''Crude Chronicles: Indigenous Politics, Multinational Oil, and Neoliberalism in Ecuador'', Duke University Press Books* Striffler, S. (2001) ''In the Shadows of State and Capital: The United Fruit Company, Popular Struggle, and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador – 1900–1995'', Duke University Press Books* Torre, C. de la and Striffler, S. (2008) ''The Ecuador Reader: History, Culture, Politics'', Duke University Press Books* Various (2010) ''Insight Guidebook: Ecuador & Galápagos'', Insight Guides* Various (2009) ''Lonely Planet Guide: Ecuador & the Galápagos Islands'', Lonely Planet* Whitten, N. E. (2011) ''Histories of the Present: People and Power in Ecuador'', University of Illinois Press* Whitten, N. E. (2003) ''Millennial Ecuador: Critical Essays on Cultural Transformations and Social Dynamics'', University Of Iowa Press" ], [ "External links", "* President of Ecuador * CIA Library Site: Chief of State and Cabinet Members* Ecuador.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * Ecuador at UCB Libraries GovPubs* Ecuador profile from the BBC News* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''History of Ecuador''' covers human habitation in the region reaching back 8,000 years.", "During that period a diversity of cultures have influenced the people and the land that today make up the contemporary Republic of Ecuador.", "Indigenous tribes inhabited the area for millennia before being invaded and absorbed into the Inca Empire in the early fifteenth century.", "The Incas themselves were conquered shortly afterwards by the Spanish led by Francisco Pizarro in the early 16th century.", "The region fell under the Viceroyalty of Peru although it was granted certain autonomy through the Quito Audencia established in 1563.In 1720, it was joined to the Viceroyalty of New Granada.", "A rebellion in 1812 against the Quito Audencia was crushed early in the Spanish American wars of independence, but the struggle was revived in 1820 by a new rebellion originating in Guayaquil.", "The city was also the site of the Guayaquil Conference between Simon Bolivar and San Martin.", "Ecuador became independent initially as part of the Republic of Gran Colombia, before finally breaking away in 1830.Ecuador would endure a period of civil war until the mid nineteenth century after which it would be dominated by caudillos, alternatively conservative and liberal.", "In the twentieth and twenty first centuries Ecuador would continue to struggle in achieving both economic and political stability." ], [ "Pre-Columbian Ecuador", "During the pre-Inca period, people lived in clans, which formed great tribes, some allied with each other to form powerful confederations, as the Confederation of Quito.", "But none of these confederations could resist the formidable momentum of the Tawantinsuyu.", "The invasion of the Incas in the 16th century was very painful and bloody.", "However, once occupied by the Quito hosts of Huayna Capac (1523–1525), the Incas developed an extensive administration and began the colonization of the region.", "The Pre-Columbian era can be divided up into four eras: the Pre-ceramic Period, the Formative Period, the Period of Regional Development and the Period of Integration and the Arrival of the Incas.The Pre-ceramic period begins with the end of the first ice-age and continued until 4200 BCE.", "The Las Vegas culture and The Inga Cultures dominated this period.", "The Las Vegas culture lived on the Santa Elena Peninsula on the coast of Ecuador between 9,000 and 6,000 BC.", "The earliest people were hunters-gatherers and fishermen.", "Around 6,000 BC cultures in the region were among the first to begin farming.", "The Ingas lived in the Sierra near present-day Quito between 9000 and 8000 BC along an ancient trade route.People of the region moved from hunter-gathering and simple farming into a more developed society, with permanent developments, an increase in agriculture and the use of ceramics.", "New cultures included the Machalilla culture, Valdivia culture, and the Chorrera culture in the coast; Cotocollao and the Chimba in the sierra; and Pastaza and Chiguaza in the eastern region.", "The Valdivia culture is the first culture where significant remains have been discovered.", "Their civilization dates back as early as 3500 B.C.", "Living in the area near the Santa Elena Peninsula, they were one of the first Americans to use pottery.", "They navigated the seas and established a trade network with tribes in the Andes and the Amazon.Succeeding the Valdivia, the Machalilla culture was a farming culture that thrived along the coast of Ecuador between the 2nd and 1st millennia BC.", "These appear to be the earliest people to cultivate maize in this part of South America.", "Existing in the late formative period the Chorrera culture lived in the Andes and Coastal Regions of Ecuador between 1000 and 300 BC.===Period of Regional Development===The period of Regional Development is identified by the emergence of regional differences in territorial or political and social organization.", "Among the main cultures of this period were the Jambelí, Guangala, Bahia, Tejar-Daule, La Tolita, Jama Coaque on the coast, Cerro Narrío Alausí in the sierras, and Tayos in the Ecuadorian Amazon jungle.La Chimba, north of Quito, is the site of the earliest ceramics found in the northern Andes and is representative of the Formative Period in its final stage.", "Its inhabitants were in contact with villages on the coast and the mountains, in close proximity to the Cotocollao culture located on the plateau of Quito and its surrounding valleys.", "The Bahia culture occupied the area that stretches from the foothills of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, and from Bahía de Caráquez to the south of Manabi.", "The Jama-Coaque culture inhabited areas between Cabo San Francisco in Esmeraldas and Bahía de Caráquez in Manabi, in an area of wooded hills and vast beaches which facilitated the gathering of resources from both the jungle and the ocean.Tumaco-La Tolita mythological figure in feathered costume.", "Between 100 BC and 100 AD.", "Found in Esmeraldas.The La Tolita developed in the coastal region of Southern Colombia and Northern Ecuador between 600 BCE and 200 AD.", "A Number of archaeological sites have been discovered and show the highly artistic nature of this culture.", "Artifacts are characterized by gold jewelry, beautiful anthropomorphous masks and figurines that reflect a hierarchical society with complex ceremonies.===Period of Integration and the arrival of the Inca===Ingapirca Ruins near CuencaTribes throughout Ecuador integrated during this period.", "They created better housing that allowed them to improve their living conditions and no longer be subject to the climate.", "In the mountains Cosangua-Píllaro, the Capulí and Piartal-Tuza cultures arose, in the eastern region was the Yasuní Phase while the Milagro, Manteña and Huancavilca cultures developed on the coast.====The Manteños====The Manteños were the last of the pre-Columbian cultures in the coastal region existing between 600 and 1534.They were the first to witness the arrival of Spanish ships sailing in the surrounding Pacific Ocean.", "According to archaeological evidence and Spanish chronicles the civilization existed from Bahía de Caráquez to Cerro de Hojas in the south.", "They were excellent weavers, produced textiles, articles of gold, silver spondylus shells and mother of pearl.", "The manteños mastered the seas and created an extensive trade routes as far as Chile to the south and Western Mexico to the north.", "The center of the culture was in the area of Manta which was named in their honor.====The Huancavilcas====The Huancavilcas constitute the most important pre-Columbian culture of Guayas.", "These warriors were noted for their appearance.", "Huancavilca of culture is the legend of Guayas and Quiles, which gives its name to the city of Guayaquil.====The Incas====The Inca civilization expansion northward from modern-day Peru during the late 15th century met with fierce resistance by several Ecuadorian tribes, particularly the Cañari in the region around modern-day Cuenca along with the Quitu, occupants of the site of the modern capital; and the Cara in the Sierra north of Quito.", "The conquest of Ecuador began in 1463 under the leadership of the ninth Inca, the great warrior Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui.", "In that year, his son Tupa took over command of the army and began his march northward through the Sierra.Incan ruins at IngapircaBy 1500 Tupa's son, Huayna Capac, overcame the resistance of these populations and that of the Cara, and thus incorporated most of modern-day Ecuador into Tawantinsuyu, or the Inca empire.", "The influence of these conquerors based in Cuzco (modern-day Peru) was limited to about a half century, or less in some parts of Ecuador.", "During that period, some aspects of life remained unchanged.", "Traditional religious beliefs, for example, persisted throughout the period of Inca rule.", "In other areas, however, such as agriculture, land tenure, and social organization, Inca rule had a profound effect despite its relatively short duration.Emperor Huayna Capac became fond of Quito, making it a secondary capital of Tawantinsuyu and living out his elder years there before his death in about 1527.He willed that his heart be buried in Quito, his favorite city, and the rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco.", "Huayna Capac's sudden death and the death days later of the Incan heir apparent from a strange disease, described by one source as smallpox, precipitated a bitter power struggle between Huáscar, whose mother was Coya (Empress) Mama Rahua Occillo, and Atahualpa, whose mother was according to most sources of the panaka of Pachacuti, and who was his father's favorite.", "Huascar was chosen as emperor by the Inca nobles, but Atahualpa was very popular with the Inca armies stationed in the north.", "Huayna Capac had named another one of his sons, Ninan Cuyochi, as his heir.", "But Ninan Cuyochi died shortly after his father from smallpox.", "Huáscar ordered Atahualpa to attend their father's burial in Cuzco and pay homage to him as the new Inca ruler.", "Atahualpa, with a large number of his father's veteran soldiers, decided to ignore Huáscar, and a civil war ensued.", "A number of bloody battles took place until finally Huáscar was captured.", "Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother.This struggle raged during the half-decade before the arrival of Francisco Pizarro's conquering expedition in 1532.The key battle of this civil war was fought on Ecuadorian soil, near Riobamba, where Huáscar's northbound troops were met and defeated by Atahualpa's southbound troops.", "Atahualpa's final victory over Huáscar in the days just before the Spanish conquerors arrived resulted in large part from the loyalty of two of Huayna Capac's best generals, who were based in Quito along with Atahualpa.", "The victory remains a source of national pride to Ecuadorians as a rare case when \"Ecuador\" bested a \"neighboring country\" by force." ], [ "Spanish discovery and conquest", "As the Inca Civil War raged, in 1530 the Spanish landed in Ecuador.", "Led by Francisco Pizarro, the conquistadors learned that the conflict and disease were destroying the empire.", "After receiving reinforcements in September 1532, Pizarro set out to the newly victorious Atahualpa.Arriving at Cajamarca, Pizarro sent an embassy, led by Hernando de Soto, with 15 horsemen and an interpreter; shortly thereafter he sent 20 more horsemen led by his brother Hernando Pizarro as reinforcements in case of an Inca attack.", "Atahualpa was in awe of these men dressed in full clothing, with long beards and riding horses (an animal he had never seen).", "In town Pizarro set a trap for the Inca and the Battle of Cajamarca began.", "The Inca forces greatly outnumbered the Spanish; however, the Spanish superiority of weapons and tactics and the fact that the most trusted Inca generals were in Cusco led to an easy defeat and the capture of the Incan Emperor.During the next year Pizarro held Atahualpa for ransom.", "The Incas filled the Ransom Room with gold and silver awaiting a release that would never happen.", "On August 29, 1533, Atahualpa was garroted.", "The Spanish then set out to conquer the rest of Tawantinsuyu, capturing Cuzco in November 1533.Benalcázar, Pizarro's lieutenant and fellow Extremaduran, had already departed from San Miguel with 140 foot soldiers and a few horses on his conquering mission to Ecuador.", "At the foot of Mount Chimborazo, near the modern city of Riobamba (Ecuador), he met and defeated the forces of the great Inca warrior Rumiñahui with the aid of Cañari tribesmen who served as guides and allies to the conquering Spaniards.", "Rumiñahui fell back to Quito, and, while in pursuit of the Inca army, Benalcázar encountered another, quite sizable, conquering party led by Guatemalan Governor Pedro de Alvarado.", "Bored with administering Central America, Alvarado had set sail for the south without the crown's authorization, landed on the Ecuadorian coast, and marched inland to the Sierra.", "Most of Alvarado's men joined Benalcázar for the siege of Quito.", "In 1533, Rumiñahui burned the city to prevent the Spanish from taking it, destroying the ancient pre-Hispanic city.In 1534 Sebastián de Belalcázar along with Diego de Almagro established the city of San Francisco de Quito on top of the ruins of the secondary Inca capital, naming it in honor of Pizarro.", "It was not until December 1540 that Quito received its first captain-general in the person of Francisco Pizarro's brother, Gonzalo Pizarro.Benalcázar had also founded the city of Guayaquil in 1533, but it had subsequently been retaken by the local Huancavilca tribesmen.", "Francisco de Orellana, yet another lieutenant of Francisco Pizarro from the Spanish city of Trujillo, put down the native rebellion and in 1537 reestablished this city, which a century later would become one of Spain's principal ports in South America." ], [ "Spanish colonial era", "Map of Royal Audience of Quito.", "Most of its Amazonian territory was never under its effective control.Between 1544 and 1563, Ecuador was a part of Spain's colonies in the New World under the Viceroyalty of Peru, having no administrative status independent of Lima.", "It remained a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1720, when it joined the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada; within the viceroyalty, however, Ecuador was awarded its own audiencia in 1563, allowing it to deal directly with Madrid on certain matters.", "The Quito Audiencia, which was both a court of justice and an advisory body to the viceroy, consisted of a president and several judges (oidores).The most common form in which the Spanish occupied the land was the encomienda.", "By the early 17th century, there were some 500 encomiendas in Ecuador.", "Although many consisted of quite sizable haciendas, they were generally much smaller than the estates commonly found elsewhere in South America.", "A multitude of reforms and regulations did not prevent the encomienda from becoming a system of virtual slavery of the Native Ecuadorians, estimated at one-half the total Ecuadorian population, who lived on them.", "In 1589 the president of the audiencia recognized that many Spaniards were accepting grants only to sell them and undertake urban occupations, and he stopped distributing new lands to Spaniards; however, the institution of the encomienda persisted until nearly the end of the colonial period.The coastal lowlands north of Manta were conquered, not by the Spanish, but by blacks from the Guinean coast who, as slaves, were shipwrecked en route from Panama to Peru in 1570.The blacks killed or enslaved the native males and married the females, and within a generation they constituted a population of zambos that resisted Spanish authority until the end of the century and afterwards managed to retain a great deal of political and cultural independence.The coastal economy revolved around shipping and trade.", "Guayaquil, despite being destroyed on several occasions by fire and incessantly plagued by either yellow fever or malaria, was a center of vigorous trade among the colonies, a trade that was technically illegal under the mercantilist philosophy of the contemporary Spanish rulers.", "Guayaquil also became the largest shipbuilding center on the west coast of South America before the end of the colonial period.The Ecuadorian economy, like that in the mother country, suffered a severe depression throughout most of the 18th century.", "Textile production dropped an estimated 50 to 75 percent between 1700 and 1800.Ecuador's cities gradually fell into ruins, and by 1790 the elite was reduced to poverty, selling haciendas and jewelry in order to subsist.", "The Native Ecuadorian population, in contrast, probably experienced an overall improvement in its situation, as the closing of the obrajes commonly led Native Ecuadorians to work under less arduous conditions on either haciendas or traditional communal lands.", "Ecuador's economic woes were, no doubt, compounded by the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 by King Charles III of Spain.", "Missions in the Oriente were abandoned, and many of the best schools and the most efficient haciendas and obrajes lost the key that made them outstanding institutions in colonial Ecuador." ], [ "Jesuits of Quito during the Colonial era", "Quito Painting Colonial School.Father Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuita de Quito (Jesuit of Quito) to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which at that period belonged to the Audiencia of Quito, that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until the Audiencia of Quito was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717.In 1602, Father Rafael Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and set up, between 1604 and 1605, missions among the Cofan people.", "Father Rafael Ferrer was martyred in 1610.In 1637, the Jesuits of Quito, Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva began establishing missions in Mainas (or Maynas).", "These missions are now known as the Mainas missions after the Maina people, many of whom lived on the banks of the Marañón river, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, in close proximity to the Spanish settlement of Borja.In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Father Cristobal de Acuña was a part of this expedition.", "The expedition disembarked from the Napo river February 16, 1639, and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil, on the banks of the Amazon river on December 12, 1639.In 1641, Father Cristobal de Acuña published in Madrid a memoire of his expedition to the Amazon river.", "The title of the memoire is called Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas, and it was used by academics as a fundamental reference pertaining to the Amazon region.Between 1637 and 1652, there were 14 missions established along the Marañon river and its southern tributaries – the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers.", "Jesuit Fathers de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up 2 new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions.", "These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705.In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.In the immense territory of Mainas, also referred to as Maynas, the Jesuitas of Quito, made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions with a total population of 150,000 inhabitants.", "Because of the constant plague of epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744.At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 Jesuits of Quito in the Napo Missions and Aguarico Missions, and 19 Jesuits of Quito in the Pastaza Missions and Iquitos Missions of Maynas with a total population of 20,000 inhabitants." ], [ "Struggle for independence and birth of the republic", "=== Quito Revolution (1809-1812) ===The struggle for independence in the Quito Audiencia was part of a movement throughout Spanish America led by Criollos.", "The Criollos' resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the Peninsulares was the fuel of revolution against colonial rule.", "The spark was Napoleon's invasion of Spain, after which he deposed King Ferdinand VII and, in July 1808, placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne.Shortly afterward, Spanish citizens, unhappy at the usurpation of the throne by the French, began organizing local juntas loyal to Ferdinand.", "A group of Quito's leading citizens followed suit, and on August 10, 1809, they seized power in the name of Ferdinand from the local representatives, whom they accused of preparing to recognize Joseph Bonaparte.", "Thus, this early revolt against colonial rule (one of the first in Spanish America) was, paradoxically, an expression of loyalty to the Spanish king.It quickly became apparent that Quito's Criollo rebels lacked the anticipated popular support for their cause.", "As loyalist troops approached Quito, they peacefully turned power back to the crown authorities.", "Despite assurances against reprisals, the returning Spanish authorities proved to be merciless with the rebels and, in the process of ferreting out participants in the Quito revolt, jailed and abused many innocent citizens.", "Their actions, in turn, bred popular resentment among Quiteños, who, after several days of street fighting in August 1810, won an agreement to be governed by a junta composed with a majority of Criollos, although with the Peninsular president of the Royal Audience of Quito acting as its head.In spite of strong opposition from the Quito Audiencia, the Junta called for a congress in December 1811 and declared the entire area of the audiencia to be independent of any government currently in Spain.", "Two months later, the Junta approved a constitution for the state of Quito that provided for democratic governing institutions but also granted recognition to the authority of Ferdinand should he return to the Spanish throne.", "Shortly thereafter, the Junta elected to launch a military offensive against loyalist regions to the south in Peru, but the poorly trained and badly equipped troops were no match for those of the Viceroy of Peru, which finally crushed the Quiteño rebellion in December 1812.===Ecuadorian War of Independence (1820-1822)===General Antonio José de Sucre, Commander In Chief, ''División del Sur''.The second chapter in Ecuador's struggle for emancipation from Spanish colonial rule began in Guayaquil, where independence was proclaimed in October 1820 by a local patriotic junta under the leadership of the poet José Joaquín de Olmedo.", "By this time, the forces of independence had grown continental in scope and were organized into two principal armies, one under the Venezuelan Simón Bolívar in the north and the other under the Argentine José de San Martín in the south.", "Unlike the hapless Quito junta of a decade earlier, the Guayaquil patriots were able to appeal to foreign allies, Argentina and Gran Colombia, each of whom soon responded by sending sizable contingents to Ecuador.", "Antonio José de Sucre, the brilliant young lieutenant of Bolívar who arrived in Guayaquil in May 1821, was to become the key figure in the ensuing military struggle against the royalist forces.After a number of initial successes, Sucre's army was defeated at Ambato in the central Sierra and he appealed for assistance from San Martín, whose army was by now in Peru.", "With the arrival from the south of 1,400 fresh soldiers under the command of Andrés de Santa Cruz Calahumana, the fortunes of the patriotic army were again reversed.", "A string of victories culminated in the decisive Battle of Pichincha.Two months later Bolívar, the liberator of northern South America, entered Quito to a hero's welcome.", "Later that July, he met San Martín at the Guayaquil conference and convinced the Argentine general, who wanted the port to return to Peruvian jurisdiction, and the local Criollo elite in both major cities of the advantage of having the former Quito Audiencia join with the liberated lands to the north.", "As a result, Ecuador became the District of the South within the Republic of Gran Colombia, which also included present-day Venezuela and Colombia and had Bogotá as its capital.", "This status was maintained for eight tumultuous years.===Gran Colombia (1822-1830) ===Map of the former Gran Colombia in 1824 (named in its time as Colombia), the Gran Colombia covered all the colored region.These were years in which warfare dominated the affairs of Ecuador.", "First, the country found itself on the front lines of Gran Colombia's efforts to liberate Peru from Spanish rule between 1822 and 1825; afterward, in 1828 and 1829, Ecuador was in the middle of an armed struggle between Peru and Gran Colombia over the location of their common border.", "After a campaign that included the near destruction of Guayaquil, the forces of Gran Colombia, under the leadership of Sucre and Venezuelan General Juan José Flores, proved victorious.", "The Treaty of 1829 fixed the border on the line that had divided the Quito audiencia and the Viceroyalty of Peru before independence.The population of Ecuador was divided during these years among three segments: those favoring the status quo, those supporting union with Peru, and those advocating independence for the former audiencia.", "The latter group was to prevail following Venezuela's withdrawal from Gran Colombia at the very moment that an 1830 constitutional congress had been called in an ultimately futile effort to stem the growing separatist tendencies throughout the country.", "In May of that year, a group of Quito notables met to dissolve the union with Gran Colombia, and in August, a constituent assembly drew up a constitution for the State of Ecuador, so named for its geographic proximity to the equator, and placed General Flores in charge of political and military affairs.", "He remained the dominant political figure during Ecuador's first 15 years of independence." ], [ "Liberal and conservative elites in an agrarian republic", "===The early republic===Ecuador in 1830Before the year 1830 drew to a close, both Marshal Sucre and Simón Bolívar would be dead, the former murdered (on orders from a jealous General Flores, according to some historians) and the latter from tuberculosis.Juan José Flores, known as the founder of the republic, was of the foreign military variety.", "Born in Venezuela, he had fought in the wars for independence with Bolívar, who had appointed him governor of Ecuador during its association with Gran Colombia.", "As a leader, however, he appeared primarily interested in maintaining his power.", "Military expenditures, from the independence wars and from an unsuccessful campaign to wrest Cauca Province from Colombia in 1832, kept the state treasury empty while other matters were left unattended.", "That same year, Ecuador annexed the Galapagos Islands.Discontent had become nationwide by 1845, when an insurrection in Guayaquil forced Flores from the country.", "Because their movement triumphed in March (''marzo''), the anti-Flores coalition members became known as ''marcistas''.", "They were an extremely heterogeneous lot that included liberal intellectuals, conservative clergymen, and representatives from Guayaquil's successful business community.The next fifteen years constituted one of the most turbulent periods in Ecuador's two centuries as a nation.", "The marcistas fought among themselves almost ceaselessly and also had to struggle against Flores's repeated attempts from exile to overthrow the government.", "The most significant figure of the era, however, was General José María Urbina, who first came to power in 1851 through a coup d'état, remained in the presidency until 1856, and then continued to dominate the political scene until 1860.During this decade and the one that followed, Urbina and his archrival, García Moreno, would define the dichotomy — between Liberals from Guayaquil and Conservatives from Quito — that remained the major sphere of political struggle in Ecuador until the 1980s.By 1859 — known by Ecuadorian historians as \"the Terrible Year\" — the nation was on the brink of anarchy.", "Local caudillos had declared several regions autonomous of the central government, known as ''Jefaturas Supremas''.", "One of these caudillos, Guayaquil's Guillermo Franco, signed the Treaty of Mapasingue, ceding the southern provinces of Ecuador to an occupying Peruvian army led by General Ramón Castilla.", "This action was outrageous enough to unite some previously disparate elements.", "García Moreno, putting aside both his project to place Ecuador under a French protectorate and his differences with General Flores, got together with the former dictator to put down the various local rebellions and force out the Peruvians.", "The final push of this effort was the defeat of Franco's Peruvian-backed forces at the Battle of Guayaquil, which led to the overturning of the Treaty of Mapasingue.", "This opened the last chapter of Flores's long career and marked the entrance to the power of García Moreno.===The era of conservatism (1860–1895)===Mainland Ecuador in 1860Gabriel Garcia Moreno, considered the ''Father of Ecuadorian conservatism''.Gabriel García Moreno was a leading figure of Ecuadorian conservatism.", "Shortly after the onset of his third presidential term in 1875, García Moreno was attacked with a machete on the steps of the presidential palace by Faustino Lemos Rayo, a Colombian.", "As he was dying, García Moreno took out his gun and shot Faustino Lemos, while he said \"''Dios no muere''\" (\"God doesn't die\").", "The dictator's most outstanding critic was the liberal journalist, Juan Montalvo, who exclaimed, \"My pen killed him!", "\"Between 1852 and 1890, Ecuador's exports grew in value from slightly more than US$1 million to nearly US$10 million.", "Production of cacao, the most important export product in the late 19th century, grew from 6.5 million kilograms (14 million pounds) to 18 million kilograms (40 million pounds) during the same period.", "The agricultural export interests, centered in the coastal region near Guayaquil, became closely associated with the Liberals, whose political power also grew steadily during the interval.", "After the death of García Moreno, it took the Liberals twenty years to consolidate their strength sufficiently to assume control of the government in Quito.Mainland Ecuador in 1893===The liberal era (1895–1925)===Eloy Alfarodug out canoes in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the Historic Center of Quito.The new era brought in liberalism.", "Eloy Alfaro, under whose direction the government headed out to aid those in the rural sectors of the coast, is credited for finishing the construction of the railroad connecting Guayaquil and Quito, the separation of church and state, establishment of many public schools, implementing civil rights (such as freedom of speech), and the legalization of civil marriages and divorce.Alfaro was also confronted by a dissident tendency inside his own party, directed by its General Leonidas Plaza and constituted by the upper middle class of Guayaquil.", "His death was followed by economic liberalism (1912–25), when banks were allowed to acquire almost complete control of the country.", "During the 1920s, Ecuador's key export, cacao beans, were devastated by disease at the same time that its cacao producers faced increased competition from West Africa.", "The loss of export earnings seriously damaged the economy.Popular unrest, together with the ongoing economic crisis and a sickly president, laid the background for a bloodless coup d'état in July 1925.Unlike all previous forays by the military into Ecuadorian politics, the coup of 1925 was made in the name of a collective grouping rather than a particular caudillo.", "The members of the League of Young Officers came to power with an agenda, which included a wide variety of social reforms, such as dealing with the failing economy, establishing the Central Bank as the unique authorized bank to distribute currency, and creating a new system of budget and customs.Mainland Ecuador in 1920===Early 20th century===Much of the 20th century was dominated by José María Velasco Ibarra, whose five presidential terms began with a mandate in 1934 and final presidency ending in 1972.However, the only term he actually completed was his third from 1952 to 1956.Much of the century was also dominated by the territorial dispute between Peru and Ecuador.", "In 1941 Ecuador invaded Peruvian territory, and the Peruvians counterattacked and forced them to retreat into their own territory.", "At that time Ecuador was immersed in internal political fights and was not well equipped to win its offensive war.With the world at war, Ecuador attempted to settle the matter by means of a third-party settlement.", "In Brazil the two countries' negotiations were overseen by four \"Guarantor\" states (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States — four of the most powerful countries in the region).", "The resulting treaty is known as the Rio Protocol.", "The protocol became the focus of a surge of Ecuadorian national pride and concomitant opposition, which resulted in an uprising and overthrow of the government.===The postwar era (1944–1948)===The Quiteño multitudes stood in the pouring rain on May 31, 1944, to hear Velasco promise a \"national resurrection\", with social justice and due punishment for the \"corrupt Liberal oligarchy\" that had been responsible for \"staining the national honor\", believed that they were witnessing the birth of a popular revolution.", "Liberal partisans were promptly jailed or sent into exile, while Velasco verbally baited the business community and the rest of the political right.", "The leftist elements within Velasco's Democratic Alliance, which dominated the constituent assembly that was convened to write a new constitution, were nonetheless destined to be disappointed.In May 1945, after a year of growing hostility between the president and the assembly, which was vainly awaiting deeds to substantiate Velasco's rhetorical advocacy of social justice, the mercurial chief executive condemned and then repudiated the newly completed constitution.", "After dismissing the assembly, Velasco held elections for a new assembly, which in 1946 drafted a far more conservative constitution that met with the president's approval.", "For this brief period, Conservatives replaced the left as Velasco's base of support.Rather than attending to the nation's economic problems, however, Velasco aggravated them by financing the dubious schemes of his associates.", "Inflation continued unabated, as did its negative impact on the national standard of living, and by 1947 foreign exchange reserves had fallen to dangerously low levels.", "In August, when Velasco was ousted by his minister of defense, nobody rose to defend the man who, only three years earlier, had been hailed as the nation's savior.", "During the following year, three different men briefly held executive power before Galo Plaza Lasso, running under a coalition of independent Liberals and socialists, narrowly defeated his Conservative opponent in presidential elections.", "His inauguration in September 1948 initiated what was to become the longest period of constitutional rule since the 1912–24 heyday of the Liberal plutocracy.===Constitutional rule (1947–1960)===Galo Plaza differed from previous Ecuadorian presidents by bringing a developmentalist and technocratic emphasis to Ecuadorian government.", "No doubt Galo Plaza's most important contribution to Ecuadorian political culture was his commitment to the principles and practices of democracy.", "As president he promoted agricultural exports of Ecuador, such as bananas, creating economic stability.", "During his presidency, an earthquake near Ambato severely damaged the city and surrounding areas and killed approximately 8,000 people.", "Unable to succeed himself, he left his office in 1952 as the first president in 28 years to complete his term in office.A proof of the politically stabilizing effect of the banana boom of the 1950s is that even Velasco, who in 1952 was elected president for the third time, managed to serve out a full four-year term.", "Velasco's fourth term in the presidency initiated a renewal of crisis, instability, and military domination and ended conjecture that the political system had matured or developed in a democratic mold.The banana boom of the mid-20th century boosted the economy of Guayaquil, where office buildings like these were built." ], [ "The modern republic develops", "===Instability and military governments (1960–1979)===In 1963, the army overthrew President Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, falsely accusing him of \"sympathizing with communism\".", "According to former CIA agent Philip Agee, who served several years in Ecuador, the United States incited this coup d'état to eliminate a government that refused to break with Cuba.In 1976 the military triumvirate, pressured by internal and external public consensus, began a process of return to the constitutional system.", "The moment was seen by the ruling classes and sectors as the ideal moment to legitimize their power by restoring the traditional procedures of control of power.", "However, divisions among the Armed Forces, whose leaders included Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, René Vargas, and others, led to the drafting of alternative proposed constitutions.", "Through a referendum, a new Constitution was approved in January (1978).", "It increased representation for groups traditionally excluded from power, such as indigenous people, trade unions, and leftist political parties.", "In the elections of 1978-79 the progressive candidate, Jaime Roldós Aguilera, triumphed against the conservative Sixto Durán Ballén, who had the implicit backing of military leaders.===Return to democratic rule (1979–1990)===Jaime Roldós Aguilera, democratically elected in 1979, presided over a nation that had undergone profound changes during the seventeen years of military rule.", "There were impressive indicators of economic growth between 1972 and 1979: The government budget expanded some 540 percent, whereas exports as well as per capita income increased a full 500 percent.", "Industrial development had also progressed, stimulated by the new oil wealth as well as Ecuador's preferential treatment under the provisions of the Andean Common Market (AnCoM, also known as the Andean Pact).Roldós was killed, along with his wife and the minister of defense, in an airplane crash in the southern province of Loja on May 24, 1981.The death of Roldós generated intense popular speculation.", "Some Ecuadorian nationalists attributed it to the Peruvian government because the crash took place near the border where the two nations had participated in the Paquisha War in their perpetual border dispute.", "Many of the nation's leftists, pointing to a similar crash that had killed Panamanian President Omar Torrijos Herrera less than three months later, blamed the United States government.Roldós's constitutional successor, Osvaldo Hurtado, immediately faced an economic crisis brought on by the sudden end of the petroleum boom.", "Massive foreign borrowing, initiated during the years of the second military regime and continued under Roldós, resulted in a foreign debt that by 1983 was nearly US$7 billion.", "The nation's petroleum reserves declined sharply during the early 1980s because of exploration failures and rapidly increasing domestic consumption.", "The economic crisis was aggravated in 1982 and 1983 by drastic climatic changes, bringing severe drought as well as flooding, precipitated by the appearance of the unusually warm ocean current known as \"El Niño\".", "Analysts estimated damage to the nation's infrastructure at US$640 million, with balance-of-payments losses of some US$300 million.", "Real gross domestic product growth fell to 2% in 1982 and to −3.3% in 1983.The rate of inflation in 1983, 52.5%, was the highest ever recorded in the nation's history.Outside observers noted that, however unpopular, Hurtado deserved credit for keeping Ecuador in good standing with the international financial community and for consolidating Ecuador's democratic political system under extremely difficult conditions.", "As León Febres Cordero entered office on August 10, there was no end in sight to the economic crisis nor to the intense struggle that characterized the political process in Ecuador.During the first years of his administration, Febres Cordero introduced free-market economic policies, took a strong stand against drug trafficking and terrorism, and pursued close relations with the United States.", "His tenure was marred by bitter wrangling with other branches of government and his own brief kidnapping by elements of the military.", "A devastating earthquake in March 1987 interrupted oil exports and worsened the country's economic problems.Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram of the PRE.", "His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade.", "The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group \"¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!\"", "(\"Alfaro Lives, Dammit!", "\"), named after Eloy Alfaro.", "However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1990.===Economic crisis (1990–2000)=== In 1992, Sixto Durán Ballén won his third run for the presidency.", "His tough macroeconomic adjustment measures were unpopular, but he succeeded in pushing a limited number of modernization initiatives through Congress.", "Durán Ballén's vice president, Alberto Dahik, was the architect of the administration's economic policies, but in 1995, Dahik fled the country to avoid prosecution on corruption charges following a heated political battle with the opposition.", "A war with Peru (named the Cenepa War, after a river located in the area) erupted in January–February 1995 in a small, remote region, where the boundary prescribed by the 1942 Rio Protocol was in dispute.", "The Durán Ballén administration can be credited with beginning the negotiations that would end in a final settlement of the territorial dispute.In 1996, Abdalá Bucaram, from the populist Ecuadorian Roldosista Party, won the presidency on a platform that promised populist economic and social reforms.", "Almost from the start, Bucaram's administration languished amidst widespread allegations of corruption.", "Empowered by the president's unpopularity with organized labor, business, and professional organizations alike, Congress unseated Bucaram in February 1997 on grounds of mental incompetence.", "The Congress replaced Bucaram with Interim President Fabián Alarcón.In May 1997, following the demonstrations that led to the ousting of Bucaram and appointment of Alarcón, the people of Ecuador called for a National Assembly to reform the Constitution and the country's political structure.", "After a little more than a year, the National Assembly produced a new Constitution.Congressional and first-round presidential elections were held on May 31, 1998.No presidential candidate obtained a majority, so a run-off election between the top two candidates – Quito Mayor Jamil Mahuad of the DP and Social Christian Álvaro Noboa Pontón – was held on July 12, 1998.Mahuad won by a narrow margin.", "He took office on August 10, 1998.On the same day, Ecuador's new constitution came into effect.Mahuad faced a difficult economic situation, linked in particular to the Asian financial crisis.", "The currency was devalued by 15%, fuel and electricity prices increased fivefold, and public transport prices increased by 40%.", "The government was preparing to privatize several key sectors of the economy: oil, electricity, telecommunications, ports, airports, railways, and the post office.", "The repression of a first general strike caused three deaths.", "The social situation was critical: more than half of the population was unemployed, 60% lived below the extreme poverty line, and public employees had not been paid for three months.", "A further increase in VAT, combined with the abolition of subsidies for domestic gas, electricity and diesel, triggered a new social movement.", "In the provinces of Latacunga, the army shot the indigenous people who blocked the Pan-American Highway, injuring 17 people with bullets.The coup de grâce for Mahuad's administration was Mahuad's decision to make the local currency, the sucre (named after Antonio José de Sucre), obsolete and replace it with the US dollar (a policy called dollarization).", "This caused massive unrest as the lower classes struggled to convert their now useless sucres to US dollars and lost wealth, while the upper classes (whose members already had their wealth invested in US dollars) gained wealth in turn.", "Under Mahuad's recession-plagued term, the economy shrank significantly, and inflation reached levels of up to 60 percent.In addition, corruption scandals were a source of public concern.", "Former Vice President Alberto Dahik, architect of the neoliberal economic program, fled abroad after being indicted for \"questionable use of reserved funds\".", "Former President Fabián Alarcón was arrested on charges of paying salaries for more than a thousand fictitious jobs.", "President Mahuad was accused of receiving money from drug trafficking during his election campaign.", "Several major bankers were also cited in cases.", "Mahuad concluded a well-received peace with Peru on October 26, 1998.===Instability (2000–2007)===On January 21, 2000, during demonstrations in Quito by indigenous groups, the military and police refused to enforce public order, beginning what became known as the 2000 Ecuadorean coup d'état.", "Demonstrators entered the National Assembly building and declared, in a move that resembled the coups d'état endemic to Ecuadorean history, a three-person junta in charge of the country.", "Field-grade military officers declared their support for the concept.", "During a night of confusion and failed negotiations, President Mahuad was forced to flee the presidential palace for his own safety.", "Vice President Gustavo Noboa took charge by vice-presidential decree; Mahuad went on national television in the morning to endorse Noboa as his successor.", "The military triumvirate that was effectively running the country also endorsed Noboa.", "The Ecuadorean Congress then met in an emergency session in Guayaquil on the same day, January 22, and ratified Noboa as President of the Republic in constitutional succession to Mahuad.In 2000, Ecuador replaced its currency, the sucre, with the US dollar.", "When the dollar was introduced, this 20,000-sucre bill was worth 80 US cents.The US dollar became the only official currency of Ecuador in 2000.Although Ecuador began to improve economically in the following months, the government of Noboa came under heavy fire for the continuation of the dollarization policy, its disregard for social problems, and other important issues in Ecuadorean politics.Retired Colonel Lucio Gutiérrez, a member of the military junta that overthrew Mahuad, was elected president in 2002 and assumed the presidency on January 15, 2003.Gutierrez's Patriotic Society Party had a small fraction of the seats in Congress and therefore depended on the support of other parties in Congress to pass legislation.In December 2004, Gutiérrez unconstitutionally dissolved the Supreme Court and appointed new judges to it.", "This move was generally seen as a kickback to deposed ex-President Abdalá Bucaram, whose political party had sided with Gutiérrez and helped derail attempts to impeach him in late 2004.The new Supreme Court dropped charges of corruption pending against the exiled Bucaram, who soon returned to the politically unstable country.", "The corruption evident in these maneuvers finally led Quito's middle classes to seek the ousting of Gutiérrez in early 2005.In April 2005, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces declared that it was withdrawing its support for the President.", "After weeks of public protests, Gutiérrez was overthrown in April.", "Vice President Alfredo Palacio assumed the presidency and vowed to complete the term of office and hold elections in 2006.=== Rafael Correa (2007-2017) ===On January 15, 2007, the social democrat Rafael Correa succeeded Palacio as President of Ecuador, with the promise of summoning a constituent assembly and focusing on poverty.", "The 2007-8 Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly drafted the 2008 Constitution of Ecuador, approved via the Ecuadorian constitutional referendum, 2008.The new socialist constitution implemented leftist reforms.In November 2009, Ecuador faced an energy crisis that led to power rationing across the country.Between 2006 and 2016, poverty decreased from 36.7% to 22.5% and annual per capita GDP growth was 1.5 percent (as compared to 0.6 percent over the prior two decades).", "At the same time, inequalities, as measured by the Gini index, decreased from 0.55 to 0.47.Beginning in 2007, President Rafael Correa established The Citizens' Revolution, a movement following left-wing policies, which some sources describe as populist.", "Correa was able to utilize the 2000s commodities boom to fund his policies, utilizing China's need for raw materials.", "Through China, Correa accepted loans that had few requirements, as opposed to firm limits set by other lenders.", "With this funding, Ecuador was able to invest in social welfare programs, reduce poverty and increase the average standard of living in Ecuador, while at the same time growing Ecuador's economy.", "Such policies resulted in a popular base of support for Correa, who was re-elected to the presidency three times between 2007 and 2013.Media coverage in the United States viewed Correa's strong popular support and efforts to re-found the Ecuadorian state as an entrenchment of power.Former President Rafael Correa (left) attends President-elect Lenín Moreno's (middle) \"changing of the guard\" ceremony.", "The two PAIS leaders were considered close allies before Moreno's \"de-Correaization\" efforts started after he assumed the presidency.As the Ecuadorian economy began to decline in 2014, Correa decided not to run for a fourth term and by 2015, protests occurred against Correa following the introduction of austerity measures and an increase of inheritance taxes.", "Instead, Lenín Moreno, who was at the time a staunch Correa loyalist and had served as his vice-president for over six years, was expected to continue with Correa's legacy and the implementation of 21st century socialism in the country, running on a broadly left-wing platform with significant similarities to Correa's.=== A shift to the right and social conflict (2017–present)=======Moreno's presidency (2017–2021)====Rafael Correa's three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by his former Vice President Lenín Moreno's four years as president (2017–21).", "In the weeks after his election, Moreno distanced himself from Correa's policies and shifted the left-wing PAIS Alliance's away from the left-wing politics and towards the neoliberal governance.", "Despite these policy shifts, Moreno continued to identify himself as social democrat.", "Moreno then led the 2018 Ecuadorian referendum, which reinstated presidential term limits that were removed by Correa, barring Correa from running for a fourth presidential term in the future.", "At his election, Moreno enjoyed an approval rating of 79 percent.", "Moreno's distancing from his predecessor's policies and his electoral campaign's platform, however, alienated both former President Correa and a large percentage of his own party's supporters.", "In July 2018, a warrant for Correa's arrest was issued after facing 29 charges for alleged acts of corruption while he was in office.Due to increased borrowing by Correa's administration, which he had used to fund social welfare projects, as well as the 2010s oil glut, public debt tripled in a five-year period, with Ecuador eventually coming to use of the Central Bank of Ecuador's reserves for funds.", "In total, Ecuador was left $64 billion in debt and was losing $10 billion annually.", "On 21 August 2018, Moreno announced economic austerity measures to reduce public spending and the deficit.", "Moreno stated that the measures aimed to save $1 billion and included a reduction of fuel subsidies, eliminating subsidies for gasoline and diesel, and the removal or merging of several public entities, a move denounced by the groups representing the nation's indigenous groups and trade unions.At the same time, Lenín Moreno moved away from his predecessor's left-leaning foreign policy.", "In August 2018, Ecuador withdrew from Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (Alba), a regional bloc of leftwing governments led by Venezuela.", "In October 2018, the government of President Lenin Moreno cut diplomatic relations with the Nicolás Maduro regime of Venezuela, a close ally of Rafael Correa.", "In March 2019, Ecuador withdrew from Union of South American Nations.", "Ecuador was an original member of the block, founded by left-wing governments in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2008.Ecuador also asked UNASUR to return the headquarters building of the organization, based in its capital city, Quito.", "In June 2019, Ecuador agreed to allow US military planes to operate from an airport on the Galapagos Islands.In October 2019, Lenín Moreno announced a package of economic measures as part of a deal with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to obtain in credit.", "These measures became known as \"el paquetazo\" and they included the end of fuel subsidies, removal of some import tariffs and cuts in public worker benefits and wages.", "This caused mass protests which began on 3 October 2019.On 8 October, President Moreno relocated his government to the coastal city of Guayaquil after anti-government protesters had overrun Quito, including the Carondelet Palace.", "On the same day, Moreno accused his predecessor Rafael Correa of orchestrating a coup against the government with the aid of Venezuela's Nicolás Maduro, a charge which Correa denied.", "Later that day, the authorities shut down oil production at the Sacha oil field, which produces 10% of the nation's oil, after it was occupied by protesters.", "Two more oil fields were captured by protesters shortly thereafter.", "Demonstrators also captured repeater antennas, forcing state TV and radio offline in parts of the country.", "Indigenous protesters, organized by the CONAIE confederation, blocked most of Ecuador's main roads, completely cutting the transport routes to the city of Cuenca.", "On 9 October, protesters managed to briefly burst into and occupy the National Assembly, before being driven out by police using tear gas.", "Violent clashes erupted between demonstrators and police forces as the protests spread further.", "During the late-night hours of 13 October, the Ecuadorian government and CONAIE reached an agreement during a televised negotiation.", "Both parties agreed to collaborate on new economic measures to combat overspending and debt.", "The government agreed to end the austerity measures at the center of the controversy, and the protesters in turn agreed to end the two-week-long series of demonstrations.", "President Moreno agreed to withdraw Decree 883, an IMF-backed plan that caused a significant rise in fuel costs.Relations with the United States improved significantly during the presidency of Lenin Moreno.", "In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and US president in 17 years.==== Lasso's (2021-2023) and Noboa's (since 2023) presidencies ====The April 2021 election run-off vote ended in a win for conservative former banker, Guillermo Lasso, who took 52.4% of the vote compared to 47.6% for left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, supported by the exiled former president, Rafael Correa.", "Previously, President-elect Lasso had finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections.", "On 24 May 2021, Guillermo Lasso was sworn in as the new President of Ecuador, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years.In October 2021, President Lasso declared a 60-day state of emergency aiming to combat crime and drug-related violence.", "In October 2022, a bloody riot among inmates at a prison in central Ecuador caused 16 deaths, among whom was the drug crime boss Leonardo Norero, alias “El Patron.” In Ecuador's state prisons there were numerous bloody clashes between rival groups of prisoners.Leonidas Iza, president of CONAIE, a confederation of Ecuadorian Indigenous groups, in 2022A series of protests against the economic policies of Ecuadorian president Guillermo Lasso, triggered by increasing fuel and food prices, took place in June 2022.Initiated by and primarily attended by Indigenous activists, in particular CONAIE, the protests were later joined by students and workers who were also affected by the price increases.", "Lasso condemned the protests and labelled them as an attempted \"coup d'état\" against his government.", "As a result of the protests, Lasso declared a state of emergency.", "When the protests blocked roads and ports in Quito and Guayaquil, there were food and fuel shortages across the country as a result.", "Lasso was criticized for allowing violent and deadly responses towards protestors.", "The President narrowly escaped impeachment in a vote in Congress.", "At the end of June, protesters agreed to end their protests and blockades in return for an agreement by the government to discuss and try to address their demands.Lasso proposed a series of constitutional changes to enhance his government's ability to respond to rising, largely drug-related crime.", "In a referendum in February 2023, voters overwhelmingly rejected his proposed changes.", "This result weakened Lasso's political standing.", "Meanwhile, Lasso's government faced accusations of corruption.", "Citing those accusations and claiming that the government had failed to meet its demands from June 2022, CONAIE called on Lasso to resign and declared itself in a state of \"permanent mobilization\", threatening additional protests.In a bid to avoid impeachment after the opposition-controlled national assembly accused him of impeachment, Lasso triggered a provision in the Ecuadorian constitution, called \"Muertaza Cruzada\", which triggered both presidential and parliamentary elections.", "He moved to rule by decree and promised to hold fresh elections within six months.", "Military leadership of the country promised to back him.", "Lasso's move was condemned by opposition figures, including ex-president Rafael Correa and Leonidas Iza It was initially thought that Lasso would be a contender in the elections, but he later informed that he was not going to be a candidate.On 15 October 2023, center-right candidate Daniel Noboa won the run-off of the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González.", "On 23 November 2023, Daniel Noboa was sworn in as Ecuador’s new president.", "On 7 January 2024, Los Choneros leader José Adolfo Macías Villamar escaped from prison in the city of Guayaquil, on the day of his scheduled transfer to a maximum-security prison.", "The events were reported the next day by authorities, with charges being filed against two prison guards.", "Following the escape, Noboa declared a state of emergency, to last for 60 days, giving authorities the power to suspend people's rights and allowing the military to be mobilized inside prisons.", "Riots ensued in multiple prisons across Ecuador.", "Two days later, mass armed attacks occurred throughout the country, including armed groups storming a television broadcasting station mid-air." ], [ "See also", "1830 Constitution of Ecuador2008 Constitution of EcuadorEconomic history of EcuadorHistory of Latin AmericaHistory of South AmericaHistory of the AmericasMilitary history of EcuadorPolitics of EcuadorPresident of EcuadorSpanish colonization of the Americas" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Andrien, Kenneth.", "''The Kingdom of Quito, 16990-1830: The State and Regional Development''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press 1995.", "* Clayton, Lawrence A.", "''Caulkers and Carpenters in a New World: The Shipyards of Colonial Guayaquil''.", "Ohio University Press 1980.", "* Gauderman, Kimberly.", "''Women's Lives in Colonial Quito: Gender, Law, and Economy in Spanish America''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press 2003.", "* Lane, Kris.", "''Quito 1599: City and Colony in Transition''.", "Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2002.", "* Milton, Cynthia E. ''The Many Meanings of Poverty: Colonialism, Social Compacts, and Assistance in Eighteenth-Century Ecuador''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press 2007.", "* Minchom, Martin.", "''The People of Quito, 1690–1810: Change and Unrest in the Underclass''.", "Boulder: Westview Press 1994.", "* Phelan, John Leddy, ''The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth-Century''.", "Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1967," ], [ "External links", "* U.S. State Department Background Note: Ecuador* Archaeology of Ecuador* Museum and Virtual Library (Museums of Central Bank of Ecuador) english" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ecuador''' is a country in western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean at the Equator, for which the country is named.", "Ecuador encompasses a wide range of natural formations and climates, from the desert-like southern coast to the snowcapped peaks of the Andes mountain range to the plains of the Amazon Basin.", "Cotopaxi in Ecuador is one of the world's highest active volcanos.", "It also has a large series of rivers that follow the southern border and spill into the northwest area of Peru." ], [ "Area and borders", "Ecuador is located on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2,237 km of coastline.", "It has 2237 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north (708 km border) and Peru in the east and south (1,529 km border).", "is land and water.", "Ecuador is one of the smallest countries in South America, but bigger than Uruguay, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.", "It has the 29th largest exclusive economic zone of which includes the Galápagos Islands." ], [ "Cities" ], [ "Geographical regions", "Map of EcuadorTopographic map of EcuadorExtent of Ecuador's western EEZ in the PacificEcuador is divided into three continental regions—the Costa (coast), Sierra (mountains), and Oriente (east)—and one insular region, the Galápagos Islands (officially Archipiélago de Colón).", "The continental regions extend the length of the country from north to south and are separated by the Andes Mountains.=== Galápagos Islands ===The Galápagos are located west of the Ecuadorian coast.", "They are noted for their association with Charles Darwin, whose observation of animals here during the voyage of the ''Beagle'' led to his formation of the theory of natural selection as a means of evolution.", "The islands have witnessed a large number of tourists and travelers over recent years.", "Special species that could be found here include blue footed boobies, iguanas and many more.", "Internal flight services from Ecuador to Galápagos are also available for tourists making it more convenient for guests from outside.Panoramic of Black Turtle Cove, Island of Santa Cruz, Galapagos.School of scalloped hammerheads, Wolf Island, Galápagos Islands Another school of scalloped hammerheads at Wolf Island, GalapagosSulfur laguna on the site of AguaBlanca, Machalilla National Park, EcuadorGalápagos tortoise on Santa Cruz Island (Galápagos)Fresh water swimming in Puerto Ayora, Galapagos on the Island of Santa Cruz.=== La Costa ===The western coastal area of Ecuador borders the Pacific Ocean to the west, encompasses a broad coastal plain, and then rises to the foothills of the Andes Mountains to the east.", "It is estimated that 98% of the native forest of coastal Ecuador has been eliminated in favor of cattle ranching and other agricultural production, including banana, cacao and coffee plantations.", "The forest fragments that still survive are primarily found along the coastal mountain ranges of Mache-Chindul, Jama-Coaque, and Chongon-Colonche, and include tropical dry forest, tropical wet forest, tropical moist evergreen forest, premontane cloud forest, and mangrove forest.", "Collectively known as the Pacific Equatorial Forest, these forest remnants are considered the most endangered tropical forest in the world, and are part of the Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot.", "Guayaquil, located on the southern part of the coast is the biggest city in the country.", "On the north coast of Ecuador the port of Balao in Esmeraldas is used for oil export and the port of Manta was formerly used by the United States Air Force as a control point for narcotics traffic control until 2009.A recent remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 635 km2 of tidal flats in Ecuador, making it the 41st ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.=== La Sierra ===Mount Imbabura (Ecuador) from south-eastThe central belt of Ecuador that includes the Andes Mountains, with volcanoes and mountain peaks that sport year-round snow on the equator.", "Many areas of the Sierra are deforested to make way for agriculture and a number of cut-flower growing operations.", "At a certain altitude, cloud forests may be found.The northern Ecuadorian Andes are divided into three parallel cordilleras which run in what is similar to an S-shape from north to south: the western, central (Cordillerra Real) and eastern (Cordillera Occidental) cordilleras.", "The cordilleras were formed earlier in the Cenozoic era (the current geological era), as the Nazca Plate has subducted underneath the South American Plate and has raised the mountain range.", "In the south, the cordilleras are not well defined.Quito, the capital city, is located in a high mountain valley on the foothills of the Pichincha (volcano).", "The town of Baños de Agua Santa features hot springs swimming pools on the foothills of the Tungurahua in the Central Cordillera.", "The road from Baños to Puyo has long been known for its narrowness, curves and sheer drops (only one lane in some places, on one area, actually cut into the side of a cliff so that the cliff roofs over it).", "The most important east–west road across the Andes is the road from Quito to Lago Agrio, which is paved for most of its length yet is heavily traveled by tractor-trailers—and the Trans-Ecuadorian Oil Pipeline serves as the guardrail for long stretches of this road.==== Notable mountains and Volcanoes ====The volcano Chimborazo from the Northwest* Chimborazo () inactive volcano, the furthest point from the Earth's center.", "* Cotopaxi () is the tallest active volcano in the world.", "* Illiniza \t()* Tungurahua () It is an active volcano in eruption since 1998 near Baños-Tunguragua* Pichincha () volcano overlooking QuitoPartial, incomplete table of volcanoes in the north of the Ecuadorian Andes, from north to south: West Interandean Center East ChilesYanaurcuPichinchaAtacazoCorazónCarihuairazoChimborazo ImbaburaMojandaIlalóPasochoaRumiñahui CayambeSaraurcuPambamarcaFilocorralesAntisanaSincholahuaCotopaxiTungurahuaAltar SocheSumacoReventadorSangay=== El Oriente (the East) Amazon Basin ===Much of the Oriente is tropical moist broadleaf forest (Spanish: ''la selva''), on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains and descending into the Amazon Basin, with strikingly different upland rainforest with steep, rugged ridges and cascading streams (can be seen around Puyo) and lowland rainforest.", "The oil fields are located in the Amazon basin, headquartered at Lago Agrio; some of the rainforest has been seriously damaged in this region and environmental degradation is severe, with catastrophic oil pollution in some areas.", "Some 38% of Ecuador's land is forested, and despite a 1.5% annual deforestation rate remains one of the most biodiverse locations on the planet.", "The Oriente is also home to a large number of Ecuador's indigenous groups, notably the lowland Quechua, Siona, Secoya, Huaorani, and Cofán.Imbabura Volcano photographed in black and white." ], [ "Drainage", "Pastaza River near Baños, EcuadorAlmost all of the rivers in Ecuador rise in the Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean.", "The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations.", "In the Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes.", "Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions.", "The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente.In the Costa region, the Costa Externa has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season.", "The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the Costa Externa from the Costa Internal and the Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean.", "The Costa Internal, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps.The Guayas River system, which flows southward to the Gulf of Guayaquil, constitutes the most important of the drainage systems in the Costa Internal.", "The Guayas River Basin, including land drained by its tributaries, is 40,000 square kilometers in area.", "The sixty-kilometer-long Guayas River forms just north of Guayaquil out of the confluence of the Babahoyo and Daule rivers.", "Briefly constricted at Guayaquil by hills, the Guayas widens south of the city and flows through a deltaic network of small islands and channels.", "At its mouth, the river forms a broad estuary with two channels around Puná Island, the deeper of which is used for navigation.The second major Costa river system —the Esmeraldas— rises in the Hoya de Quito in the Sierra as the Guayllabamba River and flows westward to empty into the Pacific Ocean near the city of Esmeraldas.", "The Esmeraldas River is 320 kilometers long and has a 20,000-square-kilometer drainage basin.Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo.", "The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra.", "The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at is the highest waterfall in Ecuador.", "The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the eastern lowlands.", "The Napo ranges in width from .", "In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off.", "The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia.", "All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River.", "The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers.", "Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs, although they are surrounded by the Pacific Ocean." ], [ "Climate", "Ecuador map of Köppen climate classification zonesParamo meadows near Ambato, EcuadorEach region has different factors that affect its climate.", "The Costa is influenced primarily by proximity to warm or cool ocean currents.", "By contrast, climate in the Sierra varies more as a function of altitude.", "The Oriente has a fairly uniform climate that varies only slightly between the two subregions.", "Climate in the Galápagos Islands is both moderated by the ocean currents and affected by altitude.", "Throughout Ecuador variation in rainfall primarily determines seasons.", "Temperature is determined by altitude.", "With each ascent of in altitude, temperature drops .", "This phenomenon is particularly significant in the Sierra.=== The Sierra ===Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly on a seasonal basis; the hottest month averages and the coolest month, in the upper elevations.", "Diurnal temperatures, however, vary dramatically, from cold mornings to hot afternoons.", "The almost vertical sun and the rarefied air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during the day and lose heat quickly at night.", "Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often are cloudy and rainy.", "In general, rainfall amounts are highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes.", "Rain can also vary on a local basis.", "Sheltered valleys normally receive per year, whereas annual rainfall is in Quito and can reach on exposed slopes that catch rain-bearing winds.", "On a seasonal basis, the driest months are June through September.The climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude.", "The tropical level——has temperatures ranging from and heavy precipitation.", "The subtropical level——has temperatures from and moderate precipitation.", "The temperate level—≤≥- -has a year-round temperature in the range of and an annual rainfall of .", "The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms, and fog.", "Winter, or the rainy season, lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December.", "Most rain falls in April.", "There also is a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the Sierra from the Oriente.", "Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are located at this temperate level.", "The cold level extends from the temperate zone to .", "Here, average temperatures are , and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail, and thick fog.", "Above is the frozen level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below .", "Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog, and rain.=== The Oriente/Amazon ===The eastern lowlands in the Oriente experience abundant rainfall, especially in the Andean Piedmont, sometimes exceeding per year.", "Temperatures average in the western parts of this region.", "The jungle-covered plains of the Eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall and temperatures surpassing .Being located on the equator, the Galápagos Islands would have an equatorial climate were it not for the modifying effects of the Peruvian Current.", "Instead, climate on the islands follows a pattern more like that of the Sierra than the Costa.", "At sea level, the land is desertlike with temperatures of .", "The eight summer months experience no precipitation, whereas the winter months of January through April have some fog and drizzle.", "Above sea level to an altitude of , the islands have a mixture of tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates.", "In general, temperatures are around .", "There is constant fog and drizzle in the summer and rain in the winter.", "The cold level above has temperatures below .", "It is cool along the tropical coast." ], [ "Elevation extremes", "* lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m* highest point: Chimborazo 6,267 m" ], [ "Natural resources", "Ecuador has land which is rich in petroleum.", "Main fishing products include herring and mackerel.", "Other natural resources include timber and hydropower." ], [ "Land use", "* arable land: 4.62%* permanent crops: 5.57%* other: 89.81% (2012 est.", ")=== Irrigated land ===8,534 km2 (2003)=== Total renewable water resources ===424.4 km3 (2011)=== Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) ===* total: 9.92 km3/yr (13%/6%/81%)* per capita: 716.1 m3/yr (2005)" ], [ "Natural hazards", "Natural hazards in Ecuador include frequent earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity; periodic droughts and floods." ], [ "Environment - current issues", "deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution; pollution from oil production wastes in ecologically sensitive areas of the Amazon Basin and Galápagos Islands." ], [ "Environment - international agreements", ": '''party to:''' Antarctic Treaty, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling" ], [ "Extreme points", "* Northernmost point – Darwin Island, Galápagos Islands* Northernmost point (mainland) – mouth of Mataje River, Esmeraldas Province* Southernmost point – Border with Peru, Chinchipe Canton* Westernmost point – Fernandina Island, Galápagos Islands* Westernmost point (mainland) – Santa Elena Peninsula, Salinas Canton* Easternmost point – border with Peru, Orellana Province* Highest point – Chimborazo: 6,267 m* Lowest point – Pacific Coast: 0 m" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Ecuador include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.Ecuador experienced rapid population growth like most countries, but four decades of an armed conflict pushed millions of Ecuadorians out of the country.", "However, a rebound economy in the 2000s in urban centres improved the situation of living standards for Ecuadorians in a traditional class stratified economy.As of 2010, 77.4% of the population identified as \"Mestizos\", a mix of Spanish and Indigenous American ancestry, up from 71.9% in 2000.The percentage of the population which identifies as \"white\" has fallen from 10.5% in 2000 to 6.1% in 2010.Amerindians account for approximately 7.0% of the population and 7.2% of the population consists of Afro-Ecuadorians.", "Other statistics put the Mestizo population at 55% to 65% and the indigenous population at 25%.", "Genetic research indicates that the ancestry of Ecuadorian Mestizos is predominantly Indigenous." ], [ "Population", "===Census data===The '''Ecuadorian census''' is conducted by the governmental institution known as ''INEC'', ''Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas y Censos'' (National Institute of Statistics and Census).", "The census in Ecuador is conducted every ten years, and its objective is to obtain the number of people residing within its borders.", "The current census now includes household information.The most recent census (as of 2011) emphasized reaching rural and remote areas to map the most accurate population count in the country.", "The 2010 census was conducted in November and December, and its results were published 27 January 2011.The following table shows the dates the most recent censuses were made, and the total population number: The census is a false count due to racism against its large Amerindian population.+ Recent Ecuadorian censuses No.", "Date Population Density Change sinceprevious census 1 Census 2001 12,156,608 53.8 2 Census 2010 14,306,876 55.8 +14%Index of growth:+ Percentage of population growth (census periods) No.", "Time lapse Growth percentile 1 1950–1962 2.96% 2 1962–1974 3.10% 3 1974–1982 2.62% 4 1982–1990 2.19% 5 1990–2001 2.05% 6 2001–2010 1.52%===UN estimates===According to the total population was in , compared to only 3,470,000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2015 was 29.0%, 63.4% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6.7% was 65 years or older.Total population (x 1000)Proportionaged 0–14(%)Proportionaged 15–64(%)Proportionaged 65+(%) 19503 47039.555.25.3 19553 95741.653.54.9 19604 54643.352.04.7 19655 25044.551.04.5 19706 07344.351.54.3 19756 98743.752.24.1 19807 97641.854.14.1 19859 04640.055.94.1 199010 21838.257.54.3 199511 44136.359.14.6 200012 62934.760.35.0 200513 82633.161.55.4 201015 01131.063.06.0 201516 21229.164.36.6 202017 64327.465.07.6=== Structure of the population ===Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 7 815 935 7 958 814 15 774 749 100 0–4 864 669 826 731 1 691 400 10.72 5–9 854 691 816 503 1 671 194 10.59 10–14 815 838 783 725 1 599 563 10.14 15–19 756 376 737 082 1 493 458 9.47 20–24 685 997 682 849 1 368 846 8.68 25–29 620 881 635 987 1 256 868 7.97 30–34 559 055 593 148 1 152 203 7.30 35–39 495 340 538 054 1 033 394 6.55 40–44 437 744 476 215 913 959 5.79 45–49 387 618 419 090 806 708 5.11 50–54 336 267 360 935 697 202 4.42 55–59 279 746 298 503 578 249 3.67 60–64 223 411 238 973 462 384 2.93 65–69 172 623 187 448 360 071 2.28 70–74 128 033 142 255 270 288 1.71 75–79 89 929 101 191 191 120 1.21 80–84 57 585 64 467 122 052 0.77 85–89 31 289 34 891 66 180 0.42 90–94 13 655 15 370 29 025 0.18 95–99 4 898 5 145 10 043 0.06 100+ 290 252 542 0.03Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 535 198 2 426 959 4 962 157 31.46 15–64 4 782 435 4 980 836 9 763 271 61.89 65+ 498 302 551 019 1 049 321 6.65Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 8 783 789 8 967 488 17 751 277 100 0–4 845 954 808 798 1 654 752 9.32 5–9 853 987 817 229 1 671 216 9.41 10–14 861 741 823 598 1 685 339 9.49 15–19 833 964 798 770 1 632 734 9.20 20–24 778 930 755 659 1 534 589 8.64 25–29 712 218 706 341 1 418 559 7.99 30–34 647 958 658 656 1 306 614 7.36 35–39 590 249 618 416 1 208 665 6.81 40–44 528 482 571 807 1 100 289 6.20 45–49 464 207 509 979 974 186 5.49 50–54 406 015 446 926 852 941 4.80 55–59 350 539 387 801 738 340 4.16 60–64 290 143 324 072 614 215 3.46 65-69 226 290 257 338 483 628 2.72 70-74 165 840 194 960 360 800 2.03 75-79 112 069 138 213 250 282 1.41 80-84 66 621 85 696 152 317 0.86 85-89 32 786 42 792 75 578 0.43 90-94 12 487 16 097 28 584 0.16 95-99 3 192 4 184 7 376 0.04 100+ 117 156 273 per yearDeathsper yearNatural changeper yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy totalLife expectancy malesLife expectancy females 1950–1955 169,000 71,000 98,00045.619.226.46.7514048.447.149.6 1955–1960 190,000 71,000 119,00044.816.728.16.7512951.450.152.7 1960–1965 214,000 71,000 143,00043.614.529.16.6511954.753.456.1 1965–1970 239,000 73,000 166,00042.213.029.26.4010756.855.458.2 1970–1975 258,000 74,000 184,00039.611.428.25.809558.957.460.5 1975–1980 270,000 71,000 199,00036.29.526.75.058261.459.763.2 1980–1985 285,000 68,000 217,00033.58.025.54.456964.562.566.7 1985–1990 302,000 64,000 238,00031.46.724.74.005667.565.369.9 1990–1995 311,000 63,000 248,00028.75.822.93.554470.167.672.7 1995–2000 316,000 64,000 252,00026.35.420.93.203372.369.775.2 2000–2005 313,000 68,000 245,00024.25.119.12.942574.271.377.3 2005–2010 323,000 74,000 249,00022.15.017.12.692175.072.178.1 2010–2015 329,000 80,000 249,00021.05.115.92.561776.473.679.3 2015–2020 330,000 85,000 245,00019.95.114.82.441477.674.980.4 2020–2025 18.55.213.3 2025–2030 17.05.411.6 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Births and deaths===YearPopulationLive births DeathsNatural increaseCrude birth rateCrude death rateRate of natural increaseTFR 1990 10,149,666 310,233 50,217 260,016 30.6 4.9 25.7 1991 10,355,598 312,007 53,333 258,674 30.1 5.2 24.9 1992 10,567,946 319,044 53,430 265,614 30.2 5.1 25.1 1993 10,786,984 333,920 52,453 281,46731.0 4.926.1 1994 11,012,925 318,063 51,165 266,898 28.9 4.6 24.3 1995 11,246,107 322,856 50,867 271,989 28.7 4.5 24.2 1996 11,486,884 335,194 52,300 282,894 29.2 4.6 24.6 1997 11,735,391 326,174 52,089 274,085 27.8 4.4 23.4 1998 11,992,073 316,779 54,357 262,422 26.4 4.5 21.9 1999 12,257,190 353,159 55,921 297,238 28.8 4.6 24.2 2000 12,531,210 356,065 56,420299,645 28.4 4.5 23.9 2001 12,814,503 341,710 55,214 286,496 26.7 4.3 22.4 2002 13,093,527 334,601 55,549 279,052 25.6 4.2 21.4 2003 13,319,575 322,227 53,521 268,706 24.2 4.0 20.2 2004 13,551,875 312,210 54,729 257,481 23.0 4.0 19.0 2005 13,721,297 305,302 56,825 248,477 22.3 4.1 18.2 2006 13,964,606 322,030 57,940 264,090 23.1 4.1 19.0 2007 14,214,982 322,494 58,016 264,478 22.7 4.1 18.6 2008 14,472,881 325,423 60,023 265,400 22.5 4.1 18.4 2009 14,738,472 332,859 59,714 273,145 22.6 4.1 18.5 2010 15,012,228 320,997 61,681 259,316 21.4 4.1 17.3 2011 15,266,431 329,061 62,304 266,757 21.6 4.1 17.5 2.737 2012 15,520,973 319,127 63,511 255,616 20.6 4.1 16.5 2.684 2013 15,774,749 294,441 64,206 230,235 18.8 4.1 14.7 2.6342014 16,027,466 289,488 63,788 225,700 18.3 4.1 14.2 2.5872015 16,278,844 289,561 65,391 222,158 17.8 4.0 13.8 2.5422016 16,528,730 274,643 68,304 203,786 17.0 4.1 12.9 2.499 2017 16,776,977 291,397 70,144 221,353 17.4 4.2 13.2 2018 17,023,408 293,139 71,982 221,157 17.3 4.2 13.1 2019 17,267,986 285,827 74,439 211,388 16.6 4.3 12.3 2020 17,510,643 266,919117,200 149,719 15.26.7 8.5 2021 17,684,000 251,978 106,211145,767 14.2 5.98.3 2022(c) 16,938,986 250,277 89,946 160,331 13.9 5.0 8.9 (c) = Census results.+Vital statistics for 2021 – 2022 Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January - May 2023''' 36,912 '''January - April 2023''' 32,860 '''Difference''' -4,052 (-10.98%) === CIA World Factbook demographic statistics ===The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.Population:15,007,343 (July 2011 est.", ")Median Age: ''Total:'' 25.7 years: ''Male:'' 25 years: ''Female:'' 26.3 years (2011 est.", ")Population growth rate: 1.443% (2011 est.", ")Net migration rate: -0.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.", "): -0.81 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.", ")Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female: under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female: 15–64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female: 65 years and over: 0.93 male(s)/female: total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2009 est.", ")HIV/AIDS – adult prevalence rate: 0.3% (2007 est.", ")HIV/AIDS – people living with HIV/AIDS: 26,000 (2007 est.", ")HIV/AIDS – deaths: 1,400 (2007 est.", ")Nationality: ''noun:'' Ecuadorian(s): ''adjective:'' EcuadorianReligions: ''Roman Catholic:'' approximately 95%: ''Protestant:'' approximately 4%: ''Jewish:'' below 0.002%: ''Eastern Orthodox:'' under 0.2%: ''Muslim:'' (Suni) approximately 0.001%: ''Buddhism:'' under 0.15%: ''Animism:'' beliefs under 0.5%: ''Atheist:'' and ''agnostics: 1%Languages:Spanish (official), Amerindian languages (especially Quechua).Achuar-Shiwiar – 2,000 Pastaza province.", "Alternate names: Achuar, Achual, Achuara, Achuale.Chachi – 3,450 Esmeraldas Province, Cayapas River system.", "Alternate names: Cayapa, Cha' Palaachi.Colorado – 2,300 Santo Domingo de los Colorados province.", "Alternate names: Tsachila, Tsafiki.Quechua – 9 separate dialects are spoken in as many areas in the country with a combined population of 1,460,000.Shuar – 46,669 (2000 WCD).", "Morona-Santiago Province.", "Alternate names: Jivaro, Xivaro, Jibaro, Chiwaro, Shuara.Waorani – 1,650 (2004).", "Napo and Morona-Santiago provinces.", "Alternate names: Huaorani, Waodani, Huao.Literacy: ''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write: ''total population:'' 91%: ''male:'' 92.3%: ''female:'' 89.7% (2003 est.", ")===Geography===Due to the prevalence of malaria and yellow fever in the coastal region until the end of the 19th century, the Ecuadorian population was most heavily concentrated in the highlands and valleys of the \"Sierra\" region.", "Today's population is distributed more evenly between the \"Sierra\" and the \"Costa\" (the coastal lowlands) region.", "Migration towards the cities—particularly larger cities—in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55 percent.The \"Oriente\" region, consisting of Amazonian lowlands to the east of the Andes and covering about half the country's land area, remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the country's population, that for the most are indigenous peoples who maintain a wary distance from the recent Mestizo and white settlers.", "The territories of the \"Oriente\" are home to as many as nine indigenous groups: Quichua, Shuar, Achuar, Huaorani, Siona, Secoya, Shiwiar, and Cofan, all represented politically by the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon, CONFENIAE.As a result of the oil exploration and the development of the infrastructure required for the exploitation of the oil fields in the eastern jungles during the seventies and early eighties, there was a wave of settlement in the region.", "The Majority of these wave of internal immigration came from the southern province of Loja as a result of a drought that lasted three years and affected the southern provinces of the country.", "This boom of the petroleum industry has led to a mushrooming of the town of Lago Agrio (Nueva Loja) as well as substantial deforestation and pollution of wetlands and lakes." ], [ "Nationality, ethnicity, and race", "The Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the pluri-nationality of those who want to exercise their affiliation with their native ethnic groups.", "There are five major '''ethnic groups in Ecuador''': Mestizo, European, Afroecuadorian, Amerindian, and Montubio.", "Mestizos constitute more than 70% of the population.", "According to genealogical DNA testing done in 2015, the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96% Amerindian, 41.77% European, and 5.26% Sub-Saharan African overall.", "Prior to this, a genetic study done in 2008 by the University of Brasilia, estimated that Ecuadorian genetic admixture was 64.6% Amerindian, 31.0% European, and 4.4% African.Ecuador's population descends from Spanish immigrants and South American Amerindians, admixed with descendants of black slaves who arrived to work on coastal plantations in the sixteenth century.", "The mix of these groups is described as Mestizo or Cholo.", "Censuses do not record ethnic affiliation, which in any event remains fluid; thus, estimates of the numbers of each group should be taken only as approximations.", "In the 1980s, Amerindians and Mestizos represented the bulk of the population, with each group accounting for roughly 40 percent of total population.", "Whites represented 10 to 15 percent and blacks the remaining 5 percent.According to Kluck, writing in 1989, ethnic groups in Ecuador have had a traditional hierarchy of white, Mestizo, blacks, and then others.", "Her review depicts this hierarchy as a consequence of colonial attitudes and of the terminology of colonial legal distinctions.", "Spanish-born persons residing in the New World (peninsulares) were at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by criollos, born of two Spanish parents in the colonies.", "The 19th century usage of Mestizo was to denote a person whose parents were an Amerindian and a white; a Cholo had one Amerindian and one Mestizo parent.", "By the 20th century, Mestizo and Cholo were frequently used interchangeably.", "Kluck suggested that societal relationships, occupation, manners, and clothing all derived from ethnic affiliation.Nonetheless, according to Kluck, individuals could potentially switch ethnic affiliation if they had culturally adapted to the recipient group; such switches were made without resort to subterfuge.", "Moreover, the precise criteria for defining ethnic groups varies considerably.", "The vocabulary that more prosperous Mestizos and whites used in describing ethnic groups mixes social and biological characteristics.", "Ethnic affiliation thus is dynamic; Indians often become Mestizos, and prosperous Mestizos seek to improve their status sufficiently to be considered whites.", "Ethnic identity reflects numerous characteristics, only one of which is physical appearance; others include dress, language, community membership, and self-identification.A geography of ethnicity remained well-defined until the surge in migration that began in the 1950s.", "Whites resided primarily in larger cities.", "Mestizos lived in small towns scattered throughout the countryside.", "Indians formed the bulk of the Sierra rural populace, although Mestizos filled this role in the areas with few Indians.", "Most blacks lived in Esmeraldas Province, with small enclaves found in the Carchi and Imbabura provinces.", "Pressure on Sierra land resources and the dissolution of the traditional hacienda, however, increased the numbers of Indians migrating to the Costa, the Oriente, and the cities.", "By the 1980s, Sierra Indians—or Indians in the process of switching their ethnic identity to that of Mestizos—lived on Costa plantations, in Quito, Guayaquil, and other cities, and in colonization areas in the Oriente and the Costa.", "Indeed, Sierra Amerindians residing in the coastal region substantially outnumbered the remaining original Costa inhabitants, the Cayapa and Colorado Indians.", "In the late 1980s, analysts estimated that there were only about 4,000 Cayapas and Colorados.", "Some blacks had migrated from the remote region of the Ecuadorian-Colombian border to the towns and cities of Esmeraldas.===Afro-Ecuadorian===Afro-Ecuadorians are an ethnic group in Ecuador who are descendants of black African slaves brought by the Spanish during their conquest of Ecuador from the Incas.", "They make up from 3% to 5% of Ecuador's population.Ecuador has a population of about 1,120,000 descendants from African people.", "The Afro-Ecuadorian culture is found primarily in the country's northwest coastal region.", "Africans form a majority (70%) in the province of Esmeraldas and also have an important concentration in the Valle del Chota in the Imbabura Province.", "They can be also found in important numbers in Quito and Guayaquil.=== Indigenous =======Sierra Indigenous====Otavalo girl from EcuadorSierra Indigenous had an estimated population of 1.5 to 2 million in the early 1980s and live in the intermontane valleys of the Andes.", "Prolonged contact with Hispanic culture, which dates back to the conquest, has had a homogenizing effect, reducing the variation among the indigenous Sierra tribes.The Indigenous people of the Sierra are separated from whites and Mestizos by a caste-like gulf.", "They are marked as a disadvantaged group; to be an Indigenous person in Ecuador is to be stigmatized.", "Poverty rates are higher and literacy rates are lower among Indigenous than the general population.", "They enjoy limited participation in national institutions and are often excluded from social and economic opportunities available to more privileged groups.", "However, some groups of Indigenous, such as the Otavalo people, have increased their socioeconomic status to extent that they enjoy a higher standard of living than many other Indigenous groups in Ecuador and many Mestizos of their area.Visible markers of ethnic affiliation, especially hairstyle, dress, and language, separate Indigenous from the rest of the populace.", "Indigenous wore more manufactured items by the late 1970s than previously; their clothing, nonetheless, was distinct from that of other rural inhabitants.", "Indigenous in communities relying extensively on wage labor sometimes assumed Western-style dress while still maintaining their Indigenous identity.", "Indigenous speak Spanish and, Quichua—a Quechua dialect—although most are bilingual, speaking Spanish as a second language with varying degrees of facility.", "By the late 1980s, some younger Indigenous no longer learned Quichua.====Oriente Indigenous====Huaorani villageAlthough the Amerindians of the Oriente first came into contact with Europeans in the 16th century, the encounters were more sporadic than those of most of the country's indigenous population.", "Until the 19th century, most non-Amerindians entering the region were either traders or missionaries.", "Beginning in the 1950s, however, the government built roads and encouraged settlers from the Sierra to colonize the Amazon River Basin.", "Virtually all remaining Indians were brought into increasing contact with national society.", "The interaction between Indians and outsiders had a profound impact on the indigenous way of life.In the late 1970s, roughly 30,000 Quichua speakers and 15,000 Jívaros lived in Oriente Indigenous communities.", "Quichua speakers (sometimes referred to as the Yumbos) grew out of the detribalization of members of many different groups after the Spanish conquest.", "Subject to the influence of Quichua-speaking missionaries and traders, various elements of the Yumbos adopted the tongue as a lingua franca and gradually lost their previous languages and tribal origins.", "Yumbos were scattered throughout the Oriente, whereas the Jívaros—subdivided into the Shuar and the Achuar—were concentrated in southeastern Ecuador.", "Some also lived in northeastern Peru.", "Traditionally, both groups relied on migration to resolve intracommunity conflict and to limit the ecological damage to the tropical forest caused by slash-and-burn agriculture.Both the Yumbos and the Jívaros depended on agriculture as their primary means of subsistence.", "Manioc, the main staple, was grown in conjunction with a wide variety of other fruits and vegetables.", "Yumbo men also resorted to wage labor to obtain cash for the few purchases deemed necessary.", "By the mid-1970s, increasing numbers of Quichua speakers settled around some of the towns and missions of the Oriente.", "Indians themselves had begun to make a distinction between Christian and jungle Indians.", "The former engaged in trade with townspeople.", "The Jívaros, in contrast to the Christian Quichua speakers, lived in more remote areas.", "Their mode of horticulture was similar to that of the non-Christian Yumbos, although they supplemented crop production with hunting and some livestock raising.Shamans (curanderos) played a pivotal role in social relations in both groups.", "As the main leaders and the focus of local conflicts, shamans were believed to both cure and kill through magical means.", "In the 1980s group conflicts between rival shamans still erupted into full-scale feuds with loss of life.The Oriente Indigenous population dropped precipitously during the initial period of intensive contact with outsiders.", "The destruction of their crops by Mestizos laying claim to indigenous lands, the rapid exposure to diseases to which Indians lacked immunity, and the extreme social disorganization all contributed to increased mortality and decreased birth rates.", "One study of the Shuar in the 1950s found that the group between ten and nineteen years of age was smaller than expected.", "This was the group that had been youngest and most vulnerable during the initial contact with national society.", "Normal population growth rates began to reestablish themselves after approximately the first decade of such contact." ], [ "Culture", "A woman in Ecuadorian garment participating in the 2010 Carnaval del PuebloEcuador's mainstream culture is defined by its Hispanic Mestizo majority, and like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions, and in some cases by African elements.", "The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499.A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World War.Since African slavery was not the workforce of the Spanish colonies in the Andes Mountains of South America, given the subjugation of the indigenous people through evangelism and ''encomiendas'', the minority population of African descent is mostly found in the coastal northern province of Esmeraldas.", "According to local fables, this is largely owing to the 17th century shipwreck of a slave-trading galleon off the northern coast of Ecuador.Ecuador's indigenous communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own indigenous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of the Amazon basin.", "Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population, and as a first or second language by more than 98%.", "Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language.", "Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.===Language===Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish, though many speak Amerindian languages such as Kichwa.", "People that identify as Mestizo, in general, speak Spanish as their native language.", "Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani).", "Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are those universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there are several idiosyncrasies.===Religion===According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics.", "Among those with a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic, 11.30% are Protestants, and 8.26% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).In the rural parts of Ecuador, indigenous beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized.", "Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.There is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, indigenous religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Baháʼís.", "There are about 185,000 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and over 80,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country.The \"Jewish Community of Ecuador\" (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 300 members.", "Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country towards the United States of America or Israel.", "The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club and a cemetery.", "It supports the \"Albert Einstein School\", where Jewish history, religion and Hebrew classes are offered.", "Since 2004, there has also been a Chabad house in Quito.There are very small communities in Cuenca and Ambato.", "The \"Comunidad de Culto Israelita\" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil.", "This community works independently from the \"Jewish Community of Ecuador\".", "Jewish visitors to Ecuador can also take advantage of Jewish resources as they travel and keep kosher there, even in the Amazon Rainforest.", "The city has also synagogue of Messianic Judaism.===Music===Julio Jaramillo is an icon of music.The music of Ecuador has a long history.", "Pasillo is a genre of Indigenous Latin music.", "In Ecuador it is the \"national genre of music.\"", "Through the years, many cultures have influenced to establish new types of music.", "There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba highly established in afro-Ecuadorian society like Esmeraldas, and so on.Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of foreign cultures' influence.", "One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito.", "It is originally from the north of Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura).", "Sanjuanito is a danceable music used in the festivities of the Mestizo and Indigenous culture.", "According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Indigenous people during San Juan Bautista's birthday.", "This important date was established by the Spaniards on 24 June, coincidentally the same date when Indigenous people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi.===Cuisine===Ecuadorian ''ceviche'', made of shrimp and lemon, onions and some herbs.", "Tomato sauce and orange are used at some places, but does not form a part of the basic recipe.Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude and associated agricultural conditions.", "Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three course meal of soup, a second course which includes rice and a protein such as meat or fish, and then dessert and coffee to finish.", "Supper is usually lighter, and sometimes consists only of coffee or herbal tea with bread.In the highland region, pork, chicken, beef, and ''cuy'' (guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and corn) or potatoes.In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp and ''ceviche'' being key parts of the diet.", "Generally, ceviches are served with fried plantain (chifles y patacones), popcorn or tostado.", "Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals.", "Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular.", "''Churrasco'' is a staple food of the coastal region, especially Guayaquil.", "''Arroz con menestra y carne asada'' (rice with beans and grilled beef) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil, as is fried plantain which is often served with it.", "This region is a leading producer of bananas, cacao beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mangos and passion fruit, among other products.In the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the ''yuca'', elsewhere called cassava.", "Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.=== Literature ===Juan MontalvoEarly literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age.", "One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo, an indigenous chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s.", "Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua.", "The use of the Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language.", "The history behind the Inca drama \"Ollantay\", the oldest literary piece in existence for any indigenous language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo.", "Collahuazo was imprisoned, and all of his work burned.", "The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito, and found a hidden manuscript.", "The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the \"Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa\", a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa.Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre, born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan de Velasco, born in Riobamba in 1727.De Velasco wrote about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the ''Kingdom of Quito'' (today Ecuador) before the arrival of the Spanish.", "His historical accounts are nationalistic, featuring a romantic perspective of precolonial history.Famous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include: Eugenio Espejo a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled ''La Victoria de Junin''; Juan Montalvo, a prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera, famous for his work \"Cumanda\" or \"Tragedy among Savages\" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Luis A. Martínez with ''A la Costa'', Dolores Veintimilla, and others.Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poets Medardo Angel Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel ''Huasipungo'', translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio; U.S. based Ecuadorian poet Emanuel Xavier.===Art===The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the ''Escuela Quiteña'', which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito.", "Ecuadorian painters include: Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constante, León Ricaurte and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, Futuristic style.", "The indigenous people of Tigua, Ecuador are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.===Sport===Jefferson Pérez, Olympian gold medalist242x242pxNicolás LapenttiThe most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is football (soccer).", "Its best known professional teams include Barcelona and Emelec from Guayaquil; LDU Quito, Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca.", "Currently the most successful football club in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian club that have won the ''Copa Libertadores'', the ''Copa Sudamericana'' and the ''Recopa Sudamericana''; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup.", "The matches of the Ecuador national team are the most-watched sporting events in the country.", "Ecuador qualified for the final rounds of the 2002, 2006, and 2014 FIFA World Cups.", "The 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a huge success for the country and its inhabitants.", "Ecuador finished in 2nd place on the qualifiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become World Champion, Brazil.", "In the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica to come in second to Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup.", "Futsal, often referred to as ''índor'', is particularly popular for mass participation.There is considerable interest in tennis in the middle and upper classes of Ecuadorian society, and several Ecuadorian professional players have attained international fame.", "Basketball has a high profile, while Ecuador's specialties include Ecuavolley, a three-person variation of volleyball.", "Bullfighting is practiced at a professional level in Quito, during the annual festivities that commemorate the Spanish founding of the city, and it also features in festivals in many smaller towns.", "Rugby union is found to some extent in Ecuador, with teams in Guayaquil, Quito and Cuenca.Ecuador has won three medals in the Olympic Games.", "20 km racewalker Jefferson Pérez took gold in the 1996 games, and silver 12 years later.", "Pérez also set a world best in the 2003 World Championships of 1:17:21 for the 20 km distance.", "Cyclist Richard Carapaz, the winner of 2019 Giro d'Italia, won a gold medal at the road cycling race of the 2020 Summer Olympics." ], [ "Migration trends", "In recent decades, there has been a high rate of emigration due to the economic crisis that seriously affected the economy of the country in the 1990s, over 400,000 Ecuadorians left for Spain and Italy, and around 100,000 for the United Kingdom while several hundred thousand Ecuadorians live in the US, (500,000 by some estimates) mostly in the cities of the Northeastern corridor.", "Many other Ecuadorians have emigrated across Latin America, thousands have gone to Japan and Australia.", "One famous American of Ecuadorian descent is pop music vocalist Christina Aguilera.In Ecuador there are about 100,000 Americans and over 30,000 European Union expatriates.", "They move to Ecuador for business opportunities and as cheaper place for retirement.As a result of the political conflict in Colombia and of the criminal gangs that had appeared in the areas of power vacuum a constant flow of refugees and asylum seekers as well as economic migrants of Colombian origin had moved into Ecuadorian territory.", "Over the last decade at least 45,000 displaced people are now residents in Ecuador, the Ecuadorian government and international organizations are assisting them.", "According to the UNHCR 2009 report as many as 167,189 refugees and asylum seekers are temporary residents in Ecuador.Following the migratory trend to Europe many of the jobs that those that left held in the country had been taken over by Peruvian economic migrants.", "Those jobs are mostly in agriculture and unskilled labor.", "There are no official statistics but some press reports estimate their number into the tens of thousands.There is a diverse community of Middle Eastern Ecuadorians, numbering in the tens of thousands, mostly from Lebanese, Syrian and Palestinian descent; prominent in commerce and industry, and concentrated in the coastal cities of Guayaquil, Quevedo and Machala.", "They are well assimilated into the local culture and are referred commonly as \"turcos\" since the early migrants of these communities arrived with passports issued by the Ottoman Empire in the beginning of the century.Ecuador is also home to communities of Spaniards, Italians, Germans, Portuguese, French, Britons and Greek-Ecuadorians.", "Ecuadorian Jews, who number around 450 are mostly of German or Italian descent.", "There are 225,000 English speakers and 112,000 German speakers in Ecuador of which the great majority reside in Quito, mainly all descendants of immigrants who arrived in the late 19th century and of retired emigrees that returned to their terroir.", "Most of the descendants of European immigrants strive for the preservation of their heritage.", "Therefore, some groups even have their own schools (e.g.", "German School Guayaquil and German School Quito), Liceé La Condamine (French Heritage), Alberto Einstein (Jewish Heritage) and The British School of Quito (Anglo-British), cultural and social organizations, churches and country clubs.", "Their contribution for the social, political and economical development of the country is immense, specially in relation to their percentage in the total population.", "Most of the families of European heritage belong to the Ecuadorian upper class and had married into the wealthiest families of the country.There is also a small Asian-Ecuadorian (see Asian Latino) community estimated in a range from 2,500 to 25,000, mainly consists of those having any amount of Chinese Han descent, and possibly 10,000 being Japanese whose ancestors arrived as miners, farm hands and fishermen in the late 19th century.", "Guayaquil has an East Asian community, mostly Chinese including Taiwanese, and Japanese, as well as a Southeast Asian community, mostly Filipinos." ], [ "See also", "* Ecuadorian census* Indigenous peoples in Ecuador* Afro Ecuadorian* Lebanese people in Ecuador* Culture of Ecuador* Social class in Ecuador* Family in Ecuador * Ecuadorian Americans* Hispanics" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Leading ethnicity map in Ecuador by 2010 census" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Ecuador''' are multi-party.", "The central government polity is a quadrennially elected presidential, unicameral representative democracy.", "The President of Ecuador is head of state and head of the army on a multi-party system, and leads a cabinet with further executive power.", "Legislative power is not limited to the National Assembly, as it may to a lesser degree be exercised by the executive which consists of the President convening an appointed executive cabinet.", "Subsequent acts of the National Assembly are supreme over Executive Orders where sufficient votes have been cast by the legislators.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "Ecuador is also considered a constitutional republic.The Constitution of Ecuador provides for a four-year term of office for the President, Vice-President, and members of the National Assembly with concurrent elections.", "Presidents and legislators may be re-elected immediately.", "Citizens must be at least 16 years of age to vote: suffrage is universal and compulsory for literate persons aged 18 to 65 and optional for 16 and 17 years of age and other eligible voters." ], [ "Political conditions", "Ecuador's political parties have historically been small, loose organizations that depended more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology.", "Frequent internal splits have produced extreme factionalism.", "However, a pattern has emerged in which administrations from the center-left alternate with those from the center-right.", "Although Ecuador's political elite is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise.", "Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives and to remove cabinet ministers.Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on 10 August 1998.The new constitution strengthens the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to challenge cabinet ministers.", "Party discipline is traditionally weak, and routinely many deputies switch allegiance during each Congress.", "However, after the new Constitution took effect, the Congress passed a Code of Ethics which imposes penalties on members who defy their party leadership on key votes.Beginning with the 1996 election, the more indigenous, less Spanish-rooted, ethnic groups abandoned their traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively.", "The indigenous population has established itself as a significant force in Ecuadorian politics, as shown by the selection of indigenous representative Nina Pacari, who led the indigenous political party, Pachakutik, as Second Vice-President of the 1998 Congress." ], [ "Judicial branch", "National Justice Court=== The former Supreme Court of Ecuador ===New justices of the Supreme Court of Ecuador were elected by the sitting members of the court.", "A bare majority of Congress, acting in a special session called by former President Lucio Gutiérrez in December 2004, ousted 27 of the 31 justices and replaced them with new members chosen by Congress; notwithstanding, the lack of any provisions permitting impeachment of Supreme Court justices by Congress and the specific provisions giving the Court the power to select new members.", "Earlier, in November 2004, Congress replaced the majority of judges on the country's Electoral Court and Constitutional Court by a similar process.==== List of presidents ====+PresidentPeríodJosé Fernández Salvador López1830–1834José María de Arteta y Calisto1835Joaquín Gutiérrez Restrepo1836Fidel Quijano Valencia1837Víctor Félix de Sanmiguel Cacho1838José María de Arteta y Calisto1839–1840Joaquín Gutiérrez Restrepo1841Víctor Félix de Sanmiguel Cacho1842José María de Arteta y Calisto1843Joaquín Gutiérrez Restrepo1844Luis De Saá1845Víctor Félix de Sanmiguel Cacho1846–1847Salvador Ortega Estacio1848Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto1849Miguel Alvarado1850Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto1851Pablo Vásconez Román1852Antonio Bustamante del Mazo1853Miguel Alvarado1854Ramón Borja1855Carlos Tamayo1856Antonio Bustamante del Mazo1857Nicolás Espinosa1858Manuel Carrión1859Ramón Miño1860Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto1861Ramón Miño1862Antonio Gómez de la Torre1863Carlos Tamayo1864Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto1865Ramón Miño1866Antonio Muñoz1867Luis A. Salazar1868Manuel Checa1869Pablo Herrera González1869Ramón Miño1870Nicolás Martínez1871Rafael Carvajal Guzmán1872Luis A. Salazar1873Rafael Quevedo1874Pablo Herrera González1875Pedro Fermín Cevallos1876Julio Castro1877Antonio Muñoz1878Antonio Portilla1879Francisco A. Arboleda1880Vicente Nieto1881León Espinosa de los Monteros1882Vicente Nieto1883–1885Pedro Fermín Cevallos1886Pedro J. Cevallos y Fernández Salvador1886Alejandro Ribadeneira Salazar1887Julio Castro1888Antonio Robalino1889Luis A. Salazar1890Julio Castro1891Antonio Portilla1892José Modesto Espinosa1893Vicente Nieto1894José Modesto Espinosa1895Francisco J. Montalvo1896León Espinosa de los Monteros1897Vicente Nieto1898Manuel Montalvo1899José María Borja1900Belisario Albán Mestanza1901Leopoldo Pino1902Manuel Benigno Cueva Betancourt1903Belisario Albán Mestanza1904Leopoldo Pino1905Belisario Albán Mestanza1906Manuel Montalvo1907Pacífico Villagómez1908Alejandro Cárdenas1909Belisario Albán Mestanza1910Pacífico Villagómez1911Belisario Albán Mestanza1912Alejandro Cárdenas1913Francisco Andrade Marín1914Leopoldo Pino1915Manuel Eduardo Escudero1916Alejandro Cárdenas1917Leopoldo Pino1918Alejandro Cárdenas1919Belisario Albán Mestanza1920Leopoldo Pino1921Modesto A. Peñaherrera1922José María Ayora Cueva1923Manuel Eduardo Escudero Viteri1924Leopoldo Pino1925José Luis Román1925Modesto A. Peñaherrera1926José María Ayora Cueva1927Manuel Eduardo Escudero Viteri1928Manuel R. Balarezo1929Francisco Pérez Borja1930Pablo N. Roldán1931Manuel Eduardo Escudero Viteri1932Manuel María Borrero González1932José Antonio Baquero de la Calle1933Camilo Octavio Andrade López1934Vicente Enríquez Andrade1935Alejandro Ribadeneira Salazar1936Camilo Octavio Andrade López1937Benjamín Terán Coronel1939Camilo Octavio Andrade López1940Belisario Ponce Borja1941Celio Enrique Salvador Quintana1942Leoncio Patiño Carrión1943Aurelio A. Bayas Argudo1944Belisario Ponce Borja1945José María Suárez M.1946Belisario Ponce Borja1947Alejandro Ribadeneira Salazar1948Camilo Gallegos Toledo1949José María Villagómez Román1950Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga1951Luis F. Madera Negrete1952Manuel Elicio Flor Torres1953Alfonso Mora Bowen1954Camilo Gallegos Toledo1955José María Villagómez Román1956Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga1957Luis Eladio Benítez Jara1958Manuel Elicio Flor Torres1959Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga1960Camilo Gallegos Toledo1961José María Villagómez Román1962Francisco Montero Carrión1963Francisco Ochoa Ortiz1964Julio Tobar Donoso1965Francisco Páez Romero1965Arturo del Pozo Saltos1966Francisco Ochoa Ortiz1967Julio Tobar Donoso1968Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga1968Ricardo Cornejo Rosales1969César Durango Montenegro1970Rafael Terán Varea1971Miguel Aguirre Sánchez1972Tomás Valdiviezo Alba1973Carlos A. Jaramillo Andrade1974–1975Luis Jaramillo Pérez1976César Durango Montenegro1977Gonzalo Karolys Martínez1978–1979Armando Pareja Andrade1979–1981Gonzalo Zambrano Palacios1981–1983Carlos Pozo Montesdeoca1983–1984Gonzalo Córdova Galarza1984–1986Germán Carrión Arciniegas1986–1987Juan Agustín Quinde Burneo1987–1988Ramiro Larrea Santos1988–1990Walter Guerrero Vivanco1990–1993Francisco Acosta Yépez1993–1995Miguel Macías Hurtado1995Carlos Solórzano Constantine1995–1997Héctor Romero Parducci1997–2000Galo Pico Mantilla2000–2002Armando Bermeo Castillo2002–2004Hugo Quintana Coello2004Ramón Rodríguez Noboa2004–2005Guillermo Castro Dáger2005Jaime Velasco Dávila2005–2008Roberto Gómez Mera2008=== Reorganization of Court (2008) ===After the adoption of a new Constitution in 2008, the judicial branch of the country was completely renewed to provide a cooperative leadership by having a judicial and an administrative head.", "As such, the bodies of Ecuador's judicial branch now consisted of the National Court of Justice, provincial courts (created by the National Court), tribunals and judges, National Council of the Judicature, Public Defendants' Office, and State Attorneys' Office.", "The 2008 Constitution also led to the creation of the Constitutional Court of Ecuador.==== National Court of Justice ====The National Court of Justice seats 21 judges elected for a period of 9 years.", "They are elected by the Judiciary Council based on a merits contest held by that office.", "They are the final stage of any judicial process serving as a Court of Cassation and create binding precedent based on Triple Reiterative Rulings from the Chambers of the Court.", "The President of the Court is elected among the members of the Court for a Period of three years, representing the Judicial Branch before the State.===== List of presidents =====+PresidentPeriod José Vicente Troya Jaramillo 2008–2011 Carlos Ramírez Romero2011–20122012–20152015–2018Paulina Aguirre Suárez2018–present==== Judiciary Council ====The administrative branch of the judicial power consists of the Judiciary Council.", "The Council is formed by 9 Vocals who are elected by the Branch of Transparency and Social Control, which is formed by the Control Authorities of the State.", "The Vocals are elected also by a merits contest and it shall be formed by six experts in law and 3 experts in management, economics and other related areas.", "However, after the National Referendum that took place on 5 May 2011 led to the passing of a proposition impulsed by the government, the Judiciary Council changed its formation by making a constitutional amendment.", "Currently, a Tri-Party Commission is serving as a Transitional Council with delegates from the Legislative, Executive and Transparency Branch, in order to reform the broken judicial system of the country.=== Constitutional Court of Ecuador ===The Constitutional Court of Ecuador does not exercise legal revision, but rather constitutional control of situations where constitutional rights are violated.", "Also they are the sole body in the State to interpret what the Constitution says.==== List of presidents ====+PresidentPeríodPatricio Pazmiño Freire2008–2015Alfredo Ruiz Guzmán2015–2018Hernán Salgado Pesántes2019–presentAs of 2019, the court has the following members:* Hernán Salgado Pesántes* Carmen Corral* Agustín Grijalva* Teresa Nuques* Enrique Herrera* Karla Andrade* Ramiro Ávila* Daniela Salazar* Alí Lozada" ], [ "Executive branch", "Carondelet Palace, seats the executive power.=== Structure ===The executive branch includes 28 ministries.", "Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected.", "Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December.", "There are 20 seven-member congressional committees.=== Presidency ===The President and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a four-year term.==== Controversy surrounding Lucio Gutiérrez ====On 20 April 2005, by an act of Congress, Lucio Gutiérrez was dramatically removed from office.", "The last election was held on 20 October 2002 and a runoff election on 24 November 2002 (with the next one to be held in 2006 per the four-year term limits).Former Vice-President Alfredo Palacio assumed the presidency on 20 April 2005 after Congress removed Lucio Gutiérrez amid escalating street protests precipitated by growing criticism of Gutiérrez's Supreme Court appointments.==== Presidency of Rafael Correa ====A presidential election was held on 15 October and 26 November 2006.Rafael Correa defeated Álvaro Noboa in a run-off election, or second and final round.", "Correa won with 56.8% of the vote.", "There was an attempted coup against President Rafael Correa in 2010.", "''The Economist'' described Correa as \"a left-wing populist\", while ''The Washington Post'' has characterized Correa's ideological approach as being \"economically populist, socially conservative, and quasi-authoritarian\".Rafael Correa's three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by Lenín Moreno's four years as president (2017–21).==== Current officeholders ====The 11 April 2021 election run-off vote ended in a win for conservative former banker, Guillermo Lasso, taking 52.4% of the vote compared to 47.6% of left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, supported by exiled former president, Rafael Correa.", "Previously, President-elect Lasso finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections.", "On 24 May 2021, Guillermo Lasso was sworn in as the new President of Ecuador, becoming the country's first right-wing leader in 14 years.On 15 October 2023, center-right candidate Daniel Noboa won the run-off of the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González.", "On 23 November 2023, Daniel Noboa was sworn in as Ecuador’s new president.", "President of Ecuador 2017–2021, Lenín MorenoPresidentGuillermo LassoCreating Opportunities24 May 2021Vice PresidentAlfredo BorreroCreating Opportunities24 May 2021" ], [ "Legislative branch", "National AssemblyEcuador has a unicameral National Assembly (''Asamblea Nacional'' in Spanish), and it has 137 primary (seat-holding) members (all of whom are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms).", "It is based on provincial constituencies, but it also has members coming from a national list and it has members representing the emigrant community.===History===On 29 November 2007, the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly dismissed Congress on charges of corruption and then assumed legislative powers for itself.", "The Constituent Assembly then proposed a new National Assembly, which is the current institution." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces: Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Esmeraldas, Galápagos Islands, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Ríos, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Pichincha, Santa Elena, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Sucumbíos, Tungurahua, Zamora-ChinchipeSanta Elena Province." ], [ "Legal system", "Ecuador's legal system is based on the civil law system.", "Ecuador recently accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction." ], [ "Female representation in the Assembly", "In 1979, there was no female representation.", "By 1984, there was only 4.2% of female representation with three deputies.", "In 1986, the number was reduced to one female parliamentarian.Between 1988 and 1996, the average percentage of female representation was around of 5%.", "The following trends occurred:* 1998: 13%* 2003: 18%* 2006: 26%* 2007: 35%* 2009: 29%* 2013: 42%In 2017, the leadership was led by three women: Gabriela Rivadeneira (President), Rosana Alvarado (First Vice-President) and Marcela Aguiñaga (Second Vice-President)." ], [ "International organization participation", "Ecuador or Ecuadorian organizations participate in the following international organizations:* Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)* Andean Community of Nations (CAN)* Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)* Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)* Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)* Group of Eleven (G-11), Group of 77 (G-77)* Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)* International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)* International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)* International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)* International Criminal Court (ICC)* International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)* International Red Cross* International Development Association (IDA)* International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)* International Finance Corporation (IFC)* International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)* International Labour Organization (ILO)* IMF* International Maritime Organization (IMO)* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat)* Interpol* IOC* International Organization for Migration (IOM)* International Organization for Standardization (ISO)* International Telecommunication Union (ITU)* International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)* Latin American Economic System (LAES)* Latin American Integration Association (LAIA)* Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)* OAS* Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL)* Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)* Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), RG* UNASUR (headquarters)* United Nations* United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)* United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)* United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)* Universal Postal Union (UPU)* World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)* World Health Organization (WHO)* World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)* World Meteorological Organization (WMO)* World Tourism Organization (WToO)* World Trade Organization (WTO)" ], [ "See also", "* Frente Único de Lucha Campesina (1978)* List of heads of state of Ecuador* 1830 Constitution of Ecuador* 2008 Constitution of Ecuador" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* National Assembly of Ecuador* Presidency of Ecuador* Supreme Court of Justice* Global Integrity Report: Ecuador has analysis of corruption and anti-corruption in Ecuador" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Ecuador''' is the eighth largest in Latin America and the 69th largest in the world by total GDP.", "Ecuador's economy is based on the export of oil, bananas, shrimp, gold, other primary agricultural products and money transfers from Ecuadorian emigrants employed abroad.", "In 2017, remittances constituted 2.7% of Ecuador's GDP.", "The total trade amounted to 42% of the Ecuador's GDP in 2017.The country is substantially dependent on its petroleum resources.", "In 2017, oil accounted for about one-third of public-sector revenue and 32% of export earnings.", "When Ecuador was part of OPEC, it was one of the smallest members and produced about 531,300 barrels per day of petroleum in 2017.It is the world's largest exporter of bananas ($3.38 billion in 2017) and a major exporter of shrimp ($3.06 billion in 2017).", "Exports of non-traditional products such as cut flowers ($846 million in 2017) and canned fish ($1.18 billion in 2017) have grown in recent years.In the past, Ecuador's economy depended largely on primary industries like agriculture, petroleum, and aquaculture.", "As a result of shifts in global market trends and development of technology, the country has experienced economic development in other sectors, such as textiles, processed food, metallurgy and the service sectors.", "Between 2006 and 2014, GDP growth averaged 4.3%, driven by high oil prices and external financing.", "From 2015 until 2018, GDP growth averaged just 0.6%.", "Ecuador's ex-president, Lenín Moreno, launched a radical transformation of Ecuador's economy after taking office in May 2017.The aim was to increase the private sector's weight, in particular the oil industry." ], [ "Agriculture", "Ecuador is one of the 10 largest producers in the world of banana, cocoa and palm oil.", "In 2018, the country produced 7.5 million tons of sugarcane, 6.5 million tons of banana (6th largest producer in the world), 2.7 million tons of palm oil (6th largest producer in the world), 1.3 million tons of maize, 1.3 million tons of rice, 269 thousand tons of potato, 235 thousand tons of cocoa (7th largest producer in the world), 149 thousand tons of pineapple, 103 thousand tons of orange, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products." ], [ "Mining", "In 2019, the country had an annual production of about 1 ton of antimony (14th largest producer in the world).In 2006, Ecuador had an annual production of about 5.3 tonnes of gold, being the 34th largest producer in the world at the time.", "Ecuador produced 8.6 tons of gold in 2013, which was the absolute record between 2006 and 2017.In 2017, production was 7.3 tons.In terms of silver production, Ecuador produced 1 ton in 2017, which is the country's usual average.In 2019, in the north of Ecuador, a large deposit of gold, silver and copper was discovered." ], [ "Industries", "Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance.", "Since the late '60s, the exploitation of oil increased production and reserves are estimated at 4.036 million barrelsIn the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (the largest exporter of bananas in the world), cut flowers, cacao, coffee, shrimp, wood, and fish.", "It is also significant in shrimp production, sugar cane, rice, cotton, corn, palm and coffee.", "The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves.", "Pines and cedars are planted in the region of the Sierra, walnuts and rosemary, and balsa wood, on Guayas River Basin.Ecuador's tobacco is prized in the cigar industry due to the prolonged cloud cover and rich volcanic soil creating ideal growing conditions, especially for shade tobacco and Ecuadorian Sumatra Tobacco cigar wrapper leaves; exports topped $70M in 2018.The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably.", "This city is also the largest business center of the country.", "Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market.", "Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially.", "These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more.", "Minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca.The dairy industry is represented by companies such as Tonicorp, which is owned by the Coca Cola Company." ], [ "Sciences and research", "EXA's first satellite, NEE-01 PegasusEcuador was placed in 96th position of innovation in technology in a 2013 World Economic Forum study.", "Ecuador was ranked 91st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 up from 99th in 2020.The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito.", "Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Labandera, a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar (1898–1950), a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas (1880–1961), a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy.The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering.", "Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology.", "The antivirus program ''Checkprogram'', banking protection system ''MdLock'', and Core Banking Software ''Cobis'' are products of Ecuadorian development.The scientific production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics, statistics, and partial differential equations in mathematics.", "In the case of engineering fields, the majority of scientific production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions: Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral – ''ESPOL'', Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas – ''ESPE'', and Escuela Politécnica Nacional ''EPN''.", "The Center for Research and Technology Development in Ecuador is an autonomous center for research and technology development funded by Senecyt.However, according to ''Nature'', the multidisciplinary scientific journal, the top 10 institutions that carry the most outstanding scientific contributions are: Yachay Tech University (''Yachay Tech''), Escuela Politécnica Nacional (''EPN)'', and Universidad San Francisco de Quito ''(USFQ)''." ], [ "Trade", "The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost 390 million dollars for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about 425 million compared to 2006.This circumstance was due to the fact that imports grew faster than exports.", "The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative amounting to 2.842 million dollars..", "The trade balance was positive in 2019 and 2020 with 2.05 billion dollars and 6.4 billion dollars.", "In 2016, the trade balance was positive (608 million dollars) but negative in 2017 (-723 million dollars) and 2018 (1.41 billion dollars).", "The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia and Asia is negative.Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur.", "It also belongs to the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean (CAF) and other multilateral agencies.", "In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country.", "The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank, the National Finance Corporation, the Ecuadorian Housing Bank (BEV) and the Ecuadorian Educational Loans and Grants." ], [ "Economic history", "Deteriorating economic performance in 1997–98 culminated in a severe financial crisis in 1999.The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997–98, and international emerging market instability in 1997–98.These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in a 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2%, and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999.On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis.", "Subsequent protest led to the 2000 Ecuadorean coup d'état which saw Mahuad's removal from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency.US Dollar has been the only official currency of Ecuador since the year 2000.The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to convert to the dollar as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy, successfully completing the transition from sucres to dollars in 2001.Following the completion of a one-year stand-by program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in December 2001, Ecuador successfully negotiated a new $205 million stand-by agreement with the IMF in March 2003.Buoyed by higher oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000–01, with GDP rising 2.3% in 2000 and 5.4% in 2001.GDP growth leveled off to 2.7% in 2002.Inflation fell from an annual rate of 96.1% in 2000 to an annual rate of 37.7% in 2001; 12.6% for 2002.The completion of the second Transandean Oil Pipeline (OCP in Spanish) in 2003 enabled Ecuador to expand oil exports.", "The OCP will double Ecuador's oil transport capacity.Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% per year between 2000 and 2006.In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%.", "GDP doubled between 1999 and 2007, reaching 65,490 million dollars according to BCE.Inflation rate up to January 2008 was located about 1.14%, the highest recorded in the last year, according to Government.", "The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008, however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent.Between 2006 and 2009, the government increased spending on social welfare and education from 2.6% to 5.2% of its GDP.", "Starting in 2007, when its economy was surpassed by the economic crisis, Ecuador was subject to a number of economic policy reforms by the government that have helped steer the Ecuadorian economy to a sustained, substantial, and focused achievement of financial stability and consistent social policy.", "Such policies were expansionary fiscal policies, of access to housing finance, stimulus packs, and limiting the amount of money reserves banks could keep abroad.", "The Ecuadorian government has made huge investments in education and infrastructure throughout the nation, which have improved the lives of the poor.On December 12, 2008, President Rafael Correa announced that Ecuador would not pay $30.6m in interest to lenders of a $510m loan, claiming that they were monsters.", "In addition it claimed that $3.8bn in foreign debt negotiated by previous administrations was illegitimate because it was authorized without executive decree.", "At the time of the announcement, the country had $5.65bn in cash reserves.In 2009, economic growth declined to 0.6% during the global recession, accompanied by falling oil prices and a decline in remittances provided by Ecuadorians living and working abroad (a major source of external revenues).", "Showing signs of recovery in 2010, the economy rebounded and grew by 2.8%.", "After growth of 7.4% in 2011, Ecuador's growth averaged 4.5% from 2012 to 2014.Some observers have attributed the high growth to a public investment boom that was fueled by high oil prices and lending from China.", "According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, Ecuador was the third largest source of foreign oil to the western United States in 2014.However, in the middle of 2014 after the price of oil declined significantly, Ecuador's oil earnings fell.", "As a consequence, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) forecast that Ecuador's economy would contract slightly in 2015, although the economy ultimately grew by less than half a percent.", "President Correa's plans to begin extracting crude oil from the Ishpingo, Tambochoa, and Tiputini field in Yasuní National Park in the Amazon to provide an economic boost did not salvage the economy from going into recession.", "In 2016, Ecuador's gross domestic product contracted by 1.6%.Ecuador's economic slowdown in 2016 and the country's need for external finance were exacerbated by a deadly April 2016 earthquake.", "Ecuador's estimated $3 billion costs for reconstruction and humanitarian assistance for 720,000 people in the affected region remain a burden that the government and private sector have sought to address.", "In response, the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided more than $3 million in assistance, including provisions airlifted in for 50,000 people in the earthquake-prone region and assistance with water and sanitation systems in affected areas.", "A U.N. appeal by the Office of Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance sought to raise $73 million.", "However, as of July 2016, only one-fifth of this amount had been received from donor countries, including the United States.The Correa government increased a value-added tax and implemented a plan to further cut government expenditures after cutting capital expenditures by 30%.", "Despite President Correa's reluctance to ask for assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the IMF approved a request for $364 million in financial support under its Rapid Financing Instrument in early July 2016 for Ecuador.", "Additional loans from China and the World Bank to help ease the government's balance-of-payments needs were considered.Ecuador's access to global financial markets also had been limited by its 2008 default on $3.2 billion in debt to global lenders.", "Consequently, the Correa government turned to nontraditional allies, such as China, for external finance.", "From 2005 to 2014, Chinese banks provided almost $11 billion of financing to Ecuador.", "The Correa government also asked China for an additional $7.5 billion in financing in early 2015 as crude oil prices—the nation's biggest export—weakened further.", "China agreed to the financing request and began to disburse funding, including nearly $1 billion in May and June 2015.Ecuador successfully returned to the international capital market in June 2014 with a $2 billion bond issue followed by additional smaller bond issues in 2015.President Moreno later discovered loans made by China over the years currently require that Ecuador pay China back with almost 500 barrels of crude oil—or roughly three years of the country's oil production.", "According to press reports, some private sector analysts question whether Ecuador will be able to meet its debt obligations given two strains on the country's public finances: the slump in oil income due to the commodity's low price and the strong U.S. dollar, which, as a result of Ecuador's dollarized economy, makes the country's exports less globally competitive.Ecuador withdrew from efforts to develop a regional free trade agreement (FTA) between the United States and Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru in 2006.The United States subsequently signed bilateral FTAs with Peru and Colombia, but Ecuador showed no interest in pursuing an FTA with the United States.", "Following Venezuela's acceptance in 2012 to full membership in the South American customs union, Mercosur (Mercado Común del Sur or Common Market of the South), the leftist governments in Bolivia and Ecuador applied to move from observer status to full membership in the trade bloc originally composed of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.", "According to some observers, out of a concern for Ecuador's struggling non-oil exporters, Correa embraced a trade agreement with the European Union (EU) as part of the EU-Andean Community Association agreement that went into effect in January 2017.The International Monetary Fund approved an agreement with Ecuador in March 2019.This arrangement would provide support ($10 billion) for the Ecuadorian government's economic policies over three years (2018–2021 Prosperity Plan)." ], [ "Poverty and inequality", ", an estimated 9 million Ecuadorians have an economic occupation and about 1.01 million inhabitants are in unemployment condition.In 1998, 10% of the richest population had 42.5% of income, while 10% of the poor had only 0.6% of income.", "The rates of poverty were higher for populations of indigenous, afro-descendents, and rural sectors.", "During the same year, 7.6% of health spending went to the 20% of the poor, while 20% of the rich population received 38.1% of this expenditure.", "The extreme poverty rate has declined significantly between 1999 and 2010.In 2001 it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population.", "This is explained largely by emigration and economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction .", "Poverty rates were higher for indigenous peoples, Afro-descendants and rural areas, reaching 44% of the Native ancestry population." ], [ "Infrastructure development", "The industrial sector has had enormous difficulty to emerge significantly.", "The industrial sector's main problem is the deficit of energy, which the current government has tackled with the improvement of performance on existing hydro plants, and the creation of new ones.", "Such projects included negotiation of the Coca-Codo hydroplant.", "Incentives of financing, tributary incentives, tariffs, and others will be implemented, that is intended to benefit areas of tourism, food processing, renewable and alternative energy sources, bioenergies, pharmaceutical and chemical products, biochemical and environmental biomedecine, services, automotive metallurgical industry, footwear, and automotive parts and pieces, among others.", "A 500 kV transmission line increases national grid strength and electricity trade with Peru and Colombia." ], [ "Statistics", "=== Main economic indicators ===The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "Year GDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP) GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal) GDP per capita(in US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation rate(in Percent) Unemployment(in Percent) Government debt(in % of GDP) 1980 26.0 3,243.3 16.8 2,097.1 4.9% 13.0% n/a n/a 1981 29.6 3,585.7 17.2 2,087.4 3.9% 16.4% n/a n/a 1982 31.8 3,746.6 17.2 2,026.4 1.2% 16.3% n/a n/a 1983 32.1 3,681.4 15.1 1,732.5 -2.8% 48.4% n/a n/a 1984 34.7 3,868.7 16.1 1,794.7 4.2% 31.2% n/a n/a 1985 37.4 4,058.3 18.8 2,044.3 4.4% 28.0% n/a n/a 1986 39.3 4,159.7 13.8 1,461.9 3.1% 23.0% n/a n/a 1987 37.9 3,908.6 12.9 1,332.1 -6.0% 29.5% n/a n/a 1988 43.3 4,357.2 12.3 1,234.7 10.5% 58.2% 7.0% n/a 1989 45.2 4,431.5 12.0 1,182.5 0.3% 75.6% 7.9% n/a 1990 48.3 4,626.3 12.2 1,173.1 3.0% 48.5% 6.1% n/a 1991 52.4 4,913.6 13.7 1,286.6 5.1% 48.8% 8.5% n/a 1992 55.6 5,092.2 15.0 1,375.7 3.6% 54.3% 8.9% n/a 1993 58.0 5,203.9 17.5 1,572.8 2.0% 45.0% 8.3% n/a 1994 61.8 5,429.4 21.1 1,858.3 4.3% 27.4% 5.7% n/a 1995 64.5 5,561.6 23.0 1,980.4 2.3% 22.9% 5.5% n/a 1996 66.8 5,663.5 24.0 2,037.1 1.7% 24.4% 9.0% n/a 1997 70.9 5,916.2 27.0 2,253.2 4.3% 30.6% 7.8% n/a 1998 74.1 6,086.1 27.5 2,257.9 3.3% 36.1% 10.2% n/a 1999 71.5 5,794.1 19.7 1,598.8 -4.7% 52.2% 13.1% n/a 2000 74.0 5,902.0 18.3 1,461.8 1.1% 96.1% 7.6% n/a 2001 78.7 6,138.6 24.5 1,909.4 4.0% 37.7% 9.6% 60.3% 2002 83.2 6,351.4 28.5 2,180.4 4.1% 12.5% 7.8% 52.2% 2003 87.1 6,540.2 32.4 2,435.0 2.7% 7.9% 10.2% 45.1% 2004 96.8 7,142.6 36.6 2,700.1 8.2% 2.7% 7.2% 38.7% 2005 105.1 7,660.6 41.5 3,025.0 5.3% 2.2% 7.1% 34.7% 2006 113.1 8,101.1 46.8 3,351.5 4.4% 3.3% 6.7% 31.1% 2007 118.7 8,352.4 51.0 3,588.3 2.2% 2.3% 6.9% 28.5% 2008 128.7 8,892.4 61.8 4,267.5 6.4% 8.4% 6.0% 24.2% 2009 130.3 8,837.9 62.5 4,241.9 0.6% 5.2% 6.5% 18.6% 2010 136.5 9,090.6 69.6 4,633.2 3.5% 3.6% 5.0% 17.7% 2011 150.3 9,843.0 79.3 5,192.9 7.9% 4.5% 4.2% 16.8% 2012 159.6 10,280.3 87.9 5,664.9 5.6% 5.1% 4.1% 17.5% 2013 175.2 11,106.1 95.1 6,030.5 4.9% 2.7% 4.2% 20.0% 2014 186.8 11,657.9 101.7 6,347.0 3.8% 3.6% 3.8% 27.1% 2015 179.3 11,014.9 99.3 6,099.4 0.1% 4.0% 4.8% 33.8% 2016 182.0 11,009.2 99.9 6,046.3 -1.2% 1.7% 5.2% 43.2% 2017 195.0 11,623.7 104.3 6,216.6 2.4% 0.4% 4.6% 44.6% 2018 202.2 11,880.3 107.6 6,318.5 1.3% -0.2% 3.7% 49.1% 2019 205.9 11,923.0 108.1 6,260.6 0.0% 0.3% 3.8% 51.4% 2020 192.2 10,977.3 98.8 5,642.7 -7.8% -0.3% 5.3% 61.2% 2021 204.7 11,528.8 104.5 5,884.1 2.8% 0.0% 4.6% 61.0% 2022 217.7 12,091.6 110.0 6,107.6 3.5% 2.1% 4.2% 59.9% 2023 228.5 12,516.0 114.1 6,247.5 2.5% 1.8% 4.1% 57.9% 2024 239.8 12,951.5 118.5 6,400.0 2.6% 1.5% 3.9% 56.2% 2025 251.8 13,408.7 123.2 6,561.7 2.8% 1.3% 3.7% 52.9% 2026 264.1 13,868.4 128.1 6,727.4 2.8% 1.0% 3.7% 49.6%" ], [ "See also", "* Banking in Ecuador* Economy of South America* Economic history of Ecuador* Ecuador Census* China–Ecuador relations* Latin American economy* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Ecuador* Tariffs applied by Ecuador as provided by ITC's Access Map''', an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.", " Electricity grid map* Solar insolation maps" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Ecuador''' include telephone, radio, television, and the Internet.Ecuador's state regulatory agency is the National Telecommunications Council (CONATEL), which is part of the Telecommunications Ministry (MINTEL)." ], [ "Telephones", "* Fixed lines: 2.2 million lines, 56th in the world; 15 per 100 persons (2011).", "* Mobile cellular: 15.3 million subscribers, 55th in the world; 100 per 100 persons (2011).", "* International country code: 593.", "* Telephone system: General assessment: elementary fixed-line service, but increasingly sophisticated mobile-cellular network.", " Domestic: fixed-line services provided by multiple telecommunications operators; mobile-cellular use has surged.", "** International: landing points for the PAN-AM and South America-1 submarine cables that provide links to the west coast of South America, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and extending onward to Aruba and the US Virgin Islands in the Caribbean; satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).There are three cell phone providers in Ecuador: Claro (Telcel), Movistar, and CNT.", "Mobile networks are diverse and include GSM 850 MHz (largest) as well as CDMA (Bell South's old network before being acquired by Telefónica Spain which rebranded Movistar), TDMA63.CNT is the state owned firm and uses CDMA." ], [ "Radio and television", "Ecuador has multiple TV networks and many local channels, as well as more than 300 radio stations.", "Many TV and radio stations are privately owned.", "The government owns or controls 5 national TV stations and multiple radio stations.", "Radio and television broadcasters are required by law to give the government free air time to broadcast programs produced by the state (2007).===Radio===* Radio broadcast stations: AM 279, FM 530 (plus 349 repeaters), shortwave 25 (2006).", "* Radios: 5 million (2001).===Television===* Television broadcast stations: 323 (including repeaters) (2005).", "* Televisions: 2.5 million (2001)." ], [ "Internet", "* Internet hosts: 170,538 (2012).", "* Internet users: 5.3 million, 56th in the world (2012); 35.1% of the population, 119th in the world.", "* Fixed broadband: 825,732 subscribers, 59th in the world; 5.4 of population, 102nd in the world (2012).", "* Mobile broadband: 3.4 million subscribers, 48th in the world; 22.2% of population, 67th in the world (2012).", "* Internet country code: .ecThe government has an ongoing campaign to increase Internet access across the country, with a goal of extending Internet connectivity to 50 percent of households by 2015.Public Internet access centers, known as Infocentros, have been installed in 377 (48 percent) of Ecuador's 810 rural parishes, with a projection of 100 percent by 2014.Internet cafes are also becoming increasingly common.", "During the February 2013 elections for president and National Assembly, the Internet provided a real-time forum for candidates to launch proposals, solicit votes, discuss issues, and increase the scope of their publicity campaigns.Broadband (commonly used in urban zones) and satellite connections (often used in rural areas) are increasingly popular, eclipsing dial-up plans.", "According to industry estimates, between 33 and 66 percent of Internet users have broadband speeds between 2 and 3Mbit/s, at a cost of $20 to $25 per month.", "In May 2012, the Superintendent of Telecommunications indicated that the overall average speed of an Internet connection in Ecuador is 128kbit/s, although speeds are lower in rural areas.===Internet censorship and surveillance===* In its ''Freedom on the Net 2013'' report, Freedom House gives Ecuador a \"freedom on the net status\" of \"partly free\".There is no widespread blocking or filtering of websites in Ecuador and access to blogs and social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube is generally free and open.", "Diverse sources of national and international information are available via the Internet.", "Anonymous communication, encrypted communications, and the use of security tools is not prohibited.There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms.", "However, on 11 July 2012 the government passed a new telecommunications regulation, requiring that Internet service providers fulfill all information requests from the superintendent of telecommunications, allowing access to client addresses and information without a judicial order.Standard defamation laws apply to content posted online.", "Attempts to censor statements made in times of heightened political sensitivity have been reported, as have alleged instances of censorship via the overly broad application of copyright to content critical of the government.", "Lawsuits have been filed against digital news sites for comments critical of the government.", "To use the services provided by cybercafes, the national secretary of telecommunications, SENATEL, requires that users register with the following information: full name, phone number, passport number, voting certificate number, email address, and home address.Self-censorship of comments critical of the government is encouraged.", "In January 2013, for example, President Correa called for the National Secretary of Intelligence (SENAIN) to investigate two Twitter users who had published disparaging comments about him, an announcement which sent a warning to others not to post comments critical of the president.", "After receiving criticism from the government, news site La Hora indefinitely suspended the reader comments section on its website.", "At the president's request, the comments section was shut down completely.", "Print and digital news outlet El Comercio faced similar pressure related to its readers' comments and the comments section was ultimately disabled after President Correa sent a letter of complaint.", "While there are no official constraints on organizing protests over the Internet, warnings from the president stating that the act of protesting will be interpreted as \"an attempt to destabilize the government\" have undoubtedly discouraged some from organizing and participating in protests.Ecuador's new \"Organic Law on Communications\" was passed in June 2013.The law recognizes a right to communication.", "Media companies are required to collect and store user information.", "\"Media lynching\", which appears to extend to any accusation of corruption or investigation of a public official—even those that are supported with evidence, is prohibited.", "Websites bear \"ultimate responsibility\" for all content they host, including content authored by third parties.", "The law creates a new media regulator to prohibit the dissemination of \"unbalanced\" information and bans non-degreed journalists from publishing, effectively outlawing much investigative reporting and citizen journalism.", "Human rights organizations fear that the new law will stifle critical voices in the media, due to its vague wording, arbitrary sanctions, and the threat of civil and criminal penalties." ], [ "See also", "* ETAPA* Galápagos (radio show)* HCJB, \"The Voice of the Andes\" radio station" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transportation in Ecuador''' is the transport infrastructure networks in Ecuador and those connecting the country with other countries.", "Transportation in Ecuador include aviation, highways, pipelines, ports and harbors, railways and waterways.", "Apart from transporting passengers, the country is a relatively small exporter of fruits and vegetables such as banana, papayas and pineapples." ], [ "Aviation", "José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport ('''Guayaquil''')===National airlines===AviancaLATAM Airlines===Airports===359 (2006 est.", ")====Airports (paved)====''total:'' 98''over 3,047 m:'' 3''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 4''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 19''914 to 1,523 m:'' 29''under 914 m:'' 43====Airports (unpaved)====:''total:'' 261:''914 to 1,523 m:''33:''under 914 m:''228===Heliports===2 (2010)" ], [ "Highways", "''total:'' ''paved:'' ''unpaved:'' (2004 est.", ")The Sierra Region still plays an important role in transportation throughout the country.", "The Pan-American Highway crosses it from north to south.", "Ecuador has managed to update some roads into four-lane freeways:* Quito – Alpichacas.", "Length: 33 km.", "* Guayaquil ring-road.", "Length: 46 km.", "* Guayaquil – Taura.", "Length: 30 km.", "* Guayaquil – Cerro Blanco.", "Length: 27 km.", "* Machala – Pasaje.", "Length: 23 km.===Bus transport===Bus transport in Ecuador" ], [ "Pipelines", " crude oil 800 km* petroleum products 1,358 km" ], [ "Ports and harbors", "=== Pacific Ocean ===* Esmeraldas* Guayaquil, La Libertad* Manta* Puerto Bolívar* San Lorenzo===Merchant marine===* total: 31 ships ( or over) totaling /ships by type: (2006 est.", ")* Chemical tanker 1 gas carrying tanker 1 Passenger ships 7 Petroleum tankers 21 Specialized tanker 1Foreign-owned: 2* Norway 1** Paraguay 1* Registered in other countries 1** Georgia 1" ], [ "Railways", "Railways in Ecuador ━━━ Routes with passenger traffic━━━ Routes in usable state·········· Unusable or dismantled routes''Total:''812 km (single track)''Narrow gauge:''812 km of gauge.All services ceased in 2020.=== Proposals ===There is a proposed rail connection with Colombia.", "On 5 July 2008, a meeting took place between Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador regarding a railway for freight and passengers to link the three countries, and linking the Pacific with the Atlantic also.", "There is no railway service to Peru.=== Metro services ===In 2020, the Cuenca Tramway (Tranvía Cuenca), the first modern rail transit line in Ecuador, opened for service.The Quito Metro initiated its commercial operations on 1 December 2023." ], [ "Waterways" ], [ "References", "* Useful tips and articles about transportation in Ecuador" ], [ "See also" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ecuadorian Armed Forces''' () is the national military force of Ecuador.", "The commander-in-chief is the President of Ecuador.", "The military is generally under civilian control, specifically the Ministry of National Defence.", "The Ecuadorian military of Ecuador has been involved in border disputes with Peru (Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860), Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, Paquisha War, Cenepa War), and has provided military observers and troops to the United Nations since 1948." ], [ "Mission", "Ecuadorian Army soldier participates at a UN exerciseThe armed forces are part of the public forces and have the stated mission of the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory.", "It also involves participation in the social and economic development of the country and the provision of assistance in the maintenance of internal order.", "Tasks include fighting organised crime, anti-narcotic operations and illegal immigration.", "One social development programme applies the provision of teachers for rural schools through an accord with the Ministry of Education.", "Environmental protection is also a priority, several programmes were implemented: National Forestation and Ornamentation, Lonely Tree, Green Surveillance, Fire Plan, Ecuador Forest, and Arenillas Military Reserve.", "The Ecuadorian territory is divided into five Joint Task Force Zones or ''Fuerzas de Tarea Conjunta'', four on mainland Ecuador, the fifth being the Naval Zone (including the Galápagos Islands).", "Overseas territories include also the Pedro Vicente Maldonado Naval Biological Research Station in the Antarctic." ], [ "Geopolitical situation", "Ecuador shares a border with Peru.", "Although marked by many conflicts, relations have improved since the signing of a renewed Peace Treaty in 1998.However, along the -long border with its neighbour Colombia, relations have been strained mainly due to a cross-border raid by Colombian forces on FARC guerrillas.", "The Armed Forces had logistical shortcomings and were caught off-guard.", "Their radar did not work, aviation was virtually non-existent, and communications were not fully operational.", "A diplomatic crisis followed in 2008 which some attribute partially to the need for better equipment as well as a new national defence doctrine.The new administration at the Defence Ministry launched a deep restructuring program under the name of PATRIA I.", "It involves the modernisation of military equipment, improvement of planning, and operations within the Ecuadorian territory.", "PATRIA I was planned to be completed by 2011.In 2009, the spending budget was increased by 25% and totaled $920 million." ], [ "History", "Map of the long-lasting territorial dispute between Ecuador and Peru, settled only in 1998.", "(in Spanish)Ecuador's military history dates far back to its first attempt to secure freedom from Spain in 1811.In 1822 Ecuadorian troops, alongside other rebel forces, scored a decisive victory over the Spanish royalist army at the Battle of Pichincha.", "Although assisted by Peruvian troops, it would fight these only a few years later in 1828, as a member of the Confederation of Gran Colombia.", "The troops of Gran Colombia (Less than half of its troops were Ecuadorians), is defeated in the Battle of Punta Malpelo and the combat of crosses, where the Peruvian navy blocks Guayaquil.", "Then the great Colombians in the land field defeat a division of Peruvian outpost, in the battle of Tarqui.", "This battle does not define war after the signing of the Giron agreement where it is indicated that it remains in a status quo before bellum.", "Eventually, Civil War would plunge the country and the army into disorder.", "In 1941 the Ecuadorian Military found itself weak and disorganized; the by now long-lasting territorial dispute with Peru escalated into a major conflict, the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941.A much larger and better equipped Peruvian force quickly overwhelmed the Ecuadorian forces, driving them back and invading the Ecuadorian territory.", "Ecuador had no choice but to accept Peru's territorial claims and signed Peace treaty in 1942.However, the treaty of 1942 failed to settle the border dispute and occasional clashes occurred in a then still non-demarcated border area between the nations.", "These clashes flared into another outbreak of serious fighting in January 1981 called the Paquisha War where Ecuadorian troops infiltrated into Peruvian territory are expelled by the Peruvian army; similar incidents occurred in 1983 and again in 1984.The last military conflict with Peru occurred in 1995, during the Cenepa War, in which both sides claimed to be fighting inside their own territory until the signing of a ceasefire and the eventual separation of forces.", "The longest-running source of armed international conflict in the Western Hemisphere had ended.===Local engagements===* Ecuadorian War of Independence in 1820* Battle of Pichincha in 1822* Gran Colombia–Peru War in 1829* Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)* Battle of Guayaquil in 1860* Ecuadorian-Colombian War in 1863* Chincha Islands War in 1864* Ecuadorian–Peruvian War in 1941* Paquisha War in 1981* Cenepa War in 1995* 2024 conflict in Ecuador in 2024===UN peacekeeping operations ===The Ecuadorian Armed Forces has provided military observers and troops to the United Nations since 1948.In November 2003, an Ecuadorian United Nations Training Centre was established under the name of: (''La Unidad Escuela de Misiones de Paz \"Ecuador\"'').", "In 2009, Ecuador was deploying over 90 peacekeepers around the globe.", "1948 UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in Pakistan.", "1948 UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India.", "1958 UNOGIL Peacekeeping mission in Lebanon.", "1961 ONUC Peacekeeping Force in Congo.", "1965 DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic.", "1990 ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America, Nicaragua.", "1991 ONUSAL United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador.", "1994 MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala.", "2003 UNMIL United Nations Observer Group in Liberia.", "2004 UNOCI Peacekeeping mission in Ivory Coast.", "2004 MINUSTAH, United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.", "2005 UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan.", "2007 UNMIN United Nations Mission in Nepal.", "2008 MINURCAT United Nations Mission in Chad.", "2008 MINURCAT Part of a Peacebuilding Commission in the Central African Republic.", "2010 UNAMID United Nations Mission and the African Union in Darfur." ], [ "Organization", "The armed forces of Ecuador are under the authority of the President of the Republic through the Ministry of Defence, coordinated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces." ], [ "Command structure", "'''The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces''' (''Comandante en Jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas'') is the President of the Republic.", "He exercises the political leadership of security and national defence and counts on the advice of the National Security Council.", "'''The National Security Council''' (''El Consejo de Seguridad Nacional'') or N.S.C.", "is the superior body responsible for the national defence, in charge of issuing the strategic concept of national security, which in turn constitutes the essential instrument to start the planning and decision-making process.", "It is chaired by the President of the Republic, which is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.", "It includes the Presidents of the National Congress and the Supreme Court of Justice; the ministers in charge of National Defence, Government and Police, Foreign Affairs, and Economy and Finance; the Chief of the Joint Command, and the Chiefs of the three branches of the Armed Forces.", "It monitors the fulfillment of the defence policies and the strategic plans elaborated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces, submitted by the Ministry of National Defence.", "The N.S.C.", "constitutes the highest ranking monitoring and crisis management body.", "'''The Ministry of Defense''' (''Ministerio de la Defensa National''), is the administrative body of the national defence.", "The Coordinating Minister of Internal and External Security accords the policies and actions that will be adopted by the following institutions as regards internal and external security: the Ministry of Government and Police, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defence, and the Secretariat General for the Public administration.", "'''The Joint Armed Forces Command''' (''El Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas''), is the highest planning, preparation and strategic body of military operations.", "It advises on national defence and is conformed by the Chief of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces and the Commanders of all three branches of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces: The Army, Navy and the Air Force." ], [ "Branches", "=== Joint Command ===rightThe command is in charge of the administration and coordination of the three military branches.", "The objectives of the command are to integrate the military branches with joint capabilities and interoperability, to address changes and new scenarios, which guarantee the peace, security, and well-being of the nation.Through military strategic guidelines and guidelines, in the innovation, updating, development and implementation of the generation of military technology, through strategic study in the development of military capabilities, verification of the optimal installed military capacity, implementation of military technological development, in order to promote military operational growth to be the effective and efficient decisive force.=== Army ===rightThe '''Ecuadorian Army''' (''Ejército Ecuatoriano'') is the land component of the Armed Forces.", "Its 25,650 soldiers are deployed in relation to its military doctrine.", "The contemporary Ecuadorian Army has a large component of jungle and special forces infantry units implemented within its structure.", "It operates around 236 tanks, 780 IFVs and 68 aircraft; their standard rifle is the Heckler & Koch HK33.Recently acquired material include:* 30 4x4 vehicles* 15 Hino trucks (donated by the USA)* 2 4x4 vehicles (donated by Venezuela)* 2 Mil Mi-17 helicopters* 107 Humvee=== Air Force === Seal of the Ecuadorian Air ForceThe present day '''Ecuadorian Air Force''' (''Fuerza Aérea Ecuatoriana'') saw combat action several times in 1981 and 1995 when it gained valuable experiences against the Peruvian Air Force.", "The FAE has a personnel strength of 6,200 and focuses mainly on border control but also focuses on the war on drugs, guerrilla insurgencies, and humanitarian missions.", "Since 2009 the FAE has been undergoing major changes and modernisation plans are ongoing whilst new projects are considered to bolster the country's defence capacities.", "Recent and ongoing orders include:* 18 Super Tucano light combat aircraft* 6 Mirage 5 (donated by Venezuela)* 12 Cheetah supersonic fighter aircraft* 8 HAL Dhruv helicopters from India* 3D LANZA Radar low altitude radars* 3 EADS CASA C-295 Tactical military transport aircraft.=== Navy ===Ecuadorian Navy insigniaThe present-day '''Ecuadorian Navy''' or (''Armada del Ecuador'') is a compact, efficient, and well-balanced force.", "However, limited funds hinder any major acquisitions and the chances of maintaining a strong force within the Pacific Ocean.", "Since the end of 2009, the Navy's structure became simplified.", "The Ecuadorian Naval Zone became one and measures, of the Pacific Coast and of the Pacific Ocean, (including the Galápagos Islands).", "Most sea-going assets are based at Guayaquil.", "The Navy focuses mainly on border control and illegal immigration.", "The Navy operates around 20 major vessels (including two submarines) and 25 aircraft.", "It has a personnel strength of 9,400.To increase its operational capabilities it recently acquired:* 2 Heron 1 unmanned aerial vehicles* 4 Searcher MK II unmanned aerial vehicles=== Cyber-Defense Operations Command ===It is a body responsible for the planning and execution of actions related to cyberdefense in networks and information and telecommunications systems or others that it may have entrusted to, as well as contributing to the appropriate response in cyberspace to threats or aggressions that may affect National Defense, guaranteeing and providing security to strategic entities that are managed by computer systems.He is prepared to counter cyberattacks, cyberwarfare and espionage to \"critical entities\" that could be attacked \"from anywhere in the world.\"" ], [ "Education", "The training of army, navy and air force officers is the function of the Eloy Alfaro Military Higher School, the Rafael Morán Valverde Naval Higher School and the Cosme Rennella Barbatto Military Higher School, respectively." ], [ "Equipment sources", "Historically, Ecuador depended on a wide variety of foreign suppliers for virtually all of its equipment needs.", "Only in the 1980s did it begin to develop a modest domestic arms industry as the Directorate of Army Industries manufactured rifle ammunition, uniforms, boots, and other items.In the 1960s and 1970s, France became a leading supplier and delivered AMX-13 tanks and various aircraft.", "Ecuador also purchased Type 209 submarines and Lürssen-Seawolf TNC 45 patrol boats from West Germany.", "Various types of infantry weapons were acquired from Belgium.Ecuador became a substantial customer for Israeli arms in the 1970s, purchasing Arava aircraft, Gabriel missiles for naval patrol craft, and Uzi submachine guns.", "Under technical assistance contracts, Israel serviced Israeli planes in the Ecuadorian Air Force inventory as well as Boeing civilian aircraft flown by TAME and ''Ecuatoriana Airlines''.", "Ecuador also reportedly employed Israeli security specialists as consultants in the fight against terrorism.", "In 1976 Ecuador became the first foreign country to order the Kfir, an advanced jet fighter equipped with the General Electric J-79 engine produced in Israel under license.", "The transaction, which required United States government approval because of the engine technology, was rejected by the administration of President Jimmy Carter in order to discourage the proliferation of sophisticated military equipment in the Third World.", "The action caused an uproar in Israel where the sale was regarded as an important breakthrough in Israel's efforts to develop international markets for the Kfir.", "In 1981, after the inauguration of President Ronald Reagan, Washington removed its objection to the sale.", "Although the contract called for the purchase of 12 Kfirs and an option to purchase an additional 12, Ecuador acquired only the original group, at a price estimated at US$196 million.Ecuador became a relatively heavy importer of arms in the late 1970s and early 1980s, averaging US$150 million annually and reaching a peak of US$280 million in 1982.These imports declined sharply to an average of US$50 million annually between 1985 and 1987, presumably as a result of a dramatic reduction in oil revenues and the precipitous drop in the value of the sucre, which made imported arms extremely expensive.", "Between 1983 and 1987, Ecuador imported an estimated US$460 million of arms, primarily from Italy, France, the United States, and Britain.", "In 1995, during the Cenepa War against Peru, Argentina gave to Ecuador 6,500 tons of rifles, cannons, anti-tank rockets, and ammunition in a controversial move.Recent times saw changes in Ecuador's foreign policy, as it decided to look for alternative weapon suppliers.", "These included its long-term allies Chile, which since 2008 has provided Leopard 1 tanks and s. Israel delivered its unmanned aerial vehicles in 2009, and Brazil supplied additional military vehicles and Super Tucano combat aircraft.", "Countries like Russia and China have delivered small quantities of military equipment in the past, but have gained importance in recent years.", "Since then, Chinese radars, anti-aircraft systems, and infantry weapons have been purchased.", "In 2009 two additional Mil Mi-17 helicopters have been ordered from Russia with further deals planned.", "India has delivered HAL Dhruv helicopters and South Africa is about to deliver 12 Atlas Cheetah supersonic aircraft.", "Ecuador's political ally, Venezuela, has donated military equipment including six Mirage 50 aircraft.In 2010, the U.S. embassy in Ecuador announced that it had delivered $1.2 million of donated military equipment to the Ecuadorian military.", "The donations were intended to support operations countering drug smuggling and guerilla activity along the Colombian border.", "Although the U.S. has refused to renew their lease on the Manta military airbase, deliveries included trucks, patrol boats, GPS, night vision, and M4 carbine rifles." ], [ "See also", "* History of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute* Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)* Military Governments of Ecuador (1960-1979)* 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis* Ecuadorian–Peruvian War* Military of Venezuela* Military of Colombia* Military of Peru" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site of the Ministry of Defence* Official site of the National Security Council* Official site of the Ecuadorian Army* Official site of the Ecuadorian Air Force* Official site of the Ecuadorian Navy* Official Ecuadorian Coast Guard site* Official site of the Ecuadorian Marines" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Ecuador" ], [ "Introduction", "This article describes the '''diplomatic affairs, foreign policy and international relations of Ecuador'''Ecuador is a founding member of the UN and a member of many of its specialized agencies; it is also a member of the Organization of American States (OAS), as well as many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and the Andean Pact.Ecuador's principal foreign-policy objectives have traditionally included defense of its territory from both external aggression and internal subversion as well as support for the objectives of the UN and the OAS.", "Although Ecuador's foreign relations were traditionally centered on the United States, Ecuador's membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1970s and 1980s allowed Ecuadorian leaders to exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy.", "Ecuador's foreign policy goals under the Borja government in the late 1980s were more diversified than those of the Febres Cordero administration, which closely identified with the United States.", "For example, Ecuador was more active in its relations with the Third World, multilateral organizations, Western Europe, and socialist countries.Ecuador has offered humanitarianian aid to many countries, is a supporter of the United Nations, and currently contributes troops to the UN mission in Haiti.", "Ecuador has also been an elective member of the UN Security Council.In Antarctica, Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study in the British-claimed territory and is a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty." ], [ "Domestic politics", "The presidency of Rafael Correa in the early 21st century saw a radical change in the country's foreign policy.", "Traditional ties with the United States grew more acrimonious and there were increased ties with the governments of Russia and Iran.", "The relations with the United States, however, improved significantly during the presidency of his successor Lenin Moreno since 2017.===List===List of countries which Ecuador maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate126 September 1831210 February 1832318 August 18354183651837616 February 18407June 184188 May 18429November 1844106 June 18481112 August 184812131877—18771415 December 18801526 October 18851618881718881829 March 1890196 May 18902018962131 May 19002227 March 1903231 September 1908241 June 19142526 August 1918265 August 19352722 October 19362816 June 19452928 August 19483015 September 19483114 November 1949321950334 July 19523410 January 19563524 April 19563618 June 1957378 November 196038March 1961395 October 1962405 February 19654122 April 1966425 July 1966439 November 19674412 November 1968 4519694623 January 19704728 April 1971 4819 July 19734910 September 19735010 February 1974512 July 1974523 February 1975 539 June 19755430 July 1975551975565 July 19765727 April 19785822 June 19785923 June 1978601 September 19786125 September 19786223 July 19796323 August 19796410 December 19796514 December 1979661 January 1980671 January 1980681 January 1980691 January 1980702 January 19807115 January 19807229 January 19807331 January 19807411 February 19807512 February 19807629 February 19807731 March 19807829 April 19807925 August 1980808 September 19808111 November 19808230 October 1982831982 841988851 August 19898619898712 July 19908823 August 1990896 December 19919020 October 19929121 October 19929222 October 1992931 January 19939427 April 1993955 May 19939629 June 19949722 September 19949823 September 19949922 February 19961007 May 19961013 December 199610210 December 1996 10318 April 199710420 May 199710511 June 199710617 June 199710726 January 199810828 January 199810914 October 199911020 October 199911122 June 200011226 June 200011319 March 20011145 April 200111513 May 20031163 October 200311711 December 200311822 March 200411921 June 20061204 June 200712127 June 2008—24 November 200812223 January 2009 12310 August 200912424 June 200912524 September 200912610 August 2010127Before 201012814 March 20111299 May 201113019 July 20111318 September 201113212 September 201113319 September 20111348 November 20111351 December 201113620 December 201113720 December 201113823 January 201213923 January 20121408 February 201214112 February 201314213 March 201314316 July 20131442 October 201314528 September 201414610 February 201514712 February 201514820 February 201514927 February 201515013 March 201515117 April 20151528 May 20151533 June 201515416 June 201515515 October 201515620 November 201515713 April 201615812 July 201615913 December 20161606 April 201716126 September 201816224 September 20191637 October 201916417 October 201916524 October 2022166Unknown167Unknown168Unknown169Unknown170Unknown171Unknown172Unknown173Unknown174Unknown175Unknown176Unknown177Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations B Notes Belgium* Belgium is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Brussels.October 14, 1999Both countries established diplomatic relations on October 14, 1999.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.See Chile–Ecuador relations.", "* Chile has an embassy in Quito.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Santiago.", "Czech Republic* Czech Republic is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru, and hold consulates in Quito and Guayaquil.", "Ecuador has an embassy in Prague.February 1, 1980See China–Ecuador relationsFormal relations started on 1980-01-02 and seven months later China set up its embassy in Ecuador.", "In July 1981, Ecuador set up its embassy in China.", "Sino-Ecuadorian relations have been advancing smoothly.", "The two sides maintain high-level political contacts and exchanges in trade, economic progress, science, technology, culture and education.", "In international affairs, the two countries understand and support each other.In September 2012, the two nations signed a Commercial and Security Agreement to allow Ecuador to sell easily seafood, cocoa and bananas in China, with the Chinese agreeing to ease tariffs on further food items.", "In the same period China established an $80 million line of credit for Ecuador with the EximBank to help Ecuador build a road to the re-sited Quito airport.See Colombia–Ecuador relationsEcuador's President Rafael Correa withdrew his government's ambassador in Bogotá, Colombia, and ordered troops to the country's border following a Colombian raid against leftist rebels inside Ecuador March 2, 2008.The Colombian director of national police claimed three captured computers from the deceased FARC rebel leader Raúl Reyes document \"tremendously revealing\" and \"very grave\" links between Ecuador and Colombian rebels.March 2, 2008.However, Colombia's actions were condemned across the board by all South American nations, with only the US supporting Colombia.", "For example, Brazil's foreign minister, Celso Amorim, condemned the Colombian incursion into Ecuador.Furthermore, he suggested that Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez recently gave the leftist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia $300 million.", "Ecuador's president Rafael Correa said March 3, 2008, that a deal to release political prisoners—including former Colombian Sen. Ingrid Betancourt—was nearly complete before the March 1, 2008, Colombian raid into his country.", "Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez on March 5, 2008, called the announced movement of Colombian forces in Ecuador a \"war crime,\" and joined Ecuador's president Rafael Correa in demanding international condemnation of the cross-border attack.", "The presidents of Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador March 7, 2008, signed a declaration to end a crisis sparked when Colombian troops killed a rebel leader and 21 others inside Ecuadoran territory (2008 Andean diplomatic crisis).", "In January 2021, Ecuadorian President Lenin Moreno and Colombian President Ivan Duque made a joint statement on the good relations of the two countries.", "Finland Finland is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "Ecuador has an embassy in Helsinki.See Ecuador–Germany relations Ecuador has an embassy in Germany.", "* Germany has an embassy in Quito.", "Greece* Greece is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "* Ecuador holds a consulate in Athens.July 2, 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on July 2, 1974.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.See Ecuador–India relationsOn November 16, 2008, the Foreign Minister of Ecuador Maria Isabel Salvador met her counterpart, Pranab Mukherjee, with a close relationship in oil and defence between these geographically distant countries high on the agenda.", "On the oil front, the new government in Ecuador has reversed the earlier revenue-sharing arrangements with western oil companies and is now keen on striking new partnerships with state-owned ONGC Videsh of India.In the defence sector, Ecuador became the first country to sign a contract for purchasing the Indian-made Dhruv helicopters, of which one will be for use by its president.", "The embassy has expanded its setup with the appointment of a Military Attache and prospects appear bright for more defence exports as Ecuador has agreed to be the servicing hub in South America for Indian defence equipment.See Ecuador–Iran relationsEcuador has maintained trade relations with Iran.", "In December 2008, Iran's Supreme National Security Council Secretary Saeed Jalili visited Ecuador.", "Alongside president Rafael Correa he called for greater \"South–South\" co-operation, a term denoting greater exchange of resources, technology, and knowledge between the global South.", "Iranian president Ahmadinejad also attended the inauguration of President Correa in January 2007.August 26, 1918See Ecuador–Japan relations* Ecuador has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Quito.See Ecuador–Malaysia relationsRelations with Malaysia covers on political, commercial, cultural and social activities.", "Both countries are the members of Non-Aligned Movement.", "Ecuador trade value with Malaysia are worth about US$15 million.June 1830See Ecuador–Mexico relations* Ecuador has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate in Monterrey.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Quito.", "Netherlands* The Netherlands are accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in The Hague, a consulate in Rotterdam, and a vice consulate in Amsterdam.2010Ecuador recognized the State of Palestine in 2010.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Asuncion.", "* Paraguay has an embassy in Quito.See Ecuador–Peru relationsThe Paquisha War was a brief military clash that took place between January and February 1981 between Ecuador and Peru over the control of three watchposts.", "Since the 1990s, Ecuadoran foreign policy has been focused on the country's border dispute with Peru, an issue that has festered since independence.", "The boundary dispute led to the Cenepa War between Ecuador and Peru in early 1995; after a peace agreement brokered by the four Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States), the Military Observers Mission to Ecuador-Peru (MOMEP) was set up to monitor the zone.In 1998, Presidents Jamil Mahuad of Ecuador and Alberto Fujimori of Peru signed a comprehensive settlement over control of the disputed zone.", "* Ecuador is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Poland is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "Romania* Romania is accredited to Ecuador from Lima, Peru, and has consulates in Quito and Guayaquil.See Ecuador–Russia relations* Ecuador has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Quito.", "Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic1983* Ecuador has an non-resident embassy in New York.", "* The SADR has an embassy in Quito.", "South Africa* Ecuador has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.1840See Ecuador–Spain relations* Ecuador has an embassy in Madrid and consulates-general in Alicante, Barcelona, Málaga, Murcia, Palma and Valencia.", "* Spain has an embassy in Quito and a consulate-general in Guayaquil.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has a consulate in Quito.", "Thailand* Thailand is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru, and holds a consulate general in Quito.", "Ecuador has an consulate in Bangkok.1950 See Ecuador–Turkey relations Ecuador has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Quito and a consulate in Guayaquil.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was US$117 million in 2019 (Ecuadorian exports/imports: 58/59 million USD.", "United Arab Emirates* The United Arab Emirates is accredited to Ecuador from its embassy in Lima, Peru.", "Ecuador has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.Relations between the United Kingdom and Ecuador were traditionally regarded as \"low-key but cordial\", especially before the election of Rafael Correa; the Prince of Wales and Duchess of Cornwall visited the country in 2009, as part of a tour celebrating the bicentenary of Charles Darwin.", "President Correa visited London in the same year, speaking mostly in English at the London School of Economics about the changes his government was making.In 2012, relations became strained when Julian Assange, founder of the WikiLeaks website, entered the Ecuadorian embassy in London and sought asylum.", "Assange had lost legal appeals against his extradition to Sweden where he was wanted for questioning about alleged sexual assault and rape, but while within the embassy he was on diplomatic territory and beyond the reach of the British police.", "The United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office delivered a note to the Ecuadorian government in Quito reminding them of the provisions of the Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987 which allow the British government to withdraw recognition of diplomatic protection from embassies; the move was interpreted as a hostile act by Ecuador, with Foreign Minister Ricardo Patiño stating that this \"explicit threat\" would be met with \"appropriate responses in accordance with international law\".", "Assange was granted diplomatic asylum on August 16, 2012, with Foreign Minister Patiño stating that Assange's fears of political persecution were \"legitimate\".", "Finally, President Lenín Moreno revoked Assange's asylum in April 2019.In reaction, the British Foreign Secretary, Jeremy Hunt, thanked Moreno for his cooperation to \"ensure Assange faces justice\".See Ecuador–United States relationsThe United States and Ecuador used to maintain close ties based on mutual interests in maintaining democratic institutions; combating cannabis and cocaine; building trade, investment, and financial ties; cooperating in fostering Ecuador's economic development; and participating in inter-American organizations.", "Ties were further strengthened by the presence of an estimated 150,000–200,000 Ecuadorians living in the United States and by 24,000 U.S. citizens visiting Ecuador annually, and by approximately 15,000 U.S. citizens residing in Ecuador.", "The United States assisted Ecuador's economic development directly through the Agency for International Development (USAID) program in Ecuador and through multilateral organizations such as the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Bank.", "In addition, the U.S. Peace Corps operates a sizable program in Ecuador.", "More than 100 U.S. companies are doing business in Ecuador.", "The relations deteriorated greatly during the presidency of Rafael Correa since 2007 until 2017.The relations, however, improved significantly during the presidency of Lenin Moreno since 2017.In February 2020, his visit to Washington was the first meeting between an Ecuadorian and U.S. president in 17 years.", " Ecuador has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and several consulates throughout the country.", "* United States has an embassy in Quito and a consulate in Guayaquil.See Ecuador–Uruguay relations* Ecuador has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Quito.See Ecuador–Venezuela relationsDiplomatic ties trace back to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.", "With the independence both countries united under the Gran Colombia along with New Granada (then Colombia and Panama).After the dissolution of the Gran Colombia, Ecuador named Don Pedro Gual as plenipotentiary minister with the main task of resolving the debt acquired while part of the Gran Colombia union as well as to establish diplomatic relations with the New Granada and Venezuela.", "On August 4, 1852, Venezuela sent a diplomatic delegation in Quito and named José Julián Ponce as finance administrator.The relations remained cordial and entered into a second period between 1910 and 1963 with two diplomatic incidents occurring in 1928 and 1955.Ecuador and Venezuela strengthened ties in politics, diplomacy and military.During the presidency of Lenin Moreno since 2017, Ecuador broke diplomatic relations with Venezuela.", "Ecuador did not any more recognize the regime of Nicholas Maduro.", "Instead, Ecuador recognized and supported opposition leader Juan Guaidó as Interim President of Venezuela.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Quito." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Ecuador* List of diplomatic missions of Ecuador" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "Egypt's locationThe '''geography of Egypt''' relates to two regions: North Africa and West Asia.Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile, and the Red Sea.", "Egypt borders Libya to the west, Israel to the east and Sudan to the south.", "Egypt has an area of which makes it the 29th largest country in the world.The longest straight-line distance in Egypt from north to south is , while that from east to west measures .", "Egypt has more than of coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Gulf of Aqaba.", "It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of ." ], [ "Governorates", "Egypt is divided into 28 governorates, which include two city-governortes: Alexandria (Alexandria Governorate) and Cairo (Cairo Governorate).", "There are nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region, ten of Upper Egypt along the Nile river south from Cairo to Aswan and five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile river." ], [ "Natural regions", "Egypt's topography.Egypt is predominantly desert.", "35,000 km2 – 3.5% – of the total land area is cultivated and permanently settled.", "Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches eastwards from Africa's Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia.Egypt's geological history has produced four major physical regions:* Nile Valley and Nile Delta* Western Desert (from the Nile west to the Libyan border) * Eastern Desert (extends from the Nile Valley all the way to the Red Sea coast)* Sinai PeninsulaEgypt is the eighth most water stressed country in the world.Despite covering only about 5% of the total area of Egypt; the Nile Valley and Nile Delta are the most important regions, being the country's only cultivable regions and supporting about 99% of the population.", "The Nile valley extends approximately 800 km from Aswan to the outskirts of Cairo.", "The Nile Valley is known as Upper Egypt, while the Nile Delta region is known as Lower Egypt.", "Steep rocky cliffs rise along the banks of the Nile in some stretches, while other areas along the Nile are flat, with space for agricultural production.", "In the past, flooding of the Nile during the summer provided silt and water to make agriculture possible on land that is otherwise very dry.", "Since the construction of the Aswan Dam, agriculture in the Nile valley depends on irrigation.", "The Nile delta consists of flat, low-lying areas.", "Some parts of the delta are marshy and water-logged, and thus not suitable for agriculture.", "Other areas of the delta are used for agriculture.===Nile Valley and Delta===Nile delta, and the entire course of the NileThe Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world's longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources.", "Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow across the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert.", "The length within Egypt of the River Nile in its northwards course from three central African sources – the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara – totals some 1,600 km.The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28% of the Nile's Egyptian waters.", "In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in South Sudan, the White Nile's channel drops more than 600 m. In its 1,600-km course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan's capital, the river descends just 75 m. In South Sudan, the White Nile passes through the Sudd, a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to the point of stagnation.The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides on average some 58% of the Nile's Egyptian waters.", "This river has a steeper gradient and therefore flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum.", "Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment.", "For several kilometers north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river, coming from the Blue Nile, is visibly muddy, while that closer to the western bank, and coming from the White Nile, is clearer.The much shorter Atbarah River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14% of the Nile's waters in Egypt.", "During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools.", "But, in late summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian Highlands, the Atbarah provides 22% of the Nile's flow.The Blue Nile has a similar pattern.", "It contributes 17% of the Nile's waters in the low-water season and 68% during the high-water season.", "In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10% of the Nile's waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80% during the low-water period.", "Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields.", "The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January.The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam.", "As a result of the dam's construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends southwards from the dam for 320 km to the border and for an additional 158 km within Sudan.", "Lake Nasser's waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow canyon between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries.Below Aswan, the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty km.", "North of Isna (160 km north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises to as much as 550 m above sea level; at Qina (some 90 km north of Isna) the 300-m limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course towards the southwest for about 60 km before it turns northwest for about 160 km to Asyut.", "Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of 22 km.At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary, subsequently filled by silt deposits to form what is now a fertile, fan-shaped delta some 250 km wide at its seaward extremity and extending about 160 km from north to south.", "The Nile Delta covers approximately 22,000 km2 (roughly equivalent in area to that of Massachusetts).", "According to historical accounts from the first century AD, seven branches of the Nile once ran through the delta.", "According to later accounts, the Nile had, by around the twelfth century, just six branches.Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also known as Dumyat; 240 km long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 km long).", "Both outlets are named after the ports located at their respective mouths.", "A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets.", "In the north, near the coast, the Nile delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes, the most notable among which are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah.The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depend largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters.", "Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe.", "The timing and amount of annual flow were always unpredictable.", "Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion m3 and as high as 4.25 billion m3 have been recorded.", "For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of these flows and thereby moderate the severity of floods.The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch.", "Lake Nasser, the world's largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa.", "The dams have also affected the Nile Valley's fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water.Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago.", "The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley amounted to some nine metres.", "Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year.Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, now retained in Lake Nasser.", "The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river's banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.===Western Desert===The Western Desert covers an area of some 700,000 km2, thereby accounting for around two-thirds of Egypt's total land area.", "This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to the Sudanese border.", "The desert's Jilf al Kabir Plateau, at a mean altitude of some 1000 m, constitutes an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau.", "The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert's plain and extends from the Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir.", "Escarpments (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area.The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south.", "There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty.", "The Qattara Depression, which includes the country's lowest point, encompasses , which is similar to the size of Lake Ontario.", "It is largely below sea level and is below sea level at the lowest.", "Badlands, salt marshes and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression.Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater.", "The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times.", "The Siwa's cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years.", "Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era.The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Faiyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahariya, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country's largest oasis, Kharijah.", "A brackish lake, Birket Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times.", "For centuries sweet water artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over .===Eastern Desert===A large plume of Saharan Desert dust (light brownish pixels) blown across Libya and Egypt northward over the Mediterranean Sea toward the Middle East, on February 2, 2003.The topographic features of the desert region east of the Nile differ from those to the west of the Nile.", "The Eastern Desert is relatively mountainous.", "The elevation rises abruptly from the Nile, and a downward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 km to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta.", "The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 m.The region's most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea.", "This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall.", "It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile.", "The desert environment extends all the way to the Red Sea coast.===Sinai Peninsula===Mount Catherine in Sinai, Egypt's highest point.The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular-shaped peninsula, about 61,100 km2 in area slightly smaller than Latvia (64 573 km2).", "Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point, at 2,642 m above sea-level.", "The Red Sea may have been named after these mountains, which are red.The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba.", "The elevation of Sinai's southern rim is about 1,000 m. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases.", "The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel.Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula.", "By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates.", "North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in El Tor.The abundance of life in the Sinai Peninsula may not be immediately apparent.", "This again has its roots in the way in which the animals of the desert have adapted to life here.", "Many species, mammals especially, but also reptiles and even birds such as owls, are nocturnal.", "They spend the daylight hours in the relative cool of burrows, under boulders or in crevices and cracks in the rock.", "Many of these creatures will only be apparent from their tracks and trails or from a fleeting glimpse of a diminutive gerbil, or zig-zigging hare, in the car headlights at night.", "Even those animals that do brave the heat of the day are normally only active in the early morning or evening." ], [ "Urban and rural areas", "In the 1971 census, 57 percent of Egypt's population was counted as rural, including those residing in agricultural areas in the Nile Valley and Delta, as well as the much smaller number of persons living in desert areas.", "Rural areas differ from the urban in terms of poverty, fertility rates, and other social factors.", "Agriculture is a key component of the economy in rural areas, though some people are employed in the tourist industry or other non-farm occupations.", "In 1992, the percentage of Egypt's population employed in agriculture was 33 percent.", "The agricultural industry is dependent on irrigation from the Nile river." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Egypt, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point – unnamed headland immediately north-west of Sidi Barrani, Matruh Governorate* Easternmost point – Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba), Red Sea Governorate Southernmost point – Jabal Bartazuga on the Sudanese border, Red Sea Governorate * Westernmost point – unnamed point on the border with Libya immediately east of the ruin of Qasr al Qarn in Libya, Matruh Governorate* ''* Ras Hadarba lies within the Hala'ib triangle which is claimed by Sudan but occupied by Egypt.", "If it is excluded, then Egypt's easternmost point is the Ras Banas peninsula on the mainland or, including islands, Mukawwa Island''* '' Egypt's southernmost point lies in the Bir Tawil region, an area that is commonly included as part of Egypt but is not claimed by it.", "If this area is excluded then Egypt has no southernmost point, its southern border being formed by the 22nd parallel north.''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "2010 population densityEgypt is the most populous country in the Middle East, and the fourth-most populous on the African continent, after Nigeria, Ethiopia and Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "About 95% of the country's 104 million people (July 2023) live along the banks of the Nile and in the Nile Delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the Suez Canal.", "These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 1,540 people per km2, as compared to 96 persons per km2 for the country as a whole.Small communities spread throughout the desert regions of Egypt are clustered around historic trade and transportation routes.", "The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly irrigated land reclaimed from the desert.", "However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the megacities in search of employment and a higher standard of living.According to the Peterson Institute for International Economics and other proponents of demographic structural approach (cliodynamics), the basic problem Egypt has is an unemployment rate driven by a demographic youth bulge: with the number of new people entering the job force at about 4% a year, unemployment in Egypt is almost 10 times as high for college graduates as it is for people who have gone through elementary school, particularly educated urban youth, who comprised most of the people that were seen out in the streets during the Egyptian revolution of 2011.An estimated 51.2% of Egyptians are under the age of 25, with just 4.3% over the age of 65, making it one of the most youthful populations in the world." ], [ "Population size and distribution", "Egypt has a population of 109,500,000 (2023).", "According to the OECD/World Bank statistics population growth in Egypt from 1990 to 2008 was 23.7 million and 41%.===History===Historical population growth in Egypt; data from Our World in Data===Age distribution===Data taken from Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics.", "Percentage distribution of population in censuses by age groupAge group2006199619861976 0–4 10.6 11.6 15.3 13.9 5–9 10.5 12.9 13.2 12.8 10–14 10.6 13.3 11.6 13.4 15–19 11.8 11.6 10.6 10.9 20–24 10.8 8.6 8.9 8.4 25–29 8.8 7.4 7.7 7.3 30–34 6.5 6.7 6.4 5.8 35–39 6.4 6.5 6.1 5.6 40–44 5.6 5.3 4.4 5.1 45–49 5.1 4.5 4.0 4.2 50–54 4.2 3.4 3.5 4.0 55–59 3.1 2.5 2.6 2.4 60–64 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.7 65–69 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.4 70–74 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.2 75+ 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.0\tPopulation estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2010):Age groupMaleFemale%Total 0–4 4,282 4,072 10.6 8,354 5–9 4,265 4,007 10.5 8,272 10–14 4,330 4,023 10.6 8,353 15–19 4,738 4,501 11.7 9,239 20–24 4,358 4,155 10.8 8,513 25–29 3,412 3,498 8.8 6,910 30–34 2,614 2,503 6.5 5,117 35–39 2,498 2,536 6.4 5,034 40–44 2,237 2,186 5.6 4,423 45–49 2,029 1,942 5.0 3,971 50–54 1,668 1,640 4.2 3,308 55–59 1,312 1,136 3.1 2,448 60–64 971 871 2.3 1 842 65–69 693 597 1.6 1 290 70–74 435 419 1.1 854 75+ 408 392 1.0 800 '''Total''' '''40,250''' '''38,478''' '''100''' '''78,728'''\tPopulation estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2012):Age groupMaleFemale%Total 0–4 4,780 4,410 11.17 9,190 5–9 4,534 4,192 10.60 8,726 10–14 3,970 3,706 9.33 7,676 15–19 3,970 3,746 9.37 7,710 20–24 4,236 4,024 10.04 8,260 25–29 4,084 3,924 9.73 8,008 30–34 3,346 3,249 8.01 6,595 35–39 2,589 2,524 6.21 5,113 40–44 2,262 2,206 5.43 4,468 45–49 2,077 2,037 5.00 4,114 50–54 1,821 1,798 4.40 3,619 55–59 1,494 1,480 3.61 2,974 60–64 1,105 1,113 2.69 2,218 65–69 767 785 1.89 1,552 70–74 501 517 1.24 1,018 75+ 522 536 1.29 1,058 '''Total''' '''42,058''' '''40,247''' '''100''' '''82,305'''Population estimates by sex and age group (1 January 2013):Age groupMaleFemale%Total 0–4 4,861 4,481 11.17 9,342 5–9 4,610 4,259 10.60 8,869 10–14 4,038 3,765 9.33 7,803 15–19 4,038 3,805 9.37 7,843 20–24 4,309 4,089 10.04 8,398 25–29 4,152 3,987 9.73 8,139 30–34 3,403 3,300 8.01 6,703 35–39 2,633 2,564 6.21 5,197 40–44 2,300 2,241 5.43 4,541 45–49 2,113 2,069 5.00 4,182 50–54 1,852 1,827 4.40 3,679 55–59 1,519 1,504 3.61 3,023 60–64 1,124 1,130 2.69 2,254 65–69 781 797 1.89 1,578 70–74 510 525 1.24 1,035 75–79 291 303 0.71 594 80+ 239 242 0.57 481 '''Total''' '''42,773''' '''40,888''' '''100''' '''83,661'''\tPopulation estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2013):Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% 0–4 4 910 594 4 538 740 9 449 334 11,17 5–9 4 657 900 4 313 848 8 971 748 10,60 10–14 4 079 894 3 812 951 7 892 845 9,33 15–19 4 079 894 3 853 840 7 933 634 9,37 20–24 4 353 289 4 140 279 8 493 568 10,04 25–29 4 195 561 4 037 843 8 233 404 9,73 30–34 3 438 467 3 342 721 6 781 188 8,01 35–39 2 660 343 2 596 487 5 256 830 6,21 40–44 2 323 857 2 269 370 4 593 227 5,43 45–49 2 134 584 2 095 590 4 230 173 5,00 50–54 1 871 704 1 850 252 3 721 956 4,40 55–59 1 535 218 1 523 136 3 058 354 3,61 60–64 1 135 641 1 144 907 2 280 548 2,69 65–69 788 639 807 569 1 596 208 1,89 70–74 515 244 531 564 1 046 809 1,24 75–79 294 425 306 672 601 097 0,71 80+ 241 849 246 108 487 957 0,58 '''Total''' '''43 217 105''' '''41 411 877''' '''84 628 982''' '''100'''Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 13 648 388 12 665 539 26 313 927 31,09 15–64 27 728 560 26 854 425 54 582 985 64,50 65+ 1 840 157 1 891 913 3 732 070 4,41\tPopulation estimates by sex and age group (1 July 2014) in thousands:Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% 0–4 5 102 4 728 9 830 11,3 5–9 4 729 4 398 9 127 10,5 10–14 4 225 3 959 8 184 9,4 15–19 4 312 4 077 8 389 9,7 20–24 4 565 4 365 8 930 10,4 25–29 4 280 4 119 8 399 9,7 30–34 3 413 3 319 6 732 7,8 35–39 2 678 2 604 5 282 6,1 40–44 2 391 2 349 4 740 5,5 45–49 2 194 2 156 4 350 5,0 50–54 1 898 1 877 3 775 4,3 55–59 1 547 1 536 3 083 3,6 60–64 1 130 1 131 2 261 2,6 65–69 789 801 1 590 1,8 70–74 515 535 1 050 1,2 75+ 537 555 1 092 1,3 '''Total''' '''44 305''' '''42 509''' '''86 814''' '''100'''Age group Sex ratioMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 107.4 14 056 13 085 27 141 31,26 15–39 104.1 19 248 18 484 37 732 43,46 40–64 101.2 9 160 9 049 18 209 20,97 65+ 97.4 1 841 1 891 3 732 4,30\tHousehold population by age and sex (DHS 2014).Total population in thousands: 114 428 (Males 56 926, Females 57 501)Age GroupMale (%)Female (%)Total (%) 0–4 14,1 12,6 13,4 5–9 12,1 11,1 11,6 10–14 10,7 9,9 10,3 15–19 9,1 9,0 9,1 20–24 7,8 8,6 8,2 25–29 8,2 9,4 8,8 30–34 7,0 7,7 7,3 35–39 5,9 6,2 6,0 40–44 4,8 5,1 4,9 45–49 4,7 4,7 4,7 50–54 4,2 4,5 4,4 55–59 3,4 3,7 3,5 60–64 3,4 3,3 3,4 65–69 2,0 1,9 1,9 70–74 1,4 1,3 1,3 75–79 0,6 0,5 0,5 80+ 0,5 0,6 0,6Age group Male (%)Female (%)Total (%) 0–14 36,9 33,6 35,3 15–64 58,6 62,1 60,4 65+ 4,5 4,3 4,3Population estimates by sex and age group (1 January 2015):Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% 0–4 5 168 230 4 791 812 9 960 042 11,3 5–9 4 790 338 4 456 493 9 246 831 10,5 10–14 4 279 072 4 013 008 8 292 080 9,4 15–19 4 367 988 4 131 991 8 499 979 9,7 20–24 4 623 621 4 424 043 9 047 664 10,3 25–29 4 334 645 4 175 258 8 509 903 9,7 30–34 3 456 601 3 364 004 6 820 605 7,8 35–39 2 711 932 2 639 282 5 351 214 6,1 40–44 2 422 954 2 379 682 4 802 636 5,5 45–49 2 222 893 2 184 980 4 407 873 5,0 50–54 1 922 803 1 903 745 3 826 548 4,4 55–59 1 567 139 1 557 610 3 124 749 3,6 60–64 1 144 789 1 146 574 2 291 363 2,6 65–69 800 241 811 254 1 611 495 1,8 70–74 522 379 540 837 1 063 216 1,2 75+ 544 608 562 470 1 107 078 1,3 '''Total''' '''44 880 233''' '''43 083 043 ''' '''87 963 276''' '''100'''Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 14 237 640 13 261 313 27 498 953 31,26 15–64 28 775 365 27 907 169 56 682 534 64,44 65+ 1 867 228 1 914 561 3 781 789 4,30'''Historical and present population distribution:'''Age group1 January 20151 July 20131 January 20131 July 20121 July 20102006199619861976 0–14 31.26 (27,498,953) 31.09 (26,313,927) 31.1 (26,014,000) 31.1 (25,592,000) 31.7 (24,979,000) 31.7 37.8 40.1 40 15–64 64.44 (56,682,534) 64.50 (54,582,985) 64.49 (53,959,000) 64.48 (53,085,000) 64.6 (50,805,000) 64.6 58.7 56.6 56.4 65+ 4.30 (3,781,789) 4.41 (3,732,070) 4.41 (3,688,000) 4.42 (3,628,000) 3.7 (2,944,000) 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.6=== Urban and rural population ===Figures from CAPMAS:MidyearPopulationUrban population (in thousands)Urban population (per cent)Rural population (in thousands)Rural population (per cent)199051 91122 51943.429 39256.6199152 98522 90843.230 07756.8199254 08223 36643.230 71656.8199355 20123 80443.131 39756.9199456 34424 27643.132 06856.9199557 64224 70942.932 93357.1199658 83525 05342.633 78257.4199760 05325 57842.634 47557.4199861 29626 10442.635 19257.4199962 56526 55942.536 00657.5200063 86027 13242.536 72857.5200165 18228 11843.137 06456.9200266 62828 55442.938 07457.1200367 96529 13042.938 83557.1200469 30429 65342.839 65157.2200570 65330 18742.740 46657.3200672 00930 58542.541 42457.5200773 64431 72043.141 92456.9200875 19432 24942.942 94557.1200976 92533 08343.043 84257.0201078 68533 80443.044 88157.0201180 53034 48942.846 04157.2201282 55035 37342.947 17757.1201384 62936 21342.848 41657.2201486 81437 09542.749 71957.3=== Population projections ===The Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) had released high/medium/low population projections for 2011–2031 based on Final Results of 2006 Population Census.", "The 2020 high variant was 92.6 million, the medium – 91.0 million, the low – 90.0 million.", "The 2030 high variant is 104.4 million, the medium – 101.7 million, the low – 99.8 million.", "However the information could be misleading as the 2013 population figure of 84.6 million is higher than the projected high of 83 million.", "In fact, due to an unexpected rise in the fertility rate (from 3.0 to 3.5), the population already surpassed 91 million on 5 June 2016 while reaching 92 million on 30 November, average population age remaining stable despite a rising life expectancy." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 12 seconds\tOne death every 52 seconds\tOne net migrant every 13 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 17 secondsVital statistics:Midyear population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate 193415,449,000651,663429,851221,81242.227.814.4 193515,624,000645,760412,197233,56341.326.414.9 193615,801,000698,186455,832242,35444.228.815.3 193716,009,000694,086434,208259,87843.427.116.2 193816,300,000704,376429,248275,12843.226.316.9 193916,598,000696,746429,033267,71342.025.816.1 194016,900,000697,700444,448253,25241.326.315.0 194117,208,000695,016440,981254,03540.425.614.8 194217,522,000658,324494,358163,96637.628.29.4 194317,842,000689,771492,644197,12738.727.611.0 194418,167,000722,166472,234249,93239.826.013.8 194518,498,000787,502512,003275,49942.627.714.9 194618,835,000776,000484,000292,00041.225.715.5 194719,197,000834,557408,577425,98043.521.322.2 194819,529,000832,728397,976434,75242.620.422.3 194919,989,000831,310410,524420,78641.620.521.1 195021,514,000904,941388,944515,99744.219.025.2 195122,020,000934,584402,158532,42644.619.225.4 195222,562,000969,443380,633588,81045.217.827.5 195323,138,000934,830429,097505,73342.619.623.0 195423,747,000957,158401,306555,85242.617.924.7 195524,387,000926,500405,663520,83740.317.622.7 195625,057,000958,880384,974573,90640.716.424.4 195725,756,000914,494429,512484,98238.017.820.1 195826,480,0001,013,743409,197604,54641.116.624.5 195927,228,0001,078,947411,188667,75942.816.326.5 196027,998,0001,113,888437,822676,06643.016.926.1 196128,786,0001,166,620420,158746,46243.915.828.1 196229,591,0001,125,798486,699639,09941.317.923.4 196330,410,0001,196,388431,673764,71542.815.427.4 196431,242,0001,205,785449,375756,41042.115.726.4 196532,084,0001,220,658411,636809,02241.514.027.5 196632,937,0001,234,976477,021757,95541.015.825.1 196733,799,0001,210,214440,161770,05339.214.224.9 196834,660,0001,206,585509,430697,15538.116.122.0 196935,511,0001,197,245468,017729,22836.814.422.4 197036,342,0001,161,539500,626660,91334.915.019.8 197137,152,0001,186,350445,192741,15834.813.121.8 197237,945,0001,187,286499,628687,65834.114.319.7 197338,734,0001,259,004459,816799,18835.312.922.4 197439,534,0001,287,614457,620829,99435.412.622.8 197540,359,0001,331,799456,041875,75836.012.323.7 197641,213,0001,378,917444,228934,68936.411.724.7 197742,094,0001,447,402457,558989,84437.311.825.5 197843,006,0001,479,698415,6051,064,09337.210.526.8 197943,951,0001,633,674444,7531,188,92140.010.929.1 198044,932,0001,569,247421,2271,148,02037.310.027.35.3 198145,946,0001,593,698432,2641,161,43436.810.026.8 198246,991,0001,601,265441,6211,159,64434.19.424.7 198348,072,0001,666,915412,7001,254,21534.78.626.1 198449,190,0001,797,206400,6001,396,60636.58.128.44.9 198550,347,0001,903,022442,2581,460,76437.88.829.0 198651,545,0001,907,975455,8881,452,08737.08.828.2 198752,777,0001,902,604466,1611,436,44336.08.827.2 198854,011,0001,912,765427,0181,485,74735.47.927.54.4 198955,207,0001,722,934414,2141,308,72031.27.523.7 199051,911,0001,687,000393,2501,293,75032.57.624.9 199152,985,0001,636,551391,5881,244,96330.97.423.54.1 199254,082,0001,496,866382,4651,114,40127.77.120.6 199355,201,0001,600,549380,0001,220,54929.06.922.1 199456,344,0001,610,652385,2961,225,35628.66.821.7 199557,642,0001,604,835384,5481,220,28727.86.721.23.6 199658,835,0001,662,065379,9831,282,08228.26.521.8 199760,053,0001,654,695389,3011,265,39427.66.521.13.3 199861,296,0001,687,252399,7721,287,48027.56.521.03.4 199962,565,0001,693,025401,4331,291,59227.16.420.6 200063,860,0001,751,854404,6991,347,15527.46.321.13.5 200165,182,0001,741,308404,5311,336,77726.76.220.5 200266,628,0001,766,589424,0341,342,55526.56.420.2 200367,965,0001,777,418440,1491,337,26926.26.519.73.2 200469,304,0001,779,500440,7901,338,71025.76.419.3 200570,653,0001,800,972450,6461,350,32625.56.419.13.1 200672,009,0001,853,746451,8631,401,88325.76.319.5 200774,828,0001,949,569450,5961,498,97326.56.120.4 200876,651,0002,050,704461,9341,588,77027.45.921.53.0 200978,522,0002,217,409476,5921,740,81728.86.222.6 201080,443,0002,261,409483,3851,778,02428.76.122.6 201182,410,0002,442,094493,0861,949,00830.36.124.2 201284,418,0002,629,769529,2472,100,52231.96.425.5 201386,460,0002,621,902511,0002,110,71931.06.025.0 201488,530,0002,720,495531,8642,188,63131.36.125.23.5 201590,624,0002,685,276573,1292,123,10230.26.523.73.4201692,737,0002,600,173556,1482,044,02528.66.122.53.25201795,203,0002,557,400547,2001,971,11526.85.621.23.12201897,147,0002,382,362560,3081,822,05424.55.818.73.0201998,902,0002,304,800570,6001,734,20023.35.817.52.92020100,604,0002,235,300664,8001,570,50022.26.615.62.852021102,061,0002,184,605741,9001,442,70521.47.314.12.772022103,605,0002,193,001601,7811,591,22021.25.815.42.75(e)2023104,450,0002,044,000581,0001,463,00019.45.513.92.58(e)===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''February–October 2022''' 1,648,600 433,600 +1,215,000 '''February–October 2023''' 1,540,300 432,300 +1,108,000 '''Difference''' -108,300 (-6.57%) -1,300 (-0.3%) -107,000===Fertility rate (Demographic Health Survey)===Fertility rate (TFR) (wanted fertility rate) and CBR (crude birth rate): Year CBR (total) TFR (total) CBR (urban) TFR (urban) CBR (rural) TFR (rural) 1992 29,7 3,93 (2,7) 23,3 2,92 (2,0) 35,0 4,91 (3,4) 1995 28,0 3,63 (2,6) 23,9 3,01 (2,2) 31,4 4,19 (2,9) 1997 3,3 2,7 3,7 1998 27 3,4 23 2,8 31 3,9 2000 27,8 3,53 (2,9) 24,8 3,09 (2,6) 30,1 3,88 (3,1) 2003 26,3 3,2 (2,5) 21,7 2,6 (2,1) 29,8 3,6 (2,9) 2005 27,1 3,1 (2,3) 23,6 2,7 (2,1) 29,6 3,4 (2,5) 2008 26,6 3,0 (2,4) 23,3 2,7 (2,2) 29,1 3,2 (2,5) 2014 29,1 3,5 (2,8) 23,3 2,9 (2,4) 32,7 3,8 (3,0)==== Life expectancy at birth ====Life expectancy in Egypt since 1927Life expectancy in Egypt since 1960 by genderAverage life expectancy at age 0 of the total population.PeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195541.11985–199063.51955–196046.41990–199565.41960–196549.31995–200068.01965–197051.62000–200569.01970–197553.02005–201069.91975–198056.82010–201570.81980–198559.9" ], [ "Demographics by Governorate", "===Urban and Rural Population of Governorates===Data taken from CAPMAS: Governorate % Urban Population (2017) Rural UrbanAlexandria Aswan Asyut Beheira Beni Suef Cairo Dakahlia Damietta Faiyum Gharbia Giza Ismailia Kafr el-Sheikh Luxor Matruh Minya Monufia New Valley North Sinai Port Said Qalyubia Qena Red Sea Sharqia Sohag South Sinai Suez Total42.294,798,82754,558,42040,240,407===Population density by governorate===Egyptian Population Density in pre-2013 administrative divisionsAs of 1 July 2014; data taken from CAPMAS: Information for population is in thousands, pop density – persons/km2 and area is in km2.GovernoratePopulation in thousandsPop.", "density (inhabited area)Pop.", "density (total area)% inhabited to totalInhabited areaTotal areaAlexandria Aswan Asyut Beheira Beni Suef Cairo Dakahlia Damietta Faiyum Gharbia Giza Ismailia Kafr el-Sheikh Luxor Matruh Minya Monufia New Valley North Sinai Port Said Qalyubia Qena Red Sea Sharqia Sohag South Sinai Suez Total86,8141109.185.97.878272.981010407.87" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "The CIA World Factbook lists Egyptians as 99.7%, and \"other\" as 0.3% (2006 census).", "\"Other\" refers to people who are not citizens of Egypt, who come to Egypt to work for international companies, diplomats, etc.The vast majority of the population of Egypt consists of Egyptians including Copts, Egyptians make up 95% of the population.", "The vast majority of Egyptians are native speakers of Egyptian Arabic.Minorities in Egypt include the Berber-speaking community of the Siwa Oasis (Siwis) and the Nubian people clustered along the Nile in the southernmost part of Egypt.", "There are also sizable minorities of Beja and Dom.", "There are also refugees mainly composed of Sudanese, and the over all refugees are estimated to be around 3–5 million, those from war-zone areas like Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.The country was also host to many different communities during the European occupation period, including Greeks, Italians, and also from war-torn areas; the Lebanese, Syro-Lebanese, and other minority groups like Jews, Armenians, Turks and Albanians, though most either left or were compelled to leave after political developments in the 1950s.", "The country still hosts some 90,000 refugees and asylum seekers, mostly Palestinians and Sudanese.Other sources give more detailed statistics, including the Beja(ca.", "1 million), the Nubians (ca.", "300,000 in 1996), Dom (ca.", "230,000 in 1996), Berbers (Siwis) (ca.", "5,000)." ], [ "Languages", "Arabic is the official language of Egypt, with the vast majority of Egyptians speaking Egyptian Arabic.", "In The Upper Nile valley, Sa'idi Arabic is prevalent.", "The Coptic language is used in the Coptic church for the majority of prayers, hymns, masses, and meditations.", "English is widely understood.Siwa language is used in ethnic Berber tribal areas in the western desert (Siwa), and Nubian language is widely used among the ethnic Nubians in the southern areas." ], [ "Religions", "According to the CIA World Factbook, approximately 87% of the population is Muslim and 13% is Christian (10% Coptic Orthodox Church, 3% other Christian).", "Muslim 87% (mostly Sunni)Christianity 13%Baháʼí: fewer than 2,000 individuals (< 0.003%)Judaism: fewer than 500 individuals" ], [ "Egyptians abroad", "Egyptians have a long history of mobility, primarily across the Arab world, but emigration became much more popular once it was recognised as a right in the 1971 Constitution.", "According to the International Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad and contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), circulation of human and social capital, as well as investment.", "Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% are living mostly North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada) and Europe (90,000 in Italy)." ], [ "Genetics", "===Y-Chromosome===Listed here are the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Egypt.", "'''Haplogroup''''''n''''''A''''''B''''''E1a''''''E1b1a''''''E1b1b1''''''E1b1b1a''''''E1b1b1a1''''''E1b1b1a1b''''''E1b1b1a2''''''E1b1b1a3''''''E1b1b1a4''''''E1b1b1b''''''E1b1b1c''''''F''''''G''''''I''''''J1''''''J2''''''K''''''L''''''O''''''P, R''''''Q''''''R1a''''''R1b1a''''''R1b1b''''''R2''''''T'''M33M2M35M78V12V32V13V22V65M81M34M89V88M70 Egypt3701.35–0.542.433.240.817.031.620.819.192.4311.896.761.085.680.5420.816.750.270.810.270.540.272.162.972.970.546.22" ], [ "See also", "* Health in Egypt* List of cities in Egypt* Population history of Egypt" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Demographics of ancient Egypt" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''politics of Egypt''' takes place within the framework of a republican semi-presidential system of government.", "The current political system was established following the 2013 Egyptian military coup d'état, and the takeover of President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.", "In the current system, the President is elected for a six-year term.", "Furthermore, the President has the power to dissolve Parliament through Article 137.The Parliament of Egypt is the oldest legislative chamber in Africa and the Middle East.", "The unicameral Parliament has the ability to impeach the President through Article 161.With 2020 elections to the new Senate, the chamber became bicameral." ], [ "Presidency", "The position was created after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952; Mohammed Naguib was the first to hold the position.", "Before 2005, the Parliament chose a candidate for the presidency and the people voted, in a referendum, whether or not they approved the proposed candidate for president.", "After the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, a new presidential election was held 2012, it was the first free and fair elections in Egypt's political history.", "The Muslim Brotherhood declared early 18 June 2012, that its candidate, Mohamed Morsi, won the election.", "After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi; the beginning of July 2013 marked the onset of the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, following the decision of General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, to remove Morsi from office and suspend the constitution of 2012.El-Sisi was then elected head of state in the 2014 presidential election.", "On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.Article 133 of Egypt's constitution of 2012 determines a 4-year period of presidential mandate, to which the candidate can only be re-elected once.", "According to the document, to be eligible the candidate “must be Egyptian born to Egyptian parents, must have carried no other citizenship, must have civil and political right, cannot be married to a non-Egyptian,” and not be younger than 40 Gregorian years.Article 146 declares the president to be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.", "However, to declare war or to send armed forces outside state territory, the president must consult the National Defense Council and have the approval of the majority of the MPs.In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years.A constitutional referendum was held in Egypt from 20 to 22 April 2019, with overseas voting taking place between 19 and 21 April.", "The proposed changes allowed President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to remain in power until 2030; under the previous version of the constitution, he would have been barred from contesting the next elections, set to take place in 2022.The changes were approved by 88.83% of voters who voted, with a 44% turnout." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Parliament meets for one eight-month session each year; under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session.", "Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament continues to lack the powers to balance the extensive powers of the President.===The House of Representatives (Magles el Nowwáb)===The House of Representatives is the principal legislative body.", "It consists of a maximum 596 representatives with 448 are directly elected through FPTP and another 120 elected through proportional representation in 4 nationwide districts while the President can appoint up to 28.The House sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President.The Constitution reserves fifty per cent of the House may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure.", "For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly.", "In the case of a president and house from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation.The recent elections were held in 2015 and most recently in 2020.===The Consultative Council (Maglis El-Shura)===The Shura Council was the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980.In the Shura Council, 176 members were directly elected and 88 members were appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms.", "One half of the Shura Council was renewed every three years.The Shura Council's legislative powers were limited.", "On most matters of legislation, the People's Assembly retained the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.The Shura Council was abolished in the 2014 constitution.===Parliamentary Elections===Political parties in Egypt are numerous and exceeds 100 parties.", "The formation of political parties based on religion, race or gender is prohibited by the Constitution.", "Before the revolution in 2011, power was concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the National Democratic Party which retained a super-majority in the People's Assembly.Many new political parties that mostly were fragile formed in anticipation of running candidates in the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election that was considered the first free one since the 1952 revolution.", "However the elected Parliament was dissolved by the constitutional court and new elections were held in 2015.Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "According to the Egyptian Constitution, political parties are allowed to exist.", "Religious political parties are not allowed as it would not respect the principle of non-interference of religion in politics and that religion has to remain in the private sphere to respect all beliefs.", "Also forbidden are political parties supporting militia formations or having an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution and its principles, or threatening the country's stability such as national unity between Muslim Egyptians and Christian Egyptians.As of 2015, there are more than 100 registered political parties in Egypt.", "The largest were the Free Egyptians Party, New Wafd Party, Conference Party, and the Egyptian Social Democratic Party.In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watn (Nation's Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi.", "The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules." ], [ "Civil society", "Egyptians had lived under emergency law from 1967 until 31 May 2012 (with one 18-month break starting in 1980).", "Emergency laws have been extended every three years since 1981.These laws sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned.", "However, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice.", "In 2003, the agenda shifted heavily towards local democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces.", "Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change (Kefaya), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers.Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to land rights and land reform.", "A major turning point was the 1997 repeal of Nasser-era land reform policies under pressure for structural adjustment.", "A pole for this activity is the Land Center for Human Rights.The Egyptian Revolution of 2011, inspired by the recent revolution in Tunisia, forced the resignation of President Mubarak and the Military Junta that succeeded him abrogated the Constitution and promised free and fair elections under a new one.", "On August 15, 2015, President al-Sisi enacted a new Counter-Terrorism Law, which Human Rights Watch claims \"mimics\" language \"already contained in Egypt's decades-old Emergency Law\".", "In Article 2, one of many references include terrorism as \"any use of intimidation for the purpose of disturbing public order; harms national unity, social peace, or national security\".", "Following to Section 2, the President \"may issue a decree to take appropriate measures to maintain security and public order\", addressed in Article 53.This includes \"the power to order six-month curfews or evacuations in defined areas, subject to a majority vote in parliament within seven days, or cabinet approval if parliament is not in session.\"" ], [ "Political pressure", "Before the revolution, Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, then moved more aggressively to block its influence.", "Trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned.", "In 2014, in Upper Egypt, several newspapers reported that the region of Upper Egypt wants to secede from Egypt to try to improve living standards." ], [ "Foreign relations", "The permanent headquarters for the League of Arab States (The Arab League) is located in Cairo.", "The Secretary-General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian.", "Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abu El Ghet is the present Secretary-General of the Arab League.", "The Arab League moved out of Egypt to Tunis in 1978 as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel but returned in 1989.Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty at the Camp David Accords.", "Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli–Palestinian dispute.", "Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited.Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.A territorial dispute with Sudan over an area known as the Hala'ib Triangle has meant that diplomatic relations between the two remain strained." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Hatem Elliesie: ''The Rule of Law in Egypt''.", "In: Matthias Koetter / Gunnar Folke Schuppert (Eds.", "), Understanding of the Rule of Law in various Legal Orders of the World: Working Paper Series Nr.", "5 of SFB 700: Governance in Limited Areas of Statehood, Berlin 2010.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Nathan J.", "Brown, Shimaa Hatab, and Amr Adly.", "2021.''", "Lumbering State, Restless Society: Egypt in the Modern Era''.", "Columbia University Press" ], [ "External links", "** Comparison Between Ancient And Modern Egyptian Governments at Aldokkan* Egypt at ''Global Integrity Report''* Egypt: A Nation in Waiting (Al Jazeera documentary focusing on past trends in Egypt's political history and protests.", ")'''General government sites'''* Official Egyptian Government Portal* '''E'''gyptian '''I'''nvestment '''P'''ortal official government site* Egypt State Information Service official government site* The Egyptian Presidency* The People Assembly of Egypt* Egyptian Shoura Council" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Egypt''' used to be a highly centralized economy, focused on import substitution under president Gamal Abdel Nasser (1954–1970).", "During the rule of president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi (2014–present), the economy follows Egypt's 2030 Vision.", "The policy is aimed at diversifying Egypt's economy.", "The country's economy is the largest in Africa by nominal GDP, and 38th in worldwide ranking as of 2023.Since the 2000s, the pace of structural reforms (including fiscal and monetary policies, taxation, privatization and new business legislation) helped Egypt move towards a more market-oriented economy and prompted increased foreign investment.", "The reforms and policies have strengthened macroeconomic annual growth results.", "As Egypt's economy healed, other prominent issues like unemployment and poverty began to decline significantly.The country benefits from political stability; its proximity to Europe, and increased exports.", "From an investor perspective, Egypt is stable and well-supported by external stakeholders." ], [ "History", "Change in per capita GDP of Egypt, 1820–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.From the 1850s until the 1930s, Egypt's economy was heavily reliant on long-staple cotton, introduced in the mid-1820s during the reign of Muhammad Ali (1805–49) and made possible by the switch from basin irrigation to perennial, modern irrigation.", "Cotton cultivation was a key ingredient in an ambitious program that the Egyptian ruler undertook to diversify and develop the economy.Another such ingredient was industrialization.", "Industrialization, however, proved for various domestic and external reasons to be less than successful, and until the 1930s, virtually no industrial build-up occurred.", "The failure of industrialization resulted largely from tariff restrictions that Britain imposed on Egypt through a 1838 commercial treaty, which allowed only minuscule tariffs, if any.", "The isolated industrial ventures initiated by members of Egypt's landed aristocracy, who otherwise channeled their investment into land acquisition and speculation, were nipped in the bud by foreign competition.", "The few surviving enterprises were owned by foreigners.", "These enterprises either enjoyed natural protection, as in the case of sugar and cotton processing, or benefited from the special skills that the foreign owners had acquired, as in the case of cigarette making by Greeks and Turks.World War I and the National Awakening: Important shortages during World War I and the demand created by the presence in the country of large Allied forces led to the opening of a number of small manufacturing plants, and older ones found it profitable to increase their output.", "There was no prospect for real progress in industrial development, however, until 1930, when the last of the commercial treaties with their \"most favoured nations\" clauses, expired.", "Nevertheless, the brief wartime prosperity had served a good purpose, It had awakened official Egypt, of which the higher echelons were at that time mainly representative of the class of great landlords, in whose hands the wealth of the country Is largely concentrated, to the country's potentialities for industrialization.", "It had also brought to official Egypt some appreciation of how much the country as a whole benefit if, for an economy baser' on the export of agricultural raw materials and the importation of manufactured goods, there could be substituted one in which a full effort was made to satisfy with local manufactures the local demand for such goods as could be produced from local raw materials.The result was the appointment in 1916 of a Commission on Commerce and Industry to study the situation, the creation in 1920 in the Ministry of Finance of a department (now Ministry) of Commerce and Industry, and the founding in 1922 of a Federation of Industries.", "The report of the commission, issued in 1917, focused attention on the significance of industrialization as a step toward sound economy and a remedy for the country's already grave problem of overpopulation.Tariff Reform and Direct Government Aid: Nevertheless, the date of the turning point in Egypt's industrial development may properly be said to be February 16, 1930, when the last of the commercial treaties, that with Italy, expired.", "The government had ready a tariff reform measure drafted by a committee of foreign experts engaged for the purpose in 1927, and, in command at last of its own tariff policy, put it into effect the very next day after the expiration of the treaty.", "The reforms were designed specifically to encourage and protect local manufacturing.", "High duties, in many cases practically prohibitive, were imposed on imports of products considered competitive with local products or for which the prospects for local manufacture seemed good.", "Duties on numerous raw materials were at the same time greatly reduced, although there were still many which, for revenue purposes, remained heavily taxed.", "The protection thus afforded to industry had an almost immediate effect, as is reflected by the increase in imports of raw material and machinery and decrease in those of manufactured goods in 1938 as compared-with 1913.World War II Prosperity and After: As has been pointed out, World War II gave new impetus to industrialization.", "During much of the North African campaign Egypt was a strategic base for the Allied forces.", "The prosperity they brought meant greatly augmented demands for certain supplies that could be furnished only by local industry.", "Also, in the Middle East the difficulty of getting supplies from other sources greatly increased the demand for Egyptian products.", "Hence many of the local industries expanded and diversified their output, many new enterprises were founded, and a greatly enlarged trade with the Middle East opened Egyptian eyes to the marketing possibilities there.", "Scarcely less important, of some 300,000 Egyptians who were employed by the Allied forces, many gained technical training and experience in manufacturing and repair work and in the servicing and maintenance of equipment.", "The aftermath was quite different from that of World War I.", "Local consumers had become more accustomed to local manufactures, a greater variety of products was available, and the quality of many items had been improved so that they could compete successfully with imported products.", "Moreover, many industrial organizations had profited greatly from the rise in prices which accompanied the increased demand for their products, and hence, for the first time in the history of Egyptian industry, possessed reserve funds that they could use for further expansion, modernization of their equipment, and even for new ventures.Consequently, no such decline in industrial activity ensued as that which followed the brief period of prosperity during World War I.", "Instead, many industries continued to expand and a number of new ones were founded.", "The manufacture of textiles, rayon, plastics, chemical fertilizers, rubber goods, pharmaceutics, and steel castings, and refrigeration were among the more important enterprises involved in this new development.", "During the three-year period immediately after the end of the war more than a hundred new stock companies, with a total capital of upwards of £20,000,000, were formed.", "Various concessions offered by the government also brought in a number of branches of foreign companies with a view both to satisfying the demand for certain commodities that local manufacturers could not duplicate and at the same time to providing additional employment for local labor - among them automobile assembly plants and plants for the manufacture of toilet soap, electrical fixtures, and soft drinks.", "In response to this surge in industrial activity the government proceeded to put into effect certain long-needed measures designed to promote the organization of industrial companies and to assist them with credit facilities.", "The most important of these measures were the enactment of a Companies Law in 1947 and in 1949 the foundation of an Industrial Bank in which 51 per cent of the shares were government owned.The beginnings of industrialization awaited the depression of the late 1920s and 1930s and World War II.", "The depression sent cotton prices tumbling, and Britain acceded to Egyptian demands to raise tariffs.", "Moreover, World War II, by substantially reducing the flow of foreign goods into the country, gave further impetus to the establishment of import-substitution industries.", "A distinguishing feature of the factories built at this time was that they were owned by Egyptian entrepreneurs.In spite of the lack of industrialization, the economy grew rapidly throughout the nineteenth century.", "Growth, however, was confined to the cotton sector and the supporting transportation, financial, and other facilities.", "Little of the cotton revenues was invested in economic development.", "The revenues were largely drained out of the country as repatriated profits or repayments of debts that the state had incurred to pay for irrigation works and the extravagance of the khedives.Rapid economic growth ended in the early 1900s.", "The supply of readily available land had been largely exhausted and multiple cropping, concentration on cotton, and perennial irrigation had lessened the fertility of the soil.", "Cotton yields dropped in the early 1900s and recovered their former level only in the 1940s, through investments in modern inputs such as fertilizers and drainage.The fall in agricultural productivity and trade led to a stagnation in the per capita gross national product (GNP) between the end of World War I and the 1952 Revolution: the GNP averaged , in 1954 prices, at both ends of the period.", "By 1952 Egypt was in the throes of both economic and political crises, which culminated in the assumption of power by the Free Officers.By necessity if not by design, the revolutionary regime gave considerably greater priority to economic development than did the monarchy, and the economy has been a central government concern since then.", "While the economy grew steadily, it sometimes exhibited sharp fluctuations.", "Analysis of economic growth is further complicated by the difficulty in obtaining reliable statistics.", "Growth figures are often disputed, and economists contend that growth estimates may be grossly inaccurate because of the informal economy and workers' remittances, which may contribute as much as one-fourth of GNP.", "According to one estimate, the gross domestic product (GDP), at 1965 constant prices, grew at an annual compound rate of about 4.2 percent between 1955 and 1975.This was about 1.7 times larger than the annual population growth rate of 2.5 percent in the same period.", "The period between 1967 and 1974, the final years of Gamal Abdul Nasser's presidency and the early part of Anwar el-Sadat's, however, were lean years, with growth rates of only about 3.3 percent.", "The slowdown was caused by many factors, including agricultural and industrial stagnation and the costs of the June 1967 war.", "Investments, which were a crucial factor for the preceding growth, also nose-dived and recovered only in 1975 after the dramatic 1973 increase in oil prices.Like most countries in the Middle East, Egypt partook of the oil boom and suffered the subsequent slump.", "Available figures suggest that between 1975 and 1980 the GDP (at 1980 prices) grew at an annual rate of more than 11 percent.", "This impressive achievement resulted, not from the contribution of manufacturing or agriculture, but from oil exports, remittances, foreign aid, and grants.", "From the mid-1980s, GDP growth slowed as a result of the 1985-86 crash in oil prices.", "In the two succeeding years, the GDP grew at no more than an annual rate of 2.9 percent.", "Of concern for the future was the decline of the fixed investment ratio from around 30 percent during most of the 1975-85 decade to 22 percent in 1987.Several additional economic periods followed:* '''External debt crisis''' (1985–1990): the external debt crisis and Paris Club rescheduling and debt reduction.", "* '''Economic reform''' (1991–2007): reform policies were introduced to meet the terms of international institutions, lenders and donors, including wider incentives to the role of the private sector in all economic activities.", "* '''The post-global financial crisis''' (2008–2011): soaring food prices, especially for grain, led to calls for the government to provide more immediate assistance to the 40% of the population in the \"poverty tunnel\" and to strike a \"new deal\" on agriculture policy and reform.", "Egypt faced long-term supply- and demand-side repercussions of the global financial crisis on the national economy.", "* '''Post-revolution''' (2012–present): the Egyptian economy suffered from a severe downturn following the 2011 revolution and the government faced numerous challenges to restore growth, market and investor confidence.", "Egypt's foreign exchange reserves fell from US$36 billion in December 2010 to only US$16.3 billion in January 2012 as a result of propping up the Egyptian pound against the dollar.", "Concerns about social unrest and the country's ability to meet its financial targets provoked credit rating agencies to lower the country's credit rating on several occasions.", "In 2016, Egypt floated its currency and embarked on a homegrown economic reform program supported by a US$12 billion IMF loan in a bid to restore macroeconomic stability and growth.", "By early 2019, Egypt had received 10 of the 12 billion requested.", "Real growth declined from 5.6% in FY2018/19 to 3.6% during FY2019/20, as the COVID-19 crisis caused a year-on-year contraction of 1.7% during April to June (Q4-FY2019/20) According to the 2019 Global Hunger Index, Egypt suffers from a moderate level of hunger, ranking 61 of 117 countries, compared to 61 of 119 countries in 2018.Food affordability, quality and safety remain challenges as Egypt continues to rely on global markets for more than half of its staples." ], [ "Reform era", "Annual inflation (black) and economic growth (red) in EgyptUnder comprehensive economic reforms initiated in 1991, Egypt has relaxed many price controls, reduced subsidies, reduced inflation, cut taxes, and partially liberalized trade and investment.", "Manufacturing had become less dominated by the public sector, especially in heavy industries.", "A process of public sector reform and privatization has begun to enhance opportunities for the private sector.Agriculture, mainly in private hands, has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production.", "Construction, non-financial services, and domestic wholesale and retail trades are largely private.", "This has promoted a steady increase of GDP and the annual growth rate.", "The Government of Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double-digit to a single digit.", "Currently, GDP is rising smartly by 7% per annum due to successful diversification.Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) increased fourfold between 1981 and 2006, from US$1,355 in 1981, to US$2,525 in 1991, to US$3,686 in 2001 and to an estimated US$4,535 in 2006.Based on national currency, GDP per capita at constant 1999 prices increased from in 1981, to in 1991, to in 2001 and to in 2006.Based on the current US$ prices, GDP per capita increased from US$587 in 1981, to US$869 in 1991, to US$1,461 in 2001 and to an estimated US$1,518 (which translates to less than US$130 per month) in 2006.According to the World Bank Country Classification, Egypt has been promoted from the low income category to lower middle income category.", "As of 2013, the average weekly salaries in Egypt reached (approx.", "US$92), which grew by 20% from the previous year.", "'''Indicator''' '''1980''' '''1990''' '''2000''' '''2005''' '''2010''' '''2017''' GDP per capita at constant prices, () 9,548.57 12,507.81 15,437.06 16,680.25 20,226.91 21,079.11 GDP per capita at current prices, () 406.03 1,967.41 5,607.67 8,003.33 16,115.11 36,603.38 GDP per capita at current prices, (US$) 580.04 1,870.85 1,642.63 1,330.46 2,921.76 2,495.02 GDP (PPP) per capita, (US$) 2,252.47 4,444.05 6,725.83 8,137.14 10,848.16 12,697.64The reform program is a work in progress.", "Noteworthy that the reform record has substantially improved since Nazif government came to power.", "Egypt has made substantial progress in developing its legal, tax and investment infrastructure.", "Indeed, over the past five years, Egypt has passed, amended and admitted over 15 legislative pieces.", "The economy is expected to grow by about 4% to 6% in 2009–2010.Surging domestic inflationary pressures from both economic growth and elevated international food prices led the Central Bank of Egypt to increase the overnight lending and deposit rates in sequential moves since February 2008.The rates stood at 11.5% and 13.5%, respectively, since 18 September 2008.The rise of the World Global Financial Crisis led to a set of fiscal-monetary policy measures to face its repercussions on the national economy, including reducing the overnight lending and deposit rates by 1% on 12 February 2009.The rates currently stand at 10.5% and 12.5%, respectively.Reform of energy and food subsidies, privatization of the state-owned Bank of Cairo, and inflation targeting are perhaps the most controversial economic issues in 2007–2008 and 2008–2009.=== External trade and remittances ===Egyptian export destinations in 2006.Egypt's trade balance marked US$10.36 billion in FY2005 compared to US$7.5 billion.", "Egypt's main exports consist of natural gas, and non-petroleum products such as ready-made clothes, cotton textiles, medical and petrochemical products, citrus fruits, rice and dried onion, and more recently cement, steel, and ceramics.Egypt's main imports consist of pharmaceuticals and non-petroleum products such as wheat, maize, cars and car spare parts.", "The current account grew from 0.7% of GDP in FY2002 to 3.3% at FY2005.Egypt's Current Account made a surplus of US$4,478 million in FY2005 compared to a deficit of US$158 million in FY2004.Italy and the USA are the top export markets for Egyptian goods and services.", "In the Arab world, Egypt has the largest non-oil GDP as of 2018.According to the International Organization for Migration, an estimated 2.7 Million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittance inflows, circulation of human and social capital, as well as investment.", "In 2009 Egypt was the biggest recipient of remittances in the Middle East; an estimated US$7.8 bn was received in 2009, representing approximately 5% of national GDP, with a decline of 10% from 2008, due mostly to the effect of the financial crisis.", "According to data from Egypt's Central Bank, the United States was the top sending country of remittances (23%), followed by Kuwait (15%), the United Arab Emirates (14%) and Saudi Arabia (9%).=== Public finances ===On the revenues side, total revenues of the government were in FY2002 and are projected to reach in FY2008.Much of the increase came from a rise in customs, excise and tax revenues, particularly personal income and sales, entertainment, and vice taxes which constituted the bulk of total domestic taxes, due to recent tax reforms.", "This trend is likely to gradually widen the tax base in the forthcoming years.", "Revenues, however, have remained more or less constant (about 21% ) as a percentage of the GDP over the past few years.On the expenditures side, strong expenditure growth has remained a main feature of the budget.", "This is mainly a result of continued strong expansion of (1) the public-sector wages driven by government pledges.", "Wages and Compensations increased from in FY2002 to in FY2008; (2) high interest payments on the public debt stock.", "Interest payments rose from in FY2002 to in FY2008.Importantly, dramatic increase in domestic debt which is projected to be roughly 62% of GDP in FY2008 up from 58.4% in FY2002; and (3) the costs of food and energy subsidies, which rose from in FY2002 to in FY2008.The overall deficit, after adjusting for net acquisition of financial assets, remains almost unchanged from the cash deficit.", "The budget's overall deficit of or −10.2% of GDP for FY2002 has become in FY2007, so that is narrowed to −6.7% of GDP.", "Deficit is financed largely by domestic borrowing and revenue from divestment sales, which became a standard accounting practice in budget Egypt.", "The government aims at more sales of State assets in FY2008.Recently, the fiscal conduct of the government faced strong criticism and heated debate in the Egyptian Parliament.", "Remarks were made about weak governance and management, loose implementation of tax collection procedures and penalties for offenders, and improper accounting of the overall system of basic subsidies and domestic debt, leading to domestic market disruptions, high inflation, increased inefficiencies and waste in the domestic economy.+ Egypt's Summary of Budget Financing 2002–2015 ( mn and Fiscal years) Item2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015201620172018 Revenues 78,318 89,146 101,878 110,864 151,266 172,153 184,729 275,700 224,986 303,622 350,322 456,788 548,632 491,488659,184821,134941,900 ... Taxes50,801 55,736 67,157 75,759 97,779 108,609 120,075 166,500 145,544 207,410 251,119 260,289 364,290352,315462,007629,302736,100 ...", "Grants 4,264 3,289 5049 2,853 2,379 3,657 3,166 4,600 7,700 10.104 5,208 95,856 23,492 3,54317,6833,1942,600 ... Other resources 93,288 70,92786,108 93,996 100,642 160,850 135,630179,494188,639203,200 Expenditures115,541 127,319 145,987 161,611 207,811 212,104 241,552 340,370 319,137 470,992 583,789 692,421 789,431 817,8441,031,9411,244,4081,369,900 ... Wages and Compensations30,515 33,816 37,265 41,546 46,719 51,270 59,574 82,000 86,100 122,818 142,629 178,589 207,243 213,721225,513240,054266,100 ... Interest21,751 25,851 30,703 32,780 36,815 50,448 51,979 52,900 71,066 104,441 146,995 173,150 199,011 243,635316,602437,448533,000 ... Subsidies and Social Benefits18,050 20,649 24,751 29,706 68,897 51,844 64,465 133,600 73,400 150,193 182,383 212,540 223,000 201,024276,719329,379287,500Cash Deficit−37,223 −38,173 −44,109 −50,747 −56,545 −39,951 −56,823 −64,670 −94,151 −167,370 −190,309 −195,276 −240,799 -423,300 -428,000 Net Acquisition of Financial Assets−1,261 −5,586 −1,951 −896 6,160 −9,209 −1,946 −2,674 730 665 5,314 2,2180013,1396,8439,3062,000 Overall Deficit−38,485 −43,759 −46,060 −51,643 −50,385 −49,160 −58,769 −67,344 −93,421 −166,705 −184,995 −197,494 −239,972 −339,495 -379,590 -432,580 -430,000 ... Net Borrowing38,066 43,720 46,043 50,631 50,259 48,660 57,769 66,792 94,880 166,705 184,705 197,244 ...", "Proceeds from Privatization418.8 39.2 17 1012 126.0 500 1000 10,000 500 500 Deficit as % of GDP−10.2% −10.5% −9.5% −9.6% −8.2% −6.7% −6.9% −6.4% −7.97% −10.6% −10.7% −9.6% −9.9% −12.5% -10.9% -9.7% -8.2%Treasury bonds and notes issued to the Central Bank of Egypt constitute the bulk of the government domestic debt.", "Since FY2001, net government domestic debt (i.e.", "after excluding budget sector deposits) has been rising at a fluctuating but increasing rate.", "In 2014, it reached 77% up from 54.3% of GDP in 2001.+ Egypt's Summary of Domestic Government Debt 2001–2014 ( bn and Fiscal years) Item2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Government domestic debt ( bn)194 221 252 292 349 387 478 562 663 808 990 1,113 1,410 1, 648 Net Government domestic debt (% GDP)54.3% 58.4% 60.4% 60.3% 64.8% 62.8% 65.4% 54.1% 55.0% 55.0% 58.9% 62.9% 71.9% 77.0%=== Opportunity cost of conflict ===A report by Strategic Foresight Group has calculated the opportunity cost of conflict for Egypt since 1991 is almost US$800 billion.", "In other words, had there been peace since 1991, an average Egyptian citizen would be earning over US$3,000 instead of US$1,700 he or she may earn next year.=== The financial sector ===The Central Bank of Egypt is the national reserve bank and controls and regulates the financial market and the Egyptian pound.", "There is a State regulatory authority for the Cairo Stock Exchange.", "State-owned or Nationalized banks still account for 85% of bank accounts in Egypt and around 60% of the total savings.", "The penetration of banking is low in rural areas at only 57% of households.==== Monetary policy ====Up until 2007, there have been several favorable conditions that allowed the Central Bank of Egypt to accumulate net international reserves, which increased from US$20 billion in FY2005, to US$23 billion in FY2006, and to US$30 billion FY2007 contributing to growth in both reserve money and in broad money (M2).", "This declined to US$16.4 billion in Oct 2015, according to the Central Bank of Egypt.Credit extended to the private sector in Egypt declined significantly reaching about in FY2005.This credit crunch is due to the non-performing loans extended by the banks to business tycoons and top government officials.Lending criteria have been tightened following the passing of Money Laundry Law 80 in 2002 and Banking Law 88 in 2003.Interest rates are no longer the dominant factor in banks' lending decisions.", "In fact, both the inefficiency and absence of the role of the Central Bank of Egypt in qualitative and quantitative control as well as implementing banking procedures and standards was almost entirely responsible for the non-performing loans crisis.", "Banks steadily reduced credit from its peak of about in FY1999 and alternatively invested in more liquid no-risk securities such as treasury bills and government bonds.", "Improving private sector access to credit will critically depend on resolving the problem of non-performing loans with businesses and top government officials.The era of inflation targeting—i.e.", "maintaining inflation within a band—has perhaps begun in Egypt more recently.", "Country experiences show that inflation targeting is a best-practice strategy for monetary policy.", "While the monetary policy appears more responsive to inflationary pressures recently in Egypt, it is noted that there is no core inflation measure and the Central Bank of Egypt takes targeting decisions based on the inflation rate released by the CAPMAS consumer price index off-the-shelf.Obverse of noteSurging domestic inflationary pressures from both economic growth and elevated international food prices led the Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) to increase the overnight lending and deposit rates in sequential moves since 2008: it was raised by 0.25% on 10 February 2008, by 0.5% on 25 March 2008, by 0.5% on 8 May 2008, by 0.5% on 26 June 2008, by 0.5% on 7 August 2008 and most recently on 18 September 2008 for the sixth time in a year by 0.5% when it stood at 11.5% and 13.5%, respectively.The rise of the World Global Financial Crisis led to a set of fiscal-monetary policy measures to face its repercussions on the national economy, including reducing the overnight lending and deposit rates by 1% on 12 February 2009.The rates currently stand at 10.5% and 12.5%, respectively.", "The CBE is expected to further cut on interest rates over 2009, with seemingly little fear on Egyptian pound depreciation resulting from decreased interest rates.==== Exchange rate policy ====The exchange rate of the US dollar to the Egyptian pound.The exchange rate has been linked to the US dollar since the 1950s.", "Several regimes were adopted including initially the conventional peg in the sixties, regular crawling peg in the seventies and the eighties and crawling bands in the nineties.", "Over that time period, there were several exchange rate markets including black market, parallel market and the official market.", "With the turn of the new millennium, Egypt introduced a managed float regime and successfully unified the pound exchange rate vis-à-vis foreign currencies.The transition to the unified exchange rate regime was completed in December 2004.Shortly later, Egypt has notified the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that it has accepted the obligations of Article VIII, Section 2, 3, and 4 of the IMF Articles of Agreement, with effect from 2 January 2005.IMF members accepting the obligations of Article VIII undertake to refrain from imposing restrictions on the making of payments and transfers for current international transactions, or from engaging in discriminatory currency arrangements or multiple currency practices, except with IMF approval.By accepting the obligations of Article VIII, Egypt gives assurance to the international community that it will pursue economic policies that will not impose restrictions on the making of payments and transfers for current international transactions unnecessary, and will contribute to a multilateral payments system free of restrictions.In the fiscal year 2004 and over most of the fiscal year 2005, the pound depreciated against the US dollar.", "Since the second half of the fiscal year 2006 until the end of the fiscal year 2007, the pound gradually appreciated to per US$1.While it was likely to continue appreciating in the short-term, given the skyrocketing oil prices and the weakening US economy, the advent of the global economic crisis of 2008, and resulting behavior of foreign investors exiting from the stock market in Egypt increased the dollar exchange rate against the Egyptian pound, which rose by more than 4% since Lehman Brothers declared bankruptcy.", "As the demand pressure from exiting foreign investors eases, the dollar exchange rate against the Egyptian pound is expected to decline.", "It stands at per US$1 as of 18 June 2013.Due to the rising power of the US dollar, as of January 2015 one dollar equals .On 3 November 2016, the Egyptian government announced that it would float the Egyptian pound in an effort to revive its economy, which had been suffering since 2011.The conditions of a 2022 IMF loan required the currency to float with the result that it depreciated rapidly prompting international institutions and neighbors such as Saudi Arabia to help.", "The country has $83.3 B of foreign-currency debt outstanding." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1986–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).", "Inflation below 10% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198088.52,183.123.5580.03.4%20.5%n/an/a198199.02,374.725.8617.72.2%10.4%n/an/a1982112.82,633.430.5711.47.3%14.9%n/an/a1983127.72,900.337.3846.48.9%16.0%n/an/a1984142.93,158.341.9926.08.0%17.1%n/an/a1985158.33,401.848.81,049.37.4%12.1%n/an/a1986169.23,543.654.11,132.54.8%23.9%n/an/a1987180.83,705.077.41,585.24.3%25.2%n/an/a1988194.73,908.892.51,858.04.0%15.2%n/an/a1989208.34,093.2115.42,266.43.0%20.1%n/an/a1990221.24,307.296.11,870.82.4%21.2%8.0%n/a1991233.54,454.248.4923.82.1%14.7%8.8%n/a1992239.54,476.744.2825.40.3%21.1%9.0%n/a1993252.34,571.249.5897.22.9%11.0%10.9%n/a1994268.54,769.354.6968.94.2%9.0%11.1%n/a1995286.44,972.863.31,098.14.5%9.4%11.2%n/a1996305.95,202.571.11,209.54.9%7.1%9.5%n/a1997329.65,484.279.81,327.45.9%6.2%8.7%n/a1998358.55,847.589.21,455.07.5%5.0%8.0%73.8%1999385.76,161.695.01,518.26.1%3.7%7.7%72.4%2000415.76,495.1104.81,636.85.4%2.8%9.0%71.7%2001440.06,738.6102.31,566.23.5%2.4%8.8%79.1%2002461.16,923.890.31,355.33.2%2.3%10.1%85.8%2003485.27,135.985.21,252.43.2%3.4%11.3%97.1%2004518.77,484.382.91,195.64.1%8.2%10.5%96.5%2005558.87,904.494.11,331.44.5%8.7%11.5%98.3%2006615.58,525.1112.91,563.76.8%4.3%10.9%85.9%2007677.09,197.8137.11,862.27.1%10.9%9.2%76.3%2008739.39,831.2170.82,271.27.2%11.7%8.7%66.8%2009778.810,127.7198.32,578.94.7%16.2%9.4%69.5%2010828.810,530.5230.02,922.85.1%11.7%9.2%69.6%2011860.910,694.4247.73,077.31.8%11.1%10.4%72.8%2012958.711,620.1278.83,379.02.2%8.7%12.4%73.8%2013992.011,726.0288.03,404.33.3%6.9%13.0%84.0%2014985.311,350.9305.63,520.42.9%10.1%13.4%85.1%20151,064.211,957.7332.13,731.24.4%11.0%12.9%88.3%20161,057.111,616.3332.53,653.74.3%10.2%12.7%96.8%20171,062.311,158.3236.52,484.54.1%23.5%12.2%103.0%20181,145.411,796.5250.32,577.35.3%20.9%10.9%92.5%20191,230.712,444.2302.33,057.05.6%13.9%8.6%84.2%20201,290.012,823.3364.03,618.53.6%5.7%8.3%89.6%20211,388.313,529.9402.83,925.83.3%4.5%7.3%93.5%''2022''''1,562.4''''14,927.5''''435.6''''4,162.1''''5.9%''''7.5%''''6.9%''''94.0%''''2023''''1,690.5''''15,834.8''''450.4''''4,218.5''''5.0%''''11.0%''''6.9%''''89.6%''''2024''''1,826.9''''16,777.4''''489.0''''4,490.6''''5.5%''''7.4%''''6.9%''''88.2%''''2025''''1,971.8''''17,752.9''''535.8''''4,824.4''''5.8%''''7.4%''''6.8%''''86.1%''''2026''''2,127.9''''18,782.3''''584.9''''5,162.9''''5.8%''''7.4%''''6.6%''''83.6%''''2027''''2,298.2''''19,888.2''''638.1''''5,522.3''''5.9%''''7.4%''''6.4%''''80.7%''" ], [ "Natural resources", "=== Land, agriculture and crops ===Development of agricultural output of Egypt in 2015 US$ since 1961Warm weather and plentiful water have in the past produced several crops a year.", "However, since 2009 increasing desertification has become a problem.", "\"Egypt loses an estimated 11,736 hectares of agricultural land every year, making the nation's 3.1 million hectares of agricultural land prone \"to total destruction in the foreseeable future\", said Abdel Rahman Attia, a professor of agriculture at Cairo University, to IRIN.", "Scarcity of clean water is also a problem.Flower production.Cotton, rice, wheat, corn, sugarcane, sugar beets, onions, tobacco, and beans are the principal crops.", "Land is worked intensively and yields are high.", "Increasingly, a few modern techniques are applied to producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export.", "Further improvement is possible.", "The most common traditional farms occupy each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile.", "Many small farmers also own cows, water buffalos, and chickens.", "Between 1953 and 1971, some farms were collectivised, especially in Upper Egypt and parts of the Nile Delta.Several researchers questioned the domestic (and import) policies for dealing with the so-called the \"wheat game\" since the former Minister of Agriculture Yousef Wali was in office ( 1982-2004 ).In 2006, areas planted with wheat in Egypt exceeded producing approximately 6 million metric tons.", "The domestic supply price farmers receive in Egypt is ( US$211) per ton compared to approximately ( US$340) per ton for import from the US, Egypt's main supplier of wheat and corn.", "Egypt is the U.S.'s largest market for wheat and corn sales, accounting for US$1 billion annually and about 46% of Egypt's needs from imported wheat.", "Other sources of imported wheat, include Kazakhstan, Canada, France, Syria, Argentina, and Australia.", "There are plans to increase the areas planted with wheat up to nearly by 2017 to narrow the gap between domestic food supply and demand.", "However, the low amount of gluten in Egypt wheat means that foreign wheat must be mixed in to produce bread that people will want to eat.Egypt would be the first ever electronic Egyptian Commodities Exchange in the MENA region to facilitate the well-being of its small farmers and supply of products at reasonable prices abolishing the monopoly of goods.+ Egypt's Production, Imports and Total Consumption of Wheat and corn (Maize) (thousand metric tons and fiscal years) Item 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022''' Wheat''' Production 8,400 8,500 8,250 8,300 8,100 8,100 8,450 8,450 8,770 8,900 9,000 9,800 Imports 11,650 8,400 10,150 11,300 11,925 11,181 12,407 12,354 12,811 12,149 12,000 11,000 Total consumption 18,600 18,700 18,500 19,100 19,200 19,400 19,800 20,100 20,300 20,600 20,500 20,600 '''Maize''' Production 5,500 5,800 5,800 5,960 6,000 6,000 6,400 6,800 6,400 6,400 7,440 7,440 Imports 7,154 5,059 8,791 7,839 8,722 8,773 9,464 9,367 10,432 9,633 9,200 9,200Total consumption 11,700 12,000 13,200 13,900 14,850 15,100 15,900 16,200 16,900 16,400 16,400 16,400The Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area.", "For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions.", "One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals.", "Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area.Practically all Egyptian agriculture takes place in some 25,000 km2 (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta.Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the controversial but ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt, but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion.Larger modern farms are becoming more important in the desert.The agriculture objectives on the desert lands are often questioned; the desert farm lands which were offered regularly at different levels and prices were restricted to a limited group of elites selected very carefully, who later profiteered retailing the granted large desert farm land by pieces.", "This allegedly transforms the desert farms to tourist resorts, hits all government plans to develop and improve the conditions of the poor, and causes serious negative impact on agriculture and the overall national economy over time.", "One company, for example, bought over 70 hectares of large desert farm for a price as low as per square meter and now sells for per square meter.", "In numbers, 70 hectares bought for about US$6,000 in 2000 sells for over US$3.7 million in 2007.Currently, no clear solution exists to deal with these activities.Agriculture biomass, including agricultural wastes and animal manure, produce approximately 30 million metric tons of dry material per year that could be massively and decisively used, ''inter alia'', for generating bioenergy and improve the quality of life in rural Egypt.", "Despite plans of establishing waste-to-energy plants, this resource remains terribly underused.Since early 2008, with the world food prices soaring, especially for grains, calls for striking a \"new deal\" on agriculture increased.", "Indeed, 2008 arguably marks the birth of a new national agriculture policy and reform.Acquisition and ownership of desert land in Egypt is governed by so-called \"Egyptian Desert Land Law\".", "It defines desert land as the land two kilometers outside the border of the city.", "Foreign partners and shareholders may be involved in ownership of the desert land, provided Egyptians own at least 51% of the capital.=== Water resources ===The Nile river at Aswan.", "\"Egypt\", wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, \"is the gift of the Nile.\"", "The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive oasis.", "Without the Nile River, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam.", "Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about wide at the seaward base and about from south to north.Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1960, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood.", "Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser.", "The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam.", "The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on thousands of square kilometers of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of millions of gigajoules of electricity at low cost.=== Groundwater ===The rain falling on the coast of the southern regions are the main source of recharge of the main reservoir.", "There is a free-floating layer of the reservoir water on top of sea water up to a distance of 20 km south of the Mediterranean Sea.", "The majority of wells in the coastal plain depend on the water level in the main reservoir.", "The coastal water supply comes from water percolating through the coastal sand and water runoff from the south.", "This low salinity water is used for many purposes.=== Mineral and energy resources ===An offshore platform in the Darfeel Gas FieldEgypt's mineral and energy resources include petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, gold and iron ore. Crude oil is found primarily in the Gulf of Suez and in the Western Desert.", "Natural gas is found mainly in the Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean shore, and in the Western Desert.", "Oil and gas accounted for approximately 7% of GDP in fiscal year 2000–01.Export of petroleum and related products amounted to US$2.6 billion in the year 2000.In late 2001, Egypt's benchmark \"Suez Blend\" was about US$16.73 per barrel ($105/m³), the lowest price since 1999.Egypt's oil consumption is overtaking oil production.Crude oil production has been in decline for several years since its peak level in 1993, from in 1993 to in 1997 and to in 2005.", "(See Figure).", "At the same time, the domestic consumption of oil increased steadily ( and in 1997 and 2005 respectively), but in 2008, oil consumption reached to .", "It is easy to see from the graph that a linear trend projects that domestic demand outpaced supply in (2008–2009), turning Egypt to a net importer of oil.", "To minimize this potential, the government of Egypt has been encouraging the exploration, production and domestic consumption of natural gas.", "Oil Production was in 2008, and natural gas output continued to increase and reached 48.3 billion cubic meters in 2008.Egypt's net natural gas exports.Domestic resources meet only about 33% of Egypt's domestic demand, meaning large imports from Saudi Arabia, UAE and Iraq are necessary.Over the last 15 years, more than 180 petroleum exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than US$27 billion in exploration companions.", "These activities led to the findings of about 18 crude oil fields and 16 natural gas fields in FY 2001.The total number of findings rose to 49 in FY 2005.As a result of these findings, crude oil reserves as of 2009 are estimated at , and proven natural gas reserves are 1.656 trillion cubic meters with likely additional discoveries with more exploration campaigns.In August 2007, it was announced that signs of oil reserves in Kom Ombo basin, about north of Aswan, was found and a concession agreement was signed with Centorion Energy International for drilling.", "The main natural gas producer in Egypt is the International Egyptian Oilfield Company (IEOC), a branch of Italian Eni.", "Other companies including BP, APA Corporation and Royal Dutch Shell carry out activities of exploration and production by means of concessions granted for a period of generally ample time (often 20 years) and in different geographic zones of oil and gas deposits in the country.Gold mining is more recently a fast-growing industry with vast untapped gold reserves in the Eastern Desert.", "To develop this nascent sector the Egyptian government took a first step by awarding mineral concessions, in what was considered the first international bid round.", "Two miners who have produced encouraging technical results include AngloGold Ashanti and Alexander Nubia International.Gold production facilities are now reality from the Sukari Hills, located close to Marsa Alam in the Eastern Desert.", "The concession of the mine was granted to Centamin, an Australian joint stock company, with a gold exploitation lease for a 160-square-kilometer area.", "Sami El-Raghy, Centamin chairman, has repeatedly stated that he believes Egypt's yearly revenues from gold in the future could exceed the total revenues from the Suez Canal, tourism and the petroleum industry.The Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources has established expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives and in 2009 about 38% of local gas production was exported.As of 2009, most Egyptian gas exports (approximately 70%) are delivered in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG) by ship to Europe and the United States.", "Egypt and Jordan agreed to construct the Arab Gas Pipeline from Al Arish to Aqaba to export natural gas to Jordan; with its completion in July 2003, Egypt began to export of gas per year via pipeline as well.", "Total investment in this project is about $220 million.", "In 2003, Egypt, Jordan and Syria reached an agreement to extend this pipeline to Syria, which paves the way for a future connection with Turkey, Lebanon and Cyprus by 2010.As of 2009, Egypt began to export to Syria of gas per year, accounting for 20% of total consumption in Syria.In addition, the East Mediterranean Gas (EMG), a joint company established in 2000 and owned by Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC) (68.4%), the private Israeli company Merhav (25%) as well as Ampal-American Israel Corp. (6.6%), has been granted the rights to export natural gas from Egypt to Israel and other locations in the region via underwater pipelines from Al 'Arish to Ashkelon which will provide Israel Electric Corporation (IEC) of gas per day.", "Gas supply started experimentally in the second half of 2007.As of 2008, Egypt produces about , from which Israel imports of account for about 2.7% of Egypt's total production of natural gas.", "According to a statement released on 24 March 2008, Merhav and Ampal's director, Nimrod Novik, said that the natural gas pipeline from Egypt to Israel can carry up to 9 billion cubic meters annually which sufficiently meet rising demand in Israel in the coming years.According to a memorandum of understanding, the commitment of Egypt is contracted for 15 years at a price below US$3 per million British thermal units, though this was renegotiated at a higher price in 2009 (to between US$4 and US$5 per million BTU), while the amounts of gas supplied were increased.", "Exporting natural gas to Israel faces broad popular opposition in Egypt.Agreements between Egypt and Israel allow for Israeli entities to purchase up to 7 billion cubic meters of Egyptian gas annually, making Israel one of Egypt's largest natural gas export markets.", "The decision to export of natural gas to Israel was passed in 1993 at the time when Dr. Hamdy Al-Bambi was Minister of Petroleum and when Mr. Amr Moussa was Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "The mandate to sign of the memorandum of understanding (MoU) to delegate to the Ministry of Petroleum represented by the Egyptian General Petroleum Company (EGPC) to contract with EMG Company was approved by the former Prime Minister Dr. Atef Ebeid in the Cabinet's meeting No.", "68 on 5 July 2004 when he served as the acting \"President of the Republic\" when President Hosni Mubarak was receiving medical treatment in Germany.A new report by Strategic Foresight Group on the Cost of Conflict in the Middle East also details how in the event of peace an oil and gas pipeline from Port Said to Gaza to Lebanon would result in a transaction value for Egypt to the tune of $1–2 billion per year.As of June 2009, it was reported that Cairo said Israelis will dig for oil in Sinai.", "This report comes in the time in which the government is heavily criticized for exporting natural gas to Israel at an extremely low rate.Starting in 2014, the Egyptian government has been diverting gas supplies produced at home to its domestic market, reducing the volumes available for export in liquefied form.", "According to the memorandum of understanding, the Leviathan field off Israel's Mediterranean coast would supply 7 billion cubic meters annually for 15 years via an underwater pipeline.", "This equates to average volumes of 685 million cubic feet a day, the equivalent of just over 70% of the BG-operated Idku plant's daily volumes.In March 2015, BP Signed a $12 billion deal to develop natural gas in Egypt intended for sale in the domestic market starting in 2017.BP said it would develop a large quantity of offshore gas, equivalent to about one-quarter of Egypt's output, and bring it onshore to be consumed by customers.", "Gas from the project, called West Nile Delta, is expected to begin flowing in 2017.BP said that additional exploration might lead to a doubling of the amount of gas available." ], [ "Main economic sectors", "=== Agricultural sector ======= Irrigation ====Irrigation plays a major role in a country the very livelihood of which depends upon a single river, the Nile.", "Most ambitious of all the irrigation projects is that of the Aswan High Dam, completed in 1971.A report published in March 1975 by the National Council for Production and Economic Affairs indicated that the dam had proved successful in controlling floodwaters and ensuring recurring water supply, but that water consumption had been more than needed and shall be controlled.", "Some precious land was lost below the dam because the flow of Nile silt was stopped, and increased salinity remains a major problem.", "Furthermore, five years of drought in the Ethiopia highlands—the source of the Nile River's water—caused the water level of Lake Nasser, the Aswan High Dam's reservoir, to drop to the lowest level in 1987.In 1996, the level of water behind the High Dam and in Lake Nasser reached the maximum level since the completion of the dam.", "Despite this unusual abundance of water supply, Egypt can only use 55.5 billion cu m (1.96 trillion cu ft) every year, according to the Nile Basin Agreement signed in 1959 between Egypt and Sudan.", "Another major project designed to address the water scarcity problem is the New Valley Project (the \"second Nile\"), aimed at development of the large artesian water supplies underlying the oases of the Western Desert.In 2010 Egypt's fertile area totaled about 3.6 million hectares (8.9 million acres), about one-quarter of which has been reclaimed from the desert after the construction of the Aswan High Dam.", "The government aims to increase this number to 4.8 million hectares by 2030 through additional land reclamation.", "Even though only 3 percent of the land is arable, it is extremely productive and can be cropped two or even three times annually.", "However, the reclaimed lands only add 7 percent to the total value of agricultural production.", "Surface irrigation is forbidden by law in reclaimed lands and is only used in the Nile Valley and the Delta, the use of pressurized irrigation and localized irrigation is compulsory in other parts of the country.", "Most land is cropped at least twice a year, but agricultural productivity is limited by salinity which in 2011 affected 25% of irrigated agriculture to varying degrees.", "This is mainly caused by insufficient drainage as well as seawater intrusion in aquifers as a result of over-extraction of groundwater, the latter primarily affects the Nile Delta.", "Thanks to the installation of drainage systems a reduction in salinized areas from about 1.2 million hectares in 1972 to 900 000 hectares in 2010 was achieved.In the 1970s, despite significant investment in land reclamation, agriculture lost its position as the leading economic sector.", "Agricultural exports, which were 87% of all merchandise export by value in 1960, fell to 35% in 1974 and to 11% by 2001.In 2000, agriculture accounted for 17% of the country's GDP and employed 34% of the workforce.==== Crops ====Sugarcane harvestAccording to 2016 statistics from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Egypt is the world's largest producer of dates; the second largest producer of figs; the third largest producer of onions and eggplants; the fourth largest producer of strawberries and buffalo milk as well as the fifth largest producer of tomatoes and watermelon.Cotton has long been a primary exported cash crop, but it is no longer vital as an export.", "Production in 1999 was 243,000 tons.", "Egypt is also a substantial producer of wheat, maize, sugarcane, fruit and vegetables, fodder, and rice; substantial quantities of wheat are also imported, especially from the United States and Russia, despite increases in yield since 1970, and significant quantities of rice are exported.Citrus, dates, and grapes are the main fruits by cultivated area.", "Agricultural output in tons in 1999 included corn, 9,350,000; wheat, 6,347,000; rice, 5,816,000; potatoes, 1,900,000; and oranges, 1,525,000.The government exercises a strong degree of control over agriculture, not only to ensure the best use of irrigation water but also to confine the planting of cotton in favor of food grains.", "However, the government's ability to achieve this objective is limited by crop rotational constraints.Cacti - especially cactus pears - are extensively grown throughout the country including Sinai, and extending into neighbouring countries.", "They are a crop of the Columbian Exchange.", "Cactus hedges - both intentionally planted and wild garden escapes - formed an important part of defensible positions during the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I.", "Some unfamiliar soldiers even tried eating them, to negative result.==== Land ownership ====Farmland in the Egyptian countrysideThe agrarian reform law of 1952 provided that no one might hold more than 200 feddans, that is, (1 Egyptian feddan=0.42 hectares=1.038 acres), for farming, and that each landholder must either farm the land himself or rent it under specified conditions.", "Up to 100 additional feddans might be held if the owner had children, and additional land had to be sold to the government.", "In 1961, the upper limit of landholding was reduced to 100 feddans, and no person was allowed to lease more than 50 feddans.", "Compensation to the former owners was in bonds bearing a low rate of interest, redeemable within 40 years.", "A law enacted in 1969 reduced landholdings by one person to 50 feddans.By the mid-1980s, 90% of all land titles were for holdings of less than five feddans (), and about 300,000 families, or 8% of the rural population, had received land under the agrarian reform program.", "According to a 1990 agricultural census, there were some three million small land holdings, almost 96% of which were under five feddans.", "As these small landholdings restricted the ability of farmers to use modern machinery and agricultural techniques that improve and take advantage of economies of scale, there have since the late 1980s been many reforms attempting to deregulate agriculture by liberalizing input and output prices and eliminating crop area controls.", "As a result, the gap between world and domestic prices for Egyptian agricultural commodities has been closed.==== Climate change ======= Industrial sector ======= Automobiles manufacturing ====MCV 600 3-axles comfort coach assembled in Egypt.El Nasr Automotive Manufacturing Company is Egypt's state owned automobile company, founded in 1960 in Helwan, Egypt.", "Established in 1962, the company manufactures various vehicles under license from Zastava Automobili, Daimler AG, Kia, and Peugeot.", "Their current lineup consists of the Jeep Cherokee; the open-top, Wrangler-based Jeep AAV TJL; the Kia Spectra; the Peugeot 405; and the Peugeot 406.Other automobile manufacturers in Egypt include Arab American Vehicles, Egy-Tech Engineering, Ghabbour Group, WAMCO (Watania Automotive Manufacturing Company) and MCV.", "MCV was established in 1994 to represent Mercedes-Benz in the commercial vehicle sector in Egypt, producing a range of buses and trucks for domestic sale and for export throughout the Arab World, Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe.", "The manufacturing plant in El Salheya employs c. 2500 people.==== Chemicals ====Abu Qir Fertilizers Company is one of the largest producers of nitrogen fertilizers in Egypt and the MENA region.", "It accounts for nearly 50% of all nitrogen fertilizer production in Egypt.", "The company was established in 1976 with the construction of its first ammonia urea production facility, located in Abu Qir, 20 kilometers east of Alexandria.", "Egypt Basic Industries Corporation (EBIC) is also one of the largest producers of ammonia in the country.==== Consumer electronics and home appliances ====Olympic Group is the largest Egyptian company in the field of domestic appliances.", "The company mainly manufactures washing machines, air conditioners, refrigerators, electric water heaters and gas cookers.Bahgat Group is a leading company in the fields of electronics, home appliances, furniture and real estate.", "It also owns TV stations.", "The group is composed of the following companies: Egy Aircon, International Electronics Products, Electrical Home appliances, General Electronics and Trading, Goldi Trading, Goldi Servicing, Egy Medical, Egyptian Plastic Industry, Egy House, Egy Speakers, Egy Marble, Dreamland and Dream TV.==== Steel industries ====An industrial complex near Edfu.In 2022 Egypt was ranked the 20th largest steel producing country with a production of 9.8 million tons.", "EZDK is the largest steel company in Egypt and the Middle East, today part of Ezz Industries.", "It owns four steel plants in Alexandria, Sadat, Suez and 10th of Ramadan.", "It was ranked 77th on the list of the world's largest steel companies by the World Steel Association in 2020, with a production of 4.57 million tons.==== Textiles and clothing ====Textiles and clothing is one of the largest manufacturing and exporting processes in the country and a huge employment absorber.", "The Egyptian apparel industry is attractive for two reasons.", "Firstly, its proximity to European markets, whose rapidly changing fashions require quick replenishment.", "Egypt's geographical proximity to style-conscious Europe is a logistical advantage.", "Secondly, the production of garments is a low-capital and high-labor-intensive industry, and the local population of 66 million provides a ready workforce as well as a natural local consumer market that acts as a springboard for exports.The textile industry contributes with one quarter of Egypt's non-oil export proceeds, with Cotton textiles comprising the bulk of Egypt's TC export basket.", "The public sector accounts for 90% of cotton spinning, 60% of fabric production and 30% of apparel production in Egypt.", "Misr Fine Spinning and Weaving is the largest enterprise of its kind in Africa and the Middle East.", "The private sector apparel industry is one of the most dynamic manufacturing processes in Egypt.The requirements of importers to Egypt of textiles and leather products were set out in the Egyptian Ministerial decrees 626/2011 and 660/2011.The Egyptian trade oversight agency, the General Organization for Export and Import Control (GOEIC), demanded in June 2012 that an inspection certificate accompany each shipment, unless the importer is pre-registered with the GOEIC.", "The Ministerial Decrees demand that imported goods certify their compliance with the mandatory quality and safety standards of Egypt.Arafa Holding is a global apparel manufacturer and retailer, operating through a strong vertically integrated platform at the local & international levels.=== Energy sector ===Egypt suffered blackouts during the summer of 2014 that lasted for up to six hours per day.", "A rapid series of reforms cut energy subsidies, and Egypt quickly developed the Zohr gas field in the Mediterranean, which was discovered in 2015.The country now has an oversupply of electricity and aims to source 20% of its electricity from renewables by 2022 and 55% by 2050.Egypt and Cyprus are considering implementing the proposed EuroAfrica Interconnector project.", "This consists of laying a 2000 MW HVDC undersea power cable between them and between Cyprus and Greece, thus connecting Egypt to the greater European power grid.", "Interconnector will transform Egypt in electricity hub between Europe and Africa.", "President of Egypt Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, President of Cyprus Nicos Anastasiades and the Prime Minister of Greece Alexis Tsipras met in Nicosia on 21 November 2017 and showed their full support for the EuroAfrica Interconnector pointing out its importance for energy security of three countries.On 29 October 2007, Egypt's president, Hosni Mubarak gave the go-ahead for building several nuclear power plants.", "Egypt's nuclear route is purely peaceful and fully transparent, but faces technical and financing obstacles.", "Egypt is a member of the IAEA and has both signed and ratified the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT).", "Currently, a draft Law on Nuclear Energy is being reviewed by the IAEA and expected to be passed by the Egyptian Parliament.", "Many other countries in the region, including Libya, Jordan, UAE, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia aspire to build nuclear power plants.=== Construction and contracting sector ===Orascom Construction Industries is a leading Egyptian EPC (engineering, procurement and construction) contractor, based in Cairo, Egypt and active in more than 20 countries.", "OCI was established in Egypt in 1938 and owned by Onsi Sawiris.", "It was nationalized in 1953 and then again de-nationalized in 1977.The company is the first multinational Egyptian corporation, and is one of the core Orascom Group companies.", "As a cement producer, OCI owned and operated cement plants in Egypt, Algeria, Turkey, Pakistan, northern Iraq and Spain, which had a combined annual production capacity of 21 million tons.The Talaat Moustafa Group (TMG), one of the largest conglomerates in Egypt, was founded by the former Talaat Moustafa and is headed by his son, Hisham Talaat Moustafa.==== New cities ====The proposed new capital of Egypt is a large-scale project under construction since 2015, and was announced by then-Egyptian housing minister Moustafa Madbouly at the Egypt Economic Development Conference on 13 March 2015.New Alamein is another city that is currently being built in Egypt's north coast planned on an area of 48,000 feddans.", "New Alamein is one of the fourth generation cities being built in Egypt, and the first phase is scheduled to be concluded in a year.=== Services sector ======= Banking and insurance ====The banking sector has gone through many stages since the establishment of the first bank in 1856, followed by the emergence of private sector and joint venture banks during the period of the Open Door Policy in the 1970s.", "Moreover, the Egyptian banking sector has been undergoing reforms, privatization, and mergers and acquisitions from 1991 up to today.The banking system comprises 57 state-owned commercial banks.", "This includes 28 commercial banks, four of which are state-owned, 26 investment banks (11 joint venture banks and 15 branches of foreign banks), and three specialized banks.", "Although private and joint venture banks are growing, many remain relatively small with few branch networks.", "State-owned commercial banks still rank among the top lenders in Egypt's banking sector.", "Over the past decades, European banks have been exiting Egypt's financial sector.", "For instance, France's Société Générale sold National Société Générale Bank to Qatar National Bank (QNB) in 2012 which has been rebranded as QNB Alahli.Egypt's banking system has undergone major reforms since the 1990s and today consumers are faced with a liberalized and modernized system which is supervised and regulated according to internationally accepted standards.Although the mortgage market is underdeveloped in Egypt and as yet foreigners cannot yet obtain a mortgage for a property in Egypt.", "In the near future, a new mortgage law will enable purchasers to take out property loans.", "This will open up the market considerably and create a storm of development and real estate activity in the near future.==== Communications ====Road in Marsa AlamEgypt has long been the cultural and informational centre of the Arab world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting centre.The telecommunications liberalisation process started in 1998 and is still ongoing, but at a slow pace.", "Private sector companies operate in mobile telephony, and Internet access.", "There were 10 million fixed phone lines, 31 million mobile phones, and 8.1 million Internet users by the August 2007.==== Transport ====The Cairo Metro.Transport in Egypt is centered around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile.", "The main line of the nation's railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways.", "The road network has expanded rapidly to over , covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.In addition to overseas routes, Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub.", "The Nile River system (about .)", "and the principal canals (1,600 km.)", "are used for local transportation.The Suez Canal is a major waterway for international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea.", "It is run by the Suez Canal Authority, headquartered in Port Said.", "The ministry of transportation, along with other governmental bodies are responsible for transportation in Egypt.", "Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez, Ain Sokhna and Safaga on the Red Sea.==== Tourism sector ====The Egyptian tourism industry is one of the most important sectors in the economy, in terms of high employment and incoming foreign currency.", "It has many constituents of tourism, mainly historical attractions especially in Cairo, Luxor and Aswan, but also beach and other sea activities.", "The government actively promotes foreign tourism since it is a major source of currency and investment.", "The political instability since January 2011 caused a reduction in tourism, but the next year it was rising.", "In Upper Egypt, tourists that \"provided one of the most important sources of income besides farming has dried out\".Grand Egyptian MuseumEgypt's government announced the work on multiple projects within the tourism sector, most prominently the Grand Egyptian Museum.", "Set to open in June 2021, becoming the largest museum in the world." ], [ "Emerging sectors", "=== ICT sector ===Smart Village, a business district in 6th of October (city) established in 2001 to facilitate the growth of high-tech businesses.The Egyptian information and communications technology sector has been growing significantly since it was separated from the transportation sector.", "The market for telecommunications market was officially deregulated since the beginning of 2006 according to the WTO agreement signed in 2003.The government established ITIDA through Law 15 of the year 2004 as governmental entity.", "This agency aims at paving the way for the diffusion of the e-business services in Egypt capitalizing on different mandates of the authority as activating the Egyptian e-signature law and supporting an export-oriented IT sector in Egypt.While the move could open the market for new entrants, add and improve the infrastructure for its network, and in general create a competitive market, the fixed line market is de facto monopolized by Telecom Egypt.The cellular phone market was a duopoly with prices artificially high but witnessed in the past couple of years the traditional price war between the incumbents Mobinil and Vodafone.", "A 500 minutes outbound local and long-distance calling plan currently costs approximately US$30 as compared to approximately US$90 in 2005.While the current price is not so expensive, it is still above the international price as plans never allow \"unlimited night & weekend minutes.A third GSM 3.5G license was awarded in April 2006 for US$3 billion to a consortium led by the UAE company Eitesalat (66%), Egypt Post (20%), the National Bank of Egypt (NBE) (10%), and the NBE's Commercial International Bank (4%), thus moving the market from duopoly to oligopoly.On 24 September 2006, the National Telecommunication Regulatory Authority (NTRA) announced a license award to Egyptian-Arab private sector consortium of companies to extend a maritime cable for international traffic.", "The US$120 million cable project will serve the Gulf region and south Europe.", "The construction of the cable should decrease the currently high international call costs and increase domestic demand on internet broadband services, in importantly increase exports of international telecommunication services of Egyptian companies, mostly in the Smart Village.It is expected that NTRA will award two licenses for international gateways using open technology and deploy WiMax technology enabling the delivery of last-mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to ADSL.The main barrier to growth for Egypt's ICT sector is the monopoly of telecommunication corporations and quarreling workforce." ], [ "Largest companies", "In 2009, three Egyptian companies were listed in the Forbes Global 2000 list – an annual ranking of the top 2000 public companies in the world by Forbes magazine.", "These companies were:World Rank Company Industry Revenue (billion $) Profits (billion $) Assets (billion $) Market Value (billion $) 785 Orascom Construction Industries Construction 2.42 1.83 17.21 4.16 846 Orascom Telecom Telecommunications Services 4.83 2.08 11.42 3.15 1384 Telecom Egypt Telecommunications Services 1.80 0.43 6.19 4.51" ], [ "Investment", "The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Egypt was valued at $79.672 billion in 2005 by the World Bank dropping to $58 billion in 2012.=== Investment climate ===The Egyptian equity market is one of the most developed in the region with more than 633 listed companies.", "Market capitalization on the exchange doubled in 2005 from US$47.2 billion to US$93.5 billion in 2006, peaking at US$139 billion in 2007.Subsequently, it has fallen to US$58 billion in 2012, with turnover surging from US$1.16 billion in January 2005 to US$6 billion in January 2006.Private equity has not been widely used in Egypt in the past as a source of funding for businesses.", "The government, however, has instituted a number of policy changes and reforms specifically intended to develop internal private equity funds and to attract private equity funding from international sources.The major industries include textiles, hydrocarbon and chemical production, and generic pharmaceutical production.", "Unemployment is high at about 10.5%.Until 2003, the Egyptian economy suffered from shortages in foreign currency and excessively elevated interest rates.", "A series of budget reforms were conducted to redress weaknesses in Egypt's economic environment and to boost private sector involvement and confidence in the economy.Major fiscal reforms were introduced in 2005 to tackle the informal sector which according to estimates represents somewhere between 30% and 60% of GDP.", "Significant tax cuts for corporations were introduced for the first time in Egyptian history.", "The new Income tax Law No 91 for 2005 reduced the tax rate from 40% to 20%.", "According to government figures, tax filing by individuals and corporations increased by 100%.Many changes were made to cut trade tariffs.", "Among the legislators' goals were tackling the Black Market, reducing bureaucracy and pushing through trade liberalization measures.", "Amendments to Investment and Company law were introduced to attract foreign investors.", "For example, the number of days required for establishing a company was dramatically reduced.Significant improvement to the domestic economic environment increased investors' confidence in Egypt.", "The Cairo & Alexandria Stock Exchange is considered among the best ten emerging markets in the world.", "The changes to the policy also attracted increased levels of foreign direct investment in Egypt.", "According to the UN Conference on Trade and Development's World Investment Report, Egypt was ranked the largest country in attracting foreign investment in Africa.Given the large number of amendments to laws and regulations, Egypt has succeeded to a certain extent in conforming to international standards.", "Very recently the Cairo & Alexandria Stock Exchange (CASE) was welcomed with full membership into the World Federation of Exchanges (WFE)—the first Arab country to be invited.Enforcement of these newly adopted regulatory frameworks remain, sometime problematic.", "Problems like corruption hamper economic development in Egypt.", "Many scandals involving bribery were reported during the past years.", "\"In 2002 alone, as many as 48 high-ranking officials—including former cabinet ministers, provincial governors and MPs were convicted of influence peddling, profiteering and embezzlement.", "Maintaining good relations with politicians is sometimes a key to business success in Egypt.", "On a scale from 0 to 10 (with 0 being highly corrupt), Egypt scored a 3.3.”According to a study by the International Organization for Migration, 20% of Egyptian remittance-receiving households interviewed channelled the remittances towards various forms of investment, while the large majority (80%) was more concerned about using remittances for meeting the daily needs of their families including spending on health care and education.", "Among the 20% of households that decided to invest, 39% invested in real estate, 22% invested in small businesses employing fewer than five people and the smallest proportions of investors (6%) invested in medium private business employing no more than 20 people.", "According to Egypt's Human Development Report 2008, despite representing approximately 5% of GDP, remittances provided the initial capital for only 1.4% of newly established small and medium enterprises in Egypt in 2003–2004.On 14 March 2020, the government of Egypt published Parliament Law No.", "190 – which was established in the year 2019 – regarding getting Egyptian citizenship through investment.", "The minimum required contribution is US$250,000 with total procedure completion expected within a 6-9 month timeframe." ], [ "Response to the global financial crisis", "The challenges of the global food crisis followed by challenges of the global financial crisis made room for more integrated policy reforms.", "Considering the massive economic measures that have been taken over the past 12 months or so, Egyptian economic policymakers score high based on the inside lag, i.e.", "the lapse of time between the moment that the shock began to affect the economy and the moment that economic (monetary and fiscal) policy as well as the regulatory policy are altered and put into effect in response to the shock to various markets: goods market (real GDP), the labor market (unemployment rate), money market (interest rate and inflation), and the financial (stock and bond) market.", "Indeed, moderate financial panic occurred driven—at least partially—by the fear that other investors are about to panic and sell.", "There were falls in stock and bond market prices, and rises in nominal interest rates.Egypt has a population of about 97 million, with the population concentrated within a region on either side of the Nile River.", "The majority of the population is employed in the services sector, followed by agriculture and industrial production.", "Approximately one-third of Egyptian labour is engaged directly in farming, and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products.Unemployment rate increased from 10.3% in FY2004 to 11.2% in 2005.The average rate of growth of employment in the publicly owned enterprises sector was −2% per year between FY1998 and FY2005 as a result of aggressive privatization program.", "On the other hand, private sector employment grew at an average rate of 3% over that period.", "In addition, the government sector employment grew by almost double the rate of the private sector over the same period.In general, the average weekly wage in the private sector is, in many instances, higher than that of the public sector.", "In some other instances, e.g.", "whole sale and retail trades, the weekly wage is lower by half of that in the public sector.As a result of the weakness role of the Ministry of Manpower and Trade Unions to create a balance between the rights of workers and the interests of owners of companies in the private sector, privatization has led to worsening employment problems and deterioration in their working environment and health, and many workers have recently resorted to strike and picketing.In an effort to quell discontent over rising food prices, Egypt offered government and public sector workers a pay rise of up to 30%.", "The offer came on the May day speech delivered by President Mubarak to the Egyptian General Federation of Trade Unions.", "\"We must go in dealing with the current global (food) crisis, on two basic tracks (1) we must strengthen the food security of our low-income people, (2) we must achieve a balance between wages and prices.\"", "President Mubarak said.The pay rise originally proposed in the government budget ranged between 15% and 20%, but the decision to double it was given on heightened worries that widespread anger over prices could lead to a social explosion.", "The pay rise is initiated immediately, rather than waiting for the start of the new fiscal year on 1 July 2008 and is to be financed from real resources.While the headline CPI inflation rate was 15.8% (17.6% in rural areas, 14.4% in urban areas) in March 2008, the overall food price inflation rate was 23.7% (26.9% in rural areas, 20.5% in urban areas).", "Moreover, in April 2008 in urban areas, the headline CPI inflation rate reached 16.4% while food price inflation rate was 22.0%.", "This underlines the statement in that \"the inflation rate as measured by the headline CPI does not concern the poor and low-income people, who are the majority of people in rural and urban Egypt, since they spend most of their income on food.\"", "Approximately 55 million poor and low-income citizens, representing about 75% of the population, are currently enrolled in food ration cards.In April 2009 it was reported that Egypt feared the return of 500,000 Egyptian laborers working in the Gulf states.In May 2019, CAPMAS reported that the annual urban consumer price inflation of Egypt has been eased to 13% in April from 14.2% in March." ], [ "Poverty and income distribution", "The Minister of Economic Development, Othman Mohamed Othman, once mentioned that the poverty rate in Egypt had risen from 19 percent of the population in 2005 to 21 percent in 2009.In 2010–2011, the poverty rate in Egypt had risen to 25% of the population.Street vendors in Cairo.Various statistical databases show that Egypt has:* A population of 102 million, with 33 percent who are 14 years and below; and 30 percent of the population living below the poverty line.", "* A labor force of 29 million, with 32 percent working in agriculture, 17 percent in industry, and 51 percent in the service sector.", "* An unemployment rate of 7.3 percent.", "* A literacy rate of above 76 percent, with males at 79 percent and females at 70 percentAccording to the 2005 Household Income, Expenditure and Consumption Survey (HIECS), estimated per capita poverty lines vary across the regions.", "Data from a World Bank and Ministry of Economic Development poverty assessment based on comparisons between actual expenditures (and the cost of a consumption basket securing 2470 calories per day per person), shows that individual Egyptians who spent less than per year in 2005 are considered extreme poor, those who spent less than per year are poor and those who spent less than per year are near poor.Cairo slums.Overall about 29.7% of the Egyptian population are in the range of extreme poor to near poor:* 21% of the Egyptian population was near poor, meaning that about 14.6 million Egyptians can obtain their basic food requirements in addition to some basic services.", "* 19.6% of the Egyptian population was poor, meaning that about 13.6 million Egyptians (one out of every five) had consumption expenditure below the poverty line and could not therefore obtain their basic food and non-food needs.", "* 3.8% of the Egyptian population was extreme poor, meaning that about 2.6 million of the Egyptian poor could not obtain their basic food requirements even if they spent all their expenditure on food.Poverty has a strong regional dimension in Egypt and concentrates in Upper Egypt, both urban (18.6%) and rural (39.1), while metropolitan areas are the least poor (5.7%).", "The government is currently employing a recently completed poverty map as a tool for geographic targeting of public resources.According to a report published by the World Bank in April 2019, 60% population of the country is \"either poor or vulnerable\".", "Egypt's national poverty rate was 24.3% in 2010 and moved up to around 30% by 2015.According to the 2019 Global Hunger Index, Egypt suffers from a moderate level of hunger, ranking 61 of 117 countries, compared to 61 of 119 countries in 2018.Food affordability, quality and safety remain challenges as Egypt continues to rely on global markets for more than half of its staples." ], [ "Causes of poverty", "=== High cost of doing business ===According to Rapid Assessment surveys conducted by the World Bank Group in 2011 and 2012, business managers rank informal gifts or payments, anticompetitive practices and regulatory policy uncertainty high on the list of obstacles to creating and growing a business.", "In addition, the amount of paperwork required for construction, imports, and exports is burdensome and the time for the government to process this paperwork is lengthy.", "Traders need to submit eight documents to export and ten to import—as opposed to France, for example, where only 2 documents are needed both for imports and exports.", "Additionally, there is no bankruptcy law in Egypt and entrepreneurs who fail to repay their debts can face prison.=== High population growth ===Egypt's fertility rate has dramatically declined since the 1960s (6.6 children per woman) to about 3.2 children per woman in 2021 but is still considered fairly high.", "Egypt's population grew from 44 million in 1981 to more than 106 million today.=== Corruption ===Businesses having more informal connections within the government receive preferable treatment navigating through Egypt's cumbersome regulatory framework, providing a disincentive for competition.", "An inefficient and sporadically enforced legal system and a widespread culture of corruption leave businesses reliant on the use of middlemen (known as wasta) to operate, and well-connected businesses enjoy privileged treatment.", "Facilitation payments are an established part of 'getting things done', despite irregular payments and gifts being criminalized.", "Egypt is the 117 least corrupt nation out of 175 countries, according to the 2017 Corruption Perceptions Index reported by Transparency International.", "Corruption Rank in Egypt averaged 86.48 from 1996 until 2017, reaching an all-time high of 118 in 2012 and a record low of 41 in 1996.Facilitation payments are regarded as bribery in many countries, which prevents many foreign entities from financial involvement with Egypt since they are a required part of doing business.", "Corruption makes the costs of both local goods as well as imports higher, decreasing the purchasing power of individuals which magnifies poverty.=== Ineffective policies ===The country lacks sustainable pragmatic policies to combat poverty.", "Although these policies were adopted in an attempt to reduce economic burdens on the poor, they benefited the rich more which caused more problems to the poor and increased the burdens of the government.", "In fact, 83 percent of food subsidy, 76 percent of electricity subsidy, 87 percent of petroleum subsidy and 76 percent of the social safety net subsidy went to the non-poor instead of the poor.The failure in efficiently using the past bailout by the IMF has landed Egypt again in the same economic condition in August 2022 where it started.", "Egypt sought for a new loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in August 2022, in order to deal with the fallout from sudden surge in prices, impacting the economic rights of the Egyptian people devastatingly.", "In July 2022, President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi requested his European allies to back him up in convincing the international financial institutions (IFI), including the IMF that the “situation in our country does not tolerate the applicable standards at this stage”, raising questions about what standards did he mean.", "Meanwhile, Sisi has been criticized for historically introducing economic policies that majorly benefited the elite, instead of protecting the public from the crisis.", "The Human Rights Watch demanded that IMF consider the human rights record of the Sisi regime as well as the failure of efficiently using the bailout funds by the IMF and other institutions." ], [ "Regional GDP", "Data shown are for the year 2021 in nominal numbers.", "Governorate GDP (billion EGP) GDP (billion US$) Cairo 1,876.650 119.543 Giza 770.071 49.054 Alexandria 565.876 36.046 Qalyubiyya 339.316 21.614 Sharqia 302.065 19.242 Dakahlia 294.016 18.729 Beheira 288.857 18.400 Port Said 190.154 12.113 Gharbia 173.763 11.069 Monufia 157.267 10.018 Kafr El Sheikh 151.053 9.622 Faiyum 133.504 8.504 Minya 130.976 8.343 Asyut 126.143 8.035 Suez 119.129 7.589 Matrouh 115.552 7.361 Damietta 110.340 7.029 Sohag 107.757 6.864 Ismailia 91.127 5.805 Beni Suef 87.194 5.554 Qena 80.395 5.121 Aswan 76.265 4.858 Red Sea 75.872 4.833 South Sinai 58.386 3.719 North Sinai 48.932 3.117 Luxor 46.634 2.971 New Valley 16.963 1.081 '''''' '''6,627.028''' '''422.142'''" ], [ "Role of the military", "The Egyptian armed forces have wielded substantial influence over Egypt's economy.", "Military-run companies play a pivotal role across various industries, contributing significantly to public spending on housing and infrastructure, including activities such as cement and food production, as well as infrastructure development like roads and bridges.", "According to a study by the Carnegie Middle East Centre, the Egyptian army has control over about 25% of public spending allocated to housing and infrastructure.", "Despite Egypt's commitment to reducing the military's economic impact per its agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), recent developments indicate an opposing trend.", "The National Service Products Organization (NSPO), a firm under military ownership, is currently constructing new factories for the production of fertilizers, irrigation machines, and veterinary vaccines.", "The government discussed selling stakes in military-run companies Safi and Wataniya for two years.", "Despite claims of receiving offers, there are visible asset transfers, like the rebranding of Wataniya franchises into ChillOut stations.", "The army's expanding economic influence, from petrol stations to media, has stifled competition, hindered private investment and contributing to slower growth, higher prices, and limited opportunities for ordinary Egyptians." ], [ "See also", "* The Sovereign Fund of Egypt* Egypt* Emerging markets* List of companies of Egypt* Next Eleven* Qualifying Industrial Zone* Waste Management in Egypt* United Nations Economic Commission for: Africa & Western Asia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Egypt: Reforms Trigger Economic Growth* * Transparency International website* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Egypt* Economy of Egypt extracted from the CIA Factbook & Worldbank data" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "Egypt has long been the cultural and informational centre of the Middle East and North Africa, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting centre." ], [ "Telecommunication in Egypt", "=== Press ===There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals.", "The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan debate on public issues.=== Mail ===Egypt Post is the government-owned body that provides postal services.=== Radio ===:''See also Egyptian Radio and Television Union & List of radio stations in Egypt''The first radio service in Egypt began in 1925.It is almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations.", "There are seven regional radio stations covering the country.", "Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt.", "In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station.", "So far, they include news, music, and sports.", "Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.", "Starting 2003, Nile Radio Productions, a private company, was given license to operate two radio stations; Nile FM and Nogoum FM.", "Nile FM broadcasts in English and Nogoom FM broadcasts in Egyptian.", "Both stations mostly broadcast mainly to the Greater Cairo region.", "In the early 2009, Radio Masr was launched, broadcasting popular Egyptian songs, news & other programs.=== Television ===:''See also Egyptian television''Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ERTU) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue.", "ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world.", "ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels.", "Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast.", "In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101.Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama.", "A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000.Many of its channels are rented to other stations.Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy.", "Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news.", "Both private channels transmit on NileSat.In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.=== Landline telephony ===:''See also Telephone numbers in Egypt''Currently, there is a single company in charge of landline telephony, Telecom Egypt which is also government-controlled.=== Cellular communications ===:''See also Telephone numbers in Egypt''Currently, there are four companies which offer cellular communication service: Orange, Vodafone, Etisalat, and We (by Telecom Egypt).", "These companies also provide services surpassing voice communication, such as 4G, 3G, and mobile internet.=== Internet ===The Internet companies market is dealt to two: infrastructure providers and service providers.", "* Vodafone Egypt* { NOOR Data Network}* Telecom Egypt* Orange DSL* Etisalat EgyptThere are 8 major Service Provider companies which sell their services to smaller ISPs.", "The highest available speed through ADSL technologies was upgraded to 8Mb in download in February 2008 and then to 24Mb later that year.The Egyptian ISP market is not competitive, at least in Cairo and Alexandria, with only 3 ISPs offering below-average speeds(Up to 16Mbit/s).Orascom, one of the shareholders in the leading cellular operator MobiNil, is also the biggest player in the Internet service provision market and owns 75 per cent of one of Egypt's largest ISP, LINKdotNET.", "The tie-up with the mobile operator is significant in that WAP services were introduced in May for a trial period, making Egypt one of the first countries in Africa to have introduced WAP.NileOnline and Egynet has been recently sold to Etisalat, increasing Etisalat access into the broadband market.", "with this acquisition all class I tier ISPs mentioned above are owned by the major telecommunication companies operating in the country.Raya is owned by Vodafone Egypt, Nileonline and Egynet are now owned by Etisalat, TEdata is owned and operated by the oldest telecom company in the region telecom Egypt and link.net is owned by Orascom telecom.On January 27, 2011, almost all internet connectivity to Egypt was shut off by the Egyptian government.=== Wireless Internet ===Egypt is following closely the efforts to standardize WiMax technologies as they permit simpler and faster access to Internet services, especially as WiMax receivers are integrated into PC processors.The government is still also holding discussions with relevant stakeholders to determine the best policy framework for introducing WiMax into the market through existing or new operators.", "Satellite" ], [ "Communication companies in Egypt", "=== Landline telephony service === Telecom Egypt=== Cellular communication service ===* Orange* Vodafone* Etisalat* Telecom Egypt* WE" ], [ "Statistics", "=== Telephones ===: main lines in use: 10.808 million (2006)=== Telephones ===: mobile cellular: 300.047 million (2007)=== Telephone system ===: large system; underwent extensive upgrading during the 1990s and is reasonably modern; Telecom Egypt, the landline monopoly, has been increasing service availability and in 2006 fixed-line density stood at 14 per 100 persons; as of 2007 there were three mobile-cellular networks and service is expanding rapidly=== domestic ===: principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay=== International ===: landing point for both the SEA-ME-WE-3 AND SEA-ME-WE-4 submarine cable networks; linked to the international submarine cable FLAG (Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe); satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel=== Radio broadcast stations ===: AM 42 (plus 15 repeaters), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)=== Radios ===3.07 million (1997)=== Television Broadcast Stations ===: 98 (1995)=== Internet Service Providers (ISPs) ===: 220 (2008)Class A Data Service Providers in Egypt:'''International Wholesale & Enterprise services''':1- NOOR Data Network.2- TE Data (WE).3- Vodafone Egypt.4- Orange Egypt.5- Etisalat Egypt.", "'''Mobile-Data & consumer services''':1 - Orange.", "(4G/Broadband)2 - WE (Broadband/PRI/Landline)3- Vodafone.", "(4G/Broadband)4- Etisalat.", "(4G/Broadband)5- NOOR Telecommunications (Broadband, Premium-Broadband & mVPN).=== Internet Hosts ===: 5,363 (2007)=== People connected to the internet ===: 12,568,900(As of June 2009);Country codes: .EG (Top-level domain)" ], [ "Telephone prefixes", "Country code: +2(0)Mobile services:* Orange : 012* Vodafone: 010* Etisalat: 011* We (Telecom Egypt): 015Governorate code: ;Cairo (Capital), Giza: 2(Includes following cities: Cairo, Giza, 6th Of October, Helwan, New Cairo);Alexandria: 3;Banha: 13;10th of Ramadan: 15;Tanta: 40;Damanhour: 45;Marsa Matrouh: 46;Kafer El Sheik: 47;Menouf: 48;Mansoura: 50;Zagazig: 55;Damiette: 57;Suez: 62;Ismailia: 64;Red Sea: 65;Port Said: 66;El Arish: 68;El Tour: 69;Bani Suef: 82;Fayyoum: 84;Minia: 86;Assiout: 88;El Wadi El Gedid: 92;Sohag: 93;Luxor: 95;Qena: 96;Aswan: 97" ], [ "See also", "* Media of Egypt* Broadband internet in Egypt" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Public domain text from State.gov* List of Egyptian Newspapers and Magazines" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Egypt''' is centered in Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile.", "The Ministry of Transportation and other government bodies are responsible for transportation in Egypt, whether by sea, river, land or air.With regards to rail, air and waterway travel, the main line of the nation's rail system follows along the Nile river and is operated by Egyptian National Railways.", "In addition to overseas routes, Egypt Air provides domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub.", "The Nile River system (about ) and the principal canals () are important locally for transportation.", "People still travel via the Nile, mainly between Cairo and Aswan.", "The Suez Canal is a major waterway for international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea.", "Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, Damietta on the Mediterranean and Suez and Safaga on the Red Sea.With regards to driving, Egypt has one of the highest incidents of road fatalities, per miles driven, in the world.", "The badly maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over , covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai and the Western oasis.", "Traffic rules are routinely ignored by impatient drivers." ], [ "Road system", "Road in Marsa Alam.Two routes in the Trans-African Highway network originate in Cairo.", "Egypt also has multiple highway links with Asia through the Arab Mashreq International Road Network.Egypt has a developing motorway network, connecting Cairo with Alexandria and other cities.", "Though most of the transport in the country is still done on the national highways, motorways are becoming increasingly an option in road transport within the country.", "The existing motorways in the country are:Cairo - Alexandria Desert Road: It runs between Cairo and Alexandria, with an extension of , it is the main motorway in Egypt.", "International Coastal Road: It runs from Alexandria to Port Said, along the Northern Nile Delta.", "It has a length of .", "Also, amongst other cities, it connects Damietta and Baltim.", "Geish Road: It runs between Helwan and Asyut, along the Nile River, also connecting Beni Suef and Minya.", "Its length is .", "Ring Road: It serves as an inner ring-road for Cairo.", "It has a length of .", "Regional Ring Road: It serves as an outer ring road for Cairo, also connecting its suburbs like Helwan and 10th of Ramadan City.", "Its length is .Plus, Egypt has developed an extensive system of 4-lane highways that can be classified as freeways, because they serve as normal roads and do not discriminate the traffic on it, thus rendering them slower than motorways." ], [ "Railways", "Egypt railway networkThe Egyptian railway system is the oldest railway network in Africa and the Middle East and the second oldest in the world .", "The first line between Alexandria and Kafer Eassa was opened in 1854.In 2018, the system is about long and is operated by the Egyptian National Railways.", "ENR carries about 800 million passengers and 12 million tonnes of freight annually.A major investment programme was planned to begin in 2007 with the aim of modernizing the rail network and improving safety standards.", "Trains are usually a safe means of transportation in Egypt.The city of Cairo is served by the Cairo Metro, which is run by the National Authority for Tunnels, in addition to the city of Alexandria that is served by the Alexandria TramThe Railway System of Egypt" ], [ "Waterways", "There are of waterways in Egypt, including the Nile, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and many smaller canals in the Nile Delta.Satellite image of ''Ever Given'' blocking the canal in March 2021The Suez Canal, (including approaches), is used by oceangoing vessels, drawing up to 17.68 m of water (2011)." ], [ "Pipelines", "As of 2018 the information in the CIA World Factbook states the following regarding Egypt's pipelines: \"condensate 486 km; condensate/gas 74 km; gas 7,986 km; liquid petroleum gas 957 km; oil 5,225 km; oil/gas/water 37 km; refined products 895 km; water 65 km (2013)\"" ], [ "Ports", "Egypt has 15 commercial ports and 29 specialized ports.", "The specialized ports include 5 tourist seaports, 12 petroleum seaports, 6 mining seaports, and 6 fishing seaports.===Commercial Ports=== Alexandria Port* El-Dekheila Port* Damietta Port* Port Said Port* East Port Said Port* Arish Port* Suez Port* Petroleum Dock Port* Adabiya Port* Sokhna Port* Nuwaiba Port* Al-Tour Port* Sharm El Sheikh Port* Hurghada Port* Safaga Port" ], [ "Merchant marine", "In 2018, the number of Egypt's sea vessels, according to the CIA World Factbook is 399 as follows:* bulk carrier: 14* container ship: 8* general cargo: 33* petroleum tanker: 36* Other: 308 (2017)" ], [ "Airports", "Cairo International Airport is used by numerous international airlines, including the country's own Egypt Air and Nile Air.", "===Airports with paved runways===''total:'' 72''over 3,047 m:'' 15''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 36''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 15''914 to 1,523 m:'' 0''under 914 m:'' 6 (2017)===Airports with unpaved runways===''total:'' 11''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 3''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4''under 914 m:'' 3 (2013)" ], [ "Heliports", "* 7 (2013)" ], [ "Monorail", "In 2015, plans to construct two monorail systems were announced, one linking October City to suburban Giza, a distance of 35 km, and the other linking Nasr City to New Cairo and the New Administrative Capital, a distance of 52 km.", "They will be Egypt's first monorail systems.", "In May 2019, the contract to build 70 four-car trains was awarded to Bombardier Transportation, Derby, England.", "Delivery of the trains is expected between 2021 and 2024.The network is to be built by Orascom Construction and Arab Contractors." ], [ "See also", "* Transport in Cairo* Arab Union for Land Transport Company* List of bus companies in Egypt* List of lighthouses in Egypt" ], [ "External links", "* Map* Egyptian National Railways* The Holding Company for Maritime and Land Transport (archived 24 February 2018)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Egyptian Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Egyptian Armed Forces''' () are the military forces of the Arab Republic of Egypt.", "They consist of the Egyptian Army, Egyptian Navy, Egyptian Air Force and Egyptian Air Defense Forces.The President of the Republic serves as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.", "The Minister of Defence and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the senior uniformed officer, is Colonel General Mohamed Zaki (since June 2018), and the Chief of Staff is Lieutenant General Osama Askar (since October 2021).Senior members of the military can convene the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, such as during the course of the 2011 Egyptian revolution, when President Mubarak resigned and transferred power to this body on February 11, 2011.The armament of the Egyptian armed forces varies between eastern and western sources through weapons deliveries by several countries, led by the United States, Russia, France, China, Italy, Ukraine and Britain.", "Much of the equipment is manufactured locally at Egyptian factories.", "The Egyptian armed forces celebrate their anniversary on October 6 each year to commemorate the Crossing of the Suez during the October War of 1973.The modern Egyptian armed forces have been involved in numerous military crises and wars since independence, from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egyptian Revolution of 1952, Suez Crisis, North Yemen Civil War, Six-Day War, Nigerian Civil War, War of Attrition, Yom Kippur War, Egyptian bread riots, 1986 Egyptian conscripts riot, Egyptian-Libyan War, Gulf War, War on Terror, Egyptian Crisis, Second Libyan Civil War, War on ISIL and the Sinai insurgency." ], [ "History", "In the early 1950s, politics rather than military competence was the main criterion for promotion.", "The Egyptian commander, Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer, was a purely political appointee who owed his position to his close friendship with President Gamal Abdel Nasser.", "He would prove himself grossly incompetent as a general during the Suez Crisis.", "Rigid lines between officers and men in the Egyptian Army led to a mutual \"mistrust and contempt\" between officers and the men who served under them.", "Tsouras writes that the Israelis \"seized and held the ..initiative throughout the campaign and quickly destroyed the Egyptian defences.\"", "In a few instances, such as at the Mitla Pass and Abu Agelia, Egyptian defences were well-organised and stubbornly held, but this did not make enough difference overall.", "Nasser ordered a retreat from the Sinai which allowed the Israelis to wreak havoc and drive on the Canal; on 5 November, British and French parachute landings began in the Canal Zone but by 7 November, U.S. pressure had forced an end to the fighting.Within three months of sending troops to Yemen in 1962, Nasser realized that the engagement would require a larger commitment than anticipated.", "By early 1963, he would begin a four-year campaign to extricate Egyptian forces from Yemen, using an unsuccessful face-saving mechanism, only to find himself committing more troops.", "A little less than 5,000 troops were sent in October 1962.Two months later, Egypt had 15,000 regular troops deployed.", "By late 1963, the number was increased to 36,000; and in late 1964, the number rose to 50,000 Egyptian troops in Yemen.", "Late 1965 represented the high-water mark of Egyptian troop commitment in Yemen at 55,000 troops, which were broken into 13 infantry regiments of one artillery division, one tank division from the Egyptian Armoured Corps and several Special Forces as well as airborne regiments.", "All the Egyptian field commanders complained of a total lack of topographical maps causing a real problem in the first months of the war.Before the June 1967 War, the army divided its personnel into four regional commands (Suez, Sinai, Nile Delta, and Nile Valley up to the Sudan).", "The remainder of Egypt's territory, over 75%, was the sole responsibility of the Frontier Corps.In May 1967, President Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran to passage of Israeli ships.", "Israel considered the closure of the straits grounds for war and prepared their armed forces to attack.", "On June 3, three battalions of Egyptian commandos were flown to Amman to take part in operations from Jordan.", "But U.S. historian Trevor N. Dupuy, writing in 1978, argues from King Hussein of Jordan's memoirs, ''My \"War\" with Israel'', that Nasser did not intend to start an immediate war, but instead was happy with his rhetorical and political accomplishments of the past weeks.", "Nevertheless, Israel felt it needed to take action.The Egyptian army, comprising two armored and five infantry divisions, were deployed in the Sinai.", "In the weeks before the Six-Day War began, Egypt made several significant changes to its military organisation; Field Marshal Amer created a new command interposed between the general staff and the Eastern Military District commander, Lieutenant General Salah ad-Din Muhsin.", "This new Sinai Front Command was placed under General Abdel Mohsin Murtagi, who had returned from Yemen in May 1967.Six of the seven divisions in the Sinai (with the exception of the 20th Infantry 'Palestinian' Division) had their commanders and chiefs of staff replaced.", "What fragmentary information is available suggests to authors such as Pollack that Amer was trying to improve the competence of the force, replacing political appointees with veterans of the Yemen war.After the war began on 5 June 1967, Israel attacked Egypt, destroyed its air force on the ground, and occupied the Sinai Peninsula.", "The forward deployed Egyptian forces were shattered in three places by the attacking Israelis.", "Field Marshal Amer, overwhelmed by events, and ignoring previous plans, ordered a retreat by the Egyptian Army to the Suez Canal.", "This developed into a rout as the Israelis harried the retreating troops from the ground and from the air.In July 1972, President Anwar Sadat expelled Soviet Armed Forces advisors from Egypt.", "The Soviet advisors had significant access and influence previously.", "When the Yom Kippur War began in October 1973, the Egyptians were initially successful in crossing the Suez Canal and establishing a bridgehead on the eastern bank.", "In the costly and brutal Battle of the Chinese Farm, the Israeli Defence Force shouldered aside portions of the Second Army on the eastern bank, then crossed the canal and rapidly advanced, destroying surface-to-air missile sites and then cutting off the Third Army.", "The Egyptians did stop the Israelis seizing Ismailia, however, and inflicted a \"stunning defeat\" on an Israeli force which had tried to hastily seize Suez City in the Battle of Suez.", "Peace was only imposed after the United States and Soviet Union stepped in.When Sadat and the Israelis made peace in the Camp David Accords of September 1978, part of the ''quid pro quo'' for the Egyptians accepting peace was that the U.S. would provide substantial military assistance to Egypt.", "Today the U.S. provides annual military assistance often quoted at some nominal $1.3 billion to the Egyptian armed forces ($ billion in ).", "This level is second only to Israel.Scholars such as Kenneth Pollack, DeAtkine, and Robert Springborg have identified a number of reasons why Arab (and Egyptian) armies performed so poorly against Israel from 1948 to the 1970s and afterwards; In battle against Israel from 1948, junior officers consistently demonstrated an unwillingness to manoeuvre, innovate, improvise, take initiative, or act independently.", "Ground forces units suffered from constant manipulation of information and an inattention to intelligence gathering and objective analysis.", "Units from the two divisions dispatched to Saudi Arabia in 1990–91, accompanied by U.S. personnel during the 1991 Gulf War, consistently reported fierce battles even though they actually encountered little or no resistance.", "This occurred whether or not they were accompanied by U.S. military personnel or journalists.", "Later researchers such as Springborg have confirmed that the tendencies identified in the 1980s and 1990s persist in the Armed Forces in the twenty-first century.Egypt is a participant in NATO's Mediterranean Dialogue forum.=== Twenty-first century ===Egyptian contingent participating in the rehearsal of the Delhi Republic Day parade 2023 in IndiaIn the second decade of the 21st century, the Armed Forces enjoy considerable power and independence within the Egyptian state.", "They are also influential in business, engaging in road and housing construction, consumer goods, resort management, and own vast tracts of real estate.", "A significant amount of military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military's size (which is considered a state secret).", "According to journalist Joshua Hammer, \"as much as 40% of the Egyptian economy\" is controlled by the Egyptian armed forces, and other authoritative works such as Springborg reinforce this trend.On 31 January 2011, during the 2011 Egyptian revolution, Israeli media reported that the 9th, 2nd, and 7th Divisions of the Army had been ordered into Cairo to help restore order.On 3 July 2013, the Egyptian Armed Forces launched a coup d'état against the elected government of Mohamed Morsi following mass protests demanding his resignation.", "On 8 July 2013, clashes between the Republican Guard and pro-Morsi supporters left 61 protestors killed.", "On 14 August 2013, the Egyptian Army along with the police carried out the Rabaa massacre, killing 2,600 people.", "The total casualty count made 14 August the deadliest day in Egypt since the Egyptian revolution of 2011 which had toppled former President Hosni Mubarak.", "Several world leaders denounced the violence during the sit-in dispersals.In 2018 there were no evident internal cracks within the Armed Forces.", "The Egyptian Armed Forces' unrivalled dominance, both in politics and within the security apparatus, appear to be the result of three combined factors: substantial economic interests, a long-time legitimacy buttressed by the army's active involvement in welfare and development initiatives, and the reliance on universal conscription as the main avenue for the successful accommodation of class and social cleavages.On March 25, 2020, it was reported that two army generals, Shafea Dawoud and Khaled Shaltout, had died from the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt, and at least 550 officers and soldiers had been infected with the virus.In March 2021, Human Rights Watch accused the EAF of violating international human rights law and committing war crimes by demolishing more than 12,300 residential and commercial buildings and 6,000 hectares of farmland since 2013 in North Sinai." ], [ "Structure", "The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the President of Egypt, currently Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.", "All branches, forces, armies, regions, bodies, organs and departments of the Armed Forces are under the command of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, who is at the same time the Ministry of Defence and Military Production.The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) is composed of 23 members, chaired by the Commander-in-Chief and Minister of Defence, and is represented by the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces.", "Commanders of military areas (central, northern, western, southern), heads of bodies (operations, armament, logistics, engineering, training, finance, military justice, Armed Forces Management and Administration), directors of many departments (officers and Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance), and assistant secretary of defence for constitutional and legal affairs.", "The Secretary of the Board is the Secretary General of the Ministry of Defence.===Army===Indian special forces training togetherConscripts for the Egyptian Army and other service branches without a university degree serve three years as enlisted soldiers.", "Conscripts with a General Secondary School Degree serve two years as enlisted personnel.", "Conscripts with a university degree serve one year as enlisted personnel or three years as a reserve officer.", "Officers for the army are trained at the Egyptian Military Academy.", "The IISS estimated in 2020 that the Army numbered 90–120,000, with 190–220,000 conscripts, a total of 310,000.===Air Force===Egyptian Mirage 5 at Cairo-West 1985The Egyptian Air Force (EAF) is the aviation branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces.", "Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.", "The Mirage 2000 is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF.", "The Egyptian Air Force has 216 F-16s (plus 20 on order).", "It has about 579 combat aircraft and 149 armed helicopters as it continues to fly extensively upgraded MiG-21s, F-7 Skybolts, F-4 Phantoms, Dassault Mirage Vs, and the C-130 Hercules among other planes.Egypt currently operates 24 Dassault Rafale, a French twin-engine fighter aircraft as of 2019.An Egyptian F16C Pilot===Air Defense Forces===The Egyptian Air Defense Forces or ADF (Quwwat El Diffaa El Gawwi in Arabic) is Egypt's military service responsible for air defense.", "Egypt patterned its force after the Soviet Air Defence Force, which integrated all its air defence capabilities – antiaircraft guns, rocket and missile units, interceptor planes, and radar and warning installations.", "It appears to comprise five subordinate divisions, 110 surface-to-air missile battalions, and 12 anti-aircraft artillery brigades.", "Personnel quality may be 'several notches below' that of the Air Force personnel.", "The IISS estimated in 2020 that personnel numbered 80,000 active and 70,000 reserve.Its commander is Lieutenant General Aly Fahmy Mohammed Aly Fahmi.===Navy===The Egyptian Navy existed thousands of years ago, specifically during the Early Dynastic period in 2800 BC.During the early modern era, in 1805, Muhammad Ali of Egypt became the Wali of the country forming his own autonomous rule over Egypt.", "To build the empire he always wished, he needed a strong military and so he managed to prepare that military starting with the army then the Navy.", "During his reign, the Navy already existed but it was only used for troop transportation.", "Its first engagement was during the Wahhabi War where it was used to transport troops from Egypt to Yanbu in Hejaz.", "Later in 1815, Muhammad Ali built Alexandria Shipyard to build warships not just transport ships.", "The Navy then participated in the Greek War of Independence where in 1827 it had over 100 warships and hundreds of transport ships.", "After the Second World War, some fleet units were stationed in the Red Sea, but the bulk of the force remained in the Mediterranean.", "Navy headquarters and the main operational and training base are located at Ras el Tin near Alexandria.The Navy also controls the Egyptian Coast Guard.", "The Coast Guard is responsible for the onshore protection of public installations near the coast and the patrol of coastal waters to prevent smuggling.", "The IISS ''Military Balance 2017'' listed the Coast Guard with 2,000 personnel, 14 fast patrol boats (PBF) and 65 patrol boats (including 15 Swiftships, 21 ''Timsah'', three Type-89 and nine ''Peterson''-class.=== Other agencies ===The Armed Forces Medical Service Department provides many military health services.", "The Armed Forces College of Medicine in Heliopolis, Cairo, provides medical training.", "As of February 2020, the AFCM commandant was Maj. Gen. Dr. Amr Hegab.Egypt also maintains 397,000 paramilitary troops.", "The Central Security Forces comes under the control of the Ministry of Interior.", "As of 2017, the Egyptian Border Guard Corps falls under the control of the Ministry of Interior as well.", "Circa 2020, according to the ''IISS Military Balance 2020,'' they comprised an estimated 12,000, in 18 border regiments, with light weapons only (IISS 2020, p. 375).", "However, that listing of numbers has remained the same at least since the 2017 edition (p. 375)." ], [ "Military equipment and industry", "Egyptian Mi-8 Hip helicopters after unloading troopsThe inventory of the Egyptian armed forces includes equipment from the United States, France, Brazil, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China.", "This wide range of sources can cause serviceability difficulties.", "Equipment from the Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern U.S., French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the M1A1 Abrams tank.Egypt is one of the few countries in the Middle East, and the only Arab state, with a reconnaissance satellite and has launched another one, EgyptSat 1 in 2007.The Arab Organization for Industrialization supervises nine military factories which produce civilian goods as well as military products.", "Initially, the owners of AOI were the governments of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, before the latter governments gave their shares back to Egypt in 1993, valued at $1.8 billion.", "AOI is now entirely owned by the government of Egypt and has about 19,000 employees out of which 1250 are engineers.", "AOI fully owns ten factories and shares in two joint ventures, plus the Arab Institute for Advanced Technology." ], [ "Military schools", "Egyptian Military PoliceThere is an undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces, and they include:* Commanders and Staff College* Reserve Officer College, supervised by General Gamal Elsabrouty.", "* Nasser Higher Military Academy* Egyptian Military Academy* Egyptian Air Academy* Egyptian Naval Academy* Egyptian Air Defence Academy* Egyptian Military Technical College* Armed Forces Technical Institute* Armed Forces Institute for NCOs* Egyptian GIS counter strike school, supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel Elhamy A. Elsebaey* Armed Forces Institute for Nursery* Thunderbolt School* Airborne School (Egypt)" ], [ "Civil–military relations", "In her article on the relationship between the armed forces and civilian elites in Egypt, political scientist Hager Ali of the German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA) pointed to a \"civil-military dilemma\".", "In her analysis of military upheavals in Egypt and other countries in North Africa and the Middle East, she pointed out that any army strong enough to fight against another state also potentially poses a threat to its own state.", "Therefore, true democratization requires not only elections, but a military apparatus subordinate to a civilian government.", "According to a 2020 survey by Arab Barometer, however, most people in the region have more trust in the military than in the respective governments, parliaments, judiciary and the police." ], [ "See also", "* Flags of the Egyptian Armed Forces* Military of Ancient Egypt" ], [ "References", "* * * * See also book reviewed in ''International Security'', Vol.", "28, No.", "2.", "* * " ], [ "Further reading", " Norvell deAtkine, 'Why Arabs Lose Wars,' Middle East Quarterly, 6(4).", "* CMI Publications, \"The Egyptian military in politics and the economy: Recent history and current transition status\".", "www.cmi.no.", "Retrieved 2016-01-21.", "* Maj Gen Mohammed Fawzy, The Three-Years War (in Arabic)* Ferris, Jesse, Egypt, the Cold War, and the Civil War in Yemen, 1962–1966, Princeton University.", "ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008.3332407.", "* H.Frisch, Guns and butter in the Egyptian Army, p. 6.Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol.", "5, No.", "2 (Summer 2001).", "* * Dr Mohammed al-Jawadi, In Between the Catastrophe: Memoirs of Egyptian Military Commanders from 1967 to 1972 (in Arabic)* Hazem Kandil, 'Soldiers, Spies, and Statesmen: Egypt's Road to Revolt,' Verso, 2012* Maj Gen Abed al-Menahim Khalil, Egyptian Wars in Modern History (in Arabic)* Andrew McGregor, A military history of modern Egypt: from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006* \"The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire\".", "Carnegie Middle East Center.", "Retrieved 2016-01-21.", "* Lt Gen Saad el-Shazly, The Crossing of the Suez* Witty, David M. \"A regular Army in counterinsurgency operations: Egypt in North Yemen, 1962–1967.\"", "The Journal of Military History 65, no.", "2 (2001)." ], [ "External links", "* Egyptian Armed Forces* CIA World Factbook* FAS* Department of State, Academics see the military in decline, but retaining strong influence, 23 September 2009 (US Embassy Cables, ''The Guardian'', 2011)* \" Egypt's Supreme Council of the Armed Forces\", ''The New York Times'', February 10, 2011* Egypt's military leadership, ''Aljazeera English'', February 11, 2011" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Foreign relations of Egypt''' are the Egyptian government's external relations with the outside world.", "Egypt's foreign policy operates along a non-aligned level.", "Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East, Africa, and within the Non-Aligned Movement as a whole.", "Cairo has been a crossroads of the Arab world's commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and religious institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural landmarks." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "===Israeli–Palestinian conflict===Egypt has been seeking to play a role in the resolution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Conference of 1991, which, under United States and Soviet sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region, including for the first time a Palestinian delegation, to discuss Middle East peace.This support has continued to the present, with former President Hosni Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations.", "In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh \"Summit of the Peacemakers\" attended by President Bill Clinton and other world leaders.In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President George W. Bush for another summit on Middle East peace process.", "Another summit was convened in Sharm El Sheik in early 2005, which was attended by Egypt, Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan.", "The former Egyptian Chief of Intelligence, General Omar Suleiman, played a substantial role in negotiations between the Israeli and Palestinian sides and was highly respected on both sides.===List===List of countries which Egypt maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829— (suspended)303132333435363738—39404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135—136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182Unknown183Unknown184Unknown185Unknown186Unknown187Unknown188Unknown—Unknown189Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa===In the 21st-century Egypt has encountered a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans attempt to enter Egypt fleeing poverty and war.", "Border control methods can be \"harsh, sometimes lethal.\"", "This has strained relations with Egypt's southern neighbors, and with Israel and the members of the EU as these immigrants attempt to move on to wealthier countries.The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has become a national preoccupation in both countries.", "Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat, fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile.", "Egypt's Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry said: \"Survival is not a question of choice, but an imperative of nature.\"", "Country Formal relations established NotesSee Algeria–Egypt relations* Algeria has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Algiers.18 February 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 February 1976* Angola has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Luanda.30 June 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 June 1960* DR Congo has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Kinshasa.22 July 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1977, when the first Ambassador of Egypt to Djibouti, Mohamed Samy Heiba, presented his credentials to President Hassan Gouled Aptidon.", "* Djibouti has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Djibouti City.See Egypt–Ethiopia relations* Egypt has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* In 2021, Ethiopia closed its embassy in Cairo due to financial reasons.", "In November 2022, Ethiopia reopened its embassy in Cairo.11 June 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 June 1974* Egypt is accredited to Guinea-Bissau from its embassy in Conakry, Guinea.", "* Guinea-Bissau is accredited to Egypt from its embassy in Algiers, Algeria.", "Both countries are full member of the African Union.See Egypt–Kenya relations Egypt has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya has an embassy in Cairo.3 September 1953See Egypt–Libya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 September 1953 when first Libyan Minister to Egypt Ibrahim El-Senoussi present his credentials to General Naguib.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Tripoli and a consulate-general in Benghazi.", "* Libya has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.21 October 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 1964 when UAR (Egypt) officially recognized the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.See Egypt–Morocco relations* Egypt has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Abuja and a consulate-general in Lagos.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Cairo.10 February 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 February 1971* Egypt has an embassy in Kigali.", "* Rwanda has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Senegal has an embassy in Cairo.See Egypt–Somalia relations* Egypt has an embassy in Mogadishu.", "* Somalia has an embassy in Cairo.1942See Egypt–South Africa relations* The first South African mission in Egypt was established in 1942 as a consulate-general.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Pretoria and South Africa has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Both countries are full members of the African Union, G-24, Group of 77 and Non-Aligned Movement.", "* South African Department of Foreign Affairs about relations with Egypt9 July 2011See Egypt–South Sudan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 July 2011* Egypt has an embassy in Juba.", "* South Sudan has an embassy in Cairo.4 January 1956See Egypt–Sudan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 4 January 1956 when first ambassador of Egypt to Sudan general Mahmoud Seif El-Yazal Khalifa presented his letters of credentials.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Khartoum and a consulate-general in Port Sudan.", "* Sudan has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Aswan.14 November 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 November 1962 when Mr. Mustafa F. El-Essawi has been accredited as Ambassador of United Arab Republic (Egypt) to Tanganyika with residence in Dar es Salaam.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Dar-es-Salaam.", "* Tanzania has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Tunis.", "* Tunisia has an embassy in Cairo.23 April 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 April 1980.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Harare.", "* Zimbabwe has an embassy in Cairo.===Americas=== Country Formal relations established Notes9 June 1947 See Argentina–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 1947* Argentina has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "* List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Egypt (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)* Egyptian–Argentinean relations – From the Egypt State Information Service27 February 1924See Brazil–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 February 1924.", "* Brazil has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in Rio de Janeiro.28 July 1954 See Canada–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 July 1954Both countries established embassies in their respective capitals in 1954.", "* Canada has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate-general in Montreal.1929 Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1929* Chile has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Santiago.23 January 1957 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 1957* Colombia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Bogotá.5 September 1949Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 1949* Cuba has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Havana.31 March 1958 See Egypt–Mexico relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 31 March 1958* Egypt has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Cairo.7 October 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 October 1963.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in Cairo.26 April 1922 See Egypt–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 April 1922After the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian foreign policy began to shift as a result of the change in Egypt's leadership from President Gamal Abdel-Nasser to Anwar Sadat and the emerging peace process between Egypt and Israel.", "Sadat realized that reaching a settlement of the Arab–Israeli conflict is a precondition for Egyptian development.", "To achieve this goal, Sadat ventured to enhance US–Egyptian relations to foster a peace process with Israel.", "After a seven-year hiatus, both countries reestablished normal diplomatic relations on February 28, 1974.===Military cooperation===Following the peace treaty with Israel, between 1979 and 2003, the US has provided Egypt with about $19 billion in military aid, making Egypt the second largest non-NATO recipient of US military aid after Israel.", "Also, Egypt received about $30 billion in economic aid within the same time frame.", "In 2009, the US provided a military assistance of US$1.3 billion (inflation adjusted US$ billion in ), and an economic assistance of US$250 million (inflation adjusted US$ million in ).In 1989 both Egypt and Israel became a Major non-NATO ally of the United States.Military cooperation between the US and Egypt is probably the strongest aspect of their strategic partnership.", "General Anthony Zinni, the former Commandant of the US Central Command (CENTCOM), once said, \"Egypt is the most important country in my area of responsibility because of the access it gives me to the region.\"", "Egypt was also described during the Clinton Administration as the most prominent player in the Arab world and a key US ally in the Middle East.", "US military assistance to Egypt was considered part of the administration's strategy to maintaining continued availability of Persian Gulf energy resources and to secure the Suez Canal, which serves both as an important international oil route and as critical route for US warships transiting between the Mediterranean and either the Indian Ocean or the Persian Gulf.The Egyptian military provides indirect support for the foreign policy of Egypt in the region.", "Egypt is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the whole Middle East===War on Terror===Despite differences and periods of friction in relations between the two countries, the US-Egyptian relations under Mubarak have evolved moving beyond the Middle East peace process towards an independent bilateral friendship.", "It was in the US interest that Egypt was able to present moderate voice in Arab councils and persuade other Arab states to join the peace process and to normalize their relations with the US.However lately Egyptian-American relations have become a little tense.", "This is due to a great extent to the Egyptian unwillingness to send troops to Afghanistan and Iraq in peace stabilization missions.", "Egypt strongly backed the US in its war against international terrorism after the September 11 attacks, but refused to send troops to Afghanistan during the war and after it.", "Egypt also opposed US military intervention of March 2003 in Iraq, continued to oppose US occupation of the country after the war and further refused to comply with US requests to send troops to the country even under a UN umbrella.The issue of participation in the post-war construction efforts in Iraq has been controversial in Egypt and in the Arab world as a whole.", "Opponents say that the war was illegal and it is necessary to wait until Iraq has legal representative government to deal with it.", "On the other hand, supporters of participation argued that the responsibility to protect Iraqis and to help them in time of crisis should prevail and guide the Egyptian action in Iraq, despite the fact that the Iraqis do not agree.===Post-Mubarak relations with U.S.===On January 21, 2012, the U.S. Secretary of Transportation Ray LaHood's son, Sam, was detained by the Egyptian government and not allowed to leave the country as part of a politically charged criminal investigation by the Egyptian government into the activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) monitoring local elections in Egypt.", "LaHood's son is the Egypt director of the International Republican Institute.", "The Egyptian government has detained twelve NGO representatives from leaving Egypt.On February 5, 2012, Egyptian authorities charged LaHood's son and 42 other individuals with \"spending money from organizations that were operating in Egypt without a license.\"", "Nineteen Americans are part of the 42 charged.", "The U.S. government has made it clear that $1.5 billion in U.S. aid to Egypt could be withheld if the investigation is not finished quickly.", "Faiza Abu Naga, Egypt's Minister of International Cooperation, is seen as the person pushing the investigation forward, straining U.S. and Egypt relations.On 7 October 2020, in line with Egypt's Vision 2030, US Agency for International Development (USAID) and Egypt's Ministry of International Cooperation signed an agreement to add $22.8 million to the five-year Inclusive Economic Governance bilateral assistance agreement.", "The funding was intended to improve the investment environment and empower women to join the labor force.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Washington, DC and consulates-general in Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and New York City.", "* United States has an embassy in Cairo.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes10 May 1928Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 May 1928 when has been signed Treaty of Friendship between Afghanistan and Egypt.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Kabul.9 March 1992See Armenia–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 March 1992* Egypt was one of the first countries in the Arab world which recognized the independent Armenia in 1991.", "* In May 1992, the first diplomatic mission of Armenia in the Arab East was inaugurated in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Yerevan.", "* Egypt had a sizable Armenian community since the 19th century.", "Many ethnic Armenian Egyptians remain in Egypt to this day.27 March 1992* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 March 1992.", "* On December 26, 1991, the Arab Republic of Egypt recognized the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan.", "* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Baku.5 June 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 June 1972.", "* Bahrain has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Manama.15 September 1973See Bangladesh-Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 1973.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Dhaka, Bangladesh.", "* Bangladesh has an embassy in Cairo, Egypt.Egypt was one of the first Arab states to recognize Bangladesh's independence.", "President Anwar Al Sadat enjoyed a close rapport with Bangladesh's founder Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.", "In 1973, Egypt gifted 30 tanks to the Bangladesh Army.Both nations are members of the OIC and the Developing 8 Countries, and identified among the Next Eleven economies.", "Present-day relations are characterized by a growing trade and economic relationship.30 May 1956See China–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 May 1956* China has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Hong Kong and Shanghai.11 May 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 May 1992* Egypt is accredited to Georgia from its embassy in Yerevan, Armenia.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Egypt* Georgian foreign minister visits Egypt18 August 1947See Egypt–India relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 August 1947Modern Egypt-India relations go back to the contacts between Saad Zaghloul and Mohandas Gandhi on the common goals of their respective movements of independence.", "In 1955, Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser and India under Jawaharlal Nehru became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "During the 1956 War, Nehru stood supporting Egypt to the point of threatening to withdraw his country from the Commonwealth of Nations.", "In 1967, following the Six-Day War, India supported Egypt and the Arabs.", "In 1977, New Delhi described the visit of President Anwar al-Sadat to Jerusalem as a \"brave\" move and considered the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel a primary step on the path of a just settlement of the Middle East problem.", "Major Egyptian exports to India include raw cotton, raw and manufactured fertilizers, oil and oil products, organic and non-organic chemicals, leather and iron products.", "Major imports into Egypt from India are cotton yarn, sesame, coffee, herbs, tobacco and lentils.", "The Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum is also currently negotiating the establishment of a natural gas-operated fertilizer plant with another Indian company.", "In 2004 the Gas Authority of India Limited, bought 15% of Egypt Nat Gas distribution and marketing company.In 2008 Egyptian investment in India was worth some 750 million dollars, according to the Egyptian ambassador.President Mubarak of Egypt visited India in 2008.During the visit he met Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.In 2023 India has invited Egyptian President Abdel Fattah El-Sisi as the chief guest of the 74th Republic Day parade.", "Also Representing the main branches of the Egyptian armed forces, 144 soldiers participated in the parade.10 June 1947See Egypt–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 June 1947.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Cairo and Egypt has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Egypt was one of the first countries to recognize Indonesia's independence.", "* Gamel Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Sukarno of Indonesia were two of the five founding members of the Non-aligned Movement.", "* Both countries are members of the OIC, the Non-aligned Movement, and the G20 developing nations.1939 '''(Diplomatic relations severed 1980)'''See Egypt–Iran relationsIn 1939, diplomatic relations between Egypt and Iran were upgraded to ambassadorial level, and Youssef Zulficar Pasha was appointed as Egypt's first ambassador in Tehran.", "In the same year, Princess Fawzia of Egypt, the sister of King Farouk I, married Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the then crown prince (later shah) of Iran.", "However, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Egypt's relations with Iran have been mostly strained.", "Egypt is the only Arab country not to have an embassy in Iran.", "Contentious issues include Egypt's signing of the Camp David Accords with Israel in 1979, its support for Iraq in Iran's eight-year conflict, the Islamic Republic's hailing of Khalid Islambouli, the late President Anwar Sadat's assassin as a religious hero, seeing as there was both a street and mural named after him (however, the honorer was changed to Muhammad al-Durrah, the 12-year-old Palestinian boy shot and killed during the outset of the Second Intifada), and close Egyptian relations with the United States, and most of the Western European countries.", "In 2007, relations between the two have thawed in the fields of diplomacy and economic trade, only to collapse during the Gaza War (2008–09) when the Iranian and Egyptian politicians exchanged blames over inaction towards the escalation.", "Despite wavering tensions between Tehran and Cairo, the two countries are members of the OIC and the Developing 8In 2010, leaked diplomatic cables revealed that Mubarak expressed animosity toward Iran in private meetings, saying the Iranian leaders are \"big, fat liars\", and that Iran's backing of terrorism is \"well-known\".", "According to one American report, Mubarak views Iran as the primary long-term challenge facing Egypt, and an Egyptian official said that Iran is running agents inside Egypt in an effort to subvert the Egyptian regime.", "he also stated that if Iran will reach a nuclear weapons, Egypt will also consider reaching such weapons.See Egypt-Iraq relationsSince 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt's \"natural role\" among Arab countries.", "In January 1984, Iraq successfully led Arab efforts within the OIC to restore Egypt's membership.", "However, Iraqi-Egyptian relations were broken in 1990 after Egypt joined the UN coalition that forced Iraq out of Kuwait.", "Relations have steadily improved in recent years, and Egypt is now one of Iraq's main trade partners (formerly under the Oil-for-Food Programme).26 January 1980See Egypt–Israel relationsThe state of war between both countries which dated back from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War ended in 1973 with the Egypt–Israel peace treaty a year after the Camp David Accords.", "Since then, relations have improved.Being a pioneer of peace making in the region and driven from its belief that a peaceful Middle East is the best solution for the development of Egypt, the third Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region; from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice.", "Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989.However, due to circumstances of today's Israeli–Palestinian conflict, full normalization of relations between these two countries is still halted and sometimes fought against in both countries.", "The Egyptian ambassador to Tel Aviv is often withdrawn, and the peace has been called a cool peace due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Tel Aviv and a consulate-general in Eilat.", "* Israel has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.1922See Egypt-Japan relationsEgypt-Japan relations are described by the Egyptian ambassador to Japan as a \"very strong friendship\", with embassies mutually established.", "At present, the two nations maintain a cordial relationship with strong economic and trade relations.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Cairo.28 May 1947See Egypt-Jordan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 1947 when Mohamed Bey Yassin, Egyptian Minister in Transjordan with residence in Baghdad presented his credentials.On April 6, 1972, the Egyptian government severed relations in protest for a Jordanian plan for federation with the West Bank, which didn't take PLO interests unto considerations.", "These relations were restored on September 11, 1973.They were severed again in 1979, this time by the Jordanian government, in protest for the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty.", "Following the outbreak of the Lebanon War of 1982, the US government put pressure on both governments to reach accommodation for the purpose of formulating a joint peace strategy vis-a-vis the Israeli government, and relations were restored on September 25, 1984.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Amman.", "* Jordan has an embassy in Cairo.6 March 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1992.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Almaty, Kazakhstan.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Cairo, Egypt.In 2006, President Mubarak of Egypt visited Kazakhstan on the third leg of a three-country tour.", "During the visit he met with Kazakh President Nazarbayev.", "Mubarak stated that 30 trade and economic cooperation agreements had been concluded between the two countries.2 December 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 December 1961* Egypt has an embassy in Kuwait City.", "* Kuwait has an embassy in Cairo.30 November 1944Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1944 when was opened Legation of Lebanon in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.1957See Egypt–Malaysia relations* Egypt has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur and Malaysia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Gamel Abdel Nasser gave a headquarters for the Malay Association in Egypt as a gift to Malaysia in 1959.", "* Both countries are members of the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement.2 April 1963See Egypt–Mongolia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 1963Cairo currently hosts Mongolia's only embassy on the African continent.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Muscat.", "* Oman has an embassy in Cairo.20 October 1947See Egypt–Pakistan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 1947 when the Egyptian Government has agreed to the establishment of a Pakistan Embassy in Cairo and to the appointment Mr. J.", "A. Rahim as Chargé d'Affaires.Pakistan and Egypt have diplomatic and trade relations.", "Both countries are members of the OIC (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), \"the Next Eleven\" and the \"D8\".", "Relations between the two countries were established after Pakistan was established.", "Pakistan President General Muhammad Ayub Khan, visited Egypt in 1959 and Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser visited Pakistan in 1960.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Islamabad.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Cairo.See Egypt–Palestine relations* Egypt has representative offices in Ramallah and in Gaza City.", "* Palestine has an embassy in Cairo.1955-01-18See Egypt–Philippines relations* Egypt has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines has an embassy in Cairo.1 November 1971See Egypt-Qatar relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1971Lately, relations have not been at its best.", "Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, Emir of the State of Qatar, has described the 2013 political transition in Egypt as a \"military coup\".", "It is worth mentioning that the main problem between the two governments is the Qatari support to the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.The Egyptian government, along with those of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates, broke off diplomatic relations with Qatar on 5 June 2017.The Egyptian Foreign Ministry announced it was closing its air and sea ports to Qatari transportation.", "The Egyptian, Saudi, Bahraini, and Emirati governments cited Qatar's continuing support for \"terrorism\", such as the Muslim Brotherhood.", "Islam Hassan argues \"Egypt has had troubled relations with Qatar for many years, except of Mohamed Morsi's period in power.", "The Egyptian government has seen Qatar as a source of instability.", "TheEgyptian regime also sees that Qatar challenges its rule by financing the Muslim Brotherhood, and other organizations, which the regime has outlawed and consider terrorist organizations.", "Thus, the Egyptian regime has been trying to push back on Qatar by any means.", "The current issue between the Saudi bloc and Qatar seemed to be an opportunity to put pressure on Qatar to stop financing the Muslim Brotherhood, its affiliates, and supporters, and to support the Sisi regime.", "\"7 May 1936See Egypt–Saudi Arabia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1936 when was signed a Treaty by Egypt and Saudi Arabia in Cairo which included Egypt's recognition of Saudi Arabia as an independent and sovereign state.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate-general in Jeddah.", "* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.13 April 1995 See Egypt–South Korea relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 April 1995.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Seoul, South Korea.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Bilateral Trade 2011: Exports: 18.1 billion US dollars Imports: 802 million US dollars* The number of South Koreans living in Egypt in 2011 was about 905.", "* South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Egypt* Foreign relations of South Korea#Europe.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Damascus.", "* Syria has an embassy in Cairo.27 September 1954Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 September 1954Egypt has an embassy in Bangkok.", "Thailand has an embassy in Cairo.8 May 1925See also Egypt–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 May 1925.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Ankara and a Consulate General in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Cairo and a Consulate General in Alexandria.", "Trade volume between the two countries was US$5.25 billion in 2018 (Egyptian exports/imports: 2.19/3.06 billion USD).", " 100,971 Egyptian tourists visited Turkey in 2017.", "Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Cairo since 2010.", "Egypt was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1517 until 1805.", "There is a free trade agreement in force between the two countries.10 January 1972See Egypt-United Arab Emirates relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1972.", " Egypt has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.", "* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Cairo.1 September 1963* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 September 1963.", "* Vietnam first opened its commercial representative office in Egypt in 1958, and opened an embassy in Cairo in 1963.", "* Egypt's embassy in Hanoi was opened in 1964.11 April 1946Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 April 1946===Europe===European Union relations with Egypt are based on a partnership relation within the Euro – Mediterranean and Middle East area, which is of vital strategic importance and a key external relations priority for the EU.The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership launched at the 1995 Barcelona Conference between the European Union and its originally 12 Mediterranean Partners: Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, and the Palestinian Authority.", "Libya currently has observer status at certain meetings.", "Since the enlargement, in May 2004 and January 2007, the co-operation and needs covers 35 countries, the EU of 27, including Cyprus and Malta and the 10 Mediterranean Partners.Egypt has also taken an active role regarding Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, such as its participation in the technical meeting of which it was the speaker for the Arab group.", "Additionally, the first meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary assembly was co-chaired by an Egyptian.Egypt has been one of the leading recipients among the Mediterranean partners in terms of total funds received from the MEDA programme, the principal financial instrument of the European Union for the implementation of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership.", "It is focused on policy-led, national structural reform and liberalisation programmes with a sector-wide approach.The EU is Egypt's biggest trading partner currently accounting for 42% of Egyptian exports and 37% of imports, with the balance of trade still in the EU's favour.", "Trade between the EU and Egypt has risen by more than 5% in the last five years to reach around 11.6 billion euro in 2004.Egypt's main exports to the EU in 2004 were energy (39%), textiles and clothing (15%), agricultural products (9%), and chemicals (5%).", "Major imports from the EU were power generating machinery (21%), chemicals (16%), transport equipment (16%), and food and agricultural products (10%).", "Egypt has a serious but improving trade deficit that has put considerable pressure on the Egyptian pound.Trade relations with the EU are good although there are several outstanding trade and phyto-sanitary issues.", "These range from specific market access issues and difficulties for businesses facing a highly regulated and complex system through to restrictions in the export of agricultural goods (potatoes) and fishery products because they do not conform with EU quality norms.Egypt is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.Some time after the starting of the Arab Spring, in March 2011 the European Union adopted the joint declaration ' A partnership for democracy and shared prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean', aimed at making a number of initiatives in the field of civic society support, financial assistance and further access to the EU market dependent upon advancement in the democratization process.As far as Egypt was concerned this declaration envisioned the further deepening of the previous Free Trade Agreement stipulated in 2004, geared towards the inclusion of areas such as trade in services, government procurement, competition, intellectual property rights, and investment protection.", "To the 2011 declaration, a preliminary phase of the negotiations followed in June 2013, when the EU and Egypt began an exploratory dialogue on how to deepen trade and investment relations, in particular through the possible negotiation of a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (DCFTA).In August 2014, the European Union discussed the possibility of revising provision of aid to Egypt.", "However, divisions over the appropriate stance to adopt among European diplomats persisted, coupled by the fear that the vacuum might be soon filled by other actors, following a Saudi Foreign Minister's declaration that the Kingdom was ready to step in and those of Prime Minister Hazem al Beblawi about the possibility to appeal to Russia for foreign aid.", "Therefore, the only measure upon which the Foreign Ministers agreed was to suspend the sale of arms and materials that could be used for repression, but fell short to halt aid program which could damage civil society.Earlier in July 2013, EU High Representative Catherine Ashton had visited Egypt in an attempt to promote reconciliation among the parties involved.", "She is credited for being the only foreign diplomat to get access to deposed president Mohamed Morsi.In an official statement released at the end of a following visit held in April 2014, the Representative raised the issue of the death penalties and incarceration of journalists and activists.", "At the same time, her later declarations about el-Sisi's bid for presidential candidacy as \"difficult\" but \"brave\" sparked harsh criticism among supporters of the Muslim Brotherhood, who claimed the Representative, who advanced logistical reasons, did not make any efforts to get in touch with them and members of their Anti-Coup Alliance.In April 2014, the European Union agreed to conduct electoral monitoring, for the first time, in occasion of the Presidential elections scheduled for 26/27 May 2014.Other organizations declined to join, as in their opinion this would legitimize what they called an unlawful take on power.A contract for the sale of 30 Rafale fighter jets was signed between the defense ministries of Egypt and France in May 2021.The official value of the contract was not disclosed at first and was later exposed to be worth 3.75 billion euro or $4.5 billion, by an investigative website called Disclose.", "In December 2020, French President Emmanuel Macron received criticism for not controlling the sale of weapons to Egypt on its poor human rights record, stating counter-terrorism concerns.", "The Egyptian defense ministry cited that the deal would be supported via a 10-year loan without disclosing its value or any further details.", "Rights organizations have denounced the deal and accused the French president of overlooking the increasing violation of freedom in Egypt under the regime of President Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi.", "France's armed forces, finance, and foreign ministries were unavailable for comment.", "However, French officials claim that Paris, under one of its policies, is avoiding criticism of countries on their human rights records to work with them effectively in private.On 3 February 2022, around 175 Members of European Parliament wrote a joint letter to foreign ministers and ambassadors to the UN Human Rights Council and requested them to secure the establishment of a UN human rights monitoring and reporting mechanism on Egypt.", "The MEPs were concerned that despite devastating human rights crisis in Egypt, the international communities persistently failed to take any meaningful action to address the situation.", "The Egyptian authorities, under President Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi, have \"brutally and systematically\" repressed all forms of dissent and severely curtailed civic space.", "Country Formal relations established Notes14 March 1956See Albania–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 March 1956* Egypt has an embassy in Tirana.", "* Albania has an embassy in Cairo.5 November 1925See Bulgaria–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1925Bulgaria has an embassy in Cairo.", " Egypt has an embassy in Sofia.1 October 1992See Croatia–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1992* Croatia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Zagreb.See Cyprus–Egypt relationsDiplomatic relations between both countries were established soon after Cyprus gained its independence in 1960.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Nicosia.During an April 2009 meeting at ministerial level, the countries explored ways to develop closer ties, with plans for increased collaboration both on tourism and energy related activities.", "There has been talk of Cyprus increasing her imports of natural gas, Egypt using Cyprus as a bridge for exports to Europe and on prospects for the training of Cypriot engineers by their Egyptian counterparts on techniques for the extraction of oil and natural gas.1 June 1922See Denmark–Egypt relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 1922 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Denmark to Egypt Mr. G. H. Ryan de Treschow.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.15 February 1947* Finland recognised Egypt on April 8, 1922.", "* Egypt broke off diplomatic relations on January 5, 1942, but diplomatic relations were re-established on February 15, 1947.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Cairo (since July 1, 1959) and an honorary consulate general in Alexandria.", "* Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about Egypt31 May 1922See Egypt–France relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 31 May 1922 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of France to Egypt Henri Gaillard and open Legation (Embassy) of France in Egypt.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Marseille.", "* France has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.1957-12See Egypt–Germany relationsEgypt has an embassy in Berlin, as well as consulates in Frankfurt and Hamburg.", "Germany has an embassy in Cairo.August 1833See Egypt-Greece relationsBoth countries share relations since the years BC Since the creation of Alexandria by Alexander the Great, Egypt has had a sizable Greek community, mostly centered around Alexandria, which is today Egypt's second largest city and also the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria.", "In the modern era, both countries enjoy very good and warm diplomatic relations since 1833 and especially after the Greek War Independence, and both countries have signed several defense cooperation agreements, with the heads of states visiting each other in a regular basis.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.", "* Sizable communities of Greeks live in Egypt (Alexandria) and Egyptians in Greece (Patras, Athens).", "* Greece and Egypt signed bilateral agreements for trade, tourism and defense cooperations.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Egypt* Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece 12 December 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 December 1974.", "* Since 1978, Egypt has an embassy in Dublin, the first embassy of an Arab country in Ireland.", "* Ireland has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria.30 April 1922See Egypt–Italy relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1922 when has been appointed first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Italy to Egypt Mr Lazzaro Negrotto Cambiaso.Relations were established during the period of the Roman Empire.", "However, during World War II, relations were strained as the Italian and German Troops launched a campaign on Egypt but were defeated by Egyptian and British Forces in the battle of El Alamein.", "However, after the war, relations were re-established and are close.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.", "* Italy has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Both nations are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.See also Italian EgyptianSee Egypt–Kosovo relationsEgypt recognised the Republic of Kosovo as an independent state on 26 June 2013.", "* Kosovo has a liaison office in Cairo.2 November 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 November 1965* Malta has an embassy in Cairo and 2 honorary consulates in Alexandria and Suez.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Valletta and Ta' Xbiex.", "16 November 1922Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1922 when Mr. J. P. graaf van Limburg Stirum has been accredited as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the Netherlands to Egypt.", "* Egypt has an embassy in The Hague.", "* The Netherlands has an embassy in Cairo.14 November 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 November 1994North Macedonia has an embassy in Cairo.1927See Egypt–Poland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1927.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Cairo.25 June 1925Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1925* Portugal has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Lisbon.3 April 1926Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April 1926 when the diplomatic representations from Romania and Egypt were raised to the level of Legation.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Cairo.26 August 1943See Egypt–Russia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 1943* Egypt has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.See Egypt-Serbia relations* Egypt has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Egypt 30 April 1992See Egypt–Slovenia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1992* Since September 2007, Egypt has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in Cairo (opened in 1993).", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.9 May 1922See Egypt–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 May 1922 when has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Spain to Egypt Mr. Silvio F.", "Vallin.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Cairo.25 November 1922Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1922 when Harald Bildt take up the post of first Swedish Minister to Egypt.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Cairo.11 March 1935See Egypt-Switzerland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1935 when Mr. Henri Martin, first Minister of Switzerland to Egypt, presented his letters of credentials.", "* Official diplomatic relation between both countries date back from 1909, with the opening of a Swiss trade mission in Egypt.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Bern and a general consulate in Geneva.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs about relations with Egypt25 January 1992See Egypt–Ukraine relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1992* Since 1993, Egypt has an embassy in Kyiv.", "* Since 1993, Ukraine has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria.See Egypt–United Kingdom relations* Egypt has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Cairo.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes 1950See Australia–Egypt relations* Australia has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Canberra and 2 Consulates-General (in Melbourne and Sydney).", "* Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Egypt1974See Egypt–New Zealand relations* Egypt has an embassy in Wellington.", "* New Zealand has an embassy in Cairo." ], [ "International involvement", "Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis.", "President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait.", "The Egyptian contingent was one of the largest in the coalition forces, along with the U.S., U.K. and Saudi Arabia.In the aftermath of the Gulf War, Egypt signed the Damascus Declaration with Syria and the Persian Gulf states to strengthen Persian Gulf security.", "Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia.Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda, and has supported the Iraqi Governing Council.On December 25, 2006, the Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Abul Gheit called for end to \"nuclear double standards\" where sanctions are imposed on Iran for enriching uranium, but the Israeli nuclear program is not subject to any control by the International Atomic Energy Agency.Egypt is member of ABEDA, ACC, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, CTBT, EBRD, ECA, ESCWA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS(observer), OAU, OIC, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UPU, WCO, EFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, and WTrO.", "Egypt is one of only seven U.N. members which is not a member of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons." ], [ "See also", "* List of Foreign ministers of Egypt* Iran-Arab Relations (Egypt)* List of Ambassadors from Egypt* List of diplomatic missions in Egypt* List of diplomatic missions of Egypt* Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Visa requirements for Egyptian citizens" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* History of Egypt - U.S. relations* Assessing the United States-Egyptian Military and Security Relations* The Future of American-Egyptian relations* Deniers of Egypt's dark past An article exploring Egypt's Africanness* Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt in London The official website of the Egyptian Embassy in London* EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Egypt" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''El Salvador''' (; , meaning \"The Saviour\"), officially the '''Republic of El Salvador''' (), is a country in Central America.", "It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south by the Pacific Ocean.", "El Salvador's capital and largest city is San Salvador.", "The country's population in 2023 was estimated to be 6.5 million.Among the Mesoamerican nations that historically controlled the region are the Lenca (after 600 AD), the Mayans, and then the Cuzcatlecs.", "Archaeological monuments also suggest an early Olmec presence around the first millennium BC.", "In the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the Central American territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City.", "However the Viceroyalty of New Spain had little to no influence in the daily affairs of the isthmus, which was colonized in 1524.In 1609, the area was declared the Captaincy General of Guatemala by the Spanish, which included the territory that would become El Salvador until its independence from Spain in 1821.It was forcibly incorporated into the First Mexican Empire, then seceded, joining the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823.When the federation dissolved in 1841, El Salvador became a sovereign state, then formed a short-lived union with Honduras and Nicaragua called the Greater Republic of Central America, which lasted from 1895 to 1898.From the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers.", "Persistent socioeconomic inequality and civil unrest culminated in the Salvadoran Civil War from 1979 to 1992, fought between the military-led government backed by the United States, and a coalition of left-wing guerrilla groups.", "The conflict ended with the Chapultepec Peace Accords.", "This negotiated settlement established a multiparty constitutional republic, which remains in place to this day.", "During the civil war, large numbers of Salvadorans emigrated to the United States.", "By 2008, they were one of the largest immigrant groups in the US.El Salvador's economy has historically been dominated by agriculture, beginning with the Spanish taking control of the indigenous cacao crop in the 16th century, with production centered in Izalco, along with balsam from the ranges of La Libertad and Ahuachapán.", "This was followed by a boom in use of the indigo plant in the 19th century, mainly for its use as a dye.", "Thereafter the focus shifted to coffee, which by the early 20th century accounted for 90% of export earnings.", "El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying its economy by opening up trade and financial links and expanding the manufacturing sector.", "The colón, the currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the United States dollar in 2001.El Salvador ranks 124th among 189 countries in the Human Development Index.", "As of 2019 economic improvements had led to El Salvador experiencing the lowest level of income inequality among nearby countries.", "Among 77 countries included in a 2021 study, El Salvador had one of the least complex economies for doing business." ], [ "Etymology", "After the Spanish conquest, the land was divided into the province of San Salvador (that from 1579 also including the province of San Miguel; and which would become, throughout the colonial era, an alcaldía mayor (great mayor's office), intendency, and finally a province with a provincial council) and the province of Izalcos (which would become be called the mayor's office of Sonsonate); until in 1824 the two jurisdictions were united in the State (of the Central America Federal Republic) of Salvador.After the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America, the country was referred to as the \"Republic of Salvador\" (), but in 1915, the Legislative Assembly passed a law which officially stated that the country's name should be rendered as the definite form \"El Salvador\", rather than Salvador.", "The legislature reaffirmed the country's name as El Salvador with another law passed in 1958." ], [ "History", "===Prehistoric===Excavation of a Megatherium in the Tomayate site ApopaTomayate is a palaeontological site located on the banks of the river of the same name in the municipality of Apopa.", "The site has produced abundant Salvadoran megafauna fossils belonging to the Pleistocene.", "The palaeontological site was discovered accidentally in 2000, and in the following year, an excavation by the Museum of Natural History of El Salvador revealed several remnants of ''Cuvieronius'' and 18 other species of vertebrates including giant tortoises, ''Megatherium'', ''Glyptotherium'', ''Toxodon'', extinct horses, paleo-llamas.", "The site stands out from most Central American Pleistocene deposits, being more ancient and much richer, which provides valuable information of the Great American Interchange, in which the Central American isthmus land bridge was paramount.", "At the same time, it is considered the richest vertebrate site in Central America and one of the largest accumulations of proboscideans in the Americas.===Pre-Columbian===Temazcal in Joya de Cerén.Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people; theirs was the first and the oldest indigenous civilization to settle in there.", "They were a union of Central American tribes that oversaw most of the isthmus from southern Guatemala to northern Panama, which they called Managuara.", "The Lenca of eastern El Salvador trace their origins to specific caves with ancient pictographs dating back to at least 600 AD and some sources say as far back as 7000 BC.", "There was also a presence of Olmecs, although their role is unclear.", "Their influence remains recorded in the form of stone monuments and artifacts preserved in western El Salvador, as well as the national museum.", "A Mayan population settled there in the Formative period, but their numbers were greatly diminished when the Ilopango supervolcano eruption caused a massive exodus.Centuries later the area's occupants were displaced by the Pipil people, Nahua speaking groups who migrated from Anahuac beginning around 800 AD and occupied the central and western regions of El Salvador.", "The Nahua Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador.", "They called their territory ''Kuskatan'', a Nawat word meaning \"The Place of Precious Jewels,\" back-formed into Classical Nahuatl ''Cōzcatlān'', and as ''Cuzcatlán''.", "It was the largest domain in Salvadoran territory up until European contact.", "The term ''Cuzcatleco'' is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage, although the majority of the eastern population has an indigenous heritage of Lenca origin, as do their place names such as Intipuca, Chirilagua, and Lolotique.Most of the archaeological sites in western El Salvador such as Lago de Guija and Joya De Ceren indicate a pre-Columbian Mayan culture.", "Cihuatan shows signs of material trade with northern Nahua culture, eastern Mayan and Lenca culture, and southern Nicaraguan and Costa Rican indigenous culture.", "Tazumal's smaller B1-2 structure shows a talud-tablero style of architecture that is associated with Nahua culture and corresponds with their migration history from Anahuac.", "In eastern El Salvador, the Lenca site of Quelepa is highlighted as a major pre-Columbian cultural center and demonstrates links to the Mayan site of Copan in western Honduras as well as the previously mentioned sites in Chalchuapa, and Cara Sucia in western El Salvador.", "An investigation of the site of La Laguna in Usulutan has also produced Copador items that link it to the Lenca-Maya trade route.=== European arrival (1522) ===By 1521, the indigenous population of the Mesoamerican area had been drastically reduced by the smallpox epidemic that was spreading throughout the territory, although it had not yet reached pandemic levels in Cuzcatlán or the northern portion Managuara.", "The first known visit by Spaniards to what is now Salvadoran territory was made by the admiral Andrés Niño, who led an expedition to Central America.", "He disembarked in the Gulf of Fonseca on 31 May 1522, at Meanguera island, naming it Petronila, and then traversed to Jiquilisco Bay on the mouth of Lempa River.", "The first indigenous people to have contact with the Spanish were the Lenca of eastern El Salvador.====Conquest of Cuzcatlán and Managuara====Spanish Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado.In 1524, after participating in the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Pedro de Alvarado, his brother Gonzalo, and their men crossed the Rio Paz southward into Cuzcatlec territory.", "The Spaniards were disappointed to discover that the Pipil had no gold or jewels like those they had found in Guatemala or Mexico, but they recognized the richness of the land's volcanic soil.Pedro Alvarado led the first incursion to extend their dominion to the domain of Cuzcatlan in June 1524.When he arrived at the borders of the kingdom, he saw that civilians had been evacuated.", "Cuzcatlec warriors moved to the coastal city of Acajutla and waited for Alvarado and his forces.", "Alvarado approached, confident that the result would be similar to what occurred in Mexico and Guatemala.", "He thought he would easily deal with this new indigenous force since the Mexican allies on his side and the Pipil spoke a similar language.Alvarado described the Cuzcatlec soldiers as having shields decorated with colourful exotic feathers, a vest-like armour made of three inch cotton which arrows could not penetrate, and long spears.", "Both armies suffered many casualties, with a wounded Alvarado retreating and losing a lot of his men, especially among the Mexican Indian auxiliaries.", "Once his army had regrouped, Alvarado decided to head to the Cuzcatlan capital and again faced armed Cuzcatlec.", "Wounded, unable to fight and hiding in the cliffs, Alvarado sent his Spanish men on their horses to approach the Cuzcatlec to see if they would fear the horses, but they did not retreat, Alvarado recalls in his letters to Hernán Cortés.The Cuzcatlec attacked again, and on this occasion stole Spanish weaponry.", "Alvarado retreated and sent Mexican messengers to demand that the Cuzcatlec warriors return the stolen weapons and surrender to their opponent's king.", "The Cuzcatlec responded with the famous response, \"If you want your weapons, come get them\".", "As days passed, Alvarado, fearing an ambush, sent more Mexican messengers to negotiate, but these messengers never came back and were presumably executed.Tazumal (built between AD 250–1200), Maya site in Santa Ana Department.The Spanish efforts were firmly resisted by Pipil and their Mayan-speaking neighbours.", "They defeated the Spaniards and what was left of their Tlaxcalan allies, forcing them to withdraw to Guatemala.", "After being wounded, Alvarado abandoned the war and appointed his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue the task.", "Two subsequent expeditions (the first in 1525, followed by a smaller group in 1528) brought the Pipil under Spanish control, since the Pipil also were weakened by a regional epidemic of smallpox.", "In 1525, the conquest of Cuzcatlán was completed and the city of San Salvador was established.", "The Spanish faced much resistance from the Pipil and were not able to reach eastern El Salvador, the area of the Lencas.In 1526 the Spanish founded the garrison town of San Miguel in northern Managuara—territory of the Lenca, headed by another explorer and conquistador, Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, nephew of Pedro Alvarado.", "Oral history holds that a Maya-Lenca crown princess, Antu Silan Ulap I, organized resistance to the conquistadors.", "The commonwealth of the Lenca was alarmed by de Moscoso's invasion, and Antu Silan travelled from village to village, uniting all the Lenca towns in present-day El Salvador and Honduras against the Spaniards.", "Through surprise attacks and overwhelming numbers, they were able to drive the Spanish out of San Miguel and destroy the garrison.For ten years the Lencas prevented the Spanish from building a permanent settlement.", "Then the Spanish returned with more soldiers, including about 2,000 forced conscripts from indigenous communities in Guatemala.", "They pursued the Lenca leaders further up into the mountains of Intibucá.Antu Silan Ulap eventually handed over control of the Lenca resistance to Lempira (also called Empira).", "Lempira was noteworthy among indigenous leaders in that he mocked the Spanish by wearing their clothes after capturing them and using their weapons captured in battle.", "Lempira fought in command of thousands of Lenca forces for six more years in Managuara until he was killed in battle.", "The remaining Lenca forces retreated into the hills.", "The Spanish were then able to rebuild their garrison town of San Miguel in 1537.=== Colonial period (1525–1821) ===Colonial Church of San Pedro Apóstol in Metapán, built between 1736 and 1743.A painting of the First Independence Movement celebration in San Salvador.", "At the centre, José Matías Delgado.During the colonial period, San Salvador and San Miguel were part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala (), created in 1609 as an administrative division of New Spain.", "The Salvadoran territory was administered by the mayor of Sonsonate, with San Salvador being established as an ''intendencia'' in 1786.In 1811, a combination of internal and external factors motivated Central American elites to attempt to gain independence from the Spanish Crown.", "The most important internal factors were the desire of local elites to control the country's affairs free of involvement from Spanish authorities, and the long-standing Creole aspiration for independence.", "The main external factors motivating the independence movement were the success of the French and American revolutions in the 18th century, and the weakening of the Spanish Crown's military power as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, with the resulting inability to control its colonies effectively.In November 1811 Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado rang the bells of Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement.", "This insurrection was suppressed, and many of its leaders were arrested and served sentences in jail.", "Another insurrection was launched in 1814, which was also suppressed.=== Independence (1821) ===In 1821 in light of unrest in Guatemala, Spanish authorities capitulated and signed the Act of Independence of Central America, which released all of the Captaincy of Guatemala (comprising current territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas) from Spanish rule and declared its independence.", "In 1821, El Salvador joined Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in a union named the Federal Republic of Central America.In early 1822, the authorities of the newly independent Central American provinces, meeting in Guatemala City, voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide.", "El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries.", "A Mexican military detachment marched to San Salvador and suppressed dissent, but with the fall of Iturbide on 19 March 1823, the army decamped back to Mexico.", "Shortly thereafter, the authorities of the provinces revoked the vote to join Mexico, deciding instead to form a federal union of the five remaining provinces.", "(Chiapas permanently joined Mexico at this juncture.)", "When the Federal Republic of Central America dissolved in 1841, El Salvador maintained its own government until it joined Honduras and Nicaragua in 1896 to form the Greater Republic of Central America, which dissolved in 1898.Woman and girl in El Salvador making bread, 1910After the mid-19th century, the economy was based on coffee growing.", "As the world market for indigo withered away, the economy prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated.", "The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the concentration of land into the hands of an oligarchy of just a few families.", "Throughout the last half of the 19th century, a succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop, the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced ''campesinos'' and other rural residents provided sufficient labour for the coffee ''fincas'' (plantations), and the suppression of rural discontent.", "In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force.===20th century===Tomás RegaladoIn 1898, General Tomas Regalado gained power by force, deposing Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez and ruling as president until 1903.Once in office he revived the practice of presidents designating their successors.", "After serving his term, he remained active in the Army of El Salvador and was killed on 11 July 1906, at El Jicaro, during a war against Guatemala.", "Until 1913 El Salvador was politically stable, with undercurrents of popular discontent.", "When President Manuel Enrique Araujo was killed in 1913, many hypotheses were advanced for the political motive of his murder.Araujo's administration was followed by the Melendez-Quinonez dynasty that lasted from 1913 to 1927.Pio Romero Bosque, ex-minister of the government and a trusted collaborator of the dynasty, succeeded President Jorge Meléndez, and in 1930 announced free elections, in which Arturo Araujo came to power on 1 March 1931, in what was considered the country's first freely contested election.", "His government lasted only nine months before it was overthrown by junior military officers who accused his Labor Party of lacking political and governmental experience and of using its government offices inefficiently.", "President Araujo faced general popular discontent, as the people had expected economic reforms and the redistribution of land.", "There were demonstrations in front of the National Palace from the first week of his administration.", "His vice president and minister of war was General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez.", "General 248x248pxIn December 1931, a coup d'état was organized by junior officers and led by Martínez.", "Only the First Regiment of Cavalry and the National Police defended the presidency (the National Police had been on its payroll), but later that night, after hours of fighting, the badly outnumbered defenders surrendered to rebel forces.", "The Directorate, composed of officers, hid behind a shadowy figure, a rich anti-communist banker called Rodolfo Duke, and later installed the vice-president Martínez as president.", "The revolt was probably caused by the army's discontent at not having been paid by President Araujo for some months.", "Araujo left the National Palace and unsuccessfully tried to organize forces to defeat the revolt.The U.S. Minister in El Salvador met with the Directorate and later recognized the government of Martínez, which agreed to hold presidential elections.", "He resigned six months prior to running for re-election, winning back the presidency as the only candidate on the ballot.", "He ruled from 1935 to 1939, then from 1939 to 1943.He began a fourth term in 1944 but resigned in May after a general strike.", "Martínez had said he was going to respect the constitution, which stipulated he could not be re-elected, but he refused to keep his promise.==== La Matanza ====Beginning in January 1932, there was brutal suppression of a rural revolt known as La Matanza.", "In the unstable political climate of the previous few years, social activist and revolutionary leader Farabundo Martí helped found the Communist Party of Central America, and led a communist alternative to the Red Cross, called \"International Red Aid\", serving as one of its representatives.", "Their goal was to help poor and underprivileged Salvadorans through the use of Marxist–Leninist ideology.", "In December 1930, at the height of the country's economic and social depression, Martí was once again exiled because of his popularity among the nation's poor and rumours of his upcoming nomination for president the following year.", "Once Araujo was elected president in 1931, Martí returned to El Salvador and, along with Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata, began the movement that was later truncated by the military.José Napoleón DuarteOn 22 January 1932, thousands of poorly armed peasants in the western part of El Salvador revolted against the government and Martínez.The rebellion occurred amid widespread unrest over suppression of democratic political freedoms following the cancelation of the results of the 1932 legislative election.", "The rebels were led by Feliciano Ama and Farabundo Martí and were largely composed of indigenous people and communists.", "The rebellion made gains initially, capturing several towns and cities across the western part of the country, killing an estimated 2,000 people.", "The government suppressed the rebellion brutally, killing between 10,000 and 40,000 people, mostly, Pipil peasants.", "Many of the rebellion's leaders, including Ama and Martí, were captured and executed.Historically, the high Salvadoran population density has contributed to tensions with neighbouring Honduras, as land-poor Salvadorans emigrated to less densely populated Honduras and established themselves as squatters on unused or underused land.", "This phenomenon was a major cause of the 1969 Football War between the two countries.", "As many as 130,000 Salvadorans were forcibly expelled or fled from Honduras.The Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the National Conciliation Party (PCN) were active in Salvadoran politics from 1960 until 2011, when they were disbanded by the Supreme Court because they had failed to win enough votes in the 2004 presidential election; Both parties have since reconstituted.", "They share common ideals, but one represents the middle class and the latter the interests of the Salvadoran military.PDC leader José Napoleón Duarte was the mayor of San Salvador from 1964 to 1970, winning three elections during the regime of PCN president, Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo, who allowed free elections for mayors and the National Assembly.", "Duarte later ran for president with a political grouping called the National Opposing Union (UNO) but was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections.", "He lost to the ex-minister of interior, Colonel Arturo Armando Molina, in an election that was widely viewed as fraudulent; Molina was declared the winner even though Duarte was said to have received a majority of the votes.", "Duarte, at some army officers' requests, supported a revolt to protest the election fraud, but was captured, tortured and later exiled.", "Duarte returned to the country in 1979 to enter politics after working on projects in Venezuela as an engineer.=== Salvadoran Civil War (1979–1992) ===massacres that occurred during the civil war.On 15 October 1979, a coup d'état brought the Revolutionary Government Junta (JRG) to power.", "It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land.", "The purpose of this new junta was to stop the revolutionary movement already underway in response to Duarte's stolen election.", "Nevertheless, the oligarchy opposed agrarian reform, and a junta formed with young reformist elements from the army such as Colonels Adolfo Arnoldo Majano and Jaime Abdul Gutiérrez, as well as with progressives such as Guillermo Ungo and Alvarez.Archbishop Romero spoke out against social injustice and violence amid the escalating conflict between the military government and left-wing insurgents that led to the Salvadoran Civil War.Pressure from the oligarchy soon dissolved the junta because of its inability to control the army in its repression of the people fighting for unionization rights, agrarian reform, better wages, accessible health care and freedom of expression.", "In the meantime, the guerrilla movement was spreading to all sectors of Salvadoran society.", "Middle and high school students were organized in MERS (Movimiento Estudiantil Revolucionario de Secundaria, Revolutionary Movement of Secondary Students); college students were involved with AGEUS (Asociacion de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorenos; Association of Salvadoran College Students); and workers were organized in BPR (Bloque Popular Revolucionario, Popular Revolutionary Block).", "In October 1980, several other major guerrilla groups of the Salvadoran left had formed the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, or FMLN.", "By the end of the 1970s, government-contracted death squads were killing about 10 people each day.", "Meanwhile, the FMLN had 6,000 to 8,000 active guerrillas and hundreds of thousands of part-time militia, supporters, and sympathizers.The U.S. supported and financed the creation of a second junta to change the political environment and stop the spread of a leftist insurrection.", "Napoleón Duarte was recalled from his exile in Venezuela to head this new junta.", "However, a revolution was already underway and his new role as head of the junta was seen by the general population as opportunistic.", "He was unable to influence the outcome of the insurrection.Óscar Romero, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of San Salvador, denounced injustices and massacres committed against civilians by government forces.", "He was considered \"the voice of the voiceless\", but he was assassinated by a death squad while saying Mass on 24 March 1980.Some consider this to be the beginning of the full Salvadoran Civil War, which lasted from 1980 to 1992.An unknown number of people \"disappeared\" during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed.", "The Salvadoran Army's US-trained Atlácatl Battalion was responsible for the El Mozote massacre where more than 800 civilians were murdered, over half of them children, the El Calabozo massacre, and the murder of UCA scholars.Protest against US involvement in the Salvadoran Civil War in Chicago, Illinois, in March 1989On 16 January 1992, the government of El Salvador, represented by president Alfredo Cristiani, and the FMLN, represented by the commanders of the five guerrilla groups – Schafik Hándal, Joaquín Villalobos, Salvador Sánchez Cerén, Francisco Jovel and Eduardo Sancho, all signed peace agreements brokered by the United Nations ending the 12-year civil war.", "This event, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico, was attended by U.N. dignitaries and other representatives of the international community.", "After signing the armistice, the president stood and shook hands with the newly ex-guerrilla commanders, an action which was widely admired.=== Post-war (1992–2019) ===The so-called Chapultepec Peace Accords mandated reductions in the size of the army, and the dissolution of the National Police, the Treasury Police, the National Guard and the Civilian Defence, a paramilitary group.", "A new Civil Police was to be organized.", "Judicial immunity for crimes committed by the armed forces ended; the government agreed to submit to the recommendations of a Commission on the Truth for El Salvador ''(Comisión de la Verdad Para El Salvador)'', which would \"investigate serious acts of violence occurring since 1980, and the nature and effects of the violence, and...recommend methods of promoting national reconciliation\".", "In 1993 the Commission delivered its findings reporting human rights violations on both sides of the conflict.", "Five days later the Salvadoran legislature passed an amnesty law for all acts of violence during the period.From 1989 until 2004, Salvadorans favoured the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA), voting in ARENA presidents in every election (Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores Pérez, Antonio Saca) until 2009.The unsuccessful attempts of the left-wing party to win presidential elections led to its selection of a journalist rather than a former guerrilla leader as a candidate.", "On 15 March 2009, Mauricio Funes, a television figure, became the first president from the FMLN.", "He was inaugurated on 1 June 2009.One focus of the Funes government has been revealing the alleged corruption from the past government.The signatories of the Peace Agreements.", "on its XXIV anniversary; The agreements led to a series of transformations that marked a before and after in national history.ARENA formally expelled Saca from the party in December 2009.With 12 loyalists in the National Assembly, Saca established his own party, the Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA), and entered into a tactical legislative alliance with the FMLN.", "After three years in office, with Saca's GANA party providing the FMLN with a legislative majority, Funes had not taken action to either investigate or to bring corrupt former officials to justice.Economic reforms since the early 1990s brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of the export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level.", "Crime remains a major problem for the investment climate.", "Early in the new millennium, El Salvador's government created the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales — the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) — in response to climate change concerns.In March 2014, former FMLN guerrilla leader Cerén narrowly won the election.", "He was sworn in as president on 31 May 2014.He was the first former guerrilla to become the president of El Salvador.In October 2017, an El Salvador court ruled that former president Funes and one of his sons had illegally enriched themselves.", "Funes had sought asylum in Nicaragua in 2016.In September 2018, former president Saca was sentenced to 10 years in prison after he pleaded guilty to diverting more than US$300 million in state funds to his own businesses and third parties.==== Presidency of Nayib Bukele (2019–present) ====Nayib Bukele speaks at his inauguration ceremonyOn 1 June 2019, Nayib Bukele became the new president of El Salvador.", "Bukele was the winner of February 2019 presidential election.", "He represented GANA, as he was denied participating with the newly formed Nuevas Ideas party.", "ARENA and the FMLN, El Salvador's two main parties, had dominated politics in El Salvador over the past three decades.According to a report by the International Crisis Group (ICG) 2020, the homicide rates, murders in El Salvador had dropped by as much as 60 percent since Bukele became president in June 2019.The reason might have been a \"non-aggression deal\" between parts of the government and the gangs.The party Nuevas Ideas (NI), founded by Bukele, with its ally (GANA) won around 63% of the vote in the February 2021 legislative elections.", "His party and allies won 61 seats, well over the coveted supermajority of 56 seats in the 84-seat parliament, allowing for uncontested decisions at the legislative level.", "The supermajority permits President Bukele's party to appoint judiciary members and pass laws with little to no opposition, for instance, to remove presidential term limits.", "On 8 June 2021, at the initiative of President Bukele, pro-government deputies in the Legislative Assembly voted legislation to make bitcoin legal tender in the country.", "In September 2021, El Salvador's Supreme Court ruled to allow Bukele to run for a second term in 2024, despite the fact that the constitution prohibits the president to serve two consecutive terms in office.", "The decision was organized by judges appointed to the court by Bukele.On 25 February 2021, El Salvador became the first Central American country to be awarded certification for the elimination of malaria by the WHO.In January 2022, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) urged El Salvador to reverse its decision to make cryptocurrency legal tender.", "Bitcoin had rapidly lost about half of its value, meaning economic difficulties and, as of May 2022, with government bonds trading at 40% of their original value, the prospect of a looming sovereign default.", "Bukele announced back in January 2022 plans to build Bitcoin City at the base of a volcano in El Salvador.In 2022, the Salvadoran government initiated a massive fight against criminal gangs and gang-related violence.", "A state of emergency was declared on 27 March and was extended on 20 July.", "More than 53,000 suspected gang members were arrested, precipitating the highest reported incarceration rate in the world.On 30 November 2023, the Legislative Assembly granted Bukele and Vice President Felix Ulloa a leave of absence so that they could focus on their 2024 re-election campaign.", "Bukele was succeeded by Claudia Rodríguez de Guevara as acting president, the first female president in Salvadoran history.On 4 February 2024, President Nayib Bukele, won re-election with 83% of the vote in general election.", "His party Nuevas Ideas (New Ideas) won 58 of the El Salvador parliament's 60 seats." ], [ "Geography", "El Salvador's topography.El Salvador lies in the isthmus of Central America between latitudes 13° and 15°N, and longitudes 87° and 91°W.", "It stretches from west-northwest to east-southeast and north to south, with a total area of .", "As the smallest country in continental America, El Salvador is affectionately called ''Pulgarcito de America'' (the \"Tom Thumb of the Americas\").", "El Salvador shares borders with Guatemala and Honduras, the total national boundary length is : with Guatemala and with Honduras.", "It is the only Central American country that has no Caribbean coastline.", "The coastline on the Pacific is long.El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa.", "Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific.", "It is El Salvador's only navigable river.", "It and its tributaries drain about half of the country's area.", "Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific.", "These include the Goascorán, Jiboa, Torola, Paz and the Río Grande de San Miguel.There are several lakes enclosed by volcanic craters in El Salvador, the most important of which are Lake Ilopango () and Lake Coatepeque ().", "Lake Güija is El Salvador's largest natural lake ().", "Several artificial lakes were created by the damming of the Lempa, the largest of which is Cerrón Grande Reservoir ().", "There are a total of water within El Salvador's borders.The highest point in El Salvador is Cerro El Pital, at , on the border with Honduras.", "Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific.", "These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions.", "The mountain ranges and central plateau, covering 85% of the land, comprise the interior highlands.", "The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands.===Climate===Köppen climate classification of El Salvador.El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons.", "Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change.", "The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot and humid; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate.The rainy season, known locally as ''invierno'', or winter, extends from May to October.", "Almost all the annual rainfall during this time, and yearly rain totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as .", "Protected areas and the central plateau receive lesser, although still significant, amounts.", "Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms.", "Although hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific, they seldom affect El Salvador, with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (which actually formed over the Atlantic Basin) and Hurricane Emily in 1973.From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns.", "During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has lost most of its precipitation while passing over the mountains in Honduras.", "By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy.", "This season is known locally as ''verano'', or summer.Temperatures vary little with season; elevation is the primary determinant.", "The Pacific lowlands are the hottest region, with annual averages ranging from .", "San Salvador is representative of the central plateau, with an annual average temperature of and absolute high and low readings of , respectively.", "Mountain areas are the coolest, with annual averages from and minimum temperatures sometimes approaching freezing.===Natural disasters=======Extreme weather events====El Salvador's position on the Pacific Ocean also makes it subject to severe weather conditions, including heavy rainstorms and severe droughts, both of which may be made more extreme by the El Niño and La Niña effects.", "Hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch, which formed in the Atlantic and crossed Central America.In the summer of 2001 a severe drought destroyed 80% of El Salvador's crops, causing famine in the countryside.", "On 4 October 2005, severe rains resulted in dangerous flooding and landslides, which caused at least 50 deaths.====Earthquakes and volcanic activity====San Miguel volcano in 2013El Salvador lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire and is thus subject to significant tectonic activity, including frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity.", "The capital San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors.", "Recent examples include the earthquake on 13 January 2001 that measured 7.7 on the Richter magnitude scale and caused a landslide that killed more than 800 people; and another earthquake only a month later, on 13 February 2001, that killed 255 people and damaged about 20% of the country's housing.", "A 5.7 Mw earthquake in 1986 resulted in 1,500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and 100,000 people left homeless.El Salvador has over twenty volcanoes; two of them, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years.", "From the early 19th century to the mid-1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name \"Lighthouse of the Pacific\".", "Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone.", "The most recent destructive volcanic eruption took place on 1 October 2005, when the Santa Ana Volcano spewed a cloud of ash, hot mud and rocks that fell on nearby villages and caused two deaths.", "The most severe volcanic eruption in this area occurred in the 5th century AD when the Ilopango volcano erupted with a VEI strength of 6, producing widespread pyroclastic flows and devastating Mayan cities.===Flora and fauna===The torogoz is El Salvador's national bird.It is estimated that there are 500 species of birds, 1,000 species of butterflies, 400 species of orchids, 800 species of trees, and 800 species of marine fish in El Salvador.There are eight species of sea turtles in the world; six of them nest on the coasts of Central America, and four make their home on the Salvadoran coast: the leatherback turtle, the hawksbill, the green sea turtle, and the olive ridley.", "The hawksbill is critically endangered.Recent conservation efforts provide hope for the future of the country's biological diversity.", "In 1997, the government established the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources.", "A general environmental framework law was approved by the National Assembly in 1999.Several non-governmental organizations are doing work to safeguard some of the country's most important forested areas.", "Foremost among these is SalvaNatura, which manages El Impossible, the country's largest national park under an agreement with El Salvador's environmental authorities.El Salvador is home to six terrestrial ecosystems: Central American montane forests, Sierra Madre de Chiapas moist forests, Central American dry forests, Central American pine-oak forests, Gulf of Fonseca mangroves, and Northern Dry Pacific Coast mangroves.", "It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.06/10, ranking it 136th globally out of 172 countries." ], [ "Government and politics", "The 1983 constitution has the highest legal authority in the country.", "El Salvador has a democratic and representative government, whose three bodies are:Salvadoran cadets in the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador# The Executive Branch, headed by the President of the Republic, who is elected by direct vote and remains in office for five years with no re-election but can be elected after sitting out one electoral period.", "The president has a Cabinet of Ministers whom he appoints, and is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.# The Legislative Branch, called El Salvador's Legislative Assembly (unicameral), consisting of 84 deputies.# The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, which is composed of 15 judges, one of them being elected as President of the Judiciary.The political framework of El Salvador is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multiform, multi-party system.", "The president, currently Nayib Bukele, is both head of state and head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly.", "The country also has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court.", "It was ranked the 5th least electoral democratic country in Latin America and the Caribbean by V-Dem Democracy Report.===Politics===Legislative Assembly of El SalvadorEl Salvador has a multi-party system.", "Two political parties, the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) have tended to dominate elections.", "ARENA candidates won four consecutive presidential elections until the election of Mauricio Funes of the FMLN in March 2009.The FMLN Party is leftist in ideology, and is split between the dominant Marxist-Leninist faction in the legislature, and the social liberal wing led by Mauricio Funes until 2014.However, the two-party dominance was broken after Nayib Bukele, a candidate from GANA won the 2019 Salvadoran presidential election.", "In February 2021, the results of legislative election caused a major change in the politics of El Salvador.", "The new allied party of president Nayib Bukele, Nuevas Ideas (New Ideas) won the biggest congressional majority in the country's history.The departments of the Central region, especially the capital and the coastal regions, known as '''' (red departments) are relatively leftist.", "The '''' (blue departments) in the east, western and highland regions are relatively conservative.=== Foreign relations and military === U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo participates in a signing ceremony for the CSL Lease Extension with Salvadoran President Nayib BukeleEl Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies.", "It is also member of the Organization of American States, the Central American Parliament, and the Central American Integration System among others.", "It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission, which seeks to promote regional arms control.", "El Salvador is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements.", "An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative.In November 1950, El Salvador was the only country to help the newly empowered 14th Dalai Lama by supporting his Tibetan Government cabinet minister's telegram requesting an appeal before the General Assembly of the United Nations to stop the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China.", "With no other countries in support, \"the UN unanimously dropped the Tibetan plea from its agenda.", "\"The Armed Forces of El Salvador have three branches: the Salvadoran Army, the Salvadoran Air Force and the Navy of El Salvador.", "There are around 17,000 personnel in the armed forces in total.In 2017, El Salvador signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.El Salvador is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.===Human rights===Amnesty International has drawn attention to several arrests of police officers for unlawful police killings.", "Other issues to gain Amnesty International's attention include missing children, failure of law enforcement to properly investigate and prosecute crimes against women, and rendering organized labour illegal.Abortion is banned, with no exceptions for rape, incest, or threat to the mother's life; as a result, 180 women have been imprisoned in the last two decades, some for up to 30 years.", "Discrimination against LGBT people in El Salvador is very widespread.", "According to 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 62% of Salvadorans believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.===Administrative divisions===El Salvador is divided into 14 departments (''departamentos''), which in turn are subdivided into 44 municipalities (''municipios'') which are also divided into 262 districts.", "Departments of El Salvador Political division of El Salvador.'''", "Western El Salvador '''Ahuachapán (''Ahuachapán'')Santa Ana (''Santa Ana'')Sonsonate (''Sonsonate'') ''' Central El Salvador '''La Libertad (''Santa Tecla'')Chalatenango (''Chalatenango'')Cuscatlán (''Cojutepeque'')San Salvador (''San Salvador'')La Paz (''Zacatecoluca'')Cabañas (''Sensuntepeque'')San Vicente (''San Vicente'') ''' Eastern El Salvador '''Usulután (''Usulután'')San Miguel (''San Miguel'')Morazán (''San Francisco Gotera'')La Unión (''La Unión'') ''Note: Departmental capitals are in parentheses.''" ], [ "Economy", "Historical GDP per capita development of El Salvador, Guatemala and HondurasEl Salvador's economy has been hampered at times by natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, by government policies that mandate large economic subsidies, and by official corruption.", "Subsidies became such a problem that in April 2012, the International Monetary Fund suspended a $750 million loan to the central government.", "President Funes' chief of cabinet, Alex Segovia, acknowledged that the economy was at the \"point of collapse\".Gross domestic product (GDP) in purchasing power parity estimate for 2021 is US$57.95 billion growing real GDP at 4.2% for 2021.The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 64.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 24.7% (2008 est.)", "and agriculture represents 11.2% of GDP (2010 est.).", "The GDP grew after 1996 at an annual rate that averaged 3.2% real growth.", "The government committed to free market initiatives and the 2007 GDP's real growth rate hit 4.7%.", "As of December 2017, net international reserves stood at $3.57 billion.It has long been a challenge in El Salvador to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy.", "In the past, the country produced gold and silver, but recent attempts to reopen the mining sector, which were expected to add hundreds of millions of dollars to the local economy, collapsed after President Saca shut down the operations of Pacific Rim Mining Corporation.", "Nevertheless, according to the Central American Institute for Fiscal Studies (Instituto Centroamericano for Estudios Fiscales), the contribution of metallic mining was a minuscule 0.3% of the country's GDP between 2010 and 2015.Saca's decision although not lacking political motives, had strong support from local residents and grassroots movements in the country.", "President Funes later rejected a company's application for a further permit based on the risk of cyanide contamination on one of the country's main rivers.As with other former colonies, El Salvador was considered a mono-export economy (an economy that depended heavily on one type of export) for many years.", "During colonial times, El Salvador was a thriving exporter of indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export.San Miguel is an important economic centre of El Salvador and home to the \"Carnival of San Miguel\", one of the biggest festivals of entertainment and food in Central America.The government has sought to improve the collection of its current revenues, with a focus on indirect taxes.", "A 10% value-added tax (IVA in Spanish), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995.Inflation has been steady and among the lowest in the region.", "As a result of the free trade agreements, from 2000 to 2006, total exports have grown 19% from $2.94 billion to $3.51 billion, and total imports have risen 54% from $4.95 billion to $7.63 billion.", "This has resulted in a 102% increase in the trade deficit, from $2.01 billion to $4.12 billion.In 2006, El Salvador was the first country to ratify the Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) — negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic — with the United States.", "CAFTA requires that the Salvadoran government adopt policies that foster free trade.", "CAFTA has bolstered exports of processed foods, sugar, and ethanol, and supported investment in the apparel sector, which faced Asian competition with the expiration of the Multi Fibre Arrangement in 2005.In anticipation of the declines in the apparel sector's competitiveness, the previous administration sought to diversify the economy by promoting the country as a regional distribution and logistics hub, and by promoting tourism investment through tax incentives.In June 2021, President Nayib Bukele said he would introduce legislation to make Bitcoin legal tender in El Salvador.", "The Bitcoin Law was passed by the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador on 9 June 2021.Bitcoin officially became a legal tender on 7 September 2021.As part of the law, foreigners can gain permanent residence in El Salvador if they invest 3 Bitcoin into the country.", "The implementation of the law has been met with protests, with the majority of the country being against using Bitcoin as legal tender.", "According to a survey conducted by the Salvadoran Chamber of Commerce, as of March 2022 only 14% of merchants in the country processed at least one Bitcoin transaction.El Salvador leads the region in remittances per capita, with inflows equivalent to nearly all export income; in 2019 2.35 million Salvadorans lived in the U.S. and about a third of all households received remittances.", "Remittances from Salvadorans living in the United States, sent to family members in El Salvador, are a major source of foreign income and offset the trade deficit.", "Remittances have increased steadily since the early 2000s, growing from $3.32 billion, or approximately 16.2% of GDP in 2006, to nearly $6 billion (around 20% of GDP in 2019, one of the highest rates in the world, according to the World Bank.", ")===Energy===The largest wind park in the Central American region is located in Metapán, El SalvadorEl Salvador's energy industry is diversified across, relying on fossil fuels, hydro, other renewables (mainly geothermal) for local electricity production, along with a reliance on imports for oil.", "El Salvador has an installed capacity of 1,983 MW generating 5,830 GWh of electricity per year, 84% of this comes from renewable sources including 26.85% from geothermal (produced from the country's many volcanoes), 29.92% from hydro and the rest is from fossil fuels.According to the National Energy Commission, 94.4% of total injections during January 2021 came from hydroelectric plants (28.5% - 124.43 GWh), geothermal (27.3% - 119.07 GWh), biomass (24.4% 106.43 GWh), photovoltaic solar (10.6% - 46.44 GWh) and wind (3.6% - 15.67 GWh).===Telecommunications and media===El Salvador has 0.9 million fixed telephone lines, 0.5 million fixed broadband lines and 9.4 million mobile cellular subscriptions.", "Much of the population is able to access the internet through their smartphones and mobile networks, which liberal government regulation promotes mobile penetration over fixed line including the deployment of 5G coverage (which testing of began in 2020).", "Transition to digital transmission of TV/radio networks was done in 2018 with the adaptation of the ISDB-T standard.", "There are hundreds of privately owned national TV networks, cable TV networks (that also carry international channels), and radio stations available; while there is also 1 government owned broadcast station.===Official corruption and foreign investment===In an analysis of ARENA's electoral defeat in 2009, the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador pointed to official corruption under the Saca administration as a significant reason for public rejection of continued ARENA government.", "Subsequent policies under Funes administrations improved El Salvador to foreign investment, and the World Bank in 2014 rated El Salvador 109, a little better than Belize (118) and Nicaragua (119) in the World Bank's annual \"Ease of doing business\" index.As per Santander Trade, a Spanish think tank in foreign investment, \"Foreign investment into El Salvador has been steadily growing during the last few years.", "In 2013, the influx of FDI increased.", "Nevertheless, El Salvador receives less FDI than other countries of Central America.", "The government has made little progress in terms of improving the business climate.", "In addition to this, the limited size of its domestic market, weak infrastructures and institutions, as well as the high level of criminality have been real obstacles to investors.", "However, El Salvador is the second most 'business friendly' country in South America in terms of business taxation.", "It also has a young and skilled labour force and a strategic geographical position.", "The country's membership in the DR-CAFTA, as well as its reinforced integration to the C4 countries (producers of cotton) should lead to an increase of FDI.", "\"Foreign companies have lately resorted to arbitration in international trade tribunals in total disagreement with Salvadoran government policies.", "In 2008, El Salvador sought international arbitration against Italy's Enel Green Power, on behalf of Salvadoran state-owned electric companies for a geothermal project Enel had invested in.", "Four years later, Enel indicated it would seek arbitration against El Salvador, blaming the government for technical problems that prevent it from completing its investment.", "The government came to its defence claiming that Art 109 of the constitution does not allow any government (regardless of the party they belong), to privatize the resources of the national soil (in this case geothermic energy).", "The dispute came to an end in December 2014 when both parties came to a settlement, from which no details have been released.", "The small country had yielded to pressure from the Washington-based powerful ICSID.", "The U.S. Embassy warned in 2009 that the Salvadoran government's populist policies of mandating artificially low electricity prices were damaging private sector profitability, including the interests of American investors in the energy sector.", "The U.S. Embassy noted the corruption of El Salvador's judicial system and quietly urged American businesses to include \"arbitration clauses, preferably with a foreign venue\", when doing business in the country.In terms of how people perceived the levels of public corruption in 2014, El Salvador ranks 80 out of 175 countries as per the Corruption Perception Index.", "El Salvador's rating compares relatively well with Panama (94 of 175) and Costa Rica (47 of 175).===Tourism===Tropical beach at La LibertadIt was estimated that 1,394,000 international tourists visited El Salvador in 2014.Tourism contributed US$2970.1 million to El Salvador's GDP in 2019.This represented 11% of total GDP.", "Tourism directly supported 80,500 jobs in 2013.This represented 3.1% of total employment in El Salvador.", "In 2019, tourism indirectly supported 317,200 jobs, representing 11.6% of total employment in El Salvador.Most North American and European tourists seek out El Salvador's beaches and nightlife.", "El Salvador's tourism landscape is slightly different from those of other Central American countries.", "Because of its geographic size and urbanization there are not many nature-themed tourist destinations such as ecotours or archaeological sites open to the public.", "Nonetheless, El Salvador remains best known for its beaches and volcanoes.", "The most frequently visited beaches include El Tunco, Punta Roca, El Sunzal, El Zonte beach, La Costa del Sol, El Majahual, and La Libertad beach.", "While the most hiked volcanoes are Santa Ana and Izalco." ], [ "Infrastructure", "The level of access to water supply and sanitation has been increased significantly.", "A 2015 conducted study by the University of North Carolina called El Salvador the country that has achieved the greatest progress in the world in terms of increased access to water supply and sanitation and the reduction of inequity in access between urban and rural areas.", "However, water resources are seriously polluted and a large part of the wastewater discharged into the environment without any treatment.", "Institutionally a single public institution is both de facto in charge of setting sector policy and of being the main service provider.", "Attempts at reforming and modernizing the sector through new laws have not borne fruit over the past 20 years.Hospital El SalvadorIn response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the government converted the country's main convention center into Hospital El Salvador to be the largest hospital in Latin America.", "The facility was inaugurated by the president on 22 June 2020, at which time he announced the hospital conversion would be permanent because of the large investment made.", "US$25 million was spent on the first phase of the conversion of the former convention center, with the entire facility costing $75 million and featuring a blood bank, morgue, radiology area, among other amenities.", "The hospital will have a total capacity of 1,083 ICU beds and 2,000 beds total once phase 3 is completed.The airport serving international flights in El Salvador is Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport.", "This airport is located about southeast of San Salvador." ], [ "Demographics", "El Salvador's population was in , compared to 2,200,000 in 1950.In 2010 the percentage of the population below the age of 15 was 32.1%, 61% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6.9% were 65 years or older.", "The capital city of San Salvador has a population of about 2.1 million people.", "An estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas.", "Urbanization has expanded at a phenomenal rate in El Salvador since the 1960s, with millions moving to the cities and creating associated problems for urban planning and services.There are up to 100,000 Nicaraguans living in El Salvador.===Ethnic groups===El Salvador's population is composed of mixed races as well as people of indigenous, European, or Afro-descendant ancestry among smaller diasporas of Middle and Far Eastern groups.", "Eighty-six per cent of Salvadorans identify with mestizo ancestry.", "15.0% of Salvadorans report as White, mostly of ethnically Spanish people, while there are also Salvadorans of French, German, Swiss, English, Irish, and Italian descent.", "Most Central European immigrants in El Salvador arrived during World War II as refugees from the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Switzerland.", "There are also small communities of Jews, Palestinian Christians, and Arab Muslims (in particular Palestinians).0.23% of the population report as fully indigenous.", "The ethnic groups are Kakawira which represents 0.07% of the total country's population, Nahua (0.06%), Lenca (0.04%) and other minor groups (0.06%).", "Very few Amerindians have retained their customs and traditions, having over time assimilated into the dominant mestizo culture.", "There is a small Afro-Salvadoran group that is 0.13% of the total population, with Blacks, among other races, having been prevented from immigrating via government policies in the early 20th century.", "The descendants of enslaved Africans, however, had already integrated into the Salvadoran population and culture well before, during the colonial and post-colonial period.Among the immigrant groups in El Salvador, Palestinian Christians stand out.", "Though few in number, their descendants have attained great economic and political power in the country, as evidenced by the election of President Antonio Saca, whose opponent in the 2004 election, Schafik Handal, was also of Palestinian descent, and the flourishing commercial, industrial, and construction firms owned by this ethnic group., there were approximately 3.2 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, with the United States traditionally being the destination of choice for Salvadoran economic migrants.", "By 2012, there were about 2.0 million Salvadoran immigrants and Americans of Salvadoran descent in the U.S., making them the sixth largest immigrant group in the country.", "The second destination of Salvadorans living outside is Guatemala, with more than 111,000 persons, mainly in Guatemala City.", "Salvadorans also live in other nearby countries such as Belize, Honduras and Nicaragua.", "Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom (including the Cayman Islands), Sweden, Brazil, Italy, Colombia, and Australia.===Languages===Castillian, also known as Spanish, is the official language and is spoken by virtually all inhabitants, although a very small number (around 500) of indigenous Pipils speak Nawat.", "The other indigenous languages, namely Poqomam, Cacaopera, and Lenca, are extinct.", "Q'eqchi' is spoken by indigenous immigrants of Guatemalan and Belizean origin living in El Salvador.The local Spanish vernacular is called ''Caliche'', which is considered informal.", "As in other regions of Central and South America, Salvadorans use .", "This refers to the use of \"\" as the second person singular pronoun, instead of \"\".===Religion===The majority of the population in El Salvador is Christian.", "Catholics (47%) and Protestants (33%) are the two major religious groups in the country, with the Catholic Church the largest denomination.", "Those not affiliated with any religious group amount to 17% of the population.", "The remainder of the population (3%) is made up of Jehovah's Witnesses, Hare Krishnas, Muslims, Jews, Buddhists, Latter-day Saints, and those adhering to indigenous religious beliefs.", "The number of evangelicals in the country is growing rapidly.", "Óscar Romero, the first Salvadoran saint, was canonized by Pope Francis on 14 October 2018." ], [ "Education", "Dr. Prudencio Llach ObservatoryThe public education system in El Salvador is severely lacking in resources.", "Class sizes in public schools can be as large as 50 children per classroom.", "Salvadorans who can afford the cost often choose to send their children to private schools, which are regarded as being better-quality than public schools.", "Most private schools follow American, European or other advanced systems.", "Lower-income families are forced to rely on public education.Education in El Salvador is free through high school.", "After nine years of basic education (elementary–middle school), students have the option of a two-year high school or a three-year high school.", "A two-year high school prepares the student for transfer to a university.", "A three-year high school allows the student to graduate and enter the workforce in a vocational career, or to transfer to a university to further their education in their chosen field.Universities in El Salvador include a central public institution, the Universidad de El Salvador, and many other specialized private universities.", "El Salvador was ranked 95th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 108th in 2019." ], [ "Crime", "Drone for unmanned aerial patrolsSince the early twenty-first century, El Salvador has experienced high crime rates, including gang-related crimes and juvenile delinquency.", "El Salvador had the highest murder rate in the world in 2012 but experienced a sharp decline in 2019 with a new centrist government in power.", "It is also considered an epicentre of a gang crisis, along with Guatemala and Honduras.", "Several journalistic investigations indicate that the government administrations of Carlos Mauricio Funes Cartagena and Salvador Sánchez Cerén, far from working to eradicate violence and the actions of gang groups, made truces with the gangs Barrio 18 and Mara Salvatrucha to keep a certain control over criminal activities and murders in the Salvadoran territory.", "In response to this, the government has set up countless programs to try to guide the youth away from gang membership; so far its efforts have not produced any quick results.", "One of the government programs was a gang reform called \"Super Mano Dura\" (Super Firm Hand).", "Super Mano Dura had little success and was highly criticized by the United Nations.", "It experienced temporary success in 2004 but there was a rise in crime after 2005.In 2004, there were 41 intentional homicides per 100,000 citizens, with 60% of the homicides committed being gang-related.", "In 2012, the homicide rate had increased to 66 per 100,000 inhabitants, more than triple the rate in Mexico.", "In 2011 there were an estimated 25,000 gang members at large in El Salvador, with another 9,000 in prison.", "The most well-known gangs, called \"maras\" in colloquial Spanish, are Mara Salvatrucha and their rivals Barrio 18.Maras are hunted by death squads including Sombra Negra.In 2015, there were 6,650 homicides recorded in El Salvador.", "In 2016, at least 5,728 people were murdered.", "In 2017, there were 3,962 recorded homicides.", "In 2018, there were 3,348 recorded deaths.", "In 2019, authorities reported a total of 2,365 homicides.", "In 2020, there were only 1,322 reported homicides.", "In 2021, the country recorded 1,140 homicides.", "According to official data, 2021 had the lowest number recorded murders since the end of the civil war in 1992.By 2022, El Salvador had a homicide rate of 7.8 per 100,000 individuals.On 10 May 2023, President Nayib Bukele stated on Twitter that El Salvador had completed one full year or 365 days since 2019 without a single homicide occurring.", "This announcement was accompanied by a video detailing his government's claims about this dramatic change in the occurrences of homicide.=== 2022 Crackdown on gangs ===Beginning on 25 March 2022, three days of gang-related violence occurred that left 87 people dead.", "In response, President Bukele asked the Salvadoran parliament to ratify a state of emergency.", "On 26 March, Bukele also ordered the police and army to initiate mass-arrests against those responsible for the violence.A day later, Congress approved a \"State of Emergency\" that gives legal coverage to arrest any citizen suspected to be a gang member even with no proof.", "In addition, Congress also approved reforms to increase the maximum sentence for gang member from nine to 45 years in prison and punish the dissemination of gang messages, including independent journalism talking about the gang crisis, with up to 15 years in prison.The law was directed against those who \"mark\" their territories with acronyms of the gangs, a practice that gang members use to intimidate, and threaten with death those who denounce them to the authorities.", "The Directorate of Penal Centers began to erase the graffiti that the gangs use to mark the territory in which they operate.The Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and Barrio 18 gangs, among others, were estimated in 2022 to have around some 70,000 members, and as of August 2023, around 72,000 suspected gang members have been sent to prison as a part of the government crackdown on the gangs." ], [ "Culture", "The iconic statue of Christ on the globe sphere of planet earth is part of the Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo ('Monument to the Divine Saviour of the World') on Plaza El Salvador del Mundo ('The Saviour of the World Plaza'), a landmark located in the country's capital, San Salvador.", "Cobija, 2023, by Salvadoran contemporary artist, Studio Lenca.", "The work is constructed using a found blanket and oil paint on wood.", "It measures 220cm x 210cm, in 2023 the work was acquired by the Pérez Art Museum MiamiPulling from indigenous, colonial Spanish and African influences, a composite population was formed as a result of intermarrying between the natives, European settlers, and enslaved Africans.", "The Catholic Church plays an important role in the Salvadoran culture.", "Archbishop Óscar Romero is a national hero for his role in resisting human rights violations that were occurring in the lead-up to the Salvadoran Civil War.", "Significant foreign personalities in El Salvador were the Jesuit priests and professors Ignacio Ellacuría, Ignacio Martín-Baró, and Segundo Montes, who were murdered in 1989 by the Salvadoran Army during the height of the civil war.Painting, ceramics and textiles are the principal manual artistic mediums.", "Writers Francisco Gavidia, Salarrué (Salvador Salazar Arrué), Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino, Pedro Geoffroy Rivas, Manlio Argueta, José Roberto Cea, and poet Roque Dalton are important writers from El Salvador.", "Notable 20th-century personages include the late filmmaker Baltasar Polio, female film director Patricia Chica, artist Fernando Llort, and caricaturist Toño Salazar.Among the more renowned representatives of the graphic arts are the painters Studio Lenca, Augusto Crespin, Noe Canjura, Carlos Cañas, Giovanni Gil, Julia Díaz, Mauricio Mejia, Maria Elena Palomo de Mejia, Camilo Minero, Ricardo Carbonell, Roberto Huezo, Miguel Angel Cerna, (the painter and writer better known as MACLo), Esael Araujo, and many others.===Cuisine===One of El Salvador's notable dishes is the ''pupusa''.", "''Pupusas'' are handmade corn tortillas (made of ''masa de maíz'' or ''masa de arroz'', a maize or rice flour dough used in Latin American cuisine) stuffed with one or more of the following: cheese (usually a soft Salvadoran cheese such as ''quesillo'', similar to mozzarella), ''chicharrón'', or refried beans.", "Sometimes the filling is ''queso con loroco'' (cheese combined with ''loroco'', a vine flower bud native to Central America).", "''Pupusas revueltas'' are ''pupusas'' filled with beans, cheese and pork.", "There are also vegetarian options.", "Some adventurous restaurants even offer ''pupusas'' stuffed with shrimp or spinach.", "The name ''pupusa'' comes from the Pipil-Nahuatl word, ''pupushahua''.", "The origins of the ''pupusa'' are debated, although its presence in El Salvador is known to predate the arrival of the Spaniards.In El Salvador, the pupusa is considered a Mesoamerican ancestral legacy and the most popular dish nationally.", "It has been designated as the \"National Dish of El Salvador\" via the Legislative Decree no.", "655 in the Salvadoran Constitution.", "The decree also indicates that every second Sunday in November, the country will celebrate the \"National Day of the Pupusas\".Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are ''yuca frita'' and ''panes con pollo''.", "''Yuca frita'' is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with ''pescaditas'' (fried baby sardines).", "Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried.", "''Pan con pollo/pavo'' (bread with chicken/turkey) are warm turkey or chicken-filled submarine sandwiches.", "The bird is marinated and then roasted with spices and hand-pulled.", "This sandwich is traditionally served with tomato and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard.", "''Pupusas'', the national and most famous dish of El Salvador.One of El Salvador's typical breakfasts is fried plantain, usually served with cream.", "It is common in Salvadoran restaurants and homes, including those of immigrants to the United States.", "Alguashte, a condiment made from dried, ground pepitas, is commonly incorporated into savoury and sweet Salvadoran dishes.", "\"''Maria Luisa''\" is a dessert commonly found in El Salvador.", "It is a layered cake that is soaked in orange marmalade and sprinkled with powdered sugar.", "One of the most popular desserts is the cake ''Pastel de tres leches'' (Cake of three milks), consisting of three types of milk: evaporated milk, condensed milk, and cream.A popular drink that Salvadorans enjoy is ''horchata''.", "''Horchata'' is most commonly made of the morro seed ground into a powder and added to milk or water, and sugar.", "''Horchata'' is drunk year-round, and can be drunk at any time of day.", "It mostly is accompanied by a plate of ''pupusas'' or fried yuca.", "''Horchata'' from El Salvador has a very distinct taste and is not to be confused with Mexican ''horchata'', which is rice-based.", "Coffee is also a common morning beverage.", "Other popular drinks in El Salvador include ''ensalada'', a drink made of chopped fruit swimming in fruit juice, and ''Kolachampan'', a sugar cane-flavoured carbonated beverage.===Music=== Álvaro Torres is one of the most famous Salvadoran singers mainly in the Latin pop genre, romantic ballads and boleros.Traditional Salvadoran music is a mixture of indigenous, Spanish, and African influences.", "It includes religious songs (mostly used to celebrate Christmas and other holidays, especially feast days of the saints).", "Other musical repertoire consists of danza, pasillo, marcha and cancione which are composed of parading bands, street performances, or onstage dances, either in groups or paired.", "Satirical and rural lyrical themes are common.", "Traditional instruments used are the ''marimba'', ''tepehuaste'', flutes, drums, scrapers and gourds, as well as guitars among others.", "El Salvador's well known folk dance is known as ''Xuc'' which originated in Cojutepeque, Cuscatlan.", "Caribbean, Colombian, and Mexican music has become customary listening radio and party in the country, especially boleros, cumbia, merengue, Latin pop, salsa, bachata, and reggaeton.===Sport===The Estadio Cuscatlán in San Salvador is the largest stadium in Central AmericaFootball is the most popular sport in El Salvador.", "The El Salvador national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1982.Their qualification for the 1970 tournament was marred by the Football War, a war against Honduras, whose team El Salvador's had defeated.", "The national football team play at the Estadio Cuscatlán in San Salvador.", "It opened in 1976 and seats 53,400, making it the largest stadium in Central America and the Caribbean." ], [ "See also", "* Index of El Salvador–related articles* Outline of El Salvador* List of Salvadorans* Health in El Salvador" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"Background Notes\", ''Background Notes: El Salvador'', January 2008.Retrieved 6 March 2008.", "* Bonner, Raymond.", "''Weakness and Deceit: U.S. Policy and El Salvador''.", "New York: Times Books, 1984.", "* ''CIA World Factbook'', \"El Salvador\", 28 February 2008.Retrieved 6 March 2008.", "* \"Country Specific Information\", ''U.S.", "State Department'', 3 October 2007.Retrieved 6 March 2008.", "* Danner, Mark.", "''The Massacre at El Mozote: A Parable of the Cold War''.", "New York: Vintage Books, 1994.", "* Foley, Erin.", "'Cultures of the world, El Salvador.", "1995* Montgomery, Tommie Sue.", "''Revolution in El Salvador: From Civil Strife to Civil Peace''.", "Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1995.", "* * Stadler, Sidney.", "''It Started with an Oyster: The Memoirs of Sidney M. Stadler, CBE''.", "Penna Press 1975.Autobiography of a British businessman and diplomat in El Salvador, with much on Salvadoran society and politics from the 1920s to 1950s.", "* Vilas, Carlos.", "''Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Market, State, and the Revolution America''.", "New York: Monthly Review Press.", "1995." ], [ "External links", "* Embassy of El Salvador in London – content rich site about every aspect of Salvadoran life, government, business, and politics.", "* Chief of State and Cabinet Members* El Salvador.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* El Salvador at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * El Salvador profile from the BBC News* * Salvadoran American Humanitarian Foundation (SAHF)* Fundacion Salvadoreña Para la Salud y el Desarollo Humano (FUSAL)* Key Development Forecasts for El Salvador from International Futures* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics El Salvador* Teaching Central America" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "El Salvador is a country in Central America.", "Situated at the meeting point of three tectonic plates, it is highly seismologically active and the location of numerous earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.", "The country has a tropical climate." ], [ "Plate tectonics", "El Salvador relief mapMiddle America Trench subduction zoneEl Salvador, along with the rest of Central America, is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the Earth's surface.", "The motion of these plates causes the area's earthquake and volcanic activity.Most of Central America and the Caribbean Basin rests on the relatively motionless Caribbean Plate.", "The Pacific Ocean floor, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate.", "Ocean floor material is largely composed of basalt, which is relatively dense; when it collides with the lighter granite rocks of Central America, the ocean floor is forced down under the land mass, creating the deep Middle America Trench that lies off the coast of El Salvador.The subduction of the Cocos Plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near the coast.", "As the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material pours up through weaknesses in the surface rock, producing volcanoes and geysers.North of El Salvador, Mexico and most of Guatemala are riding on the westward-moving North American Plate that butts against the northern edge of the stationary Caribbean Plate in southern Guatemala.", "The grinding action of these two plates creates a fault (similar to the San Andreas fault in California) that runs the length of the valley of the Rio Motagua in Guatemala.", "Motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in northernmost El Salvador.El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.", "San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors.", "The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years.", "From the early nineteenth century to the mid-1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name \"Lighthouse of the Pacific\".", "Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone." ], [ "Physical features", "File:Panorámica Volcán Izalco - panoramio.jpg\|View of Izalco (volcano) and Santa Ana Volcano from Cerro Verde File:Cerro verde.jpg\|View of Cerro Verde, Izalco (volcano) and Coatepeque Caldera from Santa Ana Volcano File:San_Salvador_Panorama_2013.jpg\|View of San Salvador city and San Salvador (volcano) File:Sansivar.jpg\|View of San Salvador city from San Salvador (volcano) File:Santa Tecla y volcán de San Salvador (6803608805).jpg\|San Salvador (volcano).", "File:Conchagua, Golfo de Fonseca.jpg\|View of Gulf of Fonseca from Conchagua (volcano) File:El Salvador - El Balsamar - panoramio (4).jpg\|El Balsamar, La Libertad Department (El Salvador)El Salvador's topography.Economic activity of El Salvador, 1980.Vegetation and land use, 1980.Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific.", "These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions.", "The mountain ranges and central plateau, covering 85 percent of the land, comprise the interior highlands.", "The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands.The northern range of mountains, the Sierra Madre, form a continuous chain along the border with Honduras.", "Elevations in this region range from 1,600 to 2,700 meters.", "The area was once heavily forested, but overexploitation led to extensive erosion, and it has become semibarren.", "As a result, it is the country's most sparsely populated zone, with little farming or other development.The southern range of mountains is actually a discontinuous chain of more than twenty volcanoes, clustered into five groups.", "The westernmost group, near the Guatemalan border, contains Izalco and Santa Ana, which at 2,365 meters is the highest volcano in El Salvador.", "Between the cones lie alluvial basins and rolling hills eroded from ash deposits.", "The volcanic soil is rich, and much of El Salvador's coffee is planted on these slopes.The central plateau constitutes only 25 percent of the land area but contains the heaviest concentration of population and the country's largest cities.", "This plain is about 50 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 600 meters.", "Terrain here is rolling, with occasional escarpments, lava fields, and geysers.A narrow plain extends from the coastal volcanic range to the Pacific Ocean.", "This region has a width ranging from one to thirty-two kilometers with the widest section in the east, adjacent to the Golfo de Fonseca.", "Near La Libertad, however, the mass of the mountains push the lowlands out; the slopes of adjacent volcanoes come down directly to the ocean.", "Surfaces in the Pacific lowlands are generally flat or gently rolling and result from the alluvial deposits of nearby slopes.El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa.", "Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific.", "It is El Salvador's only navigable river, it and its tributaries drain about half the country.", "Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific.Numerous lakes of volcanic origin are found in the interior highlands; many of these lakes are surrounded by mountains and have high, steep banks.", "The largest lake, the Lago de Ilopango, lies just to the east of the capital.", "Other large lakes include the Lago de Coatepeque in the west and the Lago de Güija on the Guatemalan border.", "The Cerron Grande Dam on the Rio Lempa has created a large reservoir, the Embalse Cerron Grande, in northern El Salvador.Izalco has erupted at least 54 times since 1770.It earned the nickname \"Lighthouse of the Pacific\" because it served as a beacon for ships during the night.File:Teopan.jpg\|Coatepeque Caldera File:Ilopango caldera.jpg\|Lake Ilopango File:Salcoatitán, El Salvador - panoramio (9).jpg\|Cordillera de Apaneca File:UsulutánVolcano.jpg\|Usulután (volcano) File:Volcan san vicente.jpg\|San Vicente (volcano)File:Volcan de Izalco atardecer.jpg\|Izalco (volcano) File:San Miguel Ville et Volcan.JPG\|San Miguel (volcano)" ], [ "Climate", "File:Playa de Corral de Mulas, Usulután, El Salvador - panoramio.jpg\|Corral de Mulas beach, Usulutan File:Playa Los Cóbanos, El Salvador 000 0025.jpg\|Los Cobanos beach in Sonsonate File:2010.05.05.071335 Coco Bar El Sunzal El Salvador.jpg\|Sunzal beach, La Libertad, La Libertad File:Atardecer - Salinitas El Salvador.JPG\|Pacific sunset at Salinitas beach Sonsonate File:Meanguera del Golfo.JPG\|Meanguera island Gulf of Fonseca File:Narizona.jpg\|Meanguera del Golfo File:El Salvador - El Balsamar - panoramio (7).jpg\|El Balsamar, La Libertad Department (El Salvador) File:Elsunzal.jpg\|El Sunzal beach in La Libertad, La LibertadFile:El Zonte (11-2011) - panoramio.jpg\|El Zonte BeachKöppen climate classification of El Salvador.El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons.", "Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change.", "The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot and humid; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate.The rainy season, known locally as ''invierno'', or winter, extends from May to October.", "Almost all the annual rainfall during this time, and yearly rain totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as .", "Protected areas and the central plateau receive lesser, although still significant, amounts.", "Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms.", "Although hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific, they seldom affect El Salvador, with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (which actually formed over the Atlantic Basin) and Hurricane Emily in 1973.From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns.", "During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has lost most of its precipitation while passing over the mountains in Honduras.", "By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy.", "This season is known locally as ''verano'', or summer.Temperatures vary little with season; elevation is the primary determinant.", "The Pacific lowlands are the hottest region, with annual averages ranging from .", "San Salvador is representative of the central plateau, with an annual average temperature of and absolute high and low readings of , respectively.", "Mountain areas are the coolest, with annual averages from and minimum temperatures sometimes approaching freezing.===Other facts===File:Departments of El Salvador named.svg\|Departments of El SalvadorFile:Central Geotérmica Ahuachapán 02.jpg\|Geothermal power plant in Ahuachapan DepartmentFile:Central Geotérmica de Berlín 05.JPG\|Geothermal power center in the Usulután DepartmentFile:Rio Lempa Presa Enero 2011.jpg\|Central Hydroelectricity dam over the Lempa RiverThe total land area of El Salvador is 23,041 km2, with 20,721 km2 of land and 320 km2 of water.", "El Salvador is about the size of Israel and the U.S states of New Jersey and Vermont, but has the population size of Libya and Lebanon.", "El Salvador has 590 km of borders, including 391 km of borders with Honduras and 199 km with Guatemala.", "El Salvador has a coastline of 307 km.El Salvador claims a territorial sea of .The lowest point of elevation in El Salvador is the Pacific Ocean, at sea level.", "The highest point is Cerro El Pital, at 2,730 m.'''Maritime claims:'''''Exclusive economic zone:'''''Natural resources:'''Hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum, arable landLand use (2012 estimate) includes 34.03 percent arable land, 10.86 percent permanent crops, 55.12 percent other.", "'''Irrigated land:'''449.9 km2 (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:'''25.23 km3 (2011)'''Natural hazards:'''El Salvador is known as the \"Land of Volcanoes\"; there are frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; hurricanes rarely make direct landfall.===Extreme points===* Northernmost point – north of El Limo, Santa Ana Department* Southernmost point – El Jaguey, La Unión Department* Westernmost point – border with Guatemala, Ahuachapán Department* Easternmost point – island of Meanguera del Golfo, La Unión Department* Highest point – Cerro El Pital: 2730 m* Lowest point – Pacific Ocean: 0 m===Environmental issues===Deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes.El Salvador is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, CITES, Basel Convention, Partial Test Ban Treaty, Montreal Protocol, Ramsar Convention.", "El Salvador has signed, but not ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea." ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "Salvadoran boyThis is a demography of the population of El Salvador including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.El Salvador's population numbers 6.5 million.", "Ethnically, 86.3% of Salvadorans are mixed (mixed Native Salvadoran and European (mostly Spanish) origin).", "Another 12.7% is of pure European descent, 1% are of pure indigenous descent, 0.16% are black and others are 0.64%." ], [ "Population", "El Salvador's population was in , compared to 2,200,000 in 1950.In 2010 the percentage of the population below the age of 15 was 32.1%, 61% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6.9% were 65 years or older.YearTotal population Proportion per age groupAges 0–14 (%) Ages 15–64 (%) Ages 65+ (%) 19502 200 00042.753.34.0 19552 433 00043.652.63.8 19602 773 00045.151.13.7 19653 244 00046.350.13.7 19703 736 00046.449.93.6 19754 232 00045.850.53.7 19804 661 00045.250.93.9 19855 004 00044.151.84.2 19905 344 00041.753.74.6 19955 748 00039.655.54.9 20005 888 00036.657.95.5 20056 052 00034.858.96.3 20106 184 00031.661.37.1 20156 325 00028.463.97.8 20206 486 00026.664.88.7===Emigration===The migration rate accelerated during the period of 1979 to 1981, this marked the beginning of the civil unrest and the spread of political killings.", "The total impact of civil wars, dictatorships and socioeconomics drove over a million Salvadorans (both as immigrants and refugees) into the United States; Guatemala is the second country that hosts more Salvadorans behind the United States, approximately 110,000 Salvadorans according to the national census of 2010.in addition small Salvadoran communities sprung up in Canada, Australia, Belize, Panama, Costa Rica, Italy, Taiwan and Sweden since the migration trend began in the early 1970s.", "The 2010 U.S. census counted 1,648,968 Salvadorans in the United States, up from 655,165 in 2000." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Out of the 6,408,111 people in El Salvador, 86.3% are Mestizo, 15% are European, 1% Indigenous, 0.8% Afro-Salvadorans, and 0.64% other.===Mestizo Salvadorans===Salvadorianchildren.JPG\|Salvadoran children from Metapan5o._Feria_del_Jocote-San_Lorenzo,_Ahuachapán._(25771696524).jpg\|young Salvadoran women in Ahuachapán.Potada.JPG\|Irma Dimas and other Salvadoran beauty queensFestival para el Buen Vivir y Gobernando con la Gente-San Vicente (24525350194).jpg\|Salvadoran musical group in San SalvadorBeatificacion Monseñor Romero (18012123351).jpg\|Salvadoran children in the beatification of Monseñor Oscar Romero Casa Abierta-Familia Campesinas dueños de tierras.", "(25192145262).jpg\|Salvadoran singer Jair Noyola and his fatherAn estimated 86.3% of the population are Mestizo/Castizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry.", "Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of \"strong sexual asymmetry\", as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and Native Salvadoran females, and to statistically significant indigenous male mortality during the Conquest.", "The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease.", "Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and had children with the local women.", "The Natives were forced to adopt Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Westernised.", "A vast majority over 90% of Salvadorans are Mestizo/Native Salvadoran.===Indigenous Salvadorans===Familia de indigenas \"Izalcos\" en Sonsonate.jpg\|Indigenous izalco family in SonsonateCasa Abierta-Familia Campesinas dueños de tierras.", "(24942982779).jpg\|Indigenous woman in El Salvador Las Palmas estampa.JPG\|Indigenous Salvadoran woman from PanchimalcoEGRZ4IjX0AAka8Y.jpg\|Salvadoran school children singing national anthemSpanish conquest:1.Pipil people, 2.Lenca people, 3.Kakawira o Cacaopera, 4.Xinca, 5.Maya Ch'orti' people, 6.Maya Poqomam people, 7.Mangue o Chorotega.According to the Salvadoran government, about 1% of the population are of full or partial indigenous origin (principally Pipil, located in the west and central part of the country, and Lenca, found east of the Lempa River) also there are small populations of Cacaopera people in the Morazán Department.", "In the prehispanic age, the largest most dominant Native Salvadoran groups in the actual territory of El Salvador were the Lenca people and Pipil people followed by small enclaves of Maya peoples: (Poqomam people/Chorti people), Cacaopera people, Xinca people, and Mangue language people.The number of indigenous people in El Salvador have been criticized by indigenous organizations and academics as too small and accuse the government of denying the existence of indigenous Salvadorans in the country.", "According to the National Salvadoran Indigenous Coordination Council (CCNIS) and CONCULTURA (National Council for Art and Culture at the Ministry of Education ), approximately 70,000 or 1 per cent of Salvadorian peoples are indigenous.", "Nonetheless, very few Amerindians have retained their customs and traditions, having over time assimilated into the dominant Mestizo/Spanish culture.", "The low numbers of indigenous people may be partly explained by historically high rates of old-world diseases, absorption into the Mestizo population, as well as mass murder during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising (or ''La Matanza'') which saw (estimates of) up to 30,000 peasants killed in a short period of time.", "Many authors note that since ''La Matanza'' the indigenous in El Salvador have been very reluctant to describe themselves as such (in census declarations for example) or to wear indigenous dress or be seen to be taking part in any cultural activities or customs that might be understood as indigenous.", "Departments and cities in the country with notable indigenous populations include Sonsonate (especially Izalco, Nahuizalco, and Santo Domingo), Cacaopera, and Panchimalco, in the department of San Salvador.===Afro-Salvadorans===US Navy 090628-N-6259S-001 Capt.", "Amber Heller examines a Salvadoran child's teeth during a Continuing Promise 2009 medical community service project in Loma Larga, El Salvador.jpg\|Salvadoran boy in La Unión, El Salvador Inauguración paso multinivel Naciones Unidas 17 (25563138010).jpg\|Salvadoran girl in San Salvador Afro-Salvadorans, called Pardo and sometimes Afro-Mestizos in the colonial period, are the descendants of the African population that were enslaved and shipped to El Salvador to work in mines in specific regions of El Salvador.", "They have mixed into and were naturally bred out by the general Mestizo population, which is a combination of a Mestizo majority and the minority of African descendants, both of whom are racially mixed populations.", "Thus, there remains no significant extremes of African physiognomy among Salvadorans like there is in the other countries of Central America.", "A total of only 10,000 African slaves were brought to El Salvador over the span of 75 years, starting around 1548, about 25 years after El Salvador's colonization.", "El Salvador is the only country in Central America that does not have English Antillean (West Indian) or Garifuna populations of the Caribbean, but instead had older colonial African slaves that came straight from Africa.", "This is the reason why El Salvador is the only country in Central America not to have a caribbeanized culture, and instead preserved its classical Central America culture.===European Salvadorans=======Spanish Salvadorans====FamiliaespañoladeGalicia.png\|A Galician Spanish family in the Chalatenango Department of El SalvadorSalarue y su madre.jpg\|Salarrué and his mother.", "Salarrué was an important Salvadoran writer, poet, and painter.", "Of Spanish descent, his father Alejandro Arrué Jimenez came to El Salvador from the Basque CountryPedro de Alvarado (Tomás Povedano).jpg\|Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado and his army first entered territories of what is now El Salvador in 1524, founding the city of San Salvador in 1525.File:Manuel José Arce de El Salvador.jpg\|General Manuel José Arce; decorated Salvadoran General and president of the Federal Republic of Central America from 1825 to 1829Spaniards began to settle in El Salvador in the mid-1520s.", "Some 12.7% of Salvadorans are white.", "This population is made up of those of Spanish origin, while there are also Salvadorans of French, German, Swiss, English, Irish, and Italian descent.", "A majority of Central European settlers in El Salvador arrived during World War II as refugees from the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Switzerland with many settling in the region that is now Chalatenango in the late 18th century.", "In 1789, Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet was named governor of El Salvador.", "Because the local indigenous population working in the indigo industry had declined greatly, Carondolet recruited Spanish laborers from northern Spain to settle in El Salvador.", "In 1790, Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet, ordered families from the north of Spain (Galicia, Asturias, the Basque Country, Cantabria and Navarra) to settle in the area to compensate for the lack of indigenous people to work the land; Important settlements of these Spaniards were the Northern and Center parts of El Salvador.", "Their descendants are among the blonde and fair-skinned people of today's Chalatenango Department.During 1880 to 1920, El Salvador had its Migratory Peak of Immigrants from Europe, as well as immigrants from nearby countries, Asians and other North Americans, when more than 120,000 arrived in El Salvador, the demographic weight was unprecedented, in 1880 the Population was of 480,000 inhabitants and by 1920 it was already 1,170,000.the main groups were the Spanish, Italians, Germans and some French, Polish and British====French Salvadorans====Francesafamiliasv.png\|French family in San Salvador, circa 1910–1915.Salvador y familia Salvador Llort.jpg\|Salvador Llort Choussy and his family.", "Salvador Llort and his brother Fernando Llort were artists, painters and sculpturists who are noted for their contribution in modern Salvadoran art often dubbed \"El Salvador's National Artist\"The French Immigration to the Republic of El Salvador was an important movement that the country received between the 19th century and the middle of the 20th century, between 1850 and 1870.The French formed the largest foreign group in El Salvador, later in 1940 to 1950, they formed one of the largest groups in the country, only surpassed by the Spanish and Italians.", "Between 1850 and 1870, El Salvador was the main recipient of French In Central America, most were merchants and businessmen together with their families.It is estimated that between 1850 and 1950, more than 7,000 French emigrated to El Salvador, the majority came from Aquitaine, Occitania and the Alps, between 1850 and 1870, 2,000 French arrived in El Salvador, between 1911 and 1937 2,000 French entered the country, finally in 1938 to 1945 2,500 French entered the country, French immigration at that time greatly influenced the economy and education.Since the colonial period there is a record of French in Salvadoran territory, in which several French corsairs and French pirates stand out In 1850, several French businessmen and merchants left for El Salvador to work in different types of jobs such as commerce, planting of sugar cane, industry and cultivation of coffee, during that time 2,000 French arrived in the territory, most were wealthy families and merchants.", "Most of the French who would arrive between 1880 and 1910 were merchants and professionals, but from 1911 to 1937, immigration would begin to shine again for various reasons.", "Many businessmen and merchants arrived in Salvadoran territory, at that time French investment in El Salvador was equal to that of the United States, during that period of time or, 2,000 French entered El Salvador.", "According to historical records, the French were the third largest group of foreigners in the country, only surpassed by the Spanish and Italians.The majority of the French who arrived in the national territory first came from Corsica later in 1850 to 1950, the majority of the French who arrived in the territory were from Aquitaine, Occitanie and Rhône-Alpes but also Paris and other parts of the Alps, most of the French settled in San Salvador, however the City of Santa Tecla, El Salvador in the La Libertad Department (El Salvador) historically received large numbers of French Immigrants, other places with significant numbers are Santa Ana, El Salvador and Antiguo Cuscatlán.====German Salvadorans====Germans in Berlin El Salvador.png\|German Salvadoran immigrants in Berlín, Usulután, German settlement in El SalvadorGerman Family in El Salvador 1930-1940.png\|German family in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, circa 1930-1940German immigration to El Salvador was a migratory movement, that began between 1880 and 1940, when the largest influx of Germans is recorded.", "The first Germans in El Salvador joined their mostly wealthy families in 1870 establishing coffee shops.", "At that time El Salvador had implemented the liberal reforms that attracted thousands of immigrants from Europe, Middle East and Asia, as well as the German immigration in the country, more families migrated to El Salvador and the agricultural land was also distributed.", "The main settlements of these families were the coffee-growing areas and also large cities like Nueva San Salvador now known as Santa Tecla, El Salvador, San Salvador, Chalatenango department, Cuscatlan department, Usulután department and other areas where German immigrants saw economic opportunities in the country, they excelled in industry, commerce and farming.One of the most famous Germans who immigrated to El Salvador, was Walter Thilo Deininger, who moved to the Cuscatlan department in 1885.He soon built his coffee estate and other industries.", "Soon after, arrived more German families to Cuscatlán Department, El Salvador, as well as important people like Jürgen Hübner a German historian and author of \"Die Deutschen und El Salvador (The Germans and El Salvador).By 1890, Germans were one of the country's largest immigrant groups and were able to settle and stand out from the crowd of other European immigrants.", "Germans numbers in El Salvador later increased, their descendants were much more than the number of German immigrants living in El Salvador.", "There were cities founded by German families, like Berlín, Usulután which is a very clear example of a settlement founded by a German.", "Later other Germans families came to the area.", "North of El Salvador, specifically what is now north of Metapan and Chalatenango, Chalatenango, existed German settlements.The Usulutan department was the area with the greatest presence of Germans in El Salvador.", "The Germans started arriving in the early 1900s and settled down to produce coffee.The book, “The Population of El Salvador”, by Rodolfo Barón Castro, published in 1942, shows one of the first Statistical Census published by the Central Office of Migration in 1937; there it indicated that the four largest groups of immigrants in El Salvador, at that time, were made up of Spaniards, Palestinians, Italians and Germans.", "Germans arrived in the country in the early 1900s and, along with Italians, French and other Europeans, helped develop roads, build the Port of Puerto El Triunfo.In addition, from the municipality of Berlín, Usulután there was a direct route to reach Puerto El Triunfo; an ideal route to transport the merchandise they produced and to obtain work materials.It was the meeting point where German descendants and those close to Germany met to do their business because the farms were somewhat distant.", "They found in this part of El Salvador a center of excellence to live or develop, but they also needed to have a place to meet on weekends, to go and talk, which is typical of the cultures of these peoples: to have a meeting point” ,The settlement was also agricultural, in 1958 the German Embassy in El Salvador founded the \"Círculo Cultural Salvadoreño-Alemán\", (German-Salvadoran cultural circle) to promote cultural exchange between Germany and El Salvador.", "The German School was dedicated on March 3, 1965, the Salvadoran German Cultural Forum has been celebrating every second Friday in November since 2006 Gardens of the Hilton Princess Hotel Oktoberfest.", "More than 700 people/families take part participate in a typically German dinner, German music and a typically German parade enjoy costumes.", "The traditional \"Beer Festival\" will continue thanks to the sponsorship of La Constancia and organized by German companies.", "In the city of San Salvador since 2011 in the third October week the Oktoberfest Pilsener celebrated in the exhibition and congress center.", "More than 27,000 people attended the 2013 edition, which became the largest Octoberfest in Central America.", "Over four days of festivities, participants enjoy traditional German cuisine and music, as well as a large selection of beers, some of which are made exclusively for the event.Germany is one of the main European Union trading partners of El Salvador and is the largest importer of Salvadoran coffee.", "The Chamber of Commerce German-Salvadoran consists of around 85 companies.", "In addition to a German school in San Salvador.====Italian Salvadorans====Italianosenelsalvadorpng.png\|Massive documentation of Italian immigrants in San Salvador, during the 20th centuryJuan Aberle.JPG\|Juan Aberle, Italian-Salvadoran who composed the National Anthem of El SalvadorAlfredo Cristiani.jpg\|Alfredo Cristiani, former president of El Salvador, descendant of Italian immigrantsItalian Immigration in El Salvador refers to the movement of Italians to the Republic of El Salvador and one of the most historically important movements in El Salvador.", "The Italo-Salvadorans are one of the largest European communities in the country, and one of the largest in Central America and the Caribbean, as well as one of those with the greatest social and cultural weight in America.During the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, waves of Italian immigrants from all regions of Italy were registered and arrived, mainly from northern Italy and southern Italy, the first Italians who arrived in the country were mainly from the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, and also from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which include several Italians from different cities and provinces, since 1880, there has been a flow from all Italian regions but mainly from the south of the peninsula.", "highlighting regions such as Campania, Basilicata, Apulia and Sicily.There is a record of Italians residing and arriving in the country since 1850, who came from the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, several intellectuals, merchants and other lower-middle class Italians stand out, during those years several boats arrived to the country mainly from important port cities of Italy, which include Naples, Genoa and Palermo, most of these Italians entered through the port of La Libertad Department (El Salvador) and in the East of the country, during that time the Italians in the country did not exceed 2,000, however in the following years the number of arrivals would grow more.By 1870, more boats arrived from Naples and Genoa, ranging from 30 to 60 Italian immigrants, but many merchants also entered the country every day.", "During that period of time, the country created very free immigration reforms, which attracted more immigrants from the world, many Italians arrived between 1876 and 1879, several boats to the country stand out, mainly from Campania and Liguria, between 1870 and 1879, it is estimated that more than 2,500 Italians entered the country, at that time El Salvador was the main receiver of Italians in Central America, mainly attracted by various agricultural opportunities.", "In 1880 to 1889, more than 2,000 Italians arrived in the country mainly from Campania and Piedmont, many boats of more than 100 Italian immigrants arrived at the Salvadoran coasts, these boats sailed from Naples and Liguria, this time was highlighted by arrivals of lower-class Italians and some professionals, however, also there were nuns and priests who came to the country to found several churches, schools and important organizations.", "In 1890, Italian immigration grew exponentially, it is estimated that between 1890 and 1899, more than 6,500 Italians arrived in the country, the vast majority arrived at the port of La Libertad Department (El Salvador), several architects and other Italian professionals arrived, such as those who built the Santa Ana Theater.In 1890, many Salesians arrived in the country from Turin, they set sail on ships full of Italian immigrants and arrived at the port of La Libertad Department (El Salvador), many stayed in the city of Santa Tecla, El Salvador, where they founded various organizations and schools such as the Colegio Santa Cecilia, which It was founded in 1899 by Italians.In 1898, the first Italian organization was founded in El Salvador and the first in Central America, the Sociedad de Asistencia y Beneficencia entre Italianos en El Salvador, better known as the Italian Assistenza, the objective of this organization is to help newly arrived Italians to get a job and help them financially while they got it.=====Twentieth century=====The time was characterized by the massive entry of Italians into the country, between 1900 and 1909 more than 10,000 Italians arrived in the country from all Italian regions, at that time, El Salvador was the second largest recipient of Italian immigrants in Central America, many seeking better opportunities for their businesses and improve their quality of life, where several merchants and Italians entering the country stand out, many standing out in areas such as Education, Music, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce and infrastructure.Between 1910 and 1919, other thousands of Italians enter as they register more than 6,000 arrivals in the country, the Italians easily adapted to the country and more Italians arrived in the country every day, El Salvador at that time managed to reach the main recipient of Italians in Central America, between 1920 and 1929, several Italian merchants and professionals arrived, but also lower-class Italians, many set up their businesses, in 1930, Italian immigration was paralyzed for various reasons, between 1930 and 1939, it is estimated that more than 1,000 Italians They arrived in the country and many set up their businesses.In 1940, due to the Second World War, a large migratory wave of thousands of Italians emigrating to the country begins, where several merchants and Italians who wanted to improve their quality of life stand out, this time was characterized by the entry of several refugees, and Italians, most of whom came from northern Italy.Between 1960 and 1980, several Franciscans arrived in the country, many founded schools and organizations to help the Salvadoran people, and also to reactivate the Italian culture in the country.In 1989 a son of Italians, Alfredo Cristiani, was elected President of El Salvador.", "After five difficult years, his term ended in 1994, leaving his nation stabilized from the civil war that had plagued it for 20 years.Italian immigration to El Salvador was a very large movement that the country received, from 1850 to 1929, it is estimated that more than 32,000 Italians arrived in the small country, looking for job opportunities and improvements in their quality of life, but the migratory peak It was between 1880 and 1930, when thousands of Italians from all regions arrived in El Salvador, the main recipients of Italians in America were the United States, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and other countries in the region, although El Salvador received large amounts of Italian immigrants and at the American level is one that has had more weight socially and culturally.=====Italian immigrants occupations and age=====The Italians who arrived in the mid-nineteenth century were mostly middle class or poor, many were farmers and workers who came to the country to look for work, several merchants also arrived, according to some records, the Italians who arrived in the country between 1850 and 1870, were many families, who on average were between 22 and 26 years old, more 60% of immigrants who arrived in the country were men and 40% were women.From 1870 to 1879, 2,5000 Italians arrived in the country, 63.5% were men, the average age was around 20 to 30 years and the majority were merchants, workers and farmers, between 1880 and 1889, they emigrated to the country around 2,000 Italians, 64% men and 44% women, age ranged widely, from 2 years to 50 years old, most were merchants, laborers and farmers, with increasing arrivals of priests, nuns and preachers.", "Between 1890 and 1891, the second highest peak was recorded, when 6,500 Italians entered El Salvador, the average age was around 20 to 30 years, and the most numerous occupations were merchants, workers, farmers, priests, nuns, teachers.", "and architects.", "The highest peak of Italian immigration in the country occurred between 1900 and 1909, when 10,000 Italians emigrated to the country looking for a better future, 60% were men and 40% women, and the average age was around 20 years.", "30 years of age, the most numerous occupations were workers, merchants and some teachers, for 1910 to 1919, more than 6,000 Italians entered El Salvador, this year is distinguished by a growth of immigrants who are women with around 43% and 57% are men, the age varies between 3 years and 50 years, later, between 1920 and 1930, the majority who arrived in the country were engaged in commerce, agriculture and other businesses and activities.=====Italian settlements in El Salvador=====The first Italians who entered the country settled in Santa Ana and San Miguel Department (El Salvador).", "Others settled mainly in the east of the country, in San Miguel Department (El Salvador), Usulután and La Unión Department.", "In the north of the country, in Chalatenango Department, several groups of Italians also settled.The southern Italians settled mainly in San Miguel Department (El Salvador), Santa Ana, El Salvador, San Salvador and other departments of the country, where several cities stand out, Santa Tecla, El Salvador was the one that received the greatest demographic weight due to Italian immigration, since it became the capital, they arrived various Italian communities.The Lucanians, Campanians, Sicilians and Pulleses, had their main destinations in San Salvador, Santa Ana, El Salvador and San Miguel Department (El Salvador), while the northern Italians: the Piedmontese, Veneti, Ligurians and Lombards settled mainly in La Libertad Department (El Salvador), San Salvador, Chalatenango, Santa Ana, El Salvador and San Miguel Department (El Salvador).", "Several Italians settled in the department of Sonsonate, particularly from Castelnuovo di Conza in the Campania region, and Usulután received several Italian farmers from northern Italy, also in La Unión where several southerners and northerners settled, mainly Piedmontese and Calabrian.", "In the other departments of the country, minority but visible groups of Italians settled.", "succeeding in trade and agriculture.===Jewish Salvadorans===El Salvador nationality documents to Jews.png\|Representation of documents that were given to a Jewish family from Central Europe.", "Most of the Jews that came to El Salvador were from Germany, Poland, Hungary and Switzerland.", "40,000 people were saved with Salvadoran citizenship documents like these, given by José Castellanos Contreras and José Gustavo GuerreroThere is a small community of Jews who came to El Salvador from France, Germany, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey.", "Some Jews also arrived as World War II refugees.Since colonial times, there is a record of Jews in Latin America, in El Salvador there is a record of several Jewish immigrations from Portugal, after the independence of El Salvador, it is believed that the first Jewish immigrant was Bernardo Haas, born in Alsace.", "Subsequently, the first documented German Jew arrived in the country in 1888, according to scholar Jessica Alpert.", "France and Central Europe were the main countries of origin of this contemporary Jewish migration, the majority were Ashkenazi and Sephardic, they stayed permanently in El Salvador.The immigration laws of El Salvador were very free between 1821 and 1930, however they changed after 1930, but these strict laws culminated in 1940, during the Second World War several Ashkenazi Jewish refugees arrived mainly from Hungary, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Slovakia and France, giving them several documents of Salvadoran nationality.At present the Jewish community in El Salvador is quite small, however there are a considerable number of descendants and they have stood out in society, as are several businessmen and politicians of Jewish origin, such as Ernesto Muyshondt, Gabriela Rodríguez de Bukele and Bernard Lewinsky.===Gypsies in El Salvador===Flag of the Romani people.svg\|Romani peopleThe Gypsy caravans in El Salvador in the 20th century.", "The city of Santa Tecla, El Salvador was one of the places where there were Gypsy camps in El Salvador in the first decades of the 20th century.", "On May 7, 1926, newspapers from the city of San Miguel, El Salvador reported that within its urban area there was a nomadic community of Gypsies, who were also called Hungarians or Magyars (for Magyar or Hungary, an area from which they then belonged) believed that they were originally from), Gypsies or \"peroleros\", a designation due to the huge pots or pans that they always carried in their wagons and with which they prepared community meals between huge wood-fired stoves.In 1929, the writer Francisco Miranda Ruano would remember \"The tired Gypsies of that day\" from his distant childhood and whose adventures opened his vocation as a writer.", "The propagation of theosophical, fascist and national socialist ideas among soldiers and civilians in El Salvador in the 1920s and 1930s created an adverse environment for the periodic arrival of the Gypsy people in El Salvador.", "The maximum expression of this mental and cultural closure occurred during the dictatorial government of Brigadier Maximiliano Hernández Martínez, issued the Law of Migration that prohibited the entry of Blacks, Arabs, Turks, Chinese and Gypsies into the country.", "This cause Gypsies in El Salvador to hide their identity.The Romani Holocaust in Nazi Europe from 1935 to 1945, killed thousands of Gypsy people.", "Some of them were able to save themselves from that sad fate, thanks to the thousands of Salvadoran nationality certificates issued, in a clandestine operation, by the Salvadoran consul in Geneva, Colonel José Castellanos Contreras, José Gustavo Guerrero and his Transylvanian-Jewish secretary George Mandel-Mantello.In the 1980s, the writer Claribel Alegría included the character \"The Gypsy\" in her novel Alice in the Land of Reality, which functioned as a rebellious and feminist conscience within the literary structure of the work.", "At the same time, it turned out be a tribute to the Gypsy caravans that once passed through Santa Ana, El Salvador, Sonsonate, El Salvador, Nahulingo, Usulután, Santiago de María, Chalatenango, Chalatenango, San Miguel, El Salvador, La Unión, El Salvador and many towns, streets, cities and other local territories of El Salvador.More than eight decades after such terrible racist legislation, the Romani language is no longer heard in Salvadoran territory.", "In the Romani language, the father of the family is called \"Shero Rom\", and it is theorized that it could be the origin of the Salvadoran word “Chero” to designate a friend.===Arab Salvadorans===Arabelsalvador.png\|''Arab Salvadorans'' include Palestinian Salvadoran, Lebanese Salvadoran, Syrian Salvadoran and Egyptian Salvadoran.File:Palestinian family in El Salvador 1910.png\|Manzue family from Bethlehem Palestine, arrived to El Salvador in 1910File:Palestinos Salvdoreños 1920-1925.png\|Khader (Cader) family migrated from Palestine to El Salvador, circa 1925File:Palestinos en El Salvador 1952.png\|Palestinian family in Usulután El Salvador 1952Palestian free- palestian children in El Salvador.png\|Palestinian children refugees in El SalvadorPalestian day in salvadoran club arabe.png\|Children of Palestinian ancestry celebrating (Palestinian Day) at the Club Arabe Salvadoreño \"Arab-Salvadoran Club\"El Salvador apoya Palestina como Estado Legitomo XDDDDDD ISRAEL JUDIA NO ES UN ESTADO XDDDD ISRAEL MULTIRELIGIOSA SI LO ES.png\|Descendants of Palestinians take a picture beside a bust of Yasir Arafat, San Salvador There is a significant Arab population (of about 100,000); mostly from Palestine (especially from the area of Bethlehem), but also from Lebanon.", "Salvadorans of Palestinian descent numbered around 70,000 individuals, while Salvadorans of Lebanese descent is around 25,000.The history of the Arabs in El Salvador dates back to the end of the 19th century, when religious clashes in the Ottoman Empire induced many Palestinians, Lebanese, Egyptians, Tunisians, Algerians, Iraqis, Omani, Saudis and Syrians to leave the land where they were born and travel to El Salvador in search of a place where they could live in relative peace.", "For similar reasons Turkish people and Persian Christians from Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan also arrived to El Salvador around the same time.", "There were also economic factors that contributed to immigration from the Middle East; many immigrants felt they could achieve success abroad on a level they couldn't in their native lands.The first wave of Arab migration to El Salvador began between 1880 and 1920, amidst a large scale influx of immigrants to the country.", "These Arabs settled in the cities of San Salvador, San Miguel, Santa Ana, Santa Tecla, Usulutan and La Union.", "The population of El Salvador increased from 482,400 in 1879 to 1,168,000 in 1920, with immigration, including immigration from the late Ottoman Empire, substantially driving growth.Arab immigration in El Salvador began at the end of the 19th century in the wake of the repressive policies applied by the Ottoman Empire against Maronite Catholics.", "Several of the destinations that the Lebanese chose at that time were in countries of the Americas, including El Salvador.", "This resulted in the Arab diaspora residents being characterized by forging in devoutly Christian families and very attached to their beliefs, because in these countries they can exercise their faith without fear of persecution, which resulted in the rise of Lebanese-Salvadoran, Syrian-Salvadoran and Palestinian-Salvadoran communities in El Salvador.Currently, the Palestinian community forms the largest Arab diaspora population in El Salvador, with 70,000 direct descendants, followed by the Lebanese community with more than 27,000 direct descendants.", "Both are almost entirely composed of Catholic and Orthodox Christians.", "The slaughter of Lebanese and Palestinian Arab Christians at the hands of Muslims initiated the first Arab migrations to El Salvador.Inter-ethnic marriage in the Lebanese community with Salvadorans, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most have only one father with Lebanese nationality and mother of Salvadoran nationality.", "As a result, some of them speak Arabic fluently.", "But most, especially among younger generations, speak Spanish as a first language and Arabic as a second.During the war between Israel and Lebanon in 1948 and during the Six-Day War, thousands of Lebanese left their country and went to El Salvador.", "Many arrived at La Libertad, where they comprised half of the economic activity of immigrants.Lebanon had been an iqta of the Ottoman Empire.", "Although the imperial administration, whose official religion was Islam, guaranteed freedom of worship for non-Muslim communities, and Lebanon in particular had a semi-autonomous status, the situation for practitioners of the Maronite Catholic Church was complicated, since they had to cancel exaggerated taxes and suffered limitations for their culture.", "These tensions were expressed in a rebellion in 1821 and a war against the Druze in 1860.The hostile climate caused many Lebanese to sell their property and take ships in the ports of Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli heading for the Americas.Arab-Salvadoreans and their descendants have traditionally played an outsized role in El Salvador's economic and political life, with many becoming business leaders and noteworthyt political figures.In 1939, the Arab community based in San Salvador organized and founded the \"Arab Youth Union Society\"" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===UN estimates===The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodLive birthsper yearDeathsper yearNatural changeper yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy totalLife expectancy malesLife expectancy females 1950-1955 108 000 48 000 61 00046.720.626.16.3014745.143.446.8 1955-1960 125 000 46 000 78 00047.817.830.06.6013249.347.251.5 1960-1965 144 000 47 000 97 00047.715.532.36.7611953.050.555.7 1965-1970 156 000 47 000 109 00044.813.531.36.4310955.652.658.9 1970-1975 168 000 49 000 119 00042.112.329.85.9510057.053.261.2 1975-1980 177 000 52 000 124 00039.711.827.95.469157.051.962.7 1980-1985 174 000 55 000 119 00036.111.424.74.807756.950.664.2 1985-1990 171 000 44 000 126 00033.08.624.44.205663.157.469.1 1990-1995 169 000 37 000 132 00030.56.823.83.733868.063.372.9 1995-2000 161 000 38 000 123 00027.56.620.93.302769.264.473.9 2000-2005 133 000 75 000 94 00022.76.716.02.722370.265.474.9 2005-2010 127 000 90 000 87 00020.46.813.62.402171.366.575.919.16.912.218.47.011.417.27.210.015.67.48.2 ===Registered data===Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)TFR 19401,633,00074,637 19411,654,00072,376 19421,675,00071,414 19431,697,00071,554 19441,719,00072,590 19451,742,00074,660 19461,764,00072,04230,99641,04640.817.623.2 19471,788,00084,33030,71953,61147.217.230.0 19481,811,00080,77030,52750,24344.616.927.7 19491,835,00084,83928,33956,50046.215.430.8 19502,200,00090,55727,45463,10341.212.528.7 19512,237,00093,63429,03064,60441.813.028.9-12.5 19522,280,00096,80232,42364,37942.514.228.2-9.6 19532,327,00098,47430,28068,19442.313.029.3 19542,378,000102,00931,81070,19942.913.429.5-9.3 19552,433,000105,04031,15173,88943.212.830.4-8.3 19562,491,000106,53928,12778,41242.811.331.5-7.9 19572,553,000114,92932,89382,03645.012.932.1-8.0 19582,621,000115,15432,83182,32343.912.531.4-5.6 19592,694,000115,62230,03885,58442.911.131.8-4.8 19602,773,000121,40328,76892,63543.810.433.4-5.1 19612,859,000124,87128,47196,40043.710.033.7-3.8 19622,951,000127,15430,34296,81243.110.332.8-1.7 19633,047,000133,39529,614103,78143.89.734.1-2.6 19643,145,000133,07229,496103,57642.39.432.9-1.8 19653,244,000137,43030,906106,52442.49.532.8-2.4 19663,342,000137,95030,368107,58241.39.132.2-3.0 19673,440,000139,95528,957110,99840.78.432.2-3.9 19683,537,000140,98629,863111,12339.88.431.4-4.1 19693,636,000142,69933,655109,04439.29.229.9-2.8 19703,736,000141,47135,094106,37737.89.428.4-1.8 19713,836,000154,30928,752125,55740.27.532.7-6.8 19723,938,000153,46432,383121,08138.98.230.7-5.0 19734,038,000155,63231,865123,76738.57.930.6-6.0 19744,137,000158,52430,494128,03038.37.430.9-7.2 19754,232,000159,73131,601128,13037.77.530.3-8.0 19764,325,000165,82230,826134,99638.37.131.2-9.9 19774,414,000177,53133,009144,52240.27.532.7-12.8 19784,500,000172,89730,086142,81138.46.731.7-12.9 19794,582,000174,18332,936141,24738.07.230.8-13.2 19804,661,000169,93038,967130,96336.48.428.1-11.3 19814,734,000163,30537,468125,83734.57.926.6-11.3 19824,805,000156,79633,284123,51232.66.9 19834,872,000144,19332,697111,49629.66.722.9-9.3 19844,938,000142,20228,854113,34828.85.823.0-9.7 19855,004,000139,51427,225112,28927.95.422.5-9.4 19865,069,000145,12625,731119,39528.75.123.6-10.9 19875,134,000148,35527,581120,77428.95.423.6-11.0 19885,200,000149,29927,774121,52528.85.423.4-10.8 19895,269,000151,85927,768124,09128.95.323.6-10.6 19905,344,000148,36028,195120,16527.85.322.5-8.6 19915,425,000151,21027,066124,14427.95.022.9-8.1 19925,511,000154,01427,869126,14527.95.122.9-7.4 19935,597,000168,00038,000130,00030.06.823.2-8.0 19945,678,000160,77229,407131,36528.35.223.1-9.0 19955,748,000159,33629,130130,20627.75.122.7-10.6 19965,807,000163,00728,904134,10328.15.023.1-13.1 19975,855,000164,14329,118135,02528.05.023.1-15.0 19985,895,000158,35029,919128,43126.95.121.8-15.1 19995,929,000153,63628,056125,58025.94.721.23.6 20005,959,000150,17628,154122,02225.24.720.5-15.5 20015,985,000138,35429,959108,39523.15.018.1-13.8 20026,008,000129,36327,458101,90521.54.617.0-13.2 20036,029,000124,47629,37795,09920.64.915.8-12.3 20046,050,000119,71030,05889,65219.85.014.8-11/4 20056,073,000112,76930,93381,83618.65.113.5-9.7 20066,097,000107,11131,45375,65817.65.212.4-8.5 20076,123,000106,47131,34975,12217.45.112.3-8.12.4 20086,152,000111,27831,59479,68418.15.113.0-8.3 20096,183,000107,88032,87275,00817.55.312.2-7.2 20106,218,000104,93932,58672,35317.05.311.7-6.0 20116,256,000109,38433,21176,17317.65.312.3-6.1 20126,221,000110,84332,14878,69517.75.112.6-18.22.3 20136,251,000109,61734,21275,40517.45.412.0 -7.32.2 20146,281,000108,71237,46171,44217.25.911.3-6.6 20156,312,000107,88540,86967,01617.16.510.6-5.7 20166,345,00096,28741,45955,36815.26.58.7-3.5 201793,72839,83553,893 201892,17038,59553,5757.8 201940,746 20206,321,00087,68051,32536,35513.98.15.8 20216,326,00077,38351,10326,28012.28.14.1-3.4=== Structure of the population ===Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 719 371 3 024 742 5 744 113 100 0-4 283 272 272 621 555 893 9.68 5-9 349 150 335 577 684 727 11.92 10-14 359 523 346 824 706 347 12.30 15-19 298 384 302 181 600 565 10.46 20-24 228 001 258 541 486 542 8.47 25-29 206 963 250 927 457 890 7.97 30-34 178 400 223 849 402 249 7.00 35-39 156 514 196 633 353 147 6.15 40-44 132 218 171 413 303 631 5.29 45-49 109 957 142 165 252 122 4.39 50-54 95 275 120 459 215 734 3.76 55-59 81 718 101 357 183 075 3.19 60-64 68 207 83 657 151 864 2.64 65-69 55 781 69 376 125 157 2.18 70-74 43 449 54 008 97 457 1.70 75-79 33 658 42 326 75 984 1.32 80-84 20 401 26 469 46 870 0.82 85+ 18 500 26 359 44 859 0.78Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 991 945 955 022 1 946 967 33.89 15-64 1 555 637 1 851 182 3 406 819 59.31 65+ 171 789 218 538 390 327 6.80Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 925 284 3 290 858 6 216 143 100 0-4 309 786 296 430 606 216 9.75 5-9 308 052 294 483 602 535 9.69 10-14 362 232 348 111 710 343 11.43 15-19 352 598 350 791 703 389 11.32 20-24 276 109 305 559 581 668 9.36 25-29 209 615 261 340 470 955 7.58 30-34 180 198 235 412 415 609 6.69 35-39 168 638 219 197 387 835 6.24 40-44 149 955 194 952 344 907 5.55 45-49 127 846 167 719 295 565 4.75 50-54 108 714 140 978 249 692 4.02 55-59 93 682 119 911 213 593 3.44 60-64 78 899 100 625 179 525 2.89 65-69 65 846 82 450 148 295 2.39 70-74 52 993 66 934 119 928 1.93 75-79 38 678 49 603 88 281 1.42 80+ 41 443 56 363 97 806 1.57Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 980 070 939 024 1 919 094 30.87 15-64 1 746 254 2 096 484 3 842 738 61.82 65+ 198 960 255 350 454 310 7.31Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 951 282 3 354 214 6 305 496 100 0–4 264 147 252 388 516 535 8.19 5–9 278 047 264 945 542 992 8.61 10–14 280 173 266 743 546 916 8.67 15–19 295 355 286 072 581 427 9.22 20–24 308 532 314 355 622 887 9.88 25–29 288 053 314 743 602 796 9.56 30–34 219 270 269 966 489 236 7.76 35–39 167 017 229 420 396 437 6.29 40–44 146 976 207 506 354 482 5.62 45–49 140 159 193 625 333 784 5.29 50–54 127 022 173 103 300 125 4.76 55–59 107 872 147 674 255 546 4.05 60–64 89 592 122 042 211 634 3.36 65-69 74 736 100 814 175 550 2.78 70-74 60 083 80 828 140 911 2.23 75-79 45 838 61 898 107 736 1.71 80-84 31 845 43 639 75 484 1.20 85+ 31 030 40 319 71 349 1.13Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 822 367 784 076 1 606 443 25.48 15–64 1 885 383 2 242 640 4 128 023 65.47 65+ 243 532 327 498 571 030 9.06" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 5 minutes\tOne death every 11 minutes\tOne net migrant every 15 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 17 minutesDemographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:6,568,745 (2022 est.", "):6,187,271 (July 2018 est.", "):By 2025, the population of El Salvador is projected to reach 9.0 million.", "Also by 2050, the population of El Salvador is projected to reach 11 million people.The United Nations Population Division predicts that by the year 2050, 21% of El Salvador's population will be between the ages of 0 and 14, 58% will be between 15 and 59, and 21% of the population will be 60 years of age or older.===Ethnic groups===:Mestizo 86.3%, White 12.7%, Amerindian 0.2% (includes Lenca, Kakawira, Nahua-Pipil), Black 0.1%, other 0.6% (2007 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of El Salvador in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 25.83% (male 857,003/female 817,336):''15-24 years:'' 18.82% (male 619,368/female 600,501):''25-54 years:'' 40.51% (male 1,221,545/female 1,404,163):''55-64 years:'' 7.23% (male 198,029/female 270,461):''65 years and over:'' 7.6% (2020 est.)", "(male 214,717/female 277,979):''0-14 years:'' 25.3% (male 802,813 /female 762,852):''15-24 years:'' 19.88% (male 619,550 /female 610,725):''25-54 years:'' 39.8% (male 1,143,226 /female 1,319,138):''55-64 years:'' 7.32% (male 198,513 /female 254,640):''65 years and over:'' 7.69% (male 208,817 /female 266,997) (2018 est.", ")===Demographic profile===El Salvador is the smallest and most densely populated country in Central America.", "It is well into its demographic transition, experiencing slower population growth, a decline in its number of youths, and the gradual aging of its population.", "The increased use of family planning has substantially lowered El Salvador's fertility rate, from approximately 6 children per woman in the 1970s to replacement level today.", "A 2008 national family planning survey showed that female sterilization remained the most common contraception method in El Salvador - its sterilization rate is among the highest in Latin America and the Caribbean - but that the use of injectable contraceptives is growing.", "Fertility differences between rich and poor and urban and rural women are narrowing.===Birth rate===:17.87 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 84th:16.1 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 111st===Death rate===:5.91 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 163th:5.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 173rd===Total fertility rate===:2.05 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 99th:1.84 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 146th===Population growth rate===:0.57% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 149th:0.25% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 177th===Median age===:total: 27.7 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 145th:male: 26.2 years:female: 29.3 years (2020 est.", "):total: 27.6 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 143rd:male: 26.1 years :female: 29.1 years (2018 est.", ")===Net migration rate===:-6.29 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 211th:-7.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 210th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:20.8 years (2008 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:71.9% (2014)===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 56.8 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 44.4 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 12.4 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 8 (2015 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 75.37 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 123rd:male: 71.88 years:female: 79.04 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 75.1 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 114th:male: 71.8 years :female: 78.6 years (2018 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 72% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 1.57% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Languages===Spanish (official; effectively universally the vernacular language)English (among educated and Salvadoran Americans)Arabic (among Palestinian Salvadorans)Nawat (about 500 native speakers among Pipil people in the western part of the country)Other indigenous languages include Lenca, which has a few semi-speakers, and Cacaopera, which is extinctIn the past, Mixe, Xinca, Poqomam, and Ch'orti' were spoken in the territory of the countrySalvadoran Sign Language (SSL)===Religions===According to a February 2021 survey by the University of Central America’s Institute of Public Opinion, 43.3% of the population saw themselves as Catholic, 33.9% as evangelical Christian, and 18.6% had no religious affiliation.===Education expenditures===:3.4% of GDP (2019) Country comparison to the world: 129th===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2016 est.", "):total population: 89.1%:male: 91.3%:female: 87.3% (2019)===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 12 years :male: 12 years :female: 12 years (2016)===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 10%:male: 8.3%:female: 12.8% (2019)===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea:vectorborne diseases: dengue fever===Nationality===Noun: Salvadoran(s) Adjective: Salvadoran" ], [ "See also", "El SalvadorEthnic groups in Central AmericaHistory of the Jews in El SalvadorSalvadoran Departments by HDICatholic Church in El SalvadorCentral AmericaCulture of El SalvadorGerman SalvadoranGeography of El SalvadorItalian SalvadoransMonumento al Divino Salvador del MundoMusic of El SalvadorPalestinian SalvadoranReligion in El SalvadorSalvadoransSalvadoran AmericansSalvadoran cuisineSalvadoran SpanishSan Salvador*Swiss Salvadorans" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of El Salvador''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of El Salvador is both head of state and head of government, and of an executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "El Salvador was ranked 5th least electoral democratic country in Latin America and the Caribbean according to V-Dem Democracy indices in 2023 with a score of 0.378 out of 1." ], [ "Political culture", "El Salvador has a multi-party system.", "Three political parties Nuevas Ideas (NI), the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) have tended to dominate elections since the end of the civil war.", "ARENA candidates won four consecutive presidential elections until the election of Mauricio Funes of the FMLN in March 2009.In 2014, he was followed by another FMLN president, Salvador Sánchez Cerén.The 2019 election was won by Nayib Bukele as the candidate of the center-right Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA) party.", "In February 2021, El Salvador's legislative election was an important breakthrough.", "The new party, founded by President Bukele, Nuevas Ideas (NI), won around two-thirds of votes with its allies (NI–GANA).", "His party won a supermajority of 56 seats in the 84-seat legislature.", "Bukele became the country’s most powerful leader in three decades.On 4 February 2024, President Nayib Bukele, won re-election with 83% of the vote in general election.", "His party Nuevas Ideas (New Ideas) won 58 of the El Salvador parliament's 60 seats.Before the Bukele era, the departments of the central region, especially the capital and the coastal regions, known as ''departamentos rojos'', or red departments, were mostly left-wing while the ''departamentos azules'', or blue departments, in the east, western and highland regions were generally conservative." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|PresidentClaudia Rodríguez de Guevara (acting)Independent1 December 2023El Salvador elects its head of state, the President of El Salvador, directly through a fixed-date general election whose winner is decided by absolute majority.", "If an absolute majority is not achieved by any candidate in the first round of a presidential election, then a run-off pool election is conducted 30 days later between the two candidates who obtained the most votes in the first round.", "The president serves a five-year term.", "He is barred from immediately succeeding himself, though previously elected presidents may run for a second, non-consecutive term.In September 2021, El Salvador's Supreme Court decided to allow President Nayib Bukele to run for a second term in the 2024 election, despite the Constitution prohibiting the president from serving two consecutive terms in office.", "The decision was made by judges appointed to the court by President Bukele." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Salvadorans also elect a single-chamber, unicameral national legislature, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador, of 84 members (deputies) elected by closed-list proportional representation for three-year terms, with the possibility of immediate re-election.", "20 of the 84 seats in the Legislative Assembly are elected on the basis of a single national constituency.", "The remaining 64 are elected in 14 multi-member constituencies (corresponding to El Salvador's 14 departments).", "They range from 3-16 seats each according to departmental population size." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, is composed of 15 judges, one of them being elected as President of the Judiciary." ], [ "Foreign relations", "El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), and the Central American Integration System (SICA).", "It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control.El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements.", "An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Legislative Assembly of El Salvador * Presidency of El Salvador* Supreme Court of Justice of El Salvador* Changing Colors in El Salvador by Emma Vawter, ''The Yale Globalist'', May 11, 2009" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of El Salvador''' has experienced relatively low rates of GDP growth, in comparison to other developing countries.", "Rates have not risen above the low single digits in nearly two decades – part of a broader environment of macroeconomic instability which the integration of the United States dollar has done little to improve.", "One problem that the Salvadoran economy faces is the inequality in the distribution of income.", "In 2011, El Salvador had a Gini Coefficient of .485, which although similar to that of the United States, leaves 37.8% of the population below the poverty line, due to lower aggregate income.", "The richest 10% of the population receives approximately 15 times the income of the poorest 40%.As of 3 November 2014, the IMF reports official reserve assets to be $3.192B.", "Foreign currency reserves (in convertible foreign currencies) are $2.675B.", "Securities are $2.577B with total currency and deposits at $94.9M.", "Securities with other national central banks (BIS and IMF) are $81.10M.", "Securities with banks headquartered outside the reporting country $13.80M.", "SDRs are at $245.5M.", "Gold reserves (including gold deposits and, if appropriate, gold swapped) reported at $271.4M with volume in millions of fine Troy ounces at $200k.", "Other reserve assets are financial derivatives valued at $2.7M.Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning 1 January 2001, by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the colón, and all formal accounting was undertaken in U.S. dollars.", "This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy.", "Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction; however some stores still have prices in both colons and U.S. dollars.", "In general, people were unhappy with the shift from the colón to the U.S. dollar, because wages are still the same but the price of everything increased.", "Some economists claim this rise in prices would have been caused by inflation regardless, even had the shift not been made.", "Some economists also contend that now, according to Gresham's Law, a reversion to the colón would be disastrous to the economy.", "The change to the dollar also precipitated a trend toward lower interest rates in El Salvador, helping many to secure credit in order to buy a house or a car.", "Over time, displeasure with the change has largely disappeared, though the issue resurfaces as a political tool when elections are on the horizon.In June 2021, President Nayib Bukele said he would introduce legislation to make Bitcoin legal tender in El Salvador.", "The Bitcoin Law was passed by the Legislative Assembly on 9 June 2021, with a majority vote of 62 out of 84.Bitcoin officially became legal tender ninety days after the publication of the law in the official gazette.", "As part of the law, foreigners can gain permanent residence in El Salvador if they invest 3 Bitcoin into the country.", "In January 2022, The International Monetary Fund (IMF) urged El Salvador to reverse its decision to make cryptocurrency Bitcoin legal tender.", "Bitcoin had rapidly lost about half of its value, meaning economic difficulties for El Salvador.", "President Bukele had announced his plans to build a Bitcoin city at the base of a volcano in El Salvador.", "In the first 18 months of Bitcoin adoption, the cryptocurrency was rarely used by the local population or tourists, leaving USD the de facto standard for transactions.In 2021, El Salvador received a $40 million loan for small enterprises and projects for climate action, from the European Investment Bank to the country's development bank, Banco de Desarollo de el Salvador.", "$20 million will be used to assist investments in renewable energy projects, specifically photovoltaics, biogas, and micro hydro projects.", "Up to 50% of the loan line will be used to assist small and medium-sized enterprises who were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic." ], [ "Public sector", "File:Departments of El Salvador named.svg\|Departments of El SalvadorFile:Office Buildings San Salvador.JPG\|Centro Financiero Gigante (CFG) is a full five tower complex of office buildings located in San SalvadorFile:Citi san salvador.jpg\|Cuscatlan Bank is headquartered at Torre CuscatlánFile:Edificio-banco-agricola-sv.png\|Banco Agrícola headquarter in San SalvadorFile:La Gran Via.JPG\|Lifestyle Center La Gran Via is one of many giant malls in El SalvadorFile:Cajero Bitcoin El Zonte, El Salvador.jpg\|An Athena Bitcoin ATM in El SalvadorFile:Personas Cajero Bitcoin El Salvador.jpg\|Salvadorans using an Athena Bitcoin ATMFiscal policy has been one of the biggest challenges for the Salvadoran government.", "In December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion.", "Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning in January 2001 by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the Salvadoran colón, and all formal accounting was done in U.S. dollars.", "With the adoption of the U.S. dollar, El Salvador lost control over monetary policy.", "Any counter-cyclical policy response to the downturn must be through fiscal policy, which is constrained by legislative requirements for a two-thirds majority to approve any international financing.The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and social services.", "The stability adjustment programs (PAE, for the initials in Spanish) initiated by President Cristiani's administration committed the government to the privatization of banks, the pension system, electric and telephone companies.", "The total privatization of the pension system has implied a serious burden for the public finances, because the newly created private Pension Association Funds did not absorb coverage of retired pensioners covered in the old system.", "As a result, in July 2017, the Government of El Salvador wanted to take $500 million from the privatized pension system to cover retired pensioners from the old not privatized system, but the Supreme Court of El Salvador declared this move unconstitutional.The government lost the revenues from contributors and absorbed completely the costs of coverage of retired pensioners.", "This has been the main source of fiscal imbalance.", "ARENA governments have financed this deficit with the emission of bonds, something the leftist party FMLN has opposed.", "Debates surrounding the emission of bonds have stalled the approval of the national budget for many months on several occasions, reason for which in 2006 the government will finance the deficit by reducing expenditure in other posts.", "The emission of bonds and the approval of a loans need a qualified majority (3/4 of the votes) in the parliament.", "If the deficit is not financed through a loan it is enough with a simple majority to approve the budget (50% of the votes plus 1).", "This would facilitate an otherwise long process in Salvadoran politics.Despite such challenges to keep public finances in balance, El Salvador still has one of the lowest tax burdens in the American continent (around 11% of GDP).", "The government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues with a focus on indirect taxes.", "Leftist politicians criticize such a structure since indirect taxes (like the value added tax) affect everyone alike, whereas direct taxes can be weighed according to levels of income and are therefore more punitive toward productive people.", "However, some basic goods are exempt from the indirect taxes.", "A value-added tax (VAT) of 10%, implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995.The VAT is the biggest source of revenue for the government, accounting for about 52.3% of total tax revenues in 2004." ], [ "Economic sectors", "=== Remittances ===Salvadoran American population in the United StatesRemittances from Salvadorans working in the United States sent to family members are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of around $2.9 billion.", "Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $2.9 billion in 2005—approximately 17.1% of gross national product (GNP).Remittances have had positive and negative effects on El Salvador.", "In 2005, the number of people living in extreme poverty in El Salvador was 20%, according to a United Nations Development Program report.", "While Salvadoran education levels have gone up, wage expectations have risen faster than productivity.", "This has led to an influx of Hondurans and Nicaraguans who are willing to work for the prevailing wage.", "Also, the local propensity for consumption has increased.", "Money from remittances has increased prices for certain commodities such as real estate.", "With much higher wages, many Salvadorans abroad can afford higher prices for houses in El Salvador and thus push up the prices that all Salvadorans must pay.=== Agriculture ===File:Cotton-UsulutanSV.jpg\|A cotton field, Usulután Department.File:Dark roasted espresso blend coffee beans 2.jpg\|Dark roasted coffee beans from Coffee production in El SalvadorIn 2018, El Salvador produced 7 million tons of sugarcane, being heavily dependent on this product.", "In addition to sugarcane, the country produced 685 thousand tons of maize, 119 thousand tons of coconut, 109 thousand tons of sorghum, 93 thousand tons of beans, 80 thousand tons of coffee, 64 thousand tons of orange, in addition to smaller yields of other agricultural products such as watermelon, yautia, apple, manioc, mango, banana, rice etc.The ultimate goal was to develop a rural middle class with a stake in a peaceful and prosperous future for El Salvador.", "At least 525,000 people—more than 12% of El Salvador's population at the time and perhaps 25% of the rural poor—benefited from agrarian reform, and more than 22% of El Salvador's total farmland was transferred to those who previously worked the land but did not own it.", "But when agrarian reform ended in 1990, about 150,000 landless families still had not benefited from the reform actions.The 1992 peace accords made provisions for land transfers to all qualified ex-combatants of both the FMLN and ESAF, as well as to landless peasants living in former conflict areas.", "The United States undertook to provide $300 million for a national reconstruction plan.", "This included $60 million for land purchases and $17 million for agricultural credits.", "USAID remains actively involved in providing technical training, access to credit, and other financial services for many of the land beneficiaries.===Energy===File:Central Geotérmica Ahuachapán 02.jpg\|Geothermal power plant in Ahuachapan DepartmentFile:Central Geotérmica de Berlín 05.JPG\|Geothermal power center in the Usulután DepartmentFile:Rio Lempa Presa Enero 2011.jpg\|Central hydroelectricity dam over the Lempa RiverFile:Capturadddassd.png\|Wind park in Metapán, Santa Ana DepartmentEl Salvador's energy industry is diversified across fossil fuels, hydro, other renewables (mainly geothermal) for local electricity production, along with a reliance on imports for oil.", "El Salvador has an installed capacity of 1,983 MW generating 5,830 GWh of electricity per year, 52% of this comes from renewable sources including 29% from geothermal (produced from the country's many volcanoes), 23% from hydro and the rest is from fossil fuels.According to the National Energy Commission, 94.4% of total injections during January 2021 came from hydroelectric plants (28.5% - 124.43 GWh), geothermal (27.3% - 119.07 GWh), biomass (24.4% 106.43 GWh), photovoltaic solar (10.6% - 46.44 GWh) and wind (3.6% - 15.67 GWh).", "Forms of energy 2021 (GWh) % Hydroelectric energy 124.43 28.5 Geothermal energy 119.07 27.3 Biomass 106.43 24.4 Solar photovoltaic 46.44 10.6 Wind 15.67 3.6 Total 412.04 94.4===Manufacturing===El Salvador historically has been the most industrialized state in Central America, though a decade of war eroded this position.", "In 1999, manufacturing accounted for 22% of GDP.", "The industrial sector has shifted since 1993 from a primarily domestic orientation to include free zone (maquiladora) manufacturing for export.", "Maquila exports have led the growth in the export sector and in the last 3 years have made an important contribution to the Salvadoran economy.=== Mining ===Mining in El Salvador expanded in scope from artisanal mining to industrial mining at the San Sebastián mine in the 1970s.", "Chemicals from that mine polluted the San Sebastián River.Mining ceased during the Salvadoran Civil War.", "After the war, the country's right-wing government proposed 33 mining zones, issuing exploration licences to American, Australian, and Canadian companies.", "The plan was met with opposition of many local community and community leaders, who successfully blocked exploration in Chalatenango in 2005.Pacific Rim Mining Corporation obtained a permit to explore the El Dorado gold mine in 2002, but were denied a license to mine in 2008, following local opposition.Mining for metal was banned in 2017, although the creation of a mining regulator in 2021 and the arrest of anti-mining activists in 2023 prompted public speculation that the government is considering resuming mining.===Telecommunications===El Salvador has 0.9 million fixed telephone lines, 0.5 million fixed broadband lines and 9.4 million mobile cellular subscriptions.", "Much of the population is able to access the internet through their smartphones and mobile networks, which liberal government regulation promotes mobile penetration over fixed line including the deployment of 5G coverage (which testing of began in 2020).", "Transition to digital transmission of TV/radio networks was done in 2018 with the adaptation of the ISDB-T standard.", "There are hundreds of privately owned national TV networks, cable TV networks (that also carry international channels), and radio stations available; while there is also 1 government owned broadcast station.El Salvador's IT Industry's history started early with several IT outsourcing companies such as Gpremper and an early search engine that predated Google in 1995 called \"Buscaniguas\".", "The industry has since expanded with companies such as Creativa Consultores, Applaudo Studios, and Elaniin providing software and website design services to clients globally while employing thousands of people.", "Canadian Telus International, a major global IT outsourcing and software development firm, has a significant workforce in the country employing nearly 1,500 people in high tech and customer service roles.", "The startup scene has also been growing with firms such as HugoApp employing 600 locals and providing delivery and ride sharing services to nearly 1 million users in the Central American/CAFTA region.", "In 2020, the government announced its \"Digital Agenda 2020\" a plan to digitize government services, digitize identities, make it easier to start businesses, attract foreign investment and improve the education system.", "Finally, the passing of the Bitcoin Law in 2021 made El Salvador the first country in the world to adopt a cryptocurrency (Bitcoin) as legal tender, this move seeks to improve access to financial services to the non-banked and under banked while also making El Salvador a hub for innovation.===Services===In the 21st century, numerous call centers serving North American markets have been developed in El Salvador, including Ubiquity Global Services and Synnex.", "The industry benefits from the availability of a large English speaking work force, composed of deportees from the United States." ], [ "Trade", " Exports to Imports from Country % Country % United States 66% United States 43.4% Caribbean region 26% Guatemala 8.2% Mexico 1% Mexico 7.8% Spain 1% European Union 7.0% Others 6% Others 33.6%Torre Futura at World Trade Center San SalvadorA challenge in El Salvador has been developing new growth sectors for a more diversified economy.", "As many other former colonies, for many years El Salvador was considered a mono exporter economy.", "This means, an economy that depended heavily on one type of export.", "During colonial times, the Spanish decided that El Salvador would produce and export indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, Salvadoran authorities and the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export of the economy.Since the cultivation of coffee required the highest lands in the country, many of these lands were expropriated from indigenous reserves and given or sold cheaply to those that could cultivate coffee.", "The government provided little or no compensation to the indigenous peoples.", "On occasions this compensation implied merely the right to work for seasons in the newly created coffee farms and to be allowed to grow their own food.", "Such policies provided the basis of conflicts that would shape the political situation of El Salvador in the years to come.ARENA governments have followed policies that intend to develop other exporting industries in the country as textiles and sea products.", "Tourism is another industry Salvadoran authorities regard as a possibility for the country.", "But rampant crime rates, lack of infrastructure and inadequate social capital have prevented these possibilities from being properly exploited.", "The government is also developing ports and infrastructure in La Unión in the east of the country, in order to use the area as a \"dry canal\" for transporting goods from Gulf of Fonseca in the Pacific Ocean to Honduras and the Atlantic Ocean in the north.", "Currently there are fifteen free trade zones in El Salvador.", "The largest beneficiary has been the maquila industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of cutting and assembling clothes for export to the United States.El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic, with the United States in 2004.In order to take advantage of CAFTA-DR, the Salvadoran government is challenged to conduct policies that guarantee better conditions for entrepreneurs and workers to transfer from declining to growing sectors in the economy.", "El Salvador has already signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama, and increased its exports to those countries.", "El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada, and negotiations started on 2006 for a free trade agreement with Colombia.El Salvador's balance of payments continued to show a net surplus.", "Exports in 1999 grew 1.9% while imports grew 3%, narrowing El Salvador's trade deficit.", "As in the previous year, the large trade deficit was offset by foreign aid and family remittances.", "Remittances are increasing at an annual rate of 6.5%, and an estimated $1.35 billion will enter the national economy during 1999.Private foreign capital continued to flow in, though mostly as short-term import financing and not at the levels of previous years.", "The Central American Common Market continued its dynamic reactivation process, now with most regional commerce duty-free.", "In September 1996, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras opened free trade talks with Mexico.", "This trade alliance is also known as the Northern Triangle in relation to the Central American economies that are grouped together by proximity and location.", "Although tariff cuts that were expected in July 1996 were delayed until 1997, the government of El Salvador is committed to a free and open economy.Total U.S. exports to El Salvador reached $2.1 billion in 1999, while El Salvador exported $1.6 billion to the United States.", "U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the electrical and telecommunications markets has markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country.", "More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country.", "The Department of State maintains a country commercial guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador.===Official corruption and foreign investment===In an analysis of ARENA's electoral defeat in 2009, the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador pointed to official corruption under the Saca administration as a significant reason for public rejection of continued ARENA government.Subsequent policies under Funes administrations improved El Salvador to foreign investment, and the World Bank in 2014 rated El Salvador 109, a little better than Belize (118) and Nicaragua (119) in the World Bank's annual \"Ease of doing business\" index.As per Santander Trade, a Spanish think tank in foreign investment, \"Foreign investment into El Salvador has been steadily growing during the last few years.", "In 2013, the influx of FDI increased.", "Nevertheless, El Salvador receives less FDI than other countries of Central America.", "The government has made little progress in terms of improving the business climate.", "In addition to this, the limited size of its domestic market, weak infrastructures and institutions, as well as the high level of criminality have been real obstacles to investors.", "However, El Salvador is the second most 'business friendly' country in South America in terms of business taxation.", "It also has a young and skilled labour force and a strategic geographical position.", "The country's membership in the DR-CAFTA, as well as its reinforced integration to the C4 countries (producers of cotton) should lead to an increase of FDI.", "\"Foreign companies have lately resorted to arbitration in international trade tribunals in total disagreement with Salvadoran government policies.", "In 2008, El Salvador sought international arbitration against Italy's Enel Green Power, on behalf of Salvadoran state-owned electric companies for a geothermal project Enel had invested in.", "Four years later, Enel indicated it would seek arbitration against El Salvador, blaming the government for technical problems that prevent it from completing its investment.", "The government came to its defence claiming that Art 109 of the constitution does not allow any government (regardless of the party they belong), to privatize the resources of the national soil (in this case geothermic energy).", "The dispute came to an end in December 2014 when both parties came to a settlement, from which no details have been released.", "The small country had yielded to pressure from the Washington-based powerful ICSID.A 2008 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development indicates that one third of the generation of electricity in El Salvador was publicly owned while two thirds was in American hands and other foreign ownership.In terms of how people perceived the levels of public corruption in 2014, El Salvador ranks 80 out of 175 countries as per the Corruption Perception Index.", "El Salvador's rating compares relatively well with Panama (94 of 175) and Costa Rica (47 of 175)." ], [ "Natural disasters: Hurricane Mitch (1998) and the earthquakes (2001)", "Hurricane Mitch hit El Salvador in late October 1998, generating extreme rainfall of which caused widespread flooding and landslides.", "Roughly 650 km2 were flooded, and the Salvadoran Government pronounced 374 people dead or missing.", "In addition, approximately 55,900 people were rendered homeless.", "The areas that suffered the most were the low-lying coastal zones, particularly in the floodplain of the Lempa and San Miguel Grande Rivers.", "Three major bridges that cross the Lempa were swept away, restricting access to the eastern third of the country and forcing the emergency evacuation of many communities.", "The heavy rainfall, flooding, and mudslides caused by Hurricane Mitch also severely damaged El Salvador's road network.", "Along with the three major bridges over the Lempa River, 12 other bridges were damaged or destroyed by the Mitch flooding.The largest single-affected sector was El Salvador's agriculture.", "Nearly 18% of the total 1998–99 basic grain harvest was lost.", "Coffee production was hit particularly hard; 3% of the harvest was lost in addition to 8.2% that was lost earlier in the year due to El Niño.", "Major losses of sugarcane, totaling 9% of the estimated 1998–99 production, were sustained primarily in the coastal regions.", "Livestock losses amounted to $1 million, including 2,992 head of cattle.", "In addition to these losses, El Salvador also had to face the threat of disease outbreak.", "The Ministry of Health recorded a total of 109,038 medical cases related to Hurricane Mitch between 31 October and 18 November 1998; 23% of these cases were respiratory infections, followed by skin ailments, diarrhea, and conjunctivitis.Reconstruction from Mitch was still underway when, in early 2001, the country experienced a series of devastating earthquakes that left nearly 2,000 people dead or missing, 8,000 injured, and caused severe dislocations across all sectors of Salvadoran society.", "Nearly 25% of all private homes in the country were either destroyed or badly damaged, and 1.5 million persons were left without housing.", "Hundreds of public buildings were damaged or destroyed, and sanitation and water systems in many communities put out service.", "The total cost of the damage was estimated at between $1.5 billion and $2 billion, and the devastation thought to equal or surpass that of the 1986 quake that struck San Salvador.", "Given the magnitude of the disaster, reconstruction and economic recovery will remain the primary focus of the Salvadoran Government for some time to come.The Hurricane Mitch disaster prompted a tremendous response from the international community governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private citizens alike.", "Sixteen foreign governments—including the U.S., 19 international NGOs, 20 Salvadoran embassies and consulates, and 20 private firms and individuals provided El Salvador with in-kind assistance.", "The Government of El Salvador reports that 961 tons of goods and food were received.", "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates that contribution in cash given directly to the Salvadoran Government totaled $4.3 million.", "The U.S. Government has provided $37.7 million in assistance through USAID and the U.S.", "Departments of Agriculture and Defense.Following the 2001 earthquakes, the U.S. embassy assumed a leading role in implementing U.S.-sponsored assistance.", "The U.S. Government responded immediately to the emergency, with military helicopters active in initial rescue operations, delivering emergency supplies, rescue workers, and damage assessment teams to stricken communities all over the country.", "USAIDs Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance had a team of experts working with Salvadoran relief authorities immediately after both quakes, and provided assistance totaling more than $14 million.", "In addition, the Department of Defense provided an initial response valued at more than $11 million.", "For long-term reconstruction, the international community offered a total aid package of $1.3 billion, over $110 million of it from the United States." ], [ "Macro-economic trend", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.YearGDP (in bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)GDP (in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth (real)Inflation (in Percent)Government debt (in % of GDP)198010.12,14310.1−8.6%17.4%...198511.92,43111.90.6%22.3%...199015.42,93015.44.8%28.3%...199523.44,17521.96.4%10.0%26%200029.65,04226.32.2%2.3%27%200537.36,19331.83.6%4.7%39%200640.06,60034.23.9%4.0%39%200742.67,01335.83.8%4.6%38%200844.07,20637.21.3%7.3%39%200943.06,99936.7−3.1%0.5%48%201044.17,15837.91.4%1.2%50%201146.07,43140.22.2%5.1%50%201247.77,67340.81.9%1.7%55%201349.47,90343.11.8%0.8%55%201451.08,12045.51.4%1.1%57%201552.78,35748.12.3%−0.7%58%201654.78,62351.12.4%0.6%59%201757.08,94854.02.4%1.0%59%" ], [ "See also", "* Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador* Ministry of Finance (El Salvador)* Coffee production in El Salvador* List of companies of El Salvador* Salvadoran Stock Exchange" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics El SalvadorTariffs applied by El Salvador as provided by ITC's Access Map''', an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.", " Apparel and Textiles Retrieved 2008-03-30" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in El Salvador''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet, centered primarily around the capital, San Salvador." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: Hundreds of commercial radio broadcast stations and 1 government-owned radio broadcast station (2007).", "* Radios: 5.75 million (1997).", "* Televisions stations: Multiple privately owned national terrestrial TV networks, supplemented by cable TV networks that carry international channels (2007).", "* Television sets: 5,900,881 (2005).The Telecorporación Salvadoreña (TCS) consists of four television stations, channels 2, 4, 6, 35.Other small chains of television networks operate in the west and east sides of the country.The law permits the executive branch to use the emergency broadcasting service to take over all broadcast and cable networks temporarily to televise political programming.", "The president occasionally uses this law to highlight his accomplishments." ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code: +503* International call prefix: 00* Fixed lines: 1.1 million lines in use, 74th in the world (2012).", "* Mobile cellular: 8.7 million lines, 88th in the world (2012); in 2007 the number of mobile phones exceeded the country's population giving the country a 1.06 per capita cellphone penetration rate.", "* Teledensity: Mobile cellular exceeds 135 per 100 persons (2011).", "* Telephone system: multiple mobile-cellular providers are expanding services rapidly; growth in fixed-line services has slowed in the face of mobile-cellular competition (2011).", "* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).", "* Connected to the Central American Microwave System (2011), a trunk microwave radio relay system that links the countries of Central America and Mexico with each other." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .sv* Internet users: 3.8 million users, 59.4% of the population (2019).", "* Fixed broadband: 235,403 subscriptions, 81st in the world; 3.9% of the population, 111th in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: 335,716, 104th in the world; 5.5% of the population, 104th in the world (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 24,070 hosts (2012).", "* IPv4: 575,744 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 94.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers: 11 ISPs (early 2005).=== IT Industry ===El Salvador's IT Industry's history started early with several IT outsourcing companies such as Gpremper and an early search engine that predated Google in 1995 called \"Buscaniguas\".", "The industry has since expanded with companies such as Creativa Consultores, Applaudo Studios, and Elaniin providing software and website design services to clients globally while employing thousands of people.", "Canadian Telus International, a major global IT outsourcing and software development firm, has a significant workforce in the country employing nearly 1,500 people in high tech and customer service roles.", "The startup scene has also been growing with firms such as HugoApp employing 600 locals and providing delivery and ride sharing services to nearly 1 million users in the Central American/CAFTA region.", "In 2020, the government announced its \"Digital Agenda 2020\" a plan to digitize government services, digitize identities, make it easier to start businesses, attract foreign investment and improve the education system.", "Finally, the passing of the Bitcoin Law in 2021 made El Salvador the first country in the world to adopt a cryptocurrency (Bitcoin) as legal tender, this move seeks to improve access to financial services to the non-banked and under banked while also making El Salvador a hub for innovation.=== Internet freedom ===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.", "Individuals and groups engage in the expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.", "Internet access is available in public places throughout the country.The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights.", "Individuals criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and in most cases the government does not interfere with such criticism.", "In March 2012, Carlos Dada, the owner of online newspaper El Faro, received death threats from gang members.", "The gangs were unhappy with El Faro's reporting on the gang truce.", "On April 13, the International Press Institute criticized the government for not taking any actions to guarantee the safety of El Faro journalists.", "According to the Salvadoran Association of Journalists (APES), the media practices self-censorship, especially in their reporting on gangs and narcotics trafficking.", "APES stated that many members of the media were afraid to report in detail on these subjects due to fear of retaliation from gangs and narcotics trafficking groups.The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions." ], [ "See also", "* Economy of El Salvador" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " Superintendency of Electricity and Telecommunications (SIGET) .", "* SVNet, registrar for the .sv domain .", "* Instructions on how to send SMS to El Salvador .", "* GSM Cell Phone Networks in El Salvador" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "Quezaltepeque.", "The volcano of San Salvador is seen in the distance.El Salvador has transport links by road, rail, sea and air.El Salvador has over 10,000 km of roads, and one passenger rail service.", "There are several seaports on the Pacific Ocean, and two international airports." ], [ "Railways", "A weekday passenger service links San Salvador and Apopa, a journey of 40 minutes.", "Of a total of 602 km narrow gauge () rail, much is abandoned.", "In November 2013 the government rail agency FENADESAL announced plans for development of four electrified railways serving San Salvador, Sitio del Niño (La Libertad), El Salvador International Airport, La Unión, and the Honduran frontier.===Railway links with adjacent countries===* Guatemala - gauge both countries, currently closed.", "* Honduras - none" ], [ "Highways", "The bus running between Santa Ana and San Salvador.", "''total:'' 10,029 km''paved:'' 1,986 km (including 327 km of Highways)''unpaved:'' 8,043 km (1999 est.", ")The RN-21 (Bulevar Monseñor Romero) (East–West) is the very first freeway to be built in El Salvador and in Central America.", "The freeway passes the northern area of the city of Santa Tecla, La Libertad.", "It has a small portion serving Antiguo Cuscatlan, La Libertad, and merges with the RN-5 (Autopista Comalapa) (East–West, Boulevard de Los Proceres/Autopista del Aeropuerto) in San Salvador.", "The total length of the RN-21 is and is currently working as a traffic reliever in the metropolitan area.", "The RN-21 was named in honor of Monseñor Romero.", "The first phase of the highway was completed in 2009, and the second phase in November 2012." ], [ "Ports and harbors", "=== Pacific Ocean === Acajutla* Puerto Cutuco* La Libertad* La Unión* Puerto El Triunfo" ], [ "Merchant marine", "none (1999 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "El Salvador International Airport.75 (2006 est.", ")===Airports - with paved runways===''total:'' 4''over 3,047 m:'' 1''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1''914 to 1,523 m:'' 2 (2006 est.", ")===Airports - with unpaved runways===''total:'' 71''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1''914 to 1,523 m:'' 14''under 914 m:'' 56 (2006 est.", ")===Heliports===1 (2006 est.", ")===Airports by name===* Airport of the Pacific (under construction)* El Salvador International Airport* Ilopango International Airport" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of El Salvador''' () are the official governmental military forces of El Salvador.", "The Forces have three branches: the Salvadoran Army, the Salvadoran Air Force and the Navy of El Salvador." ], [ "History", "===Spanish colonial rule===In the 19th century, soldiers in El Salvador may have been nominally employed by the governing body.", "However, if not paid their wage, the soldiers would supplement their income as mercenaries and militia for local politicians and landowners.===Coffee barons and militia===In the late 19th century, El Salvador went through a period of internal discord.", "In 1871, Santiago Gonzales seized power by military coup.", "General Carlos Ezeta did the same in 1890 and General Rafael Gutierrez in 1894.However, these changes in power were fought between networks of rival landowners (coffee barons) and politicians under their patronage rather than between official military and government forces.===La Matanza===Military operations in El Salvador continued in a similar way until the early 20th century.", "During the Great Depression, coffee prices fell, the wages of indigenous Salvadoran workers were cut and unemployment was widespread.", "For three days in 1932, the indigenous workers rebelled.", "The ruling general, Maximiliano Hernández Martínez (1882 1966), responded with force.", "Under his command, the national army proper, slaughtered up to 40,000 peasants.===Palm Sunday coup===Twelve years of autocratic rule followed.", "Martínez withheld democratic and civil rights.", "On 2 March 1944, a Palm Sunday, the landowners, intellectuals, students and also some sections of the Salvadoran armed forces rebelled.", "The First Infantry Regiment and the Second Artillery Regiment of San Salvador joined the rebels as did the Garrison of Santa Ana.", "Santa Ana was bombed from the air.", "The rebellion was put down by the remaining loyal sections of the military.", "Reprisals of torture and execution of those who had joined the rebellion followed.", "Martial law was put in place.", "However, in May 1944, non-violent protest leading to a general strike caused Martinez to fall from power.===Rebellion of 1948===During the years that followed, young military officers became increasingly dissatisfied with their situation.", "They saw the generals clinging to senior posts for which they had little training and without making way for the younger officers.", "They saw the generals failing to prepare for the social and economic changes coming to Central America.", "They objected to unfair disciplinary measures and unfair surveillance.", "In 1948, fighting broke out between the younger officers and troops under their command and the senior generals and the police force under their command.", "The president, Salvador Castaneda Castro (1888 1965) was imprisoned.", "Senior officers and politicians were dismissed.", "The new government promoted the formation of a truly national, apolitical and professional army in El Salvador.===American influence and the Cold War===From 1947 to 1953, El Salvador held an agreement with the US whereby an American military aviation mission would be sent to El Salvador; El Salvador would seek advice from the US preferentially and purchase arms from the US.", "Some Salvadoran military officers were trained in North America and the Panama Canal Zone.", "Nevertheless, the amount of American military aid purchased by El Salvador in the 1950s was small; just enough in munitions and light arms to suppress internal conflict such as communist activity.In the 1950s, Salvadoran men underwent one year of national service before being discharged to a reserve army.", "They then underwent further training on a regular basis and could be called to join active provincial patrols (''patrullas cantonalles'').", "Regular meetings of the men were held reinforcing loyalty to the nation and opposition to communism.", "Men from disadvantaged circumstances were offered monetary and practical assistance and education for their children.", "The number of reservists grew to approximately 40,000.In the 1960s, a junta of conservative military officers and landowners took power in a coup and then organised elections.", "In 1961, the junta's candidate Lieutenant Colonel Julio Adalberto Rivera was elected president.", "In 1967, Colonel Fidel Sanchez Hernandez became president.===Football War===In 1969, tensions between El Salvador and Honduras increased.", "There was dispute concerning the border between the two countries.", "Approximately 300,000 Salvadorans had moved to Honduras due to population and land pressures in their homeland but Honduras had not renewed the El Salvador – Honduras Bilateral Treaty on Immigration.", "Honduras and El Salvador were competitors in the Central American Common Market.", "Honduras' economy was struggling and the Honduran Government started to deport the Salvadorans who they saw as illegal immigrants.", "Many Salvadorans fled after their Vice Consul was killed.", "In June 1969, El Salvador played three games against Honduras in the qualifying rounds of the World Cup.", "Then, on 26 June 1969, El Salvador won a play-off game 3 goals to 2 against Haiti, taking a place in the cup finals.On 14 July 1969, armed hostilities began between El Salvador and Honduras.", "Due to the war's proximity to the World Cup qualifying games, it was called the \"Football War\" or the \"Soccer War\".At this time, the Salvadoran forces included approximately 8,000 infantrymen with rifles, machine guns, mortars and bazookas, 105 mm cannons and a few armoured personnel carriers.", "Very few arms were manufactured in El Salvador.", "Most arms were supplied by the US.", "Honduras' infantry was smaller and less well equipped.The Salvadoran Air Force, flying P-51 Mustangs, attacked Honduran targets and vice versa, but each air force had only a few working aeroplanes and was hampered by a lack of spare parts.", "El Salvador's infantry forces invaded Honduras and took Ocotepeque.As Salvadoran troops approached Tegucigalpa, their supply lines failed, they became exhausted and were slowed by heavy rainfall, and their morale fell.", "On July 18, 1969, the Organization of American States (OAS) organised a ceasefire.", "Then as economic sanctions and an arms embargo took effect, both sides.", "The war lasted for four days and therefore is also called the \"one hundred hour war\".===Civil War===The Salvadoran Civil War was fought between 1979 and 1992.The Salvadoran armed forces fought the ''Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional'' (FMLN), a coalition of insurgent guerrilla groups.", "The war began when a reformist government was suppressed by hard line military elements and by landowners.Between 1980 and 1983, the Salvadoran armed forces were driven out of territory controlled by large FMLN groups in rural areas.", "The FMLN membership later increased to over 12,000 when the organisation was able to provide local governance and services.", "The government responded with counter-insurgency actions including the assassination of the archbishop, Oscar Romero (1917 1980).In late 1981, soldiers of the national armed forces' Atlácatl Battalion, a rapid response troop, killed 900 civilians at El Mozote.", "This was one of a number of actions including rapes, bashings, torture and killings.", "Men of this battalion were graduates of the US School of the Americas at Fort Benning, Columbus, Georgia.", "Another atrocity occurred on 16 November 1989.Army soldiers murdered six Jesuit priests, their housekeeper and her daughter at the Central American University.In 1989, the armed forces of El Salvador had raised 56,000 fighting men with 63 aeroplanes and 72 helicopters.", "Between 1983 and 1987, El Salvador's military forces received over 100 million dollars per year from the US.In 1990, at the end of the Cold War, the US restricted funding to the Salvadoran military.", "The US found its rigorous measures against left wing groups were no longer needed.", "This and the lack of advantage on either side led to the end of the war in 1992.Under the terms of the Chapultepec Peace Accords which had been signed on 16 January 1992 in Chapultepec, Mexico, the Salvadoran Armed Forces was to be subordinated and removed from the political arena.", "The Ministry of Defense handed the role of internal security to a new body, the National Police Force.", "The number of soldiers in the Armed Forces was reduced by half.", "Counter-insurgency forces were demobilised.", "Military intelligence units reported directly to the president.", "The constitutional mission, doctrine and recruitment and educational systems of the Armed Forces were redefined.During the civil war, military and right wing paramilitary death squads used exemplary violence with murder and mutilation, massacre and forced displacement to gain control of the populace.", "In 1993, a General Amnesty Law was passed by the Salvadoran government.", "Victims of human rights violations had no redress.", "International human rights entities such as the UNHCR made formal objections to the law.", "Spain found jurisdiction in the matter and indicted twenty retired soldiers who were officers at the time of the killings.For many reasons, the armed forces resisted the application of the requirement of the Peace Accord.", "Junior officers who had volunteered to work in security units did not want to be treated as raw army recruits when their units disbanded.", "Senior officers feared the autonomy of the military's core activities, such as training, would be lost.", "Military leaders feared that the loss of military units in rural areas would lead to social and political unrest.", "The civilian population feared that officers purged from military ranks for human rights violations would join right wing paramilitary organisations.", "===Post civil war===An unidentified Salvadoran special forces Soldier in Camp Charlie in Al Hillah, Iraq, April 14, 2005From 2003 to January 2009, the Salvadoran armed forces were part of the Multi-National Force – Iraq.", "El Salvador deployed more than 500 troops, mostly paratroopers and special forces.", "During the conflict, five Salvadoran soldiers were killed in action and more than 50 were wounded.", "Salvadoran forces operated next to the Spanish Legion and the U.S. Army.", "They were well regarded by both Spanish and U.S. forces.", "The last of the Salvadoran forces withdrew from Iraq in 2009.They were the last Central Americans allies to withdraw from the conflict.In 2016, a new armed force was raised in El Salvador with the remit of stopping criminal gangs (especially MS-13) and narcotrafficking.In 2021, the strength of the Salvadoran armed forces was estimated to be 24,500 active presonnel." ], [ "Structure", "The Salvadoran armed forces are a combat force composed of army, navy and air force each led by their Chief of the General Staff.", "The support units are a military education and doctrine command, a logistics support command, a military health command, a military special security brigade and a directorate general of recruitment and reserves.The duties of the Salvadoran Armed Force is described in articles 211 and 212 of the Constitution of 1983.It is the duty of the armed forces to defend national territory and sovereignty; maintain public peace, tranquillity, and security; and to support democracy.", "Article 212 describes the armed forces as a 'fundamental institution for national security, of a permanent character, apolitical, obedient to established civilian authority, and non-deliberative\".", "It also charges the military with enforcing the no-reelection provision of the country's president; with guaranteeing universal suffrage, human rights;and with working with the executive branch of government in promoting national developmentThe Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces is the president.", "Reporting to the president is the Ministry of Defence.", "Members of the ministry advise the Secretary of State and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.", "The military provides a panel composed of the Chiefs of the General Staff and military experts who provide the ministry with technical advice for policy making and strategic planning.", "Oversight of the military is provided by the Assistant Inspector General of the Armed Forces.Within the military leadership are operating units, tactical units and advisory bodies.", "The operating units build on operational plans.", "The tactical units include detachments, training centers and forces of the army at the battalion level.", "The combat recognition and transport groups make up the Air Force tactical unit.", "The Navy uses transport and hydrographic tactical units." ], [ "Medals", "Among the highest military decorations in the Salvadoran Armed Forces are the Gold Cross of War Heroism in Action; the Silver Cross of Heroism; the gold medal for Courage in Action; and the Silver Medal of Valor.", "for such actions, there may be a monetary payment in addition to the armed forces pension.", "There are other honours for field service, distinguished service, and merit." ], [ "See also", "Football WarSalvadoran Civil War" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of El Salvador" ], [ "Introduction", "El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), and the Central American Integration System (SICA).", "It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control.In November, 1950 El Salvador helped the newly empowered 14th Dalai Lama by supporting his Tibetan Government cabinet minister's telegram requesting an appeal before the General Assembly of the United Nations to stop the Communist China's People's Liberation Army's invasion of Tibet.El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements.", "An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative.El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA to promote sustainable economic development in the region." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which El Salvador maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1Unknown2Unknown3Unknown45678910111213141516171819202122232425262728—293031323334353621 September 1950—373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115—116117118119120—121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1964* Egypt has an interest section in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador does not have an accreditation to Egypt.31 July 1989El Salvador recognized the SADR on July 31, 1989.In April 1997, El Salvador cancelled relations with the SADR.", "In June 2009, and during a visit of SADR's president, Mohamed Abdelaziz, relations were restored.", "On November 30, 2010, the SADR and El Salvador upgrade their relations to ambassadorial level.11 November 1997* El Salvador is accredited to South Africa from its embassy in Tel Aviv, Israel.", "* South Africa is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.=== Americas === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1940See Argentina–El Salvador relations* Argentina has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Buenos Aires.29 December 1961See Canada–El Salvador relations* Canada has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.11 November 1902Cuba and El Salvador have resumed diplomatic relations on June 1, 2009.El Salvador previously suspended diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 due to the Cuban Revolution.", "* Cuba has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Havana.3 July 1882* Dominican Republic has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Santo Domingo.1838See El Salvador–Mexico relationsDiplomatic relations between Mexico and El Salvador were established in 1838.", "* Mexico has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Mexico City and consulates-general in Acayucan, Ciudad Juárez , Guadalajara, Monterrey, Oaxaca City, San Luis Potosí, Tapachula, Tijuana and Villahermosa.1857See El Salvador–Peru relations* El Salvador has an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in San Salvador.1863See El Salvador–United States relationsU.S.", "policy towards the country promotes the strengthening of El Salvador's democratic institutions, rule of law, judicial reform, and civilian police; national reconciliation and reconstruction; and economic opportunity and growth.", "El Salvador has been a committed member of the coalition of nations fighting against terrorism and has sent 10 rotations of troops to support the Iraq War.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and has several consulates-general scattered about the country.", "* United States has an embassy in San Salvador.11 January 1929See El Salvador–Uruguay relations* El Salvador has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in San Salvador.28 February 1884See El Salvador-Venezuela relationsIn November 2019, El Salvador recognized opposition leader Juan Guaido as the legitimate President of Venezuela, cutting off relations with disputed president Nicolas Maduro's government.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in San Salvador.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes21 August 2018See China-El Salvador relationsOn August 21, China's State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi held talks with El Salvador Foreign Minister Carlos Castaneda and signed a joint communique on the establishment of diplomatic relations, deciding to recognize each other and establish diplomatic relations at an ambassadorial level from the date of the communique's signing.", "The government of the Republic of China on Taiwan has preemptively severed diplomatic ties with El Salvador.", "* China has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Beijing.12 February 1979See El Salvador–India relations* El Salvador has an embassy in New Delhi* India is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in Guatemala City, Guatemala.10 January 2007* El Salvador is accredited to Jordan from its embassy in Doha, Qatar.", "* Jordan is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in Mexico City.9 May 2013See El Salvador–Palestine relationsEl Salvador, which is home to a sizable ethnic Palestinian community, was widely expected to join the succession of South American governments that recognised Palestine in the end of 2010.In May 2011, members of the country's Legislative Assembly including its president Sigfrido Reyes presented a proposal to the Cabinet to issue a statement formally recognising the State of Palestine.The Central American Integration System (SICA) was expected to adopt a co-ordinated position on the issue at its summit in San Salvador on 18 August.", "However, El Salvador, as the nation presiding over the summit, refused to include the matter on the official agenda, insisting that discussion should retain a regional focus.", "Despite this, the government officially recognised the Palestinian state on 25 August 2011.", "* El Salvador conducts relations with Palestine from its embassy in Tel Aviv, Israel and maintains an honorary consulate in Bethlehem.", "* Palestine has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* See also Palestinian Salvadoran24 September 2003* El Salvador has an embassy in Doha.", "* Qatar has an embassy in San Salvador.28 August 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Republic of El Salvador began in August 1962 and the number of the South Koreans living in El Salvador in 2013 was about 258.", "* South Korea has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Seoul.Jan.", "26, 1934* El Salvador has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was US$17.1 million in 2019 (Salvadoran exports/imports: 2.3/14.8 million USD).===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes21 October 1859See El Salvador–France relations* El Salvador has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in San Salvador.14 October 2014* El Salvador officially recognised Kosovo as an independent sovereign state on 29 June 2013.", "* El Salvador and Kosovo established official diplomatic relations on 18 October 2014.", "* Kosovo is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in Panama City, Panamá.24 June 1865See El Salvador–Spain relations* El Salvador has an embassy in Madrid and consulates-general in Barcelona and Seville.", "* Spain has an embassy in San Salvador.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes5 December 1983See Australia–El Salvador relations* Australia is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico and maintains an honorary consulate in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate-general in Melbourne." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in El Salvador* List of diplomatic missions of El Salvador" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Equatorial Guinea''' (; ; ), officially the '''Republic of Equatorial Guinea''' (, , ), is a country on the west coast of Central Africa, with an area of .", "Formerly the colony of Spanish Guinea, its post-independence name refers to its location near both the Equator and in the African region of Guinea.", ", the country had a population of 1,468,777, over 85% of whom are members of the Fang people, the country's dominant ethnic group.", "The Bubi people, indigenous to Bioko, are the second largest group at approximately 6.5% of the population.Equatorial Guinea consists of two parts, an insular and a mainland region.", "The insular region consists of the islands of Bioko (formerly ''Fernando Pó'') in the Gulf of Guinea and Annobón, a small volcanic island which is the only part of the country south of the equator.", "Bioko Island is the northernmost part of Equatorial Guinea and is the site of the country's capital, Malabo.", "The Portuguese-speaking island nation of São Tomé and Príncipe is located between Bioko and Annobón.", "The mainland region, Río Muni, is bordered by Cameroon on the north and Gabon on the south and east.", "It is the location of Bata, Equatorial Guinea's largest city, and Ciudad de la Paz, the country's planned future capital.", "Rio Muni also includes several small offshore islands, such as Corisco, Elobey Grande, and Elobey Chico.", "The country is a member of the African Union, Francophonie, OPEC and the CPLP.After becoming independent from Spain in 1968, Equatorial Guinea was ruled by Francisco Macías Nguema.", "He declared himself president for life in 1972, but was overthrown in a coup in 1979 by his nephew Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo who has served as the country's president since.", "Both presidents have been widely characterized as dictators by foreign observers.", "Since the mid-1990s, Equatorial Guinea has become one of sub-Saharan Africa's largest oil producers.", "It has subsequently become the richest country per capita in Africa, and its gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita ranks 43rd in the world; however, the wealth is distributed extremely unevenly, with few people benefiting from the oil riches.", "The country ranks 144th on the 2019 Human Development Index, with less than half the population having access to clean drinking water and 7.9% of children dying before the age of five.", "Equatorial Guinea's nominal GDP per capita is $10,982 in 2021 according to OPEC.Since Equatorial Guinea is a former Spanish colony, Spanish is the main official language.", "French and (as of 2010) Portuguese have also been made official, but they are not as widely used.", "Aside from the largely unrecognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, it is the only country situated entirely in Africa in which Spanish is an official language (Spanish is also spoken in the African parts of Spain: the Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla).", "It is also the most widely spoken language (considerably more than the other two official languages); according to the Instituto Cervantes, 87.7% of the population has a good command of Spanish.Equatorial Guinea's government is authoritarian and has one of the worst human rights records in the world, consistently ranking among the \"worst of the worst\" in Freedom House's annual survey of political and civil rights.", "Reporters Without Borders ranks Obiang among its \"predators\" of press freedom.", "Human trafficking is a significant problem, with the U.S.", "Trafficking in Persons Report identifying Equatorial Guinea as a source and destination country for forced labour and sex trafficking.", "The report also noted that Equatorial Guinea \"does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so.\"" ], [ "History", "Pygmies probably once lived in the continental region that is now Equatorial Guinea, but are today found only in isolated pockets in southern Río Muni.", "Bantu migrations started probably around 2,000 BC from between south-east Nigeria and north-west Cameroon (the Grassfields).", "They must have settled continental Equatorial Guinea around 500 BC at the latest.", "The earliest settlements on Bioko Island are dated to AD 530.The Annobón population, originally native to Angola, was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé island.=== First European contact and Portuguese rule (1472–1778) ===Portuguese rule in Equatorial Guinea lasted from the arrival of Fernão do Pó (Fernando Pó) in 1472 until the 1778 Treaty of El PardoThe Portuguese explorer Fernando Pó, seeking a path to India, is credited as being the first European to see the island of Bioko, in 1472.He called it ''Formosa'' (\"Beautiful\"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer.", "Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474.The first factories were established on the islands around 1500 as the Portuguese quickly recognized the positives of the islands including volcanic soil and disease-resistant highlands.", "Despite natural advantages, initial Portuguese efforts in 1507 to establish a sugarcane plantation and town near what is now Concepción on Fernando Pó failed due to Bubi hostility and fever.", "The main island's rainy climate, extreme humidity and temperature swings took a major toll on European settlers from the beginning, and it would be centuries before attempts restarted.=== Early Spanish rule and lease to Britain (1778–1844) ===Evolution of Spanish possessions and claims in the Gulf of Guinea (1778-1968).In 1778, Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain signed the Treaty of El Pardo which ceded Bioko, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the Bight of Biafra between the Niger and Ogoue rivers to Spain in exchange for large areas in South America that are now Western Brazil.", "Brigadier Felipe José, Count of Arjelejos formally took possession of Bioko from Portugal on 21 October 1778.After sailing for Annobón to take possession, the Count died of disease caught on Bioko and the fever-ridden crew mutinied.", "The crew landed on São Tomé instead where they were imprisoned by the Portuguese authorities after having lost over 80% of their men to sickness.", "As a result of this disaster, Spain was thereafter hesitant to invest heavily in its new possession.", "However, despite the setback Spaniards began to use the island as a base for slave trading on the nearby mainland.", "Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of what became Equatorial Guinea was administered by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, based in Buenos Aires.Unwilling to invest heavily in the development of Fernando Pó, from 1827 to 1843, the Spanish leased a base at Malabo on Bioko to the United Kingdom which it had sought as part of its efforts to suppress the transatlantic slave trade.", "Without Spanish permission, the British moved the headquarters of the Mixed Commission for the Suppression of Slave Traffic to Fernando Pó in 1827, before moving it back to Sierra Leone under an agreement with Spain in 1843.Spain's decision to abolish slavery in 1817 at British insistence damaged the colony's perceived value to the authorities and so leasing naval bases was an effective revenue earner from an otherwise unprofitable possession.", "An agreement by Spain to sell its African colony to the British was cancelled in 1841 due to metropolitan public opinion and opposition by Spanish Congress.=== Late 19th century (1844–1900) ===Map of the Spanish possessions in 1897, before the Treaty of Paris (1900)In 1844, the British returned the island to Spanish control and the area became known as the \"Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea\".", "Due to epidemics, Spain did not invest much in the colony, and in 1862 an outbreak of yellow fever killed many of the whites that had settled on the island.", "Despite this, plantations continued to be established by private citizens through the second half of the 19th century.The plantations of Fernando Pó were mostly run by a black Creole elite, later known as Fernandinos.", "The British settled some 2,000 Sierra Leoneans and freed slaves there during their rule, and a trickle of immigration from West Africa and the West Indies continued after the British left.", "A number of freed Angolan slaves, Portuguese-African creoles and immigrants from Nigeria and Liberia also began to be settled in the colony where they quickly began to join the new group.", "To the local mix were added Cubans, Filipinos, Jews and Spaniards of various colours, many of whom had been deported to Africa for political or other crimes, as well as some settlers backed by the government.By 1870 the prognosis of whites that lived on the island was much improved after recommendations that they live in the highlands, and by 1884 much of the minimal administrative machinery and key plantations had moved to Basile hundreds of meters above sea level.", "Henry Morton Stanley had labeled Fernando Pó \"a jewel which Spain did not polish\" for refusing to enact such a policy.", "Despite the improved survival chances of Europeans living on the island, Mary Kingsley, who was staying on the island still described Fernando Pó as \"a more uncomfortable form of execution\" for Spaniards appointed there.There was also a trickle of immigration from the neighboring Portuguese islands, escaped slaves, and prospective planters.", "Although a few of the Fernandinos were Catholic and Spanish-speaking, about nine-tenths of them were Protestant and English-speaking on the eve of the First World War, and pidgin English was the ''lingua franca'' of the island.", "The Sierra Leoneans were particularly well placed as planters while labor recruitment on the Windward coast continued, for they kept family and other connections there and could easily arrange a supply of labor.", "The Fernandinos proved to become effective traders and middlemen between the natives and Europeans.", "A freed slave from the West Indies by way of Sierra Leone named William Pratt established the cocoa crop on Fernando Pó.=== Early 20th century (1900–1945) ===Borders after the agreement of 1900 on the land that would become Spanish Guinea, until the independence of 1968Spain had not occupied the large area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had right by treaty, and the French had busily expanded their occupation at the expense of the territory claimed by Spain.", "Madrid only partly backed the explorations of men like Manuel Iradier who had signed treaties in the interior as far as Gabon and Cameroon, leaving much of the land out of \"effective occupation\" as demanded by the terms of the 1885 Berlin Conference.", "More important events such as the conflict in Cuba and the eventual Spanish–American War kept Madrid busy at an inopportune moment.", "Minimal government backing for mainland annexation came as a result of public opinion and a need for labour on Fernando Pó.The eventual treaty of Paris in 1900 left Spain with the continental enclave of Rio Muni, a mere 26,000 km out of the 300,000 stretching east to the Ubangi river which the Spaniards had initially claimed.", "The tiny enclave was far smaller than what the Spaniards had considered themselves rightfully entitled to under their claims and the Treaty of El Pardo.", "The humiliation of the Franco-Spanish negotiations, combined with the disaster in Cuba led to the head of the Spanish negotiating team, Pedro Gover y Tovar committing suicide on the voyage home on 21 October 1901.Iradier himself died in despair in 1911, and it would be decades before his achievements would be recognised by Spanish popular opinion when the port of Cogo was renamed Puerto Iradier in his honour.The opening years of the twentieth century saw a new generation of Spanish immigrants.", "Land regulations issued in 1904–1905 favoured Spaniards, and most of the later big planters arrived from Spain after that.", "An agreement made with Liberia in 1914 to import cheap labor greatly favoured wealthy men with ready access to the state, and the shift in labor supplies from Liberia to Río Muni increased this advantage.", "Due to malpractice however, the Liberian government eventually ended the treaty after embarrassing revelations about the state of Liberian workers on Fernando Pó in the Christy Report which brought down the country's president Charles D. B.", "King in 1930.Corisco in 1910The greatest constraint to economic development was a chronic shortage of labour.", "Pushed into the interior of the island and decimated by alcohol addiction, venereal disease, smallpox, and sleeping sickness, the indigenous Bubi population of Bioko refused to work on plantations.", "Working their own small cocoa farms gave them a considerable degree of autonomy.By the late nineteenth century, the Bubi were protected from the demands of the planters by Spanish Claretian missionaries, who were very influential in the colony and eventually organised the Bubi into little mission theocracies reminiscent of the famous Jesuit reductions in Paraguay.", "Catholic penetration was furthered by two small insurrections in 1898 and 1910 protesting conscription of forced labour for the plantations.", "The Bubi were disarmed in 1917, and left dependent on the missionaries.", "Serious labour shortages were temporarily solved by a massive influx of refugees from German Kamerun, along with thousands of white German soldiers who stayed on the island for several years.Between 1926 and 1959 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea.", "The economy was based on large cacao and coffee plantations and logging concessions and the workforce was mostly immigrant contract labour from Liberia, Nigeria, and Cameroun.", "Between 1914 and 1930, an estimated 10,000 Liberians went to Fernando Po under a labour treaty that was stopped altogether in 1930.With Liberian workers no longer available, planters of Fernando Po turned to Rio Muni.", "Campaigns were mounted to subdue the Fang people in the 1920s, at the time that Liberia was beginning to cut back on recruitment.", "There were garrisons of the colonial guard throughout the enclave by 1926, and the whole colony was considered 'pacified' by 1929.Iberia from Madrid to Bata, 1941The Spanish Civil War had a major impact on the colony.", "A group of 150 Spanish whites, including the Governor-General and Vice-Governor-General of Río Muni, created a socialist party called the Popular Front in the enclave which served to oppose the interests of the Fernando Pó plantation owners.", "When the War broke out Francisco Franco ordered Nationalist forces based in the Canaries to ensure control over Equatorial Guinea.", "In September 1936 Nationalist forces backed by Falangists from Fernando Pó, similarly to what happened in Spain proper, took control of Río Muni, which under Governor-General Luiz Sanchez Guerra Saez and his deputy Porcel had backed the Republican government.", "By November the Popular Front and its supporters had been defeated and Equatorial Guinea secured for Franco.", "The commander in charge of the occupation, Juan Fontán Lobé, was appointed Governor-General by Franco and began to exert more effective Spanish control over the enclave interior.Rio Muni had a small population, officially a little over 100,000 in the 1930s, and escape across the frontiers into Cameroun or Gabon was very easy.", "Also, the timber companies needed increasing numbers of workers, and the spread of coffee cultivation offered an alternative means of paying taxes.", "Fernando Pó thus continued to suffer from labour shortages.", "The French only briefly permitted recruitment in Cameroun, and the main source of labour came to be Igbo smuggled in canoes from Calabar in Nigeria.", "This resolution to the worker shortage allowed Fernando Pó to become one of Africa's most productive agricultural areas after the Second World War.=== Final years of Spanish rule (1945–1968) ===Spanish Marine Infantry in Spanish Guinea in 1964.Signing of the independence of Equatorial Guinea by the Spanish minister Manuel Fraga together with the new Equatorial Guinean president Macías Nguema on 12 October 1968Politically, post-war colonial history has three fairly distinct phases: up to 1959, when its status was raised from \"colonial\" to \"provincial\", following the approach of the Portuguese Empire; between 1960 and 1968, when Madrid attempted a partial decolonisation aimed at keeping the territory as part of the Spanish system; and from 1968 on, after the territory became an independent republic.", "The first phase consisted of little more than a continuation of previous policies; these closely resembled the policies of Portugal and France, notably in dividing the population into a vast majority governed as 'natives' or non-citizens, and a very small minority (together with whites) admitted to civic status as ''emancipados'', assimilation to the metropolitan culture being the only permissible means of advancement.This \"provincial\" phase saw the beginnings of nationalism, but chiefly among small groups who had taken refuge from the ''Caudillo''s paternal hand in Cameroun and Gabon.", "They formed two bodies: the Movimiento Nacional de Liberación de la Guinea (MONALIGE), and the Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial (IPGE).", "The pressure they could bring to bear was weak, but the general trend in West Africa was not, and by the late 1960s much of the African continent had been granted independence.", "Aware of this trend, the Spanish began to increase efforts to prepare the country for independence and massively stepped up development.", "The Gross National Product per capita in 1965 was $466, which was the highest in black Africa, and the Spanish constructed an international airport at Santa Isabel, a television station and increased the literacy rate to a relatively high 89%.", "At the same time measures were taken to battle sleeping sickness and leprosy in the enclave, and by 1967 the number of hospital beds per capita in Equatorial Guinea was higher than Spain itself, with 1637 beds in 16 hospitals.", "All the same, measures to improve education floundered, and like in the Democratic Republic of Congo by the end of colonial rule the number of Africans in higher education was in only the double digits, and political education necessary to a functioning state was negligible.A decision of 9 August 1963, approved by a referendum of 15 December 1963, gave the territory a measure of autonomy and the administrative promotion of a 'moderate' group, the (MUNGE).", "This proved a feeble instrument, and, with growing pressure for change from the UN, Madrid was gradually forced to give way to the currents of nationalism.", "Two General Assembly resolutions were passed in 1965 ordering Spain to grant independence to the colony, and in 1966 a UN Commission toured the country before recommending the same thing.", "In response, the Spanish declared that they would hold a constitutional convention on 27 October 1967 to negotiate a new constitution for an independent Equatorial Guinea.", "The conference was attended by 41 local delegates and 25 Spaniards.", "The Africans were principally divided between Fernandinos and Bubi on one side, who feared a loss of privileges and 'swamping' by the Fang majority, and the Río Muni Fang nationalists on the other.", "At the conference the leading Fang figure, the later first president Francisco Macías Nguema gave a controversial speech in which he claimed that Adolf Hitler had \"saved Africa\".", "After nine sessions the conference was suspended due to deadlock between the \"unionists\" and \"separatists\" who wanted a separate Fernando Pó.", "Macías resolved to travel to the UN to bolster international awareness of the issue, and his firebrand speeches in New York contributed to Spain naming a date for both independence and general elections.", "In July 1968 virtually all Bubi leaders went to the UN in New York to try and raise awareness for their cause, but the world community was uninterested in quibbling over the specifics of colonial independence.", "The 1960s were a time of great optimism over the future of the former African colonies, and groups that had been close to European rulers, like the Bubi, were not viewed positively.=== Independence under Macías (1968–1979) ===Francisco Macías Nguema, first president of Equatorial Guinea in 1968, became a dictator until he was overthrown in a coup d'état in 1979.Independence from Spain was gained on 12 October 1968, at noon in the capital, Malabo.", "The new country became the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (the date is celebrated as the country's Independence Day).", "Macías became president in the country's only free and fair election.", "The Spanish (ruled by Franco) had backed Macías in the election due to his perceived loyalty, however while on the campaign trail he had proven to be far less easy to handle than they had expected.", "Much of his campaigning involved visiting rural areas of Río Muni and promising young Fang that they would have the houses and wives of the Spanish if they voted for him.", "In the towns he had instead presented himself as the urbane leader who had bested the Spanish at the UN, and he had won in the second round of voting; greatly helped by the vote-splitting of his rivals.The euphoria of independence became quickly overshadowed by problems emanating from the Nigerian Civil War.", "Fernando Pó was inhabited by many Biafra-supporting Ibo migrant workers and many refugees from the breakaway state fled to the island, straining it to breaking point.", "The International Committee of the Red Cross began running relief flights out of Equatorial Guinea, but Macías quickly became spooked and shut the flights down, refusing to allow them to fly diesel fuel for their trucks nor oxygen tanks for medical operations.", "Very quickly the Biafran separatists were starved into submission without international backing.After the Public Prosecutor complained about \"excesses and maltreatment\" by government officials, Macías had 150 alleged coup-plotters executed in a purge on Christmas Eve 1969, all of whom happened to be political opponents.", "Macias Nguema further consolidated his totalitarian powers by outlawing opposition political parties in July 1970 and making himself president for life in 1972.He broke off ties with Spain and the West.", "In spite of his condemnation of Marxism, which he deemed \"neo-colonialist\", Equatorial Guinea maintained very special relations with communist states, notably China, Cuba, East Germany and the USSR.", "Macias Nguema signed a preferential trade agreement and a shipping treaty with the Soviet Union.", "The Soviets also made loans to Equatorial Guinea.The shipping agreement gave the Soviets permission for a pilot fishery development project and also a naval base at Luba.", "In return the USSR was to supply fish to Equatorial Guinea.", "China and Cuba also gave different forms of financial, military, and technical assistance to Equatorial Guinea, which got them a measure of influence there.", "For the USSR, there was an advantage to be gained in the War in Angola from access to Luba base and later on to Malabo International Airport.In 1974, the World Council of Churches affirmed that large numbers of people had been murdered since 1968 in an ongoing reign of terror.", "A quarter of the entire population had fled abroad, they said, while 'the prisons are overflowing and to all intents and purposes form one vast concentration camp'.", "Out of a population of 300,000, an estimated 80,000 were killed.", "Apart from allegedly committing genocide against the ethnic minority Bubi people, Macias Nguema ordered the deaths of thousands of suspected opponents, closed down churches and presided over the economy's collapse as skilled citizens and foreigners fled the country.=== Obiang (1979–present) ===Obama with their wives in 2014The nephew of Macías Nguema, Teodoro Obiang deposed his uncle on 3 August 1979, in a bloody ''coup d'état''; over two weeks of civil war ensued until Macías Nguema was captured.", "He was tried and executed soon afterward, with Obiang succeeding him as a less bloody, but still authoritarian president.In 1995 Mobil, an American oil company, discovered oil in Equatorial Guinea.", "The country subsequently experienced rapid economic development, but earnings from the country's oil wealth have not reached the population and the country ranks low on the UN human development index.", "7.9% of children die before the age of 5 and more than 50% of the population lacks access to clean drinking water.", "President Teodoro Obiang is widely suspected of using the country's oil wealth to enrich himself and his associates.", "In 2006, Forbes estimated his personal wealth at $600 million.In 2011, the government announced it was planning a new capital for the country, named Oyala.", "The city was renamed Ciudad de la Paz (''\"City of Peace\"'') in 2017., Obiang is Africa's second-longest serving dictator after Cameroon's Paul Biya.Equatorial Guinea was elected as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council 2018–19.On 7 March 2021, there were munition explosions at a military base near the city of Bata causing 98 deaths and 600 people being injured and treated at the hospital.In November 2022 Obiang was re-elected in the 2022 Equatorial Guinean general election with 99.7% of the vote amid accusations of fraud by the opposition." ], [ "Government and politics", "Highway construction in Ciudad de la Paz in 2010.Ciudad de la Paz will be the future capital of Equatorial Guinea.Presidential palace of Teodoro Obiang in MalaboThe current president of Equatorial Guinea is Teodoro Obiang.", "The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives him extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and serving as commander in chief of the armed forces.", "Prime Minister Francisco Pascual Obama Asue was appointed by Obiang and operates under powers delegated by the President.Map of Equatorial Guinea made by the CIA in 1992During the four decades of his rule, Obiang has shown little tolerance for opposition.", "While the country is nominally a multiparty democracy, its elections have generally been considered a sham.", "According to Human Rights Watch, the dictatorship of President Obiang used an oil boom to entrench and enrich itself further at the expense of the country's people.", "Since August 1979 some 12 real and perceived unsuccessful coup attempts have occurred.According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country were dominated by tensions between Obiang's son, Teodoro Nguema Obiang Mangue, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces.", "The tension may be rooted in a power shift arising from the dramatic increase in oil production which has occurred since 1997.In 2004 a plane load of suspected mercenaries was intercepted in Zimbabwe while allegedly on the way to overthrow Obiang.", "A November 2004 report named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of the 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt organized by Simon Mann.", "Various accounts also named the United Kingdom's MI6, the United States' CIA, and Spain as tacit supporters of the coup attempt.", "Nevertheless, the Amnesty International report released in June 2005on the ensuing trial of those allegedly involved highlighted the prosecution's failure to produce conclusive evidence that a coup attempt had actually taken place.", "Simon Mann was released from prison on 3 November 2009 for humanitarian reasons.Since 2005, Military Professional Resources Inc., a US-based international private military company, has worked in Equatorial Guinea to train police forces in appropriate human rights practices.", "In 2006, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice hailed Obiang as a \"good friend\" despite repeated criticism of his human rights and civil liberties record.", "The US Agency for International Development entered into a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Obiang, in April 2006, to establish a social development Fund in the country, implementing projects in the areas of health, education, women's affairs and the environment.In 2006, Obiang signed an anti-torture decree banning all forms of abuse and improper treatment in Equatorial Guinea, and commissioned the renovation and modernization of Black Beach prison in 2007 to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners.", "However, human rights abuses have continued.", "Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International among other non-governmental organizations have documented severe human rights abuses in prisons, including torture, beatings, unexplained deaths and illegal detention.In their most recently publishing findings (2020), Transparency International awarded Equatorial Guinea a total score of 16 on their Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI).", "CPI ranks countries by their perceived level of public corruption where zero is very corrupt and 100 is extremely clean.", "Equatorial Guinea was the 174th lowest scoring nation out of a total of 180 countries.", "Freedom House, a pro-democracy and human rights NGO, described Obiang as one of the world's \"most kleptocratic living autocrats\", and complained about the US government welcoming his administration and buying oil from it.Obiang was re-elected to serve an additional term in 2009 in an election the African Union deemed \"in line with electoral law\".", "Obiang re-appointed Prime Minister Ignacio Milam Tang in 2010.Obiang Nguema \"has been described by rights organisations as one of Africa's most brutal dictators.", "\"In November 2011, a new constitution was approved.", "The vote on the constitution was taken though neither the text or its content was revealed to the public before the vote.", "Under the new constitution the president was limited to a maximum of two seven-year terms and would be both the head of state and head of the government, therefore eliminating the prime minister.", "The new constitution also introduced the figure of a vice president and called for the creation of a 70-member senate with 55 senators elected by the people and the 15 remaining designated by the president.", "In the following cabinet reshuffle it was announced that there would be two vice-presidents in clear violation of the constitution that was just taking effect.In October 2012, during an interview with Christiane Amanpour on CNN, Obiang was asked whether he would step down at the end of the current term (2009–2016) since the new constitution limited the number of terms to two and he has been reelected at least 4 times.", "Obiang answered he refused to step aside because the new constitution was not retroactive and the two-term limit would only become applicable from 2016.The elections on 26 May 2013 combined the senate, lower house and mayoral contests all in a single package.", "Like all previous elections, this was denounced by the opposition and it too was won by Obiang's PDGE.", "During the electoral contest, the ruling party hosted internal elections which were later scrapped as none of the president's favorite candidates led the internal lists.", "Ultimately, the ruling party and the satellites of the ruling coalition decided to run not based on the candidates but based on the party.", "This created a situation where during the election the ruling party's coalition did not provide the names of their candidates so effectively individuals were not running for office, instead, the party was the one running for office.The May 2013 elections were marked by a series of events including the popular protest planned by a group of activists from the MPP (Movement of Popular Protest) which included several social and political groups.", "The MPP called for a peaceful protest at the Plaza de la Mujer square on 15 May.", "MPP coordinator Enrique Nsolo Nzo was arrested and official state media portrayed him as planning to destabilize the country and depose the president.", "However, despite speaking under duress and with clear signs of torture, Nsolo said that they had planned a peaceful protest and had indeed obtained all the legal authorizations required to carry out the peaceful protest.", "In addition to that, he firmly stated that he was not affiliated with any political party.", "The Plaza de la Mujer square in Malabo was occupied by the police from 13 May and it has been heavily guarded ever since.", "The government embarked on a censorship program that affected social sites including Facebook and other websites that were critical to the government of Equatorial Guinea.", "The censorship was implemented by redirecting online searches to the official government website.Shortly after the elections, opposition party CPDS announced that they were going to protest peacefully against the 26 May elections on 25 June.", "Interior minister Clemente Engonga refused to authorise the protest on the grounds that it could \"destabilize\" the country and CPDS decided to go forward, claiming constitutional right.", "On the night of 24 June, the CPDS headquarters in Malabo were surrounded by heavily armed police officers to keep those inside from leaving and thus effectively blocking the protest.", "Several leading members of CPDS were detained in Malabo and others in Bata were kept from boarding several local flights to Malabo.In 2016 Obiang was reelected for an additional seven-year term, in an election which, according to Freedom House, was plagued by police violence, detentions and torture against opposition factions.Following the 2022 general elections, President Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea holds all of the 100 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and all of those in the Senate.", "The opposition is almost non-existent in the country and is organized from Spain mainly within the social-democratic Convergence for Social Democracy.", "Most of the media are under state control; the private television channels, those of the Asonga group, belong to the president's family.According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Equatorial Guinea is 7th least democratic country in Africa.=== Armed forces ===An Antonov An-72P of the Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea on lift offThe Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea consists of approximately 2,500 service members.", "The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the police 400 paramilitary men, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about 120 members.", "There is also a gendarmerie, but the number of members is unknown.", "The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea." ], [ "Geography", "Equatorial Guinea is on the west coast of Central Africa.", "The country consists of a mainland territory, Río Muni, which is bordered by Cameroon to the north and Gabon to the east and south, and five small islands, Bioko, Corisco, Annobón, Elobey Chico (Small Elobey), and Elobey Grande (Great Elobey).", "Bioko, the site of the capital, Malabo, lies about off the coast of Cameroon.", "Annobón Island is about west-south-west of Cape Lopez in Gabon.", "Corisco and the two Elobey islands are in Corisco Bay, on the border of Río Muni and Gabon.Equatorial Guinea lies between latitudes 4°N and 2°S, and longitudes 5° and 12°E.", "Despite its name, no part of the country's territory lies on the equator—it is in the northern hemisphere, except for the insular Annobón Province, which is about south of the equator.=== Climate ===Köppen climate classification of Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea has a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons.", "From June to August, Río Muni is dry and Bioko wet; from December to February, the reverse occurs.", "In between there is gradual transition.", "Rain or mist occurs daily on Annobón, where a cloudless day has never been registered.", "The temperature at Malabo, Bioko, ranges from to , though on the southern Moka Plateau normal high temperatures are only .", "In Río Muni, the average temperature is about .", "Annual rainfall varies from at Malabo to at Ureka, Bioko, but Río Muni is somewhat drier.=== Ecology ===Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Equitorial Guinea the seventh highest percentage of forest cover in the world.Equatorial Guinea spans several ecoregions.", "Río Muni region lies within the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion except for patches of Central African mangroves on the coast, especially in the Muni River estuary.", "The Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests ecoregion covers most of Bioko and the adjacent portions of Cameroon and Nigeria on the African mainland, and the Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests ecoregion covers the highlands of Bioko and nearby Mount Cameroon.", "The São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests ecoregion covers all of Annobón, as well as São Tomé and Príncipe.The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.99/10, ranking it 30th globally out of 172 countries.File:Annobon Island Equatorial Guinea.jpg\|AnnobonFile:Islotes Horacio 1.JPG\|Islote HoracioFile:Dschungel bei Oyala.JPG\|Near Ciudad de la PazFile:Nationalpark Monte Alén.jpg\|Monte Alén National ParkFile:The Great Bioko mountain.jpg\|Pico Basilé==== Wildlife ====Equatorial Guinea is home to gorillas, chimpanzees, various monkeys, leopards, buffalo, antelope, elephants, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and various snakes, including pythons.File:Dissotis sp Bioko201310.jpg\|DissotisFile:Soja en Mongomo.png\|SoybeanFile:Rhampholeon spectrum 63850438.jpg\|Spectral pygmy chameleonFile:Yellow-billed Turacos in Equatorial Guinea 2006.jpg\|Yellow-billed turacoFile:Gorilla 019.jpg\|Western gorilla=== Administrative divisions ===Equatorial Guinea is divided into eight provinces.", "The newest province is Djibloho, created in 2017 with its headquarters at Ciudad de la Paz, the country's future capital.", "The eight provinces are as follows (numbers correspond to those on the map; provincial capitals appear in parentheses):# Annobón (San Antonio de Palé)# Bioko Norte (Malabo)# Bioko Sur (Luba)# Centro Sur (Evinayong)# Djibloho (Ciudad de la Paz)# Kié-Ntem (Ebebiyín)# Litoral (Bata)# Wele-Nzas (Mongomo)The provinces are further divided into 19 districts and 37 municipalities." ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Equatorial Guinea exports, 2019Before the nation's independence from Spain, Equatorial Guinea exported cocoa, coffee and timber, mostly to its colonial ruler, Spain, but also to Germany and the UK.", "On 1 January 1985, the country became the first non-Francophone African member of the franc zone, adopting the CFA franc as its currency.", "The national currency, the ekwele, had previously been linked to the Spanish peseta.Gepetrol Tower in Malabo, 2013The discovery of large oil reserves in 1996 and its subsequent exploitation contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue.", ", Equatorial Guinea is the third-largest oil producer in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Its oil production has risen to , up from 220,000 only two years earlier.", "Oil companies operating in Equatorial Guinea include ExxonMobil, Marathon Oil, Kosmos Energy and Chevron.Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP.", "Subsistence farming predominates.", "The deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished any potential for agriculture-led growth.", "Agriculture is the country's main source of employment, providing income for 57% of rural households and employment for 52% of the workforce.In July 2004, the United States Senate published an investigation into Riggs Bank, a Washington-based bank into which most of Equatorial Guinea's oil revenues were paid until recently, and which also banked for Chile's Augusto Pinochet.", "The Senate report showed at least $35 million siphoned off by Obiang, his family and regime senior officials.", "The president has denied any wrongdoing.", "Riggs Bank in February 2005 paid $9 million in restitution for Pinochet's banking, no restitution was made with regard to Equatorial Guinea.From 2000 to 2010, Equatorial Guinea had the highest average annual increase in GDP (Gross Domestic Product), 17%.Equatorial Guinea is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).", "Equatorial Guinea is also a member of the Central African Monetary and Economic Union (CEMAC), a subregion that comprises more than 50 million people.", "Equatorial Guinea tried to be validated as an Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)–compliant country, working toward transparency in reporting of oil revenues and prudent use of natural resource wealth.", "The country obtained candidate status on 22 February 2008.It was then required to meet a number of obligations to do so, including committing to working with civil society and companies on EITI implementation, appointing a senior individual to lead on EITI implementation, and publishing a fully costed Work Plan with measurable targets, a timetable for implementation and an assessment of capacity constraints.", "However, when Equatorial Guinea applied to extend the deadline for completing EITI validation, the EITI Board did not agree to the extension.Torre de La Libertad (\"Freedom Tower\")According to the World Bank, Equatorial Guinea has the highest GNI (Gross National Income) per capita of any African country, 83 times larger than the GNI per capita of Burundi, the poorest country.", "However, despite its impressive GNI figure, Equatorial Guinea is plagued by extreme poverty brought about by wealth inequality.In 2022, the country's Gini coefficient was 58.8.The economy of Equatorial Guinea was expected to grow about 2.6% in 2021, a projection that was based on the successful completion of a large gas project and the recovery of the world economy by the second half of the year.", "But the country is expected to return to recession in 2022, with a real GDP decline of about 4.4%.According to the 2016 United Nations Human Development Report, Equatorial Guinea had a gross domestic product per capita of $21,517, one of the highest levels of wealth in Africa.", "However, it is one of the most unequal countries in the world according to the Gini index, with 70 per cent of the population living on one dollar a day.", "The country ranks 145th out of 189 on the United Nations Human Development Index in 2019.Hydrocarbons account for 97% of the state's exports and it is a member of the African Petroleum Producers Organization.", "In 2020, it faces its eighth year of recession, due in part to endemic corruption.", "As of 2023, the nation's GDP is expected to reach $11 billion." ], [ "Transportation", "Malabo International Airport (''Aeropuerto de Malabo'' in Spanish), in Punta Europa, island of BiokoThe port of MalaboDue to the large oil industry in the country, internationally recognized carriers fly to Malabo International Airport which, in May 2014, had several direct connections to Europe and West Africa.", "There are three airports in Equatorial Guinea—Malabo International Airport, Bata Airport and the new Annobón Airport on the island of Annobón.", "Malabo International Airport is the only international airport.Every airline registered in Equatorial Guinea appears on the list of air carriers prohibited in the European Union (EU) which means that they are banned from operating services of any kind within the EU.", "However, freight carriers provide service from European cities to the capital." ], [ "Demographics", "Evolution of the Equatoguinean population between 1960 and 2017.Population in thousands of inhabitants.+Population in Equatorial Guinea Year Million1950 0.22000 0.62020 1.4The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of Bantu origin.", "The largest ethnic group, the Fang, is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to Bioko Island since the 20th century means the Fang population exceeds that of the earlier Bubi inhabitants.", "The Fang constitute 80% of the population and comprise around 67 clans.", "Those in the northern part of Río Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects have differences but are mutually intelligible.", "Dialects of Fang are also spoken in parts of neighboring Cameroon (Bulu) and Gabon.", "These dialects, while still intelligible, are more distinct.", "The Bubi, who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island.", "The traditional demarcation line between Fang and 'Beach' (inland) ethnic groups was the village of Niefang (limit of the Fang), east of Bata.Coastal ethnic groups, sometimes referred to as Ndowe or \"Playeros\" (''Beach People'' in Spanish): Combes, Bujebas, Balengues, and Bengas on the mainland and small islands, and Fernandinos, a Krio community on Bioko Island together comprise 5% of the population.", "Europeans (largely of Spanish or Portuguese descent, some with partial African ancestry) also live in the country, but most ethnic Spaniards left after independence.Bubi descentA growing number of foreigners from neighboring Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon have immigrated to the country.", "According to the ''Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations'' (2002) 7% of Bioko islanders were Igbo, an ethnic group from southeastern Nigeria.", "Equatorial Guinea received Asians and native Africans from other countries as workers on cocoa and coffee plantations.", "Other black Africans came from Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique.", "Most of the Asian population is Chinese, with small numbers of Indians.Equatorial Guinea has also been a destination for fortune-seeking European immigrants from Britain, France and Germany.", "Israelis and Moroccans also live and work here.", "Oil extraction since the 1990s has contributed to a doubling of the population in Malabo.", "After independence, thousands of Equatorial Guineans went to Spain.", "Another 100,000 Equatorial Guineans went to Cameroon, Gabon, and Nigeria because of the dictatorship of Francisco Macías Nguema.", "Some Equatorial Guinean communities are also found in Latin America, the United States, Portugal, and France.=== Languages ===Floral inscription with the name of the country in Spanish in MalaboSince its independence in 1968, the main official language of Equatorial Guinea has been Spanish (the local variant is Equatoguinean Spanish), which acts as a lingua franca among its different ethnic groups.", "In 1970, during Macías' rule, Spanish was replaced by Fang, the language of its majority ethnic group, to which Macías belonged.", "That decision was reverted in 1979 after Macías' fall.", "Spanish remained as its lone official language until 1998, when French was added as its second one, as it had previously joined the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC), whose founding members are French-speaking nations, two of them (Cameroon and Gabon) surrounding its continental region.", "Portuguese was adopted as its third official language in 2010.Spanish has been an official language since 1844.It is still the language of education and administration.", "67.6% of Equatorial Guineans can speak it, especially those living in the capital, Malabo.", "French was only made official in order to join the Francophonie and it is not locally spoken, except in some border towns.Aboriginal languages are recognised as integral parts of the \"national culture\" (Constitutional Law No.", "1/1998 21 January).", "Indigenous languages (some of them creoles) include Fang, Bube, Benga, Ndowe, Balengue, Bujeba, Bissio, Gumu, Igbo, Pichinglis, Fa d'Ambô and the nearly extinct Baseke.", "Most African ethnic groups speak Bantu languages.African languages of Equatorial Guinea and its environment.Fa d'Ambô, a Portuguese creole, has vigorous use in Annobón Province, in Malabo (the capital), and among some speakers in Equatorial Guinea's mainland.", "Many residents of Bioko can also speak Spanish, particularly in the capital, and the local trade language Pichinglis, an English-based creole.", "Spanish is not spoken much in Annobón.", "In government and education Spanish is used.", "Noncreolized Portuguese is used as a liturgical language by local Catholics.", "The Annobonese ethnic community tried to gain membership in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP).", "The government financed an Instituto Internacional da Língua Portuguesa (IILP) sociolinguistic study in Annobón.", "It documented strong links with the Portuguese creole populations in São Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau.Due to historical and cultural ties, in 2010 the legislature amended article four of the Constitution of Equatorial Guinea, to establish Portuguese as an official language of the Republic.", "This was an effort by the government to improve its communications, trade, and bilateral relations with Portuguese-speaking countries.", "It also recognises long historical ties with Portugal, and with Portuguese-speaking peoples of Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Cape Verde.Some of the motivations for Equatorial Guinea's pursuit of membership in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) included access to several professional and academic exchange programmes and facilitated cross-border circulation of citizens.", "The adoption of Portuguese as an official language was the primary requirement to apply for CPLP acceptance.", "In addition, the country was told it must adopt political reforms allowing effective democracy and respect for human rights.", "The national parliament discussed this law in October 2011.In February 2012, Equatorial Guinea's foreign minister signed an agreement with the IILP on the promotion of Portuguese in the country.In July 2012, the CPLP refused Equatorial Guinea full membership, primarily because of its continued serious violations of human rights.", "The government responded by legalising political parties, declaring a moratorium on the death penalty, and starting a dialog with all political factions.", "Additionally, the IILP secured land from the government for the construction of Portuguese language cultural centres in Bata and Malabo.", "At its tenth summit in Dili in July 2014, Equatorial Guinea was admitted as a CPLP member.", "Abolition of the death penalty and the promotion of Portuguese as an official language were preconditions of the approval.=== Religion ===Santa Isabel Cathedral in MalaboThe principal religion in Equatorial Guinea is Christianity, the faith of 93% of the population.", "Roman Catholics make up the majority (88%), while a minority are Protestants (5%).", "Of the population, 2% follows Islam (mainly Sunni).", "The remaining 5% practise Animism, Baháʼí, and other beliefs, and traditional animist beliefs are often mixed with Catholicism.=== Health ===Equatorial Guinea's innovative malaria programs in the early 21st century achieved success in reducing malaria infection, disease, and mortality.", "Their program consists of twice-yearly indoor residual spraying (IRS), the introduction of artemisinin combination treatment (ACTs), the use of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women (IPTp), and the introduction of very high coverage with long-lasting insecticide-treated mosquito nets (LLINs).", "Their efforts resulted in a reduction in all-cause under-five mortality from 152 to 55 deaths per 1,000 live births (down 64%), a sharp drop that coincided with the launch of the program.In June 2014 four cases of polio were reported, the country's first outbreak of the disease.=== Education ===Ministry of Education, Science and Sports (''Ministerio de Educación, Ciencia y Deportes'' in Spanish)Among sub-Saharan African countries, Equatorial Guinea has one of the highest literacy rates.", "According to The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency as of 2015, 95.3% of the population age 15 and over can read and write in Equatorial Guinea were respectively literate.", "Under Francisco Macias, education was neglected, and few children received any type of education.", "Under President Obiang, the illiteracy rate dropped from 73% to 13%, and the number of primary school students rose from 65,000 in 1986 to more than 100,000 in 1994.Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14.The Equatorial Guinea government has partnered with Hess Corporation and The Academy for Educational Development (AED) to establish a $20 million education program for primary school teachers to teach modern child development techniques.", "There are now 51 model schools whose active pedagogy will be a national reform.In recent years, with change in the economic and political climate and government social agendas, several cultural dispersion and literacy organizations have been founded, chiefly with the financial support of the Spanish government.", "The country has one university, the Universidad Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial (UNGE), with a campus in Malabo and a Faculty of Medicine located in Bata on the mainland.", "In 2009 the university produced the first 110 national doctors.", "The Bata Medical School is supported principally by the government of Cuba and staffed by Cuban medical educators and physicians." ], [ "Culture", "Centro Cultural de España (Cultural Centre of Spain) in MalaboIn June 1984, the First Hispanic-African Cultural Congress was convened to explore the cultural identity of Equatorial Guinea.", "The congress constituted the center of integration and the marriage of the Hispanic culture with African cultures.=== Tourism ===Hotel in SipopoEquatorial Guinea currently has no UNESCO World Heritage Site or tentative sites for the World Heritage List.", "The country also has no documented heritage listed in the Memory of the World Programme of UNESCO nor any intangible cultural heritage listed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.Tourist attractions are the colonial quarter in Malabo, the southern part of the island Bioko where you can hike to the Iladyi cascades and to remote beaches to watch nesting turtles, Bata with its shoreline Paseo Maritimo and the tower of liberty, Mongomo with its basilica (the second largest Catholic church in Africa) and the new planned and built capital Ciudad de la Paz.=== Media and communications ===Edition of the television magazine ''Malabeando'' at the Cultural Centre of Spain in MalaboThe principal means of communication within Equatorial Guinea are three state-operated FM radio stations.", "The BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Gabon-based Africa No 1 broadcast on FM in Malabo.", "There is also an independent radio option called Radio Macuto, the voice of the voiceless.", "Radio Macuto is a web-based radio and news source known for publishing news that call out Obiang's regime and call for the mobilisation of the ecuatoguinean community to exercise freedom of speech and engage in politics.", "There are also five shortwave radio stations.", "Televisión de Guinea Ecuatorial, the television network, is state operated.", "The international TV programme RTVGE is available via satellites in Africa, Europa, and the Americas and worldwide via Internet.", "There are two newspapers and two magazines.Equatorial Guinea ranks at position 161 out of 179 countries in the 2012 Reporters Without Borders press freedom index.", "The watchdog says the national broadcaster obeys the orders of the information ministry.", "Most of the media companies practice self-censorship, and are banned by law from criticising public figures.", "The state-owned media and the main private radio station are under the directorship of the president's son, Teodor Obiang.Landline telephone penetration is low, with only two lines available for every 100 persons.", "There is one GSM mobile telephone operator, with coverage of Malabo, Bata, and several mainland cities.", ", approximately 40% of the population subscribed to mobile telephone services.", "The only telephone provider in Equatorial Guinea is Orange.There were more than 42,000 internet users by December 2011.=== Music ===There is little popular music coming out of Equatorial Guinea.", "Pan-African styles like soukous and makossa are popular, as are reggaeton, Latin trap, reggae and rock and roll.", "Acoustic guitar bands based on a Spanish model are the country's best-known indigenous popular tradition.=== Cinema ===In 2014 the South African-Dutch-Equatorial Guinean drama film ''Where the Road Runs Out'' was shot in the country.", "There is also the documentary ''The Writer from a Country Without Bookstores'', that has still to be internationally premiered.", "It focuses on one of Equatorial Guinea's most translated writers Juan Tomás Ávila Laurel.", "It is the first feature film openly critical of Obiang's regime.=== Sports ===Estadio de Bata in BataEquatorial Guinea was chosen to co-host the 2012 African Cup of Nations in partnership with Gabon, and hosted the 2015 edition.", "The country was also chosen to host the 2008 Women's African Football Championship, which they won.", "The women's national team qualified for the 2011 World Cup in Germany.In June 2016, Equatorial Guinea was chosen to host the 12th African Games in 2019.Equatorial Guinea is famous for the swimmers Eric Moussambani, nicknamed \"Eric the Eel\", and Paula Barila Bolopa, \"Paula the Crawler\", who attended the 2000 Summer Olympics.Basketball has been increasing in popularity." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Equatorial Guinea* Agriculture in Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* D. L. Claret.", "''Cien años de evangelización en Guinea Ecuatorial (1883–1983) / One Hundred Years of Evangelism in Equatorial Guinea'' (1983, Barcelona: Claretian Missionaries).", "* Robert Klitgaard.", "1990.", "''Tropical Gangsters''.", "New York: Basic Books.", ".", "A World Bank economist tries to assist pre-oil Equatorial Guinea.", "* Max Liniger-Goumaz, ''Small Is Not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea'' (French 1986, translated 1989) .", "* Adam Roberts, ''The Wonga Coup: Guns, Thugs and a Ruthless Determination to Create Mayhem in an Oil-Rich Corner of Africa'' (2006, PublicAffairs) .", "; Attribution" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aixelà-Cabré, Yolanda.", "''Spain's African Colonial Legacies: Morocco and Equatorial Guinea Compared'' (Brill, 2022) online review* Lewis, Marvin.", "''An Introduction to the Literature of Equatorial Guinea: Between Colonialism and Dictatorship.''", "(2007).", "online* McSherry, Brendan.", "\"The Political Economy of Oil in Equatorial Guinea.\"", "''African Studies Quarterly'' 8.3 (2006).", "online* Sundiata, Ibrahim K. ''Equatorial Guinea: colonialism, state terror, and the search for stability'' (Routledge, 2019).", "online* Ugarte, Michael.", "''Africans in Europe: The culture of exile and emigration from Equatorial Guinea to Spain'' (University of Illinois Press, 2010) online." ], [ "External links", "* * * Official Government of Equatorial Guinea website* Guinea in Figures – Official Web Page of the Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea.", ".", "* Country Profile from BBC News.", "* Equatorial Guinea.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Equatorial Guinea from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 7 June 2008)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "Location of Equatorial Guinea within AfricaThe '''History of Equatorial Guinea''' is marked by centuries of colonial domination by the Portuguese, British and Spanish colonial empires, and by the local kingdoms." ], [ "Pre-colonial history", "The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Río Muni.", "Bantu migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal groups and later the Fang.", "Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to Bakugan from Cameroon and Río Muni in several waves and succeeded former Neolithic populations.", "The Igbo of Nigeria (mostly Aro) slave traders arrived and founded small settlements in Bioko and Rio Muni which expanded the Aro Confederacy in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "The Annobón population, originally from Angola, were brought by the Portuguese via São Tomé." ], [ "Colonial era", "===Portuguese colonial rule (1472–1778)===The Portuguese explorer Fernão do Pó, seeking a path to India, is credited as being the first European to discover the island of Bioko in 1472.He called it ''Formosa'' (\"Beautiful\"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer, usually found on maps Hispanized into \"Fernando Po\".", "The islands of Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474.In 1778, Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain signed the Treaty of El Pardo which ceded the Bioko, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the Bight of Biafra between the Niger and Ogoue rivers to Spain.", "Spain intended to start slave-trading operations on the mainland.", "Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of Equatorial Guinea was administered by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, based in Buenos Aires.From 1827 to 1843, the United Kingdom had a base on Bioko to suppress the transatlantic slave trade, which was then moved to Sierra Leone upon agreement with Spain in 1843.In 1844, on restoration of Spanish rule, it became known as the \"Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea\".", "Spain had neglected to occupy the large area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had treaty rights, and the French had been expanding their occupation at the expense of the area claimed by Spain.", "The Treaty of Paris in 1900 left Spain with the continental enclave of Rio Muni, a mere 26,000 km2 out of the 300,000 stretching east to the Ubangi River, which the Spaniards had claimed.===Spanish colonial territory (1778–1968)===Evolution of Spanish possessions and claims in the Gulf of Guinea (1778-1968).Map of Spanish possessions in the Gulf of Guinea in 1897, before the Treaty of Paris (1900).Borders after the agreement of 1900 on the land what would become Spanish Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea).A 1903 stamp of Spanish GuineaCorisco in 1910.At the beginning of the 20th century, the plantations of Fernando Po were largely in the hands of a black Creole elite, later known as Fernandinos.", "The British had settled some 2,000 Sierra Leoneans and freed slaves during their brief control of the island in the early 19th century, and a small trickle of immigration from West Africa and the West Indies continued after the departure of the British.", "To this core of settlers were added Cubans, Filipinos, Spaniards of various colours deported for political or other crimes, and some assisted settlers.", "There was also a trickle of immigration from the neighbouring Portuguese islands: escaped slaves and prospective planters.", "Although a few of the Fernandinos were Catholic and Spanish-speaking, about nine-tenths of them were Protestant and English-speaking on the eve of the First World War, and pidgin English was the lingua franca of the island.", "The Sierra Leoneans were particularly well placed as planters while labour recruitment on the Windward coast continued, for they kept family and other connections there and could easily arrange labour supplies.During World War I, due to Spain's neutrality, Rio Muni and Fernando Po were host to large numbers of German troops and refugees who fled German Kamerun after the Entente conquered the colony.", "They were well-treated by the Spanish authorities, largely because the 180-man militia was not large enough to forcibly intern them.", "Most of the Cameroonian natives stayed in Muni, while the Germans moved to Fernando Po.From the opening years of the 20th century, the Fernandinos were put on the defensive by a new generation of Spanish immigrants.", "New land regulations in 1904-5 favoured Spaniards, and most of the big planters of later years arrived in the islands from Spain following these new regulations.", "The Liberian labour agreement of 1914 favoured wealthy men with ready access to the state, and the shift in labour supplies from Liberia to Rio Muni increased this advantage.", "In 1940, it was estimated that only 20 per cent of the colony's cocoa production remained in African hands, nearly all of it in the hands of Fernandinos.The greatest constraint to economic development was a chronic shortage of labour.", "The indigenous Bubi population of Bioko, pushed into the interior of the island and decimated by alcoholic addiction, venereal disease, smallpox and sleeping sickness, refused to work on plantations.", "Working their own small cocoa farms gave them a considerable degree of autonomy.", "Moreover, the Bubi were protected from the demands of the planters from the late 19th century by the Spanish Claretian missionaries, who were very influential in the colony and eventually organised the Bubi into small mission theocracies reminiscent of the famous Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay.", "Catholic penetration was furthered by two small insurrections protesting the conscription of forced labour for the plantations, in 1898 and 1910, which led to the Bubi being disarmed in 1917 and left them dependent on the missionaries.Towards the end of the 19th century Spanish, Portuguese, German and Fernandino planters started developing large cacao plantations.", "With the indigenous Bubi population decimated by disease and forced labour, the island's economy came to depend on imported agricultural contract workers.", "A Labour Treaty was signed with the Republic of Liberia in 1914, the transport of up to 15,000 workers was orchestrated by the German Woermann-Linie.", "The Liberian labour supply was cut off in 1930 after an International Labour Organization (ILO) commission discovered that contract workers had \"been recruited under conditions of criminal compulsion scarcely distinguishable from slave raiding and slave trading\".Between 1926 and 1959 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea.", "The economy was based on large cacao and coffee plantations and logging concessions, and the workforce was mostly made up of immigrant contract labourers from Liberia, Nigeria, and Cameroon.", "Military campaigns were mounted to subdue the Fang people in the 1920s, at the time that Liberia was beginning to cut back on recruitment.", "There were garrisons of the colonial guard throughout the enclave by 1926, and the whole colony was considered 'pacified' by 1929.However, Rio Muni had a small population, officially put at a little over 100,000 in the 1930s, and escape over the frontiers into Cameroon or Gabon was very easy.", "Moreover, the timber companies needed growing amounts of labour, and the spread of coffee cultivation offered an alternative means of paying taxes.", "Fernando Po thus continued to suffer from labour shortages.", "The French only briefly permitted recruitment in Cameroon, and the main source of labour came to be Igbo smuggled in canoes from Calabar and Oron, Nigeria.", "The persisting labour shortage in the cacao, coffee and logging industries was only overcome by the mushrooming illegal canoe-based smuggling of Igbo and Ibibio workers from the Eastern Provinces of Nigeria.", "The number of clandestine contract workers on the island of Fernando Po grew to 20,000 in 1942.A labour treaty was signed in the same year, and a continuous stream of workers arrived in Spanish Guinea.", "It was this treaty which really permitted Fernando Po to become one of Africa's most productive agricultural areas after the Second World War.", "By 1968 there were almost 100,000 Nigerians in Spanish Guinea.===Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)===At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War the colony remained loyal to the Republican government.", "On July 24, 1936, the Republican cruiser ''Méndez Núñez'' arrived at Santa Isabel; on its way back to Spain the officers planned to join the rebellion, but the Spanish government, knowing this, ordered the ship to go back to the colony; on August 14 the ''Méndez Núñez'' was back in Fernando Po, where the sailors took control of her; on September 21 the ship arrived in Málaga (Republican Spain).", "On September 19 the Colonial Guard and the Civil Guard began the rebellion and took control of the island of Fernando Po, while the rest of the colony remained loyal to the Republic.", "On September 22 a clash took place between a rebel group from Kogo and a loyal detachment from Bata.", "Finally, on October 14 a force of 200 rebels arrived in the merchant ''Ciudad de Mahón'' and took control of Bata and the rest of the colony.===Provincialisation and decolonisation===Iberia from Madrid to Bata, 1941.Centro Cultural de España (Cultural Center of Spain) in Malabo.The post-war political history of the colony can be divided into three fairly distinct phases: #up to 1959, when its status was raised from 'colony' to 'province', taking a leaf out of the approach of the Portuguese Empire; #between 1960 and 1968, when Spain attempted a partial decolonisation which was hoped would conserve the territory as an integral segment of the Spanish system; and #after 1968, when the territory became an independent republic.The first of these phases consisted of little more than a continuation of previous policies; these closely resembled the policies of Portugal and France, notably in dividing the population into a vast majority governed as 'natives' or non-citizens, and a very small minority (together with whites) admitted to civic status as ''emancipados'', assimilation to the metropolitan culture being the only permissible means of advancement.", "The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Cortes Generales (Spanish parliament).", "Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces.", "A paradoxical effect of this autonomy was that Guineans could choose among several political parties while metropolitan Spaniards were under a single-party regime.", "The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea.", "Although Spain's commissioner general had extensive powers, the Equatorial Guinean General Assembly had considerable initiative in formulating laws and regulations.Nationalism began to emerge during this \"provincial\" phase, chiefly among small groups who had taken refuge from General Franco's dictatorship in Cameroon and Gabon.", "They formed two bodies: the Movimiento Nacional de Liberación de la Guinea (MONALIGE), and the Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial (IPGE).", "Their pressures were weak, but the general trend in West Africa was not.", "A decision of 9 August 1963, approved by a referendum of 15 December 1963, introduced the territory to a measure of autonomy and the administrative promotion of a 'moderate' grouping, the Movimiento de Unión Nacional de la Guinea Ecuatorial (MUNGE).", "This proved a feeble instrument, and, with growing pressure for change from the UN, Spain gave way to the currents of nationalism.", "Independence was conceded on 12 October 1968 and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea came into being with Francisco Macías Nguema elected as president." ], [ "Independence and Macias government (1968–1979)", "Signing of the independence of Equatorial Guinea by the then Spanish minister Manuel Fraga together with the new Equatorial Guinean president Macías Nguema on October 12, 1968.In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea.", "A constitutional convention produced an electoral law and draft constitution.", "In the presence of a UN observer team, a referendum was held on August 11, 1968, and 63% of the electorate voted in favour of the constitution, which provided for a government with a General Assembly and a Supreme Court with judges appointed by the president.In September 1968, Francisco Macías Nguema was elected first president of Equatorial Guinea, and independence was granted in October.At independence, Equatorial Guinea had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa, although it was also very unevenly distributed as most of the money was in the hands of colonial and elite planters.", "In its final years of rule the Spanish colonial government achieved a relatively high literacy rate and developed a good network of health care facilities.", "However, at the time of independence, the number of African doctors and lawyers was in the single digits.Francisco Macías Nguema, first president of Equatorial Guinea in 1968 and became a dictator until he was overthrown in a coup d'état in 1979.In July 1970, Macias created a single-party state and by May 1971, key portions of the constitution were abrogated.", "In 1972 Macias took complete control of the government and assumed the title of President for Life.", "The Macias regime was characterized by human rights abuses, totalitarianism and the abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; this led to the death or exile of up to one-third of the country's population.", "Due to pilferage, ignorance, and neglect, the country's infrastructure—electricity, water, road, transportation, and health—fell into ruin.", "The private and public sectors of the economy were devastated.", "Nigerian contract labourers on Bioko, estimated to have been 60,000, left en masse in early 1976.The economy collapsed, and skilled citizens and foreigners left.Religion was repressed, and education ceased.", "All schools were ordered closed in 1975, and the country's churches were also closed in 1978.Nguema introduced a campaign of 'authenticity', replacing colonial names with native ones: the capital Santa Isabel became Malabo, the main island of Fernando Po was renamed Masie Nguema Biyogo after himself, and Annobón became Pagalu.", "As part of the same process, Nguema also ordered the entire population to drop their European names and adopt African ones.", "His own name underwent several transformations, so that by the end of his rule he was known as Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong.", "Much of the population residing on the island of Bioko, consisting of Nigerian labourers and traders, were forced to evacuate.In August 1979 Macias' nephew from Mongomo and former director of the infamous Black Beach prison, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, led a successful coup d'état; Macias was arrested, tried, and executed.", "Obiang assumed the presidency in October 1979.The islands were renamed Bioko and Annobón.", "The new ruler faced the challenge of restoring order in a country that was in shambles—by the end of Masie Nguema's dictatorship, the state coffers were empty and the population had been reduced to only one-third of what it was at independence." ], [ "Obiang government (1979–present)", "Teodoro Obiang, leader of Equatorial Guinea since 1979.Although President Obiang signed a national anti-torture decree in 2006 to ban all forms of abuse and improper treatment in Equatorial Guinea and commissioned the renovation and modernization of Black Beach prison in 2007 to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners, human rights abuses continue.", "Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and other non-governmental organizations have documented severe human rights abuses in prisons, including torture, beatings, unexplained deaths and illegal detention.According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are dominated by tensions between Obiang's son, Teodorin, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces.", "The tension may be rooted in power shifts arising from the dramatic increase in oil production which has occurred since 1997.The unsuccessful \"Wonga Coup\" by European and South African mercenaries in 2004 attempted to replace Obiang with a puppet ruler who would open the country's mineral wealth to the plotters.", "Simon Mann, a former officer in the SAS, led the plot, which also included former members of the South African Army 32 Battalion.", "Financial backers included Sir Mark Thatcher, son of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and possibly the novelist Jeffrey Archer.", "Somewhere between $3 million and $20 million was expended on the failed coup, which has been claimed by some to have had the tacit support of some Western governments and international corporations.In 2011, the government announced it was planning a new capital for the country, which was to be named Oyala but will be Djibloho – Ciudad de la Paz." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Lewis, Marvin.", "''An Introduction to the Literature of Equatorial Guinea: Between Colonialism and Dictatorship.''", "(2007).", "online* McSherry, Brendan.", "\"The Political Economy of Oil in Equatorial Guinea.\"", "''African Studies Quarterly'' 8.3 (2006).", "online* Sundiata, Ibrahim K. ''Equatorial Guinea: colonialism, state terror, and the search for stability'' (Routledge, 2019).", "online* Ugarte, Michael.", "''Africans in Europe: The culture of exile and emigration from Equatorial Guinea to Spain'' (University of Illinois Press, 2010) online.", "* Yolanda Aixelà-Cabré.", "''Spain's African Colonial Legacies: Morocco and Equatorial Guinea Compared'' (Brill, 2022) online review" ], [ "External links", "* Historical Sources from Archives* Background Note: Equatorial Guinea* A Coup for a Mountain of Wonga" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "The Republic of '''Equatorial Guinea''' is located in west central Africa.", "Bioko Island lies about from Cameroon.", "Annobón Island lies about southwest of Bioko Island.", "The larger continental region of Río Muni lies between Cameroon and Gabon on the mainland; it includes the islands of Corisco, Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico, and adjacent islets.", "The total land area is .", "It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of .Bioko Island, called Fernando Po until the 1970s, is the largest island in the Gulf of Guinea - .", "It is shaped like a boot, with two large volcanic formations separated by a valley that bisects the island at its narrowest point.", "The coastline is steep and rugged in the south but lower and more accessible in the north, with excellent harbors at Malabo and Luba, and several scenic beaches between those towns.On the continent, Río Muni covers .", "The coastal plain gives way to a succession of valleys separated by low hills and spurs of the Crystal Mountains.", "The Rio Benito (Mbini) which divides Río Muni in half, is unnavigable except for a 20-kilometer stretch at its estuary.", "Temperatures and humidity in Río Muni are generally lower than on Bioko Island.Annobon Island, named for its discovery on New Year's Day 1472, is a small volcanic island covering .", "The coastline is abrupt except in the north; the principal volcanic cone contains a small lake.", "Most of the estimated 1,900 inhabitants are fisherman specializing in traditional, smallscale tuna fishing and whaling.", "The climate is tropical—heavy rainfall, high humidity, and frequent seasonal changes with violent windstorms.", "'''Location:'''Central Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Cameroon and Gabon." ], [ "Boundaries", "Equatorial Guinea's land boundaries total 539 km.", "It borders Cameroon (189 km) in the north and Gabon (350 km) in the east and south.", "'''Maritime claims:'''territorial sea:'''Exclusive economic zone:''' with" ], [ "Climate", "Köppen climate classification of Equatorial GuineaClimatological diagram of MalaboThe climate of both the continental region and the islands is typically equatorial, with high temperatures, heavy rainfall, and much cloud cover most of the year.", "Local variations are due to differences in altitude and proximity to the sea.", "The wet seasons in the continental region are from February to June and from September to December.", "Rainfall is higher on the coast than inland.", "In Bata the rainiest months are September, October, and November, with rainfall averaging more than a year.", "At Calatrava, farther south on the coast, it sometimes reaches .", "Inland, however, rainfall diminishes; Mikomeseng, for example, receives only about .", "The average annual temperature is about and is fairly constant throughout the year.", "The temperature maxima are somewhat lower than in Bioko.", "The relative humidity, however, is higher than in Bioko.", "Bioko has a rather debilitating climate.", "The so-called dry season lasts from November to March, and the rest of the year is rainy.", "The average annual temperature of about varies little throughout the year.", "Afternoon temperatures reach the high 80s °F (low 30s °C) and drop to only about at night.", "Most of the time the sky is cloudy and overcast.", "Extreme rainfall occurs in the south, with rain brought by monsoon winds amounting to about a year around San Antonio de Ureca." ], [ "Terrain", "Equatorial Guinea had an average 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index score of 7.99, ranking it 30th out of 172 countries.Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Equatorial Guinea the seventh highest percentage of forest cover in the world.Coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic.", "'''Total renewable water resources:'''26 km3 (2011)'''Natural hazards:'''violent windstorms, flash floods'''Environment - current issues:'''tap water is not potable; deforestation'''Environment - international agreements:'''party to:Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands'''Geography - note:'''insular and continental regions rather widely separated" ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Equatorial Guinea, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point - Punta Europa, Bioko Island* Easternmost point - the entire length of the eastern border with Gabon, which runs in a straight line* Southernmost point - A Dyibó, Annobón Island* Westernmost point - Punta Dyiscoj, Annobón Island" ], [ "See also", "*Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "Introduction", "Evolution of the Equatoguinean population between 1960 and 2017.Population data in hundreds of thousands of inhabitants.Demographic features of the population of Equatorial Guinea include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesAccording to the 2022 revision of the world factbook the total population was 1,679,172 in 2022.The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 38.73%, 57.35% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.92% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 1950 226 00034.260.15.6 1955 238 00035.759.05.3 1960 252 00037.057.95.0 1965 269 00038.356.94.8 1970 291 00038.756.74.6 1975 238 00044.849.85.4 1980 221 00043.750.36.0 1985 313 00034.760.44.9 1990 374 00037.757.84.5 1995 443 00041.954.14.1 2000 520 00042.653.83.7 2005 608 00040.556.23.2 2010 700 00039.257.92.9 2020 836 17838.757.43.9Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Estimates or projections based on the 2015 population census.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 762 309 692 480 1 454 789 100 0–4 105 834 94 783 200 617 13.79 5–9 95 293 87 387 182 680 12.56 10–14 80 324 67 341 147 665 10.15 15–19 63 880 56 442 120 321 8.27 20–24 55 868 55 468 111 337 7.65 25–29 69 467 57 220 126 687 8.71 30–34 62 193 45 737 107 930 7.42 35–39 51 020 37 076 88 096 6.06 40–44 45 960 34 449 80 409 5.53 45–49 34 786 31 335 66 121 4.55 50–54 32 362 31 237 63 599 4.37 55–59 19 607 22 577 42 183 2.90 60–64 15 812 21 214 37 026 2.55 65-69 10 963 13 040 24 003 1.65 70-74 7 758 13 040 20 798 1.43 75-79 5 987 10 121 16 108 1.11 80-84 2 804 7 201 10 005 0.69 85+ 2 393 6 812 9 205 0.63Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 281 451 249 511 530 962 36.50 15–64 450 953 392 755 843 708 58.00 65+ 29 905 50 214 80 119 5.51" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events is in Equatorial Guinea not complete.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMR* 1950–1955 9 000 7 000 2 00040.930.410.55.50196 1955–1960 10 000 7 000 3 00040.528.711.85.50186 1960–1965 10 000 7 000 3 00040.126.913.35.53176 1965–1970 11 000 7 000 4 00040.725.315.35.66167 1970–1975 10 000 6 000 3 00036.823.713.15.68157 1975–1980 8 000 5 000 2 00032.922.210.85.68149 1980–1985 11 000 6 000 5 00041.721.420.35.79138 1985–1990 16 000 7 000 9 00047.420.426.95.89128 1990–1995 18 000 8 000 11 00045.018.726.35.89118 1995–2000 20 000 8 000 12 00041.317.224.05.87114 2000–2005 22 000 9 000 12 00038.416.322.15.64111 2005–2010 24 000 10 000 15 00037.315.122.25.36102 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Fertility and births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2011 36.3 5.1 (4.4) 36.5 4.4 (3.8) 36.0 5.9 (5.1)Fertility data as of 2011 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Insular 4.3 8.4 5.0 Continental 5.4 9.2 6.0=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195534.48 1955–1960 35.99 1960–1965 37.49 1965–1970 38.99 1970–1975 40.50 1975–1980 42.04 1980–1985 45.54 1985–1990 47.21 1990–1995 49.35 1995–2000 51.75 2000–2005 53.57 2005–2010 54.93 2010–2015 56.84" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Fernandino (Malabo city and Luba)2.Bubi (Bioko Island)3.Igbo (far northwest)4.Baka (Acot area)5.Kwasio/Bujeba (Playeros)6.Benga (Playeros)7.Gabonese (Cocobeach City)8.Annobonese (mixed Portuguese, Angolan, Spanish)9.Annobonese Creoles (Annobon Island)10.Fang===Peoples considered as natives=== The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of Niger-Congo origin.", "The largest ethnic group, the Fang, are indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to Bioko Island has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bubi inhabitants.", "The Fang constitute 80% of the population and are themselves divided into 67 clans.", "Those in the northern part of Rio Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible.", "The Bubi, who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island.In addition, there are coastal ethnic groups, collectively referred to as ''Ndowe'' or ''Playeros'' (\"Beach People\" in Spanish): Combes, Bujebas, Balengues and Bengas on the mainland and small islands and a Fernandino community of Krio descended people on Bioko.", "Together, these groups compose 5% of the population.Two small groups of Pygmies also inhabit the country, the Beyele and the Bokuign, the former being located in the Altos de Nsork region.", "Their population is dwindling, them being subjected to heavy pressure from their neighbours, who don't even consider them as human.8,800 black and white mixed race people, named Fernandino peoples, also live in Equatorial Guinea.", "The Asian Africans, the Fernandino peoples and the White Africans represent 10% of the total population of Equatorial Guinea.=== Recently immigrated peoples ===Some Europeans (largely of Spanish or Portuguese descent) – among them mixed with African ethnicity – also live in the nation.", "Most Spaniards left after independence.", "There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon.", "Equatorial Guinea received Asians and black Africans from other countries as workers on cocoa and coffee plantations.", "In the late 20th century, Equatorial Guinea became home to more than 80,000 Hispanics from Mexico, Central America, and other Spanish speaking nations in the Americas.", "17,000 Spanish people and 5,000 Chinese people also live in Equatorial Guinea.", "The non-Africans living in Equatorial Guinea represent almost 10% of the nation's total population.", "Other black Africans came from Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique, and Asians are mostly Chinese with small numbers of Indians.", "Equatorial Guinea also allowed many fortune-seeking European settlers of other nationalities, including British, French and Germans.", "After independence, thousands of Equatorial Guineans went to Spain.", "Another 100,000 Equatorial Guineans went to Cameroon, Gabon, and Nigeria because of dictatorship of Francisco Macías Nguema.", "Some of its communities also live in Brazil, United States, Spain, Colombia, Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Portugal, and France." ], [ "Languages", "Spanish, French and Portuguese are the official languages and spoken as second languages.", "Spanish is the language of education, and for this reason a majority of the population (about 88%) can speak it, though only about 10–15% have a high competence in the language.", "Annobonese speak a Portuguese Creole, named Annobonese, as their first language.", "Asian migrants and descendants of European settlers (mostly Spaniards, Britons and Portuguese) usually speak their ancestral languages along with Spanish.", "Other Africans usually speak their native languages and their nation's official languages – English and Igbo for Nigerians; English for Cameroonians and Liberians; French for Cameroonians and Gabonese; and Portuguese for Angolans and Mozambicans.", "The latter was made an official language since July 13, 2007.82% of first foreign language learners choose the French language and 18% the English language.", "The Roman Catholic Church has greatly influenced both religion and education.===Languages of traditional names===Equatoguineans tend to have both a Spanish first name and an African first and last name.", "When written, the Spanish and African first names are followed by the father's first name (which becomes the principal surname) and the mother's first name.", "Thus people may have up to four names, with a different surname for each generation." ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 11 minutes\tOne death every 41 minutes\tOne net migrant every 41 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 11 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:1,679,173 (2022 est.", "):836,178 (July 2020 est.", "):''note'': 2002 census results claim 1,015,000 residents, although this was most likely inflated in anticipation for the December election.===Languages===Spanish (official) 67.6%, other (includes Fang, Bubi, Portuguese (official), French (official), Portuguese-based Creoles spoken in Ano Bom) 32.4% (1994 est.", ")===Religions===Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 5%, Muslim 2%, other 5% (animist, Baha'i, Jewish) (2010 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Equatorial Guinea in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 38.73% (male 164,417 /female 159,400):''15-24 years:'' 19.94% (male 84,820 /female 81,880):''25-54 years:'' 32.72% (male 137,632 /female 135,973):''55-64 years:'' 4.69% (male 17,252 /female 22,006):''65 years and over:'' 3.92% (male 13,464 /female 19,334) (2020 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:3.5% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 5th:2.35% (2020 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 29th===Birth rate===:29.95 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 30th:30.7 births/1,000 population (2020 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 31st===Death rate===:8.95 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 62nd:7.3 deaths/1,000 population (2020 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 112th===Total fertility rate===:4.26 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 24th:4.11 children born/woman (2020 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 29th===Median age===:total: 20.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 192nd:male: 19.9 years :female: 20.7 years (2020 est.", ")===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:12.6% (2011)===Net migration rate===:13.96 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 3rd:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2020 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 81st===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 72.16 (2022 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 60.5 (2020 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 3.9 (2020 est.", "):potential support ratio: 25.5 (2020 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 74% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.62% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 73.1% of total population (2020):rate of urbanization: 4.28% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", ")===Sex ratio===''at birth:''1.03 male(s)/female''under 15 years:''1.03 male(s)/female''15–64 years:''0.93 male(s)/female''65 years and over:''0.7 male(s)/female''total population:''1 male(s)/female (2020 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 63.7 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 206th:male: 61.44 years:female: 66.03 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 65.7 years (2020 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 192nd:male: 64.4 years (2020 est.", "):female: 66.9 years (2020 est.", ")===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 95.3% (2015 est.", "):male: 97.4% (2015 est.", "):female: 93% (2015 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria and dengue fever:animal contact diseases: rabies" ], [ "See also", "*Equatorial Guinea" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia

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